Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Method
Part 2: Normalisation
November 2010
Authors:
Jonas Bengtsson and Nigel Howard
Acknowledgements
The project team wishes to thank and acknowledge the Department of Innovation, Industry, Science and
Research and the Industry Cooperative Innovation Programme for their funding support for this pivotal project
for Australian construction materials and products. The team also wish to thank and acknowledge the Building
Product Innovation Council (BPIC), contributing members, and their member companies. We appreciate their
foresight and leadership in coming together to both fund and embark on this difficult and pioneering path to
establishing a comprehensive, level playing field approach to underpin a robust and authoritative
environmental assessment of building design and material/product specification. The project team also wishes
to thank and acknowledge their colleagues and volunteers engaged in all sectors of AusLCI and ALCAS
promoting the use of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in Australia and, in particular, the members of the Impact
Assessment Working Group and Jeff Foley of GHD for his review and insightful suggestions.
“This report was produced in cooperation with the Australian Life Cycle Assessment Society (ALCAS), but
should not be taken as representing the views of ALCAS and its members.”
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List of Acronyms
AP Acidification Potential
CFC Chlorofluorocarbon
HCFC Hydrochlorofluorocarbon
NP Nutrification Potential
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Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 8
2. BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................................. 8
2.1 CATEGORISATION AND CHARACTERISATION .................................................................................................... 8
2.2 NORMALISATION .................................................................................................................................... 11
3. OBJECTIVE ...................................................................................................................................... 12
4. APPROACH/METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................... 12
5. RESULTS .......................................................................................................................................... 13
5.1 REVIEW OF DATA SOURCES....................................................................................................................... 13
5.1.1 National Pollution Inventory ...................................................................................................... 13
5.1.2 Pesticides ................................................................................................................................... 15
5.1.3 Australia greenhouse emissions information system .................................................................. 16
5.1.4 Australian Ozone Depleting Substances ..................................................................................... 16
5.1.5 Australian energy and mineral Production statistics .................................................................. 17
5.2 CALCULATED RESULTS ............................................................................................................................. 17
5.2.1 Abiotic Depletion (Minerals and Fuels) ....................................................................................... 17
5.2.2 Global Warming (GWP100) ........................................................................................................ 19
5.2.3 Ozone Layer Depletion ............................................................................................................... 19
5.2.4 Human Toxicity .......................................................................................................................... 20
5.2.5 Freshwater Aquatic Toxicity ....................................................................................................... 22
5.2.6 Marine Aquatic Toxicity ............................................................................................................. 24
5.2.7 Terrestrial Eco‐toxicity ............................................................................................................... 25
5.2.8 Photo‐chemical smog ................................................................................................................. 26
5.2.9 Acidification ............................................................................................................................... 27
5.2.10 Eutrophication ....................................................................................................................... 27
5.2.11 Respiratory effects ................................................................................................................. 28
5.2.12 Water consumption ............................................................................................................... 29
5.2.13 Land transformation and use ................................................................................................. 29
5.2.14 IoniSing radiation ................................................................................................................... 29
5.3 COMPARISON OF FACTORS WITH OTHER SOURCES ........................................................................................ 29
6. IMPORTANT MISSING EMISSION DATA ........................................................................................... 32
7. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................. 33
8. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENT ......................................................................... 33
9. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................... 34
APPENDIX A: EMISSIONS AND RESOURCE PRODUCTION DATA ................................................................... 36
Figures
FIGURE 1: SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW OF RECOMMENDED LCIA MIDPOINT ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT CATEGORIES.
NOTE: SOME IMPACT CATEGORIES AGGREGATE SEVERAL SUB‐CATEGORIES, E.G. THE ABIOTIC
RESOURCE DEPLETION CATEGORY INCLUDES MINERAL AND FOSSIL FUEL DEPLETION, AND THE IMPACT
CATEGORY ECO‐TOXICITY INCLUDES FRESHWATER, MARINE AND TERRESTRIAL TOXICITY. ................... 9
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Tables
TABLE 1: SUMMARY OF CALCULATED AND PER CAPITA NORMALISATION FACTORS USING THE INTERMEDIATE BPIC/ICIP PROJECT’S
LCIA METHOD ................................................................................................................................................. 7
TABLE 2: EMITTED SUBSTANCES REPORTED IN THE NATIONAL POLLUTION INVENTORY 2007/08 AND THE CORRESPONDING EMISSIONS
IN THE SIMAPRO V7.1.8 SOFTWARE PER MEDIUM ................................................................................................. 15
TABLE 3: ABIOTIC DEPLETION IMPACT CATEGORY NORMALISATION CONTRIBUTIONS .............................................................. 17
TABLE 4: GLOBAL WARMING IMPACT CATEGORY NORMALISATION CONTRIBUTIONS .............................................................. 19
TABLE 5: OZONE LAYER DEPLETION IMPACT CATEGORY NORMALISATION CONTRIBUTIONS ...................................................... 19
TABLE 6: HUMAN TOXICITY IMPACT CATEGORY NORMALISATION CONTRIBUTIONS ................................................................ 20
TABLE 7: FRESHWATER AQUATIC TOXICITY IMPACT CATEGORY NORMALISATION CONTRIBUTIONS ............................................. 22
TABLE 8: MARINE AQUATIC TOXICITY IMPACT CATEGORY NORMALISATION CONTRIBUTIONS .................................................... 24
TABLE 9: TERRESTRIAL ECOTOXICITY IMPACT CATEGORY NORMALISATION CONTRIBUTIONS ..................................................... 25
TABLE 10: PHOTO‐CHEMICAL SMOG IMPACT CATEGORY NORMALISATION CONTRIBUTIONS ..................................................... 26
TABLE 11: ACIDIFICATION IMPACT CATEGORY NORMALISATION CONTRIBUTIONS .................................................................. 27
TABLE 12: EUTROPHICATION IMPACT CATEGORY NORMALISATION CONTRIBUTIONS .............................................................. 28
TABLE 13: RESPIRATORY EFFECTS IMPACT CATEGORY NORMALISATION CONTRIBUTIONS ......................................................... 28
TABLE 14: SUMMARY OF CALCULATED AND PER CAPITA NORMALISATION FACTORS USING THE INTERMEDIATE BPIC/ICIP METHOD . 29
TABLE 15: NORMALISATION FACTORS FROM VARIOUS SOURCES COMPARED TO THE CALCULATED BPIC ICIP PROJECT’S LCIA FACTORS
.................................................................................................................................................................. 30
TABLE 16: PERCENTAGE DIFFERENCE IN NORMALISATION FACTORS COMPARED TO THE CALCULATED BPIC ICIP PROJECT’S LCIA
FACTORS ................................................................................................................................................ 31
TABLE 17: RESOURCES PRODUCTION DATA ENTERED INTO SIMAPRO ................................................................................. 36
TABLE 18: AIR EMISSION DATA ENTERED INTO SIMAPRO. NO SUB‐COMPARTMENT WAS SPECIFIED (I.E. UNSPECIFIED) .................. 38
TABLE 19: WATER EMISSION DATA ENTERED INTO SIMAPRO (NO SUB‐COMPARTMENT WAS SPECIFIED I.E. UNSPECIFIED) .............. 39
TABLE 20: EMISSIONS TO SOIL DATA ENTERED INTO SIMAPRO ......................................................................................... 41
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Summary
This report was produced as one of the components of a three-year project jointly
funded by the Building Products Innovation Council (BPIC) and AusIndustry (referred to
as the BPIC/ICIP project). The project has established a toolkit of resources that will
permit comprehensive Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of building and construction
materials and products, building elements and assemblies, and whole buildings in
Australia.
The objective of this report is to estimate and benchmark normalisation factors using the
characterisation factors identified for the BPIC/ICIP project (see Bengtsson and Howard
(2010) for more details).
The approach taken comprised the following major steps:
Review data from:
o National Pollutant Inventory (2007/08 data)
o Australian Greenhouse Emissions Information System (2008 data) (DCC,
2009b)
o Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Australian
Mineral Statistics 2009 – December Quarter 2008 (ABARE, 2009)
o Pesticide Use in Australia (AACTE (2002) as reported in Lundie et al
(2007))
o ODS and SGGs in Australia – A Study of End Uses, Emissions and
Opportunities for Reclamation (DEWHA, 2008b).
Calculate normalisation factors using the BPIC/ICIP project’s Life Cycle Impact
Assessment (LCIA) methodology using the SimaPro software v7.1.8.
Compare the factors with the following normalisation factor sources:
o Foley and Lant (2009)
o Australian Impact Method as included in the SimaPro software
o CML 2001 for the World in Year 2000 as reported in Wegener Sleeswijk et
al (2008)
o ReCiPe (Goedkoop et al, 2009).
The table below summarises the recommended normalisation factors for use with the
BPIC/ICIP project’s LCIA method:
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Impact Category Unit Australian Annual Australian Per
[Calculated] Capita
Ionising radiation kg U235 eq - 1,306
Table 1: Summary of calculated and per capita normalisation factors using the intermediate
BPIC/ICIP project’s LCIA method
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1. Introduction
This methodology is part of a set of documents and resources developed for the
BPIC/ICIP Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) project as follows:
1. Level Playing Field Methodology Guidelines for the Construction Materials and
Building Products Life Cycle Inventory Database (BPIC/LCI Methodology Guidelines).
2. Protocol for the Correct Use of Australian Life Cycle Inventory Data for Construction
Materials and Products (Protocol for Correct Use of BPIC LCI Data in Life Cycle
Assessments).
3. Life Cycle Environmental Impact Assessment for the Correct Use of Australian Life
Cycle Inventory Data for Construction Materials and Products.
4. Weighting of Environmental Impact Categories for Assessing Construction Materials
and Products.
5. Database of generic average lifecycle data for Australian building and construction
materials and products.
6. BPIC Building Product Maintenance and Replacement Life Database
7. A web based portal providing access to all of the resources above.
This report describes the approach taken, results achieved (possible limitations) and
potential applications of the normalisation step of impact assessment under item 4 – the
recommended impact assessment methodology. This comprises the estimation of factors
to be used with the midpoint LCIA method founded on international and Australian best
practices, and with strong resemblance to leading internationally methods (i.e. CML,
IMPACT 2002+ and ReCiPe) developed in a parallel report (Bengtsson and Howard,
2010). It is recommended for use in Australia in all sectors and in the construction sector
specifically.
2. Background
2.1 Categorisation and Characterisation
The aim of the BPIC/ICIP project is to provide a nationally consistent level playing field
LCA methodology for the building and construction sector, which allows for comparison
of products and services across Australia.
It is proposed to use the 14 midpoint categories (possibly to be extended with soil
salinisation) as per the figure below:
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Figure 1: Schematic overview of recommended LCIA midpoint environmental impact categories. Note: Some
impact categories aggregate several sub-categories e.g. the abiotic resource depletion category includes
mineral and fossil fuel depletion, and the impact category eco-toxicity includes freshwater, marine and
terrestrial toxicity.
The following assessment methods have been nominated as best currently available for
the BPIC/ICIP project’s LCIA method. For further details see Part 1 report: Classification
and Categorisation (Bengtsson and Howard, 2010).
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Water depletion: The Australian Impact Method with normalisation includes CED
supplied with the SimaPro software v7.1.8, and is used to characterise water
extraction in kL of water consumed.
Eutrophication: Nutrification Potential (NP) is based on the stoichiometric
procedure of Heijungs (1992), and expressed as kg PO4 equivalents/kg emission.
This version is based on the CML spreadsheet version 2.02, dated September
2001.
Acidification: Acidification Potentials (AP) are expressed as kg SO2 equivalents/kg
emission. This version is based on the ReCiPe World (H) version 1.02 (Pré, 2008).
Freshwater aquatic eco-toxicity: The Freshwater Aquatic Eco-toxicity Potentials
(FAETP) are calculated with USES-LCA, describing fate, exposure and effects of
toxic substances on nature. Characterisation factors are expressed as 1,4-
dichlorobenzene equivalents/kg emission. This version is based on the CML
spreadsheet version 2.02, dated September 2001. Toxicity values have been
recalculated for Australia using the USES model published in Huijbregts and
Lundie (2002).
Marine aquatic eco-toxicity: Marine aquatic eco-toxicity factors estimate the
impacts of toxic substances on marine ecosystems (see description freshwater
toxicity above). This version is based on the CML spreadsheet version 2.02, dated
September 2001. Toxicity values have been recalculated for Australia using the
USES model published in Huijbregts and Lundie (2002).
Terrestrial eco-toxicity: Terrestrial eco-toxicity factors estimate the impacts of
toxic substances on terrestrial ecosystems (see description freshwater toxicity
above). This version is based on the CML spreadsheet version 2.02, dated
September 2001. Toxicity values have been recalculated for Australia using the
USES model published in Huijbregts and Lundie (2002).
Photo-chemical smog (photo-oxidant formation): Photo-chemical Ozone Creation
Potential (POCP) factors provide a proxy measure for the human respiratory
health impacts of tropospheric ozone (also known as photo-chemical or summer
smog). The POCP estimate for emission of substances to air is based on the
ReCiPe World (H) version 1.02 (Pré, 2008), expressed as kg non-methane Volatile
Organic Compounds (VOCs) equivalence (kg NMVOC eq).
Ozone depletion: This characterisation model is developed by the World
Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and defines ozone depletion potential of
different gasses (kg CFC-11 equivalent/kg emission). These provide the basis for
calculating ozone depleting emissions under the Montreal Protocol. This version is
based on the CML spreadsheet version 2.02, dated September 2001.
Ionising radiation: The assessment method and normalisation factors for ionising
radiation are adapted from the ReCiPe World midpoint1 (H) LCIA method (Pré,
2008), measured in kg of 235U equivalent.
Human toxicity: These characterisation factors, expressed as Human Toxicity
Potentials (HTP), are calculated with USES-LCA, describing fate, exposure and
effects of toxic substances for an infinite time horizon. For each toxic substance,
HTPs are expressed as 1,4-dichlorobenze equivalents. This version is based on
the CML spreadsheet version 2.02, dated September 2001. Toxicity values have
been recalculated for Australia using the USES model and published in Huijbregts
and Lundie (2002).
Respiratory effects: Based on the European IMPACT 2002+ method. The
supporting documents for IMPACT 2002+ (e.g. Jolliet et al, 2003).
1
The world normalisation factor is preferred as it likely more relevant to Australia than the European factor,
which almost five times higher. This is presumably due to the significant nuclear power production in Europe.
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2.2 Normalisation
Given the aim to develop a national “level playing field” LCA methodology, the
normalisation for the BPIC/ICIP project’s LCIA methodology will be based on annual
Australian per capita averages for the respective midpoint environmental impact
categories. This is in line with most international LCIA methods where normalisation
occurs at national, larger scales such as Western Europe or globally.
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comparative purposes within Australia, this may be an acceptable compromise (in
common with typical practice internationally).
Recommendations for suitable weighting factors are reported in the associated report
Weighting of Environmental Impacts in Australia (Howard et al, 2010).
3. Objective
To develop, analyse and benchmark normalisation factors based on best available
characterisation factors identified for the BPIC/ICIP project.
4. Approach/Methodology
Review data from:
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5. Results
5.1 Review of Data Sources
Chlorophenols (di, tri, tetra) Phenol, 2-chloro- Phenol, 2-chloro- Phenol, 2-chloro-
Chromium (III) compounds Chromium, ion Chromium, ion Chromium (III)
compounds
Chromium (VI) compounds Chromium VI Chromium VI
Cobalt & compounds Cobalt Cobalt Cobalt
Copper & compounds Copper Copper, ion Copper
Cumene (1-methylethylbenzene) Cumene Cumene Cumene
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NPI Substance SimaPro Air SimaPro Water SimaPro Soil
Emission Emission Emission
Cyanide (inorganic) compounds Cyanide Cyanide Hydrogen cyanide
Cyclohexane Cyclohexane Cyclohexane Cyclohexane
1,2-Dibromoethane Ethane, 1,2-dibromo- Ethane, 1,2-dichloro- Ethane, 1,2-dibromo-
Dibutyl phthalate Phthalate, dibutyl-
1,2-Dichloroethane Ethane, 1,2-dichloro- Ethane, 1,2-dichloro-
Dichloromethane Methane, dichloro-, Methane, dichloro-, Methane, dichloro-,
HCC-30 HCC-30 HCC-30
Ethanol Ethanol Ethanol Ethanol
2-Ethoxyethanol Ethanol, 2-ethoxy-
Ethoxyethanol acetate 2-Ethoxyethyl acetate
Ethyl acetate Ethyl acetate
Ethyl butyl ketone No match found
Ethylbenzene Benzene, ethyl- Benzene, ethyl- Benzene, ethyl-
Ethylene glycol (1,2-ethanediol) Ethylene glycol Ethylene glycol Ethylene glycol
Ethylene oxide Ethylene oxide
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) Phthalate, dioctyl-
Fluoride compounds Fluoride Fluoride Fluoride
Formaldehyde (methyl aldehyde) Formaldehyde Formaldehyde
Glutaraldehyde Glutaraldehyde Glutaraldehyde Glutaraldehyde
n-Hexane Hexane Hexane Hexane
Hydrochloric acid Hydrogen chloride Hydrogen chloride Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen sulfide Hydrogen sulfide Hydrogen sulfide Hydrogen sulfide
Lead & compounds Lead Lead Lead
Magnesium oxide fume Magnesium oxide Magnesium
Manganese & compounds Manganese Manganese Manganese
Mercury & compounds Mercury Mercury Mercury
Methanol Methanol Methanol Methanol
2-Methoxyethanol Ethanol, 2-methoxy
2-Methoxyethanol acetate No match found
Methyl ethyl ketone Methyl ethyl ketone
Methyl isobutyl ketone 4-Methyl-2-pentanone
Methyl methacrylate Methacrylic acid, Methacrylic acid,
methyl ester methyl ester
4,4'-Methylene bis(2-chloroaniline) – – –
(MOCA)
[No emissions reported]
Methylenebis (phenylisocyanate) Methylenebis
(thiocyanate)
Nickel & compounds Nickel Nickel, ion Nickel
Nickel carbonyl No match found
Nickel subsulfide Nickel subsulfide
Nitric acid Nitric acid Nitric acid Nitric acid
Organo-tin compounds Tin
Oxides of Nitrogen Nitrogen oxides Nitrogen oxides
Particulate Matter <2.5 µm (PM2.5) Particulates, < 2.5 um
Particulate Matter <10.0 µm (PM10) Particulates, < 10 um
Phenol Phenol Phenol Phenol
Phosphoric acid Phosphoric acid Phosphoric acid Phosphoric acid
Polychlorinated Biphenyls – – –
[No emissions reported]
Polychlorinated dioxins and furans Dioxins, measured as Dioxins, measured as Dioxins, measured as
(TEQ) 2,3,7,8- 2,3,7,8- 2,3,7,8-
tetrachlorodibenzo-p- tetrachlorodibenzo-p- tetrachlorodibenzo-p-
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NPI Substance SimaPro Air SimaPro Water SimaPro Soil
Emission Emission Emission
dioxin dioxin dioxin
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PAH, polycyclic PAH, polycyclic PAH, polycyclic
(B[a]Peq) aromatic hydrocarbons aromatic hydrocarbons aromatic hydrocarbons
Selenium & compounds Selenium Selenium Selenium
Styrene (ethenylbenzene) Styrene Styrene Styrene
Sulfur dioxide Sulfur dioxide Sulfur dioxide Sulfur dioxide
Sulfuric acid Sulfuric acid Sulfuric acid Sulfuric acid
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane Ethane, 1,1,1,2-
tetrachloro-
Tetrachloroethylene Ethene, tetrachloro-
Toluene (methylbenzene) Toluene Toluene Toluene
Toluene-2,4-diisocyanate Toluene, 2,4-
diisocyanate
Total Nitrogen Nitrogen Nitrogen
Total Phosphorus Phosphorus Phosphorus
Total Volatile Organic Compounds VOC, volatile organic
compounds
1,1,2-Trichloroethane Ethane, 1,1,2-trichloro- Ethane, 1,1,2-trichloro-
Trichloroethylene Ethene, trichloro-
Vinyl Chloride Monomer Ethene, chloro- Ethene, chloro- Ethene, chloro-
Xylenes (individual or mixed isomers) Xylene Xylene Xylene
Zinc and compounds Zinc Zinc, ion Zinc
Table 2: Emitted substances reported in the National Pollution Inventory 2007/08 and the
corresponding emissions in the SimaPro v7.1.8 software per medium
See Appendix A for reported emissions per substance used in this study.
5.1.2 PESTICIDES
Data on individual pesticide use in Australia are not publicly available (see Lundie et al,
2007). There are over 2,000 active ingredients approved for use in Australia, and over
250 chemicals, of which more than 1 t is imported or manufactured in Australia each
year. In a review published by the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and
Engineering (2002), important insecticides, herbicides and fungicides and the number of
substances that exceed 10 t/yr, 100 t/yr and 1000 t/yr are reported. In some cases
approximate use figures are provided for individual chemicals (e.g. 15,000 t/yr for
glyphosate, 3,000 t/yr of atrazine and 1,000 t/yr of chlorpyriphos) or classes of
chemicals (e.g. aryloxyphenoxypropionates or “fops”). This report has adopted the 12
pesticides used in Lundie et al (2007), acknowledging that this is likely to be a significant
underestimate of the real pesticide use in Australia.
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5.1.3 AUSTRALIA GREENHOUSE EMISSIONS INFORMATION SYSTEM
The Australian Greenhouse Emissions Information System (AGEIS) provides
comprehensive data on Australia’s GHG emissions and is reported by state, industry and
GHG. AGEIS include emissions from the following sectors:
Energy
Industrial Processes
Solvent and Other Product Use
Agriculture
Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry KP
Waste.
The list below shows the GHGs tracked by AGEIS under the Kyoto Protocol. These AGEIS
data from 2007, reported by state, are used as the basis of the GHG emissions inventory
in this study:
The DEWHA (2008b) report was not required to investigate the bank of
chorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the economy, or estimate losses to air. However, data
collected by Refrigerant Reclaim Australia at the point of destruction of reclaimed mixed
refrigerant gases indicate that there could be a considerable bank of CFCs still in use, in
the range of some hundreds of metric tonnes. Estimated leakages of HFC 134a were
excluded to avoid double counting with the AGEIS data above. The following substance
leakages – HFC 404A , HFC 410 A, HFC 407C and R-Mix – have no associated
characterisation factors in the BPIC/ICIP LCIA method defined in SimaPro (or zero ODP)
and therefore cannot yet be included in the normalisation factor.
2
See http://ozone.unep.org.
3
The ODP of HCHF 124 was assumed for “HCFC-Blends” as no details on the composition was specified in
DEWHA (2008b).
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See Appendix A for emitted quantities per substance.
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Coal (81.1%), gas (11.0%) and oil (7.4%) production constitute 99.5% of the abiotic
resource depletion score.
The calculated abiotic depletion results are based on production quantities, an important
distinction given Australia’s high export volumes of minerals and fuels.
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The top three substances make up 99% of Australia’s GHG emissions, with the majority
from CO2 (75.3%), followed by methane (19.7%) and nitrous oxide (4.1%).
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The top five substances in the table above make up 90% of the normalisation score for
human toxicity, and PAH (48%) and fluoride (31%) contribute 80% of the overall score.
Using DALY as the measure of impact, Lundie et al (2007) found that heavy
metals and transition metals are the major contributors to the total human
carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic impact categories on a national level. The
main contributors to the total non-carcinogenic impact are Arsenic (As) 47%,
Lead (Pb) 9%, Manganese (Mn) 26%, Mercury (Hg) 6% and Selenium (Se) 11%.
The total carcinogenic impact category is dominated by Cadmium (Cd) 84%, with
smaller contributions from Cobalt (Co) 12%. The diffuse contributions to both
impact categories are large: 53% to the human carcinogen impact category and
33% to the human non-carcinogen impact category. The only organic compound
to make a large contribution to diffuse total human carcinogenic impact category
on a national level is formaldehyde (2%), which is a consequence of domestic
solid fuel burning.
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The pesticides simazine (72%), parathion, methyl (8%) and atrazine (7%) are the main
contributing emissions in this impact category.
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chromium, arsenic, mercury) from mining and minerals processing operations.
These facilities are almost exclusively located in non-urban areas.
Based on 2005/06 NPI data, Foley and Lant (2009) report that the freshwater
eco-toxicity impacts of Darwin are specifically influenced by the reporting of six
heavy metal compounds in its Darwin Harbour water catchment survey (i.e.
estimated diffuse emissions). These heavy metals are not estimated in any other
water catchment survey in the NPI and, thus, represent a major weakness in the
reporting methodology.
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Emissions of fluoride (95%) are the main contributing emission in this impact category.
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Emissions to air of mercury (65%), chromium (15%) and arsenic (7%) are the main
contributing emissions in this impact category.
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Nitrogen oxides (87%) and sulphur dioxide (7%) are the main contributing emissions in
this impact category.
The work being done by the European Commission – Joint Research Centre (2008)
recommends the LOTUS-EUROS model (as applied in the ReCiPe method) for photo-
chemical ozone formation. The method consists of a detailed fate and exposure model
for human health impacts which makes it readily adaptable for calculation of a set of
consistent characterisation factors for each continent. The characterisation and
aggregation of VOCs is the subject of ongoing current international work. AusLCI, as it
has with VOCs and photo-chemical smog, will adapt this work to Australian conditions
and circumstances. The UNECE Trajectory is a leading characterisation model for the
formation of tropospheric ozone.
In Australia, anthropogenic (man-made) releases of VOCs are generally trivial compared
to those released in nature, and it has been suggested that nitrogen oxides emissions
alone are the determinant factor for photo-chemical smog generation in Australia.
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Further research is needed to establish if nitrogen oxides emissions alone can be taken
as the proxy measure of potency for photo-chemical smog formation in Australia.4
There are potential limitations with the above approach highlighted in the regional
normalisation assessment using the CML 2001 baseline characterisation by Foley
and Lant (2009). While CO2 from fossil fuelled electricity generation is the most
dominant GHG in Australia, the per capita GHG emissions from Darwin are also
heavily affected by methane and nitrous oxide emissions from the “prescribed
burning of savannahs”. Similarly, this land management practice also creates
significant carbon monoxide emissions, making Darwin the highest per capita
emitter for photo-chemical oxidation potential (i.e. smog).
5.2.9 ACIDIFICATION
Sulphur dioxide (66%), nitrogen oxides (28%) and ammonia (8%) emissions are the
main contributors in this impact category.
See discussion in the next section on eutrophication.
5.2.10 EUTROPHICATION
4
VOCs are accounted for their contributions as GHGs and because of methane’s particular significance to
global warming. Methane is recorded separately to the emissions of other non-methane volatile organic
compounds (NMVOCs). VOCs are also accounted for their potential human toxicity and ecotoxicity. Polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), dioxins and furans are both toxic and bioaccumulative (accumulating in nature
over time).
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Table 12: Eutrophication impact category normalisation contributions
Nitrogen oxides to air (44%), and nitrogen (24%) and phosphorus (22%) emissions to
water are the main contributors in this impact category.5
Australian fate models for eutrophication are being developed, so in the meantime
interim results using this method should be treated with care. Overestimation of
environmental burdens is likely in Australia due to the deposition of nitrogen oxides
emissions in insensitive environments (Grant and Peters, 2009).
The primary emissions that cause exposure to these substances are: PM10 particulates,
PM2.5 particulates, trimethylsilyl propionate (TSP), nitrogen oxides (NOX), ammonia (NH3),
carbon monoxide (CO), VOCs and sulphur oxides (SOX). A number of international LCIA
methods include models for characterising respiratory effects. To adapt this work to
Australian conditions, it is the transport and fate of the emissions and the Australian
population exposures that result that need adaptation (the respiratory affects
themselves are probably appropriate). The authors are not aware of any work to adapt
these methods for Australian conditions.
5
The issue of double counting in calculating the total eutrophication impact was highlighted during the review
of this report by Jeff Foley (Manager – Water & Wastewater Process at GHD). For example, wastewater
treatment plants are required to report ammonia and total nitrogen emissions under NPI. However, ammonia is
a sub-component of the total nitrogen value. It is estimated that double counting of the reported ammonia
from the Water Supply, Sewerage and Drainage Services would add less than 6% to the overall calculated
PO4eq emissions.
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Australian normalisation factor: 930kL per capita based on year 2006 water abstraction
(OECD, 2009).
The normalisation factor from the Australian Impact Method defined in the SimaPro
software is 26 Ha.a of use per capita is proposed as the normalisation factor.
The global normalisation factors from the ReCiPe world midpoint (H) (Pré, 2008) of
1,306 kg 235U eq per capita is proposed as normalisation factor.
The table below summarises the normalisation factors calculated and per capita impacts
based on an Australian population figure of 21,644,000 for the year 2008 (ABS, 2009).
Note that the sources for water consumption, land use and transformation and ionising
radiation are quoted as per capita factors in the respective sources (see sections above).
Table 14: Summary of calculated and per capita normalisation factors using the intermediate
BPIC/ICIP method
The characterisation results for Australia calculated using the (intermediate) BPIC/ICP
project LCIA method, from Foley and Lant (2009), the Australian Impact Method v1.00
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(SimaPro v7.1.8), CML 2001 World 2000 (Wegener Sleeswijk et al, 2008) and ReCiPe
0.6 using the World Egalitarian factors (Pré, 2008) are shown in
and Table 16 below.
Impact Category Unit BPIC/ICIP Foley and Australian CML 2001 ReCiPe
LCIA Lant Impact / World 2008
(2009) Method 2000 World (E)
Abiotic depletion kg Sb eq 300 289
Global warming kg CO2 eq. 28,690 28,410 20,120 6,973 5,494
Ozone layer depletion kg CFC-11 eq 0.002 0.04 0.04
Human toxicity kg 1,4-DB eq 3,216 36,700 6,042 981
Freshwater aquatic kg 1,4-DB eq
eco-toxicity 172 95 579 8
Marine aquatic eco- kg 1,4-DB eq
toxicity 12,117,106 623,500 32,366 1,923
Terrestrial eco-toxicity kg 1,4-DB eq 88 116 182 39
Photo-chemical kg NMVOC eq
oxidation 75 50
Acidification kg SO2 eq 123 126 40 42
Eutrophication kg PO4 eq 19 21 17 26 9
Respiratory inorganics PM2.5 eq 45 14
Water consumption kl H2O 930 730
Land transformation Ha a
and use 26 26 2
Ionising radiation kg 235U eq 1,306 1,306
Table 15: Normalisation factors from various sources compared to the calculated BPIC/ICIP
project’s LCIA factors
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A Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method
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Table 16: Percentage difference in normalisation factors compared to the calculated BPIC ICIP
project’s LCIA factors
Abiotic resource depletion: The calculated normalisation factors are based on the
same characterisation factors and production data source, but from a different
time period, as the Foley and Lant (2009) study and are reasonably consistent.
Land transformation and use: The BPIC/ICIP project’s LCIA method adopts the
factors and assessment methods used in the Australian Impact Method until a
comprehensive midpoint method for assessing impacts has been developed or
adapted for Australia.
Water depletion: No further analysis has been made into the normalisation
factors from the Australian Impact Method.
Marine aquatic eco-toxicity: This impact category stands out most significantly
when compared to other normalisation sources. This can almost exclusively be
attributed to fluoride compound emissions to air, which make up 95% of the
normalisation factor (see the box below). The characterisation factor used in the
BPIC/ICIP project’s LCIA method is based on the Australian adapted
characterisation factors published in Huijbregts and Lundie (2002) with a toxicity
factor of 4.10E7 kg 1,4-DB eq per kg emission of fluoride (Cas No: 016984-48-8).
This is the same emission listed in, for example, main emission sources such as
the unit processes for black coal electricity production and aluminium smelting in
the Australian LCA database (included in the SimaPro software).
There are no characterisation factors for fluoride (i.e. Cas No: 016984-48-8) in
CML (2009) or ReCiPe (2008). On the other hand, CML and ReCiPe include
toxicity factors for hydrogen fluoride (Cas No: 7664-39-3). CML coincidentally has
an identical characterisation factor as the one published by Huijbregts and Lundie
(2002) in CML (i.e. 4.10E7 kg 1,4-DB eq per kg emission), and is zero (0) in
ReCiPe.
Huijbregts and Lundie (2002) propose a characterisation factor of 5.20E5 for
hydrogen fluoride (Cas No: 7664-39-3). However, this is not the fluoride emission
type used in the unit processes for coal based electricity production in the
Australian LCA database. It is essential to use consistent emission classifications
in the LCI data (i.e. unit processes) as in the national or regional emission
inventories used to derive the normalisation factors (e.g. NPI data).
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A Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method
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The best available LCI data for Australia for the main fluoride compound emitting
processes lists fluoride (Cas No: 016984-48-8). The normalisation factors in this
study have therefore been calculated consistently for the midpoint LCIAs with
Australian toxicity factors.
Photo-chemical smog: No further analysis has been made into the world
normalisation factors from ReCiPe.
Ionising radiation: The BPIC/ICIP project’s interim LCIA method adopts the factor
and assessment method used in the ReCiPe method.
Human toxicity: The normalisation factors calculated using CML’s European based
characterisation factors in Foley and Lant (2009) produce a significantly higher
result, which according to Lundie et al (2007) is to be expected. No further
analysis has been made into the world normalisation factors from CML and
ReCiPe.
Foley and Lant (2009) note that one of the weaknesses of their study is the
application of European based impact assessment models to Australian inventory
data. As demonstrated by Lundie et al (2007), toxicity characterisation factors
(expressed in DALY) for Australia can be significantly different to those estimated
under European climatic, population density, ecological and demographic
conditions.
Respiratory effects: No further analysis has been made into the world
normalisation factors from the ReCiPe method.
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A Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method
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Bromate Nitrite
Chlorate Phosphate
Nitrate Phosphorus pentoxide
Missing emissions specifically relevant for the impact category acidification include:
Hydrogen iodide
Acetic acid
Hydrogen sulphide
Benzoic acid
Pentanoic acid
Butanoic acid
Phenol
Formic acid
Phosphoric acid
Hydrogen bromide
Propionic acid
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen fluoride
7. Conclusion
The work presented provides an attempt to produce suitable normalisation factors
for the BPIC/ICIP project’s LCIA method.
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A Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method
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Further details are available in the first part of this study, which is on the
recommended Australian impact assessment methods and future developments (A
Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method for the BPIC/ICIP Project – Part 1:
Classification and Characterisation – Bengtsson, and Howard, 2010).
9. References
34
A Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method
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Bengtsson, J., Howard, N. and Kneppers, B., 2010, Discussion Paper for Comment:
Weighting of Environmental Impacts in Australia, Edge Environment Pty Ltd, Manly,
NSW, Australia. [insert hyperlink when available]
Huijbregts, M. and Lundie, S., 2002, Toxicity Values Recalculated for Australia Using
USES Model Included in the Australian Impact Assessment Method in the SimaPro
v7.1 Software for Australia, PRé Consultants, Printerweg 18, 3821 AD Amersfoort,
The Netherlands.
IPCC, 2007, Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, Contribution of
Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change [S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Avery,
M. Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and
New York, NY, USA, 996 pp.
ISO, 2006a, ISO 14040:2006 Environmental Management – Life Cycle Assessment –
Principles and Framework, Geneva, Switzerland.
ISO, 2006b, ISO14044:2006 Environmental Management – Life Cycle Assessment –
Requirements and Guidelines, Geneva, Switzerland.
Jolliet, O., Margni, M., Charles, R., Humbert, S., Payet, J., Rebitzer, G. and
Rosenbaum, R., 2003, IMPACT 2002+: A New Life Cycle Impact Assessment
Methodology, Int J Life Cycle Assess 8(6): 324–330.
Leiden University, 2009, CML-IA,
http://www.leidenuniv.nl/cml/ssp/databases/cmlia/cmlia.zip, accessed on 04 January
2009.
Lundie, S., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Rowley, H.V., Mohr, N.J., Feitz, A.J., 2007, Australian
Characterisation Factors and Normalisation Figures for Human Toxicity and Eco-
toxicity. J Cleaner Prod 15: 819–832.
NPI (National Pollutant Inventory), 2008, Catchments Emissions Data 2007-08,
Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts,
http://www.npi.gov.au/index.html, accessed on 12 December 09.
OECD, 2009, OECD Factbook 2009, ISBN 92-64-05604-1.
Goedkoop M, Heijungs R, Huijbregts M, de Schryver A, Struijs J, van Zelm R (2009)
ReCiPe 2008—a life cycle impact assessment method which comprises harmonised
category indicators at the midpoint and the endpoint level, report I: characterization.
Den Haag, The Netherlands
Wegener Sleeswijk, A., Van Oers, L.F.C.M., Guinée, J.B., Struijs, J. and Huijbregts,
M.A.J., 2008, Normalisation in Product Life Cycle Assessment: An LCA of the Global
and European Economic Systems in the Year 2000, Science of the Total Environment
390(1): 227–240, as referenced in Leiden University, 2009, CML-IA,
http://www.leidenuniv.nl/cml/ssp/databases/cmlia/cmlia.zip, accessed on 04 January
2009.
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A Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method
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36
A Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method
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Emissions to Air Quantity Unit
Chromium VI 7500 kg
Cobalt 230000 kg
Copper 1100000 kg
Cumene 76000 kg
Cyanide 1900000 kg
Cyclohexane 3800000 kg
Ethane, 1,2-dibromo- 82000 kg
Phthalate, dibutyl- 290000 kg
Ethane, 1,2-dichloro- 22000 kg
Methane, dichloro-, HCC-30 1400000 kg
Ethanol 27000000 kg
Ethanol, 2-ethoxy- 9100 kg
2-Ethoxyethyl acetate 190000 kg
Ethyl acetate 1900000 kg
Benzene, ethyl- 3100000 kg
Ethylene glycol 1200000 kg
Ethylene oxide 130000 kg
Phthalate, dioctyl- 3600 kg
Fluoride 6100000 kg
Formaldehyde 8500000 kg
Glutaraldehyde 43000 kg
Hexane 9600000 kg
Hydrogen chloride 46000000 kg
Hydrogen sulfide 710000 kg
Lead 1300000 kg
Magnesium oxide 25000 kg
Manganese 2900000 kg
Mercury 24000 kg
Methanol 6100000 kg
Ethanol, 2-methoxy 15000 kg
Methyl ethyl ketone 5600000 kg
4-Methyl-2-pentanone 2400000 kg
Methacrylic acid, methyl ester 11000 kg
Methylenebis (thiocyanate) 300 kg
Nickel 490000 kg
Nickel subsulfide 2600 kg
Nitric acid 210000 kg
Tin 2900 kg
Nitrogen oxides 1.4E+09 kg
Particulates, < 2.5 um 34000000 kg
Particulates, < 10 um 1.2E+09 kg
Phenol 93000 kg
Phosphoric acid 2900 kg
Dioxins, measured as 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p- 0.38 kg
dioxin
PAH, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 1300000 kg
Selenium 8400 kg
Styrene 900000 kg
Sulfur dioxide 1.4E+09 kg
Sulfuric acid 5900000 kg
Ethane, 1,1,1,2-tetrachloro- 87 kg
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A Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method
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Emissions to Air Quantity Unit
Ethene, tetrachloro- 1300000 kg
Toluene 33000000 kg
Toluene, 2,4-diisocyanate 930 kg
Nitrogen 0 kg
Phosphorus 17 kg
VOC, volatile organic compounds 3.1E+09 kg
Ethane, 1,1,2-trichloro- 6000 kg
Ethene, trichloro- 920000 kg
Ethene, chloro- 25000 kg
Xylene 23000000 kg
Zinc 1800000 kg
Table 18: Air emission data entered into SimaPro. No sub-compartment was specified (i.e.
unspecified)
Emissions to Water Quantity Unit
Acetaldehyde 16000 kg
Ammonia 19000000 kg
Antimony 2100 kg
Arsenic, ion 7000 kg
Benzene 47000 kg
Beryllium 1700 kg
Biphenyl 0.000026 kg
Boron 1700000 kg
Cadmium, ion 2700 kg
Carbon disulfide 150 kg
Chlorine 590000 kg
Chloroform 0.3 kg
Phenol, 2-chloro- 290 kg
Chromium, ion 7500 kg
Chromium VI 1000 kg
Cobalt 30000 kg
Copper, ion 120000 ng
Cumene 510 kg
Cyanide 5100 kg
Cyclohexane 7700 kg
Ethane, 1,2-dichloro- 0.006 kg
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A Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method
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Emissions to Water Quantity Unit
Methane, dichloro-, HCC-30 0.31 kg
Ethanol 1800000 kg
Benzene, ethyl- 3100 kg
Ethylene glycol 410000 kg
Fluoride 1100000 kg
Formaldehyde 0.5 kg
Glutaraldehyde 5300 kg
Hexane 12000 kg
Hydrogen chloride 150000 kg
Hydrogen sulfide 310000 kg
Lead 23000 kg
Magnesium 770 kg
Manganese 1400000 kg
Mercury 370 kg
Methanol 66000 kg
Nickel, ion 26000 kg
Nitric acid 170000 kg
Nitrogen oxides 8100 kg
Phenol 19000 kg
Phosphoric acid 1400 kg
Dioxins, measured as 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p- 0.011 kg
dioxin
PAH, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 6500 kg
Selenium 4800 kg
Styrene 250 kg
Sulfur dioxide 5.8 kg
Sulfuric acid 450000 kg
Toluene 57000 kg
Nitrogen 2.4E+08 kg
Phosphorus 30000000 kg
Ethane, 1,1,2-trichloro- 0.0012 kg
Ethene, chloro- 0.00048 kg
Xylene 36000 kg
Zinc 490000 kg
Table 19: Water emission data entered into SimaPro (no sub-compartment was specified i.e.
unspecified)
Emissions to soil Sub- Quantity Unit
compartment
Acetaldehyde Industrial 0.81 kg
Acetic acid Industrial 0.0045 kg
Acrylamide Industrial 2400 kg
Acrylic acid Industrial 1.1 kg
Acrylonitrile Industrial 0.38 kg
Ammonia Industrial 1800000 kg
Antimony Industrial 1100 kg
Arsenic Industrial 2800 kg
Benzene Industrial 71 kg
Beryllium Industrial 160 kg
Boron Industrial 630000 kg
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A Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method
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Emissions to soil Sub- Quantity Unit
compartment
Cadmium Industrial 1100 kg
Carbon disulfide Industrial 0.0086 kg
Chlorine Industrial 520000 kg
Ethane, chloro- Industrial 0.13 kg
Chloroform Industrial 25 kg
Phenol, 2-chloro- Industrial 97 kg
Chromium (III) compounds Industrial 61000 kg
Cobalt Industrial 8700 kg
Copper Industrial 51000 kg
Cumene Industrial 290 kg
Hydrogen cyanide Industrial 160000 kg
Cyclohexane Industrial 74 kg
Ethane, 1,2-dibromo- Industrial 0.14 kg
Ethane, 1,2-dichloro- Industrial 8.2 kg
Methane, dichloro-, HCC-30 Industrial 370 kg
Ethanol Industrial 120000 kg
Benzene, ethyl- Industrial 130 kg
Ethylene glycol Industrial 48000 kg
Fluoride Industrial 390000 kg
Glutaraldehyde Industrial 12000 kg
Hexane Industrial 44 kg
Hydrogen chloride Industrial 5000 kg
Hydrogen sulfide Industrial 2700 kg
Lead Industrial 5900 kg
Manganese Industrial 240000 kg
Mercury Industrial 110 kg
Methanol Industrial 420000 kg
Methacrylic acid, methyl ester Industrial 36 kg
Nickel Industrial 41000 kg
Nitric acid Industrial 8.6 kg
Phenol Industrial 41000 kg
Phosphoric acid Industrial 7 kg
Dioxins, measured as 2,3,7,8- Industrial 0.00047 kg
tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
PAH, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Industrial 140 kg
Selenium Industrial 250 kg
Styrene Industrial 11 kg
Sulfur dioxide Industrial 0.068 kg
Sulfuric acid Industrial 110000 kg
Toluene Industrial 1800 kg
Ethene, chloro- Industrial 34 kg
Xylene Industrial 220 kg
Zinc Industrial 94000 kg
Parathion, methyl Industrial 1000000 kg
Chlorpyrifos Industrial 1000000 kg
Metham sodium Industrial 2000000 kg
Endosulfan Industrial 500000 kg
Glyphosate Industrial 15000000 kg
Atrazine Industrial 3000000 kg
Simazine Industrial 3000000 kg
MCPA Agricultural 500000 kg
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Emissions to soil Sub- Quantity Unit
compartment
2,4-D Agricultural 500000 kg
Paraquat Agricultural 800000 kg
Diquat Agricultural 200000 kg
Captan Agricultural 500000 kg
Mancozeb Agricultural 500000 kg
Table 20: Emissions to soil data entered into SimaPro
41