1

AC1 51 7.2R-87
(Revised 1992)

Accelerated Curing of Concrete at

Atmospheric Pressure-State of the Art

Reported by AC1 Committee 5 17

Luke M. Snell Lee Polisner LeoB. Walbert

Chairman Vice Chairman Secretaiy

Robert M. Bamoff Steven H. Gebler Robert E. Price

Russell J. Burley Mark B . Hogan Leo E. Rivkind
Frank V. Camarda Joseph J. Jerome Jere H. Rose
Kevin D. Callahan Nicholas Kozin Thomas H. Sadler
Sidney Freedman Roman Malinowski Joe A. Willett
Richard E. Galer W. cahiin McCall*

Committee members voting on the 1992 revisions are listed on p. 517.2R-17

Accelerated curing of concrete is used extensivly in lhe production of precast con- Chapter 3-ERect 5f variati5ns in accelerated-
crete structural members, pipe, masonry units, and presíressedproducts. Steam curing cycles, page 517.m-4
curing isprobably the mosi widely used meíhod at the present time. Recent modi6 3.1-General
cations and changes in this method are discussed, as wellas effectof the curing 3.2-Curmg for concrete masonry units
cycles 3.3-Curing concrete pipe
In addition to steam curing, the effect of variaiions in the concrete materials on 3.4-Curing of precast andíor prestressed concrete products
accelerated curing is discussed, as are special cements and accelerators. Special
treatments, including carbonation, accelerated drying, and heating prior to mold-
ing, are also cover& Chapter 4-Special treatments, page 537.m-57
In addition, other accelerated curing methods such as &~ca[ oil, and in- 4.1-General
frared heating, are discussed. 4.2-Carbonation treatment methods
4.3-Methods of accelerated drying of concrete products
Keywords accelerated curing; admixtures. atmospheric pressurre steam curing. ca-
4.4-Heating prior to molding
cium chlorides; carbonation; concrete blocks, concrete pipes; coolin& curing; electric cur-
ing; heating; infrared heating; kilns; masonry; pozzolans; precast concrete; prestressed con-
crete; regulated set cements: reviews.
Chapter .j;=E!ectrical, oil, and infrared methods,
page 517.2R-?2
5. 1-General
5.2-Electncal curing methods
5.3-Use of hot oil or other fluids for heating forms
5.4-Infrared curing of concrete

Chapter B-References, page 537"2R"16

6.1-Recommended references
6.2-Cited references

Chapter 2-Accelerators and special cements,

page 517.m-3 AC1 Committee 517 was organized in 1958 as the coin-
2.1-General
mittee on Low Pressure Steam Curing. Since then, its scope
2.2-Accelerators
2.3-Special cements has been enlarged to include means of accelerating curing of
structural concrete members, concrete block, pipe, and pre-
cast concrete, and the title has been changed to Accelerated
I
AC1 Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and commentaries Curing of Concrete at Atmospheric Pressure.
are intended for guidance in designing, planning, executing, or inspecting
conshuction and in preparing specifications.Reference to these documents Copyright O 1987, American Concrete instituie.
shall not be made in the Project Documents. If items found in these docu- AU &?ha merved, includingri&is of rcQrduction and use in any form or bv anv
nieans, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by any electronic OT me-
ments are desired to be part of the Project Documents they should be chanical device, printed, written,or oral, or recording for sound or visualreproduction or
phrased in mandatory language and incorporated into the Project for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing is ob-
tained frornthe copyright propnetors.AcI5172R-87supe~~AcI 517.2R-80. The 1992
Documents. --`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- changesconsisted solely of deleting the year from the reference standards in Chapter 6 and
became effective Nov.1,1992.
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 5 17.2R-2
A previous report1 of the committee dealt exclusively
with steam-curing methods and the effects of various ingre-
dients, i.e., portland cement, aggregate, water, and
admixtures.
Accelerated curing involves the addition of heat and
moisture to expedite concrete curing. By definition it in-
cludes, but is not limited to, steam curing. The primary
purpose of accelerated curing of concrete is the early devel-
opment of strength. Forms, casting beds, and curing devices
or facilities can then be reused at frequent intervals, and a
low in-process inventory maintained.
The objective of this report is to review new develop-
ments in accelerated curing including new types of cements,
curing methods, techniques, and their effects on products.
Regulated set cements, shridtage compensated cements,
and other special cements for high temperature curing are
covered in addition to the effect of variations in steam-
curing cycles, special treatments such as carbonation, heat-
ing fresh concrete, pressure molding, electric curing, and
steam injection.
CHAPTER I-BASIC CONCRETE MATERIALS
1.1 -General
Concrete products subjected to accelerated curing at at-
mospheric pressure use the same basic materials as nor-
mally cured concrete. Trial batches should be made to
determine the effects of accelerated curing on the properties
of the concrete. Rapid hydration, for example, may cause a
reduction in the strength usually attained at later ages. The
production benefits derived from rapid strength develop-
ment must be balanced with the possible detrimental effects
on ultimate properties.
1 .2-Cement
All types of portland cement described in ASTM C 150
can be used in concretes cured by any of the various acceler-
ated methods. In addition, the blended cements described in
ASTM C 595, as well as the special cements discussed in
Chapter 2, can be used.
The cement type to be used is determined in the same
manner as normal curing. It should be recognized, however,
that different cements of the same type will have signifi-
cantly different characteristics when cured under acceler-
ated conditions. Types I and III are used most frequently;
but where special conditions warrant, such as sulfate ex-
posure, Types II and V or blended cements should be used.
Air-entraining cements which meet the requirements of
ASTM C 150 and C 595 can be used interchangeably with
comparable results except in the production of cellular con-
crete. For cellular concrete there may be an adverse reaction
between the air-entraining addition and the foaming agent
used to form and stabilize the cellular structure. The op-
timum accelerated curing cycle will depend in part on the
type and source of cement selected.
The complex cement hydration reactions are influenced
by temperature, time, humidity, and other curing
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
conditions.
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MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
1.3-Aggregate
Concrete aggregates should be tested for compliance with
appropriate specifications such as ASTM C 33, C 330, or C
33 1. Aggregates with different thermal and absorptive prop-
erties, however, will react differently when subjected to ele-
vated temperatures, such as concretes made with normal
weight versus lightweight aggregates.
1.4-Water
Water quality requirements for concrete subjected to ac-
celerated curing are the same as for normally cured
concrete.
1.5-Admixtures
1.5.1 Chemical admixtures-Most air-entraining and
water-reducing admixtures perform as effectively in con-
crete subjected to accelerated curing as they do in concrete
cured under normal temperatures. However, optimum dos-
age rates of water-reducing admixture may be different than
manufacturer?s recommendations. Before an admixture is
used, it is advisable to malte trial batches to determine op-
timum dosage for a cost-effective curing cycle.
Water-reducing admixtures complying with ASTM C 494
types A, D, E, F and G requirements may allow mixing
water reductions of 5 to 25 percent for concrete having
similar or higher worltability.
Concrete containing Types F and G high-range water-
reducing admixtures are particularly benefited by delayed
addition to the concrete mix. Laboratory and field data indi-
cate that the increased compressive strengths associated
with heat-cured concrete containing high-range water re-
ducers are a result of their lower water-cement ratios. Most
concretes with and without high-range water reducers have
comparable compressive strengths and comparable density
for the same water-cement ratios.
Concretes containing chemical admixtures that retard the
set normally benefit from an extended preset time, even
though the total curing cycle remains the same as for non-
retarded concrete. As is true for nonretarded concrete, the
initial set must be attained before application of the steam or
heat. When accelerating admixtures are used, the preset
time may possibly be shortened. The time of initial set for
freshly mixed concrete should be determined by the stan-
dard method of test ASTM C 403.
Comparative evaluations are necessary to determine the
most cost-effective class and type water-reducing admixture
to use for a given set of concrete materials and an acceler-
ated curing cycle.
1.5.2 Pozzolans and slags--Fly ash that meets the re-
quirements of ASTM 6 18 has been used as a partial replace-
ment for portland cement or an additive in concretes cured
by accelerated means with satisfactory results.
High-temperature moist curing is a means for accelerat-
ing the slow reaction between a pozzolan and the free
calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2, liberated during cement hydra-
tion. Temperatures above 190 F (88 C), however, are re-
quired to accelerate the reactions sufficiently to increase the
early strengths.
Ground iron blast-furnace slagl.1 that meets the require-
ments of ASTM C 989 has been used as a partial replace-
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 ACCELERATED CURING AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
ment for portland cement in concrete production. When
cured in accelerated conditions, it has been shown to be
highly active resulting in increased early strength gain. Cur-
ing temperatures above 140 F (60 C) result in further activa-
tion of the slag.
CHAPTER 2-ACCELERATORS AND SPECIAL
CEMENTS
2.1-General
Materials which accelerate hardening and promote early
strength development of concrete are advantageous in the
manufacture of many concrete products. Early attainment of
strength in a building block, for example, compensates in
part for slow hardening in cold weather and decreases the
time required to produce a fully matured block. Similar
advantages are obtained in the manufacture of other con-
crete products. During warm weather, accelerators must be
used judiciously so as not to produce too rapid a set. Many
plants employ high temperature curing without accelerators
during summer months and a combination of high tem-
perature curing with an accelerator during the winter
months.
2.2-Accelerators
Chemicals that accelerate the hardening of mixtures con-
taining portland cement and water include some of the solu-
ble chlorides, carbonates, silicates, nitrates, thiocyanates,
fluosilicates, hydroxides, and also some organic com-
pounds. Use of accelerators may result in a reduction of
long-term strength. Those with a chloride base have occa-
sionally had detrimental effects on plant equipment. Any
chemical accelerating admixture should be trial tested prior
to full production use.
2.2.1 Calcium chloride-The use of one percent calcium
chloride by weight of the cement is usually sufficient to
accelerate setting and increase strength sufficiently for cold
weather concreting, with protection as described on AC1
306R. The selection of the optimum amount should be
based on the setting time and the early strength desired. A
complete discussion of the use of calcium chloride in con-
crete is given by Shideler.2.1 The effect of calcium chloride
on corrosion of reinforcing steel is covered in AC1 201.2R,
AC1 212.1R, AC1 212.2R, and AC1 222R, as well as in a
number of other papers. 2.2-2s Proprietary organic acceler-
ators are available for use where chloride-bearing admix-
tures are not acceptable because of the likelihood of
corrosion.
2.2.2 Water-reducing accelerating admixtures- Water-
reducing accelerators conforming to ASTM C 494, Type E,
may be beneficial in accelerating setting time and in increas-
ing strength at early and later ages.
If adequate information is not available, tests should be
made to evaluate the effect of a particular admixture using
job materials with expected temperatures and manufacturing
procedures. Since most of these materials contain calcium
chloride, the user should determine the percent by weight of
the Institute
Copyright American Concrete cement which its use will introduce into the concrete.
Provided by IHS under license with ACI
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
517.2R-3
When requested, admixture manufacturers generally will
disclose the amount of chloride in their admixture. AC1
212.1R and AC1 2 12.2R provide detailed information on
accelerating and other admixtures.
2.3-Special cements
Calcium aluminate cements have been used to shorten the
time of setting of portland cement.2.6,2.7 Due to problems of
strength reduction by conversion of the hydrates, the com-
mittee recommends it not be used for this purpose.
2.3.1 Regulated-set cement-Regulated-set cement is a
modified portland cement which contains a substantial
amount of calcium fluoaluminate. Initial and final set occur
almost simultaneously, and therefore the time between mix-
ing and set is often referred to as handling time. Regulated-
set cement can be manufactured to have a handling time
from 2 to 45 min. The level of early strength gain is adjusted
by the cement producer by controlling the amount of cal-
cium fluoaluminate.
The time of set is reduced and the compressive strength
gain rate is increased in regulated cement mortars and con-
cretes when: (a) the cement content of the mix is increased,
(b) the water-cement ratio is reduced, (c) the mix tem-
perature is increased, and (d) the curing temperature is
increased.
In hot weather it may be necessary to slow or retard the
setting action of the cement to have adequate time to place
and consolidate the concrete, especially when batch mixing
and manually transporting the concrete. Setting time usu-
ally will not be a problem when the regulated set portland
cement concrete is being produced in a continuous mixer
and mechanically conveyed to the forms. When too rapid a
set is encountered, citric acid can be added to the mix as a
retarder. Conventional retarders for portland cement are not
effective in slowing or controlling the set of regulated set
cement. Where it is practical, the setting action can be ef-
fectively controlled by adjusting the mix temperature.
All exposed surfaces of newly placed, regulated-set port-
land cement concrete should be protected from moisture
loss. Chlorinated rubber, butadiene styrene, or styrene acry-
late sealing and curing compounds, as well as polyethylene
sheets or wet burlap are recommended for this purpose.
When mixing mortars or concretes containing regulated-
set cement, it has been found that excessive accumulations
of hardened material in the mixers and processing equip-
ment can be avoided when certain batching sequences and
practices are followed. For example, it will usually be bene-
ficial if at least a portion of the mix water and some of the
sand or aggregate for the following batch is added to the
mixer immediately following the discharge of the previous
batch.
The best utilization of the fast strength development char-
acteristics of this cement is possible when the concrete or
mortar is prepared in a continuous mixer with as low a
water-cement ratio and as high a mix temperature and ce-
ment content as will permit proper placement, consolida-
tion, and finishing of the concrete. It is desirable to keep
placement and finishing time as short as possible because of
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the short setting time.
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 517.2R-4 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE

CHAPTER 3-EFFECT OF VARIATIONS IN
ACCELERATED-CURING CYCLES
3.1-General
The application of steam at atmospheric pressure to the
curing chamber is one of the oldest and most widely used
methods of accelerated curing of concrete. Reference to this
technique can be found in literature dating to 1912.
Under ideal conditions the curing of concrete by steam at
atmospheric pressure (low-pressure accelerated curing) has
the advantage over other methods of accelerated curing in
that the curing environment of the concrete is near satura-
tion in regard to moisture. Evaporation of water from the
product is minimized, which is especially important where
demolded or partially demolded products (block, pipe, etc.)
are involved.
Although the steam curing of masonry units, pipe, and
precast or prestressed concrete products follows the same
basic rules, curing procedures are different for each. As an
example, masonry units are of small mass and have a rela-
tively large area-mass ratio. Heat transfer and evaporation
sure) steam-curing lulns. The first footnote, however, im-
plies that the preset time need be increased by only I hr
when ambient temperature is below 32 F (O C). Research
indicates that a longer period of time would be required to
develop the same early strength as that achieved at 60 F (16
C). When ambient temperatures are below 32 F (O C), the
best practice would be to introduce the molded units into the
luln and slowly raise the temperature to at least 60 F (16 C)
(in 1 to 11/2 hr). Then use the minimum preset time indicated
in the table prior to increasing the temperature at the rate
shown in the table. Research with lightweight aggregate
block’3.1 indicates that it would tale about 41/2 hr at 35 F (2
C) to achieve the strength that could be achieved in about 1/2
hr at 90 F (32 C) or in 1 hr at 70 F (21 C). The same research
with sand and gravel aggregate block indicates that it would
tale 5 % hr to achieve the same strength at 45 F (7 C) as
could be achieved in 2 hr at 75 F (24 C).
3.2.1 Effect of variation in the curing cycle on com-

will be fast. Pipe and precast products may be cured in a
form where evaporation is minimum, or may be of such
large mass that heat transfer is slow, and large temperature
gradients and resultant stresses may exist between the center
and the outside of the mass. Therefore, the curing of each
type of concrete product is discussed in a separate section of
this chapter.
3.2-Curing for concrete masonry units
As in the curing cycle for all concrete products, an ade-
quate supply of moisture is essential to insure hydration of
the cement. During steaming, ample moisture is generally
provided through steam condensation. Lack of adequate
moisture may result in reduced strengths and plastic
cracking.
The most distinguishing feature of concrete masonry
units is the use of zero-slump, nonplastic concrete in man-
ufacturing the product. The concrete becomes plastic only
through intense vibration and pressure employed.
Table 3.2 applies for the majority of those plants employ-
ing accelerated curing in conventional (atmospheric pres-
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pressive strength and other properties of concrete ma-
sonry-All portions of the curing cycle are completely
interrelated. A change in one part of the curing cycle may
cause adverse effects in another portion of the cycle. For
example, the lack of an adequate preset period could be
partially corrected by a slower rate of temperature rise, and
conversely, a long preset period could be followed by a
relatively rapid rate of temperature rise exceeding even the
maximum of 60 F (16 C) per hr indicated.
The prime reason for talung care in planning the preset
time (time-temperature related) and steaming rate is due to
the different coefficients of thermal expansion of water, air,
and the cement paste and aggregates in the mix. If the
concrete does not have sufficient early strength to resist the
expansive forces during heating, damage can result. Under
conditions of mass production and rapid turnover in auto-
mated block plants it is possible to reduce the time required
for preset and temperature rise periods if the concrete tem-
peratures are elevated above ambient conditions at the time
of mixing. There has not been sufficient research on this
method with concrete block, but studies3.2 indicate that ele-
vating the temperature of the concrete mix through steam

Table 3.2-Accelerated curing cycles for concrete masonry units

Temperature and rate of
temperature change
Curing period Time, hr deg F deg C
Preset*
Lightweight block
Normal weight block
Rate of rise
II I minimum
2 minimum II 60- 100
60-100
40-6Operhr
II 16-38
16-38
22-23 perhr
Maximum temperature 12 (minimum) for
Lightweight block combined maximum 180-190 82-88
Normal weight block temperature plus 150-165 66-74
soaking periodst
Soaking SFperhr 2.8 C per hr
(duration of time of maximum average maximum average
initial set) declinet decline$
’Increase presei time (oc)
Ir hr when ambient temperature is below 32 F
+When pozzolans are employed as pari of the cementing medium, maximum temperatures of 200-2 O F (93-99 C) should be
investigated for both lightweight and nomial weight aggregate units.
Soaking period-In steam curing, the time during which the live steam supply is shut off and the concrete products are
exposed to the residual heat and moisture. The curing cycle may include a “soaking” or a constant “maximum temperature pe-
riod,” but need not include both. Soaking plus maximum temperature time should total 12 hr minimum. Soaking time may be
reduced by an amount of time equal to the time at maximum temperature.
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 ACCELERATED CURING AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
injection would considerably shorten the steam-curing time
now commonly used.
3.2.2 Preset period for concrete masonry-As noted, a
minimum preset time of 1 hr is suggested for lightweight
block and 2 hr for normal weight block prior to applying
steam. This recommendation is based on average conditions
and may be restrictive in some cases and inadequate in
others. For instance, with a coarse-textured, poorly com-
pacted lightweight aggregate block it is entirely possible to
begin raising temperatures in the luln immediately without
significant detriment to the concrete. The porosity allows
the air and water to expand without causing internal tensile
stresses. On the other hand, with the very high strength
concrete block currently being produced for some architec-
tural facing units and for high-rise, load-beating construc-
tion, a preset time of 2 hr at 60 F (16 C) may not be
adequate. With these units, which have strengths of 3500 to
6000 psi (24 to 41 m a ) , it may be well to consider a
minimum of 3 hr preset time at temperatures in excess of 60
F (16 C) and a minimum of 4 hr with temperatures between
40 and 60 F (4 and 16 C).
3.2.3 Temperature rise period for concrete masonry-As
with the preset period, the temperature rise period or rate of
temperature change should be tailored to the product and to
its history prior to steaming. If the plant layout and facilities
are such that long preset times are generally used, it is
possible that for normal production units the rate of tem-
perature rise could exceed that indicated in the table, that is,
60 F (33 C) per hr. However, with high-strength block 3500
to 6000 psi (24 to 41 MPa), the rate of temperature rise
should probably not exceed 60 F (33 C) per hr, even if preset
periods of 4 hr at temperatures above 60 F (16 C) are em-
ployed. In both the preset period and the temperature rise
period, it is important that the relative humidity of the
chamber surrounding the block be above 90 percent.
3.2.4 Steaming and soaking period for concrete ma-
sonry--The most common practice in the concrete masonry
industry is to employ steaming and soaking periods of 12 or
more hr of the normal 24 hr molding and curing process. It
has been found that a combined steaming and soaking pe-
riod of 12 hr is sufficient to produce the strength needed for
purposes of product handling. If the steaming period is fol-
lowed by a drying cycle, it is quite common to use less than
12 hr of steaming and soaking, followed by a drying period
within the same luln. It is generally considered good prac-
tice to employ drying temperatures under 250 F (121 C)
unless plant tests are conducted to show that higher tem-
peratures would not be detrimental. Some steaming and
drying processes have employed drying temperatures as
high as 450 F (232 C) without affecting the units; however,
these high temperatures usually have damaged the roof and
walls of the lulns.
Individual plant tests should be run to determine a reason-
able drying cycle. The length of the drying cycle subse-
quent to the steam curing would be determined by the
moisture content that is desired in the block. There is some
information given in the literature3.3,3 4 with regard to drying
times that may be expected for units manufactured with
various
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517.2R-5
In the most extensive series of tests conducted on steam
curing and drying of concrete masonry units at atmospheric
pressure, W. H. Kuenning and C. C. Carlson,3.1 report in
their summation that “it appears that block concretes have
some tolerance for high temperature curing conditions
which provide relative humidities in the luln atmosphere
that are less than 100 percent, but humidities lower than 90
percent cannot be used without some loss of strength. As a
general guideline it is suggested that relative humidities as
low as 90 percent can be tolerated without serious effects on
the strength and other properties of concrete masonry units.
3.2.5 Conventional kilns and appurtenant facilities for
steam curing concrete masonry-ACI 51 7 includes infor-
mation with regard to equipment required, design of lulns,
and the sizing of steam boilers. More extensive coverage is
given on this subject by R. E. Copeland in an article pub-
lished in 1971.3.5
3.2.6 Continuous or automated curing systems currently
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employed in the concrete masonry industry-“Continuous”
or perhaps more properly termed “automated curing sys-
tems” are claimed to have a number of advantages over
conventional materials handling and curing systems. Some
of the claimed advantages are lower operating costs, less
plant space required, and lower initial investment. These
systems are designed to eliminate forldift truck handling of
racks or cured block, less fuel consumption, and shorter
curing cycles. While it is claimed that these systems pro-
duce a better product, some of the relatively short curing
times employed are open to question. Because of the variety
in the different systems, it is not possible to discuss in detail
the operation of these systems. The reader is referred to the
manufacturer’s literature for more information.
3.3-Curing c o n c m t e pipe
With few exceptions, concrete pipe is steam cured at
atmospheric pressure. The particular methods, curing cy-
cles, and temperatures employed depend on the type of
manufacturing equipment used and the manner in which the
concrete is placed and consolidated. For example, in some
processes the molds are removed immediately after place-
ment, while in others, all but a small portion are enclosed in
the form during curing.
Another difference important to the curing is the amount
of water in the mix. Consistencies for the various processes
range from “earth-moist’’ to slumps in excess of several
inches. Depending on these and other differences, curing
cycles affect pipes made by the various methods in different
ways and to differing degrees.
As in all curing systems, an adequate supply of moisture
is essential to insure hydration of the cement. During accel-
erated curing, ample moisture is provided through steam
condensation or by other means such as mist or water
sprays. Pipe made of the drier mixes where the forms are
stripped immediately, however, often require additional
water during the preset and early temperature rise periods.
Lack of adequate moisture at these times may lead to re-
duced strengths and plastic shrinkage cracking.
3.3.1 Delay or preset period-For optimum results, the
preset period should be the same as the time required for
initial set determined by ASTM C 403. These times are
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 51 7.2R-6 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
generally 2 to 3 hr for Type I and III cements, and 4 or 5 hr
for Type II and V at 70 F (21 C). Where concrete or ambient
temperatures are significantly higher or lower, the time
should be adjusted accordingly. During the preset period the
ambient temperature of the curing enclosure should be kept
as close as possible to the temperature of the concrete and
mold.
The use of a shorter than optimum preset period can
cause thermal expansion of the concrete before the structure
of the material has attained sufficient strength to resist the
internal stresses. As a result, cracks develop, usually micro-
scopic but quite large in extreme cases, and the strength of
the concrete is reduced. The drier earth-moist mixes used in
machine pipe and the dry-cast process are able to withstand
relatively short preset periods without damage because of
their lower water content. At a total moisture content of 5
percent some mixes have shown no significant decrease in
compressive strength with preset periods as short as 1 hr.
In centrifugated pipe where the moisture content of the
interior surface is quite high, an insufficient preset period
will lead to blistering and scaling of the surface. Also,
where the fresh concrete is dependent on the mold for sup-
port, early application of heat may cause the mold to expand
away from the concrete, resulting in slumps and cracks.
Too long a preset period is generally not as harmful as
one that is too short. Although some reduction of strength
will occur, it is usually not significant. Pipe in which large
surface areas are exposed, however, are susceptible to plas-
tic shridtage cracking if evaporation rates are high. This
vulnerability is particularly high in centrifugated pipe where
the water has been forced out of the concrete and there is
little if any bleeding capacity left. Where such conditions
are prevalent, fog sprays are used to keep the ambient hu-
midity as high as practical. Refer to AC1 308 for more
detailed information concerning plastic shridtage cracking.
3.3.2 Temperature rise periodforconcretepipe-Fol-
lowing the preset period, the temperature of the curing en-
closure should gradually be raised to the desired curing
temperature. Controlling the rate of temperature rise is
important to avoid damage to the pipe. Should the tem-
perature be raised too rapidly, stresses will develop because
of the temperature gradients. Cast pipe cured with the inner
and outer molds in place are particularly susceptible. The
steel molds expand before the concrete has an opportunity
to do so, resulting in longitudinal cracking. Large-diameter
pipe are more vulnerable than the small-diameter pipe.
Whereas small-diameter cast pipe have successfully with-
stood changes in temperature of 60 F (33 C) per hr, it is
often necessary to limit the rate of temperature rise of a
larger diameter pipe to temperature changes of 35 F (19 C)
per hr to avoid cracking.
The point of application of heat and moisture is also
important. Care should be taken to avoid localized overheat-
ing of the product and the distribution should be arranged so
as to minimize expansion of the molds.
3.3.3 Accelerated curing period for concrete pipe-Gen-
erally, the higher the curing temperatures, the lower the 28-
day strengths. The maximum temperature used should be
the lowest possible consistent with production require-
Copyright Americanments. The reduction of the maximum accelerated curing
Concrete Institute
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*)ar(,-L
temperature from 140 to 120 F (60 to 49 C) may not signifi-
cantly reduce early compressive strengths.
When the accelerated curing time required is in excess of
12 hr, it is common to interrupt the curing to strip and reuse
the forms. American Water Works Association standards3.6
require at least 6 hr before this interruption, but in practice it
is generally longer to insure adequate stripping strengths.
There appear to be no noticeable effects on the strength or
other qualities, but further studies are required to determine
the exact significance of interrupted curing cycles.
Large variations in temperature during accelerated curing
due to the intermittent application of heat should be
avoided. While the product can usually withstand thermal
shoclts relatively well, proportional controllers should be
employed wherever possible to minimize temperature varia-
tions, particularly with larger pipe and also toward the end
of the cycle.
3.3.4 Cooling period f o r concrete pipe-There is no re-
search to indicate to what extent rapid cooling of concrete
after curing is detrimental. Under extreme temperature con-
ditions, cracking during cooling has been reported where
the pipe was restrained by the mold and large temperature
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
gradients occurred. A controlled cooling period, however, is
both practical and beneficial to the extent that thermal shock
is minimized.
3.4-Curing of precast andlor prestressed
concrete products
In the curing of precast and/or prestressed concrete prod-
ucts, all factors are interrelated. A change in one part of the
operation may affect the others. The optimum curing cycle
can generally be determined only by trial. Also, the size of
the structural member may affect the optimum steam-curing
cycle. As an example, small masses become heated faster
than larger masses; however, a large mass of concrete will
generate and retain more of its own heat through hydration.
Such a large mass will reach a higher internal temperature
than indicated by the ambient temperature. The water-ce-
ment ratio employed will also affect the steam-curing cycle.
Low water-cement ratio concrete generally requires a
shorter preset period. In some cases for members with high
volume-to-surface ratios, the heat of hydration is all the heat
that is needed to cure the product. In all cases, it is a
significant contributor to the curing heat. The insulation and
coverings used to protect and insulate the forms and fresh
concrete must be designed for maximum thermal efficiency.
This insulation should minimize air leakage and moisture
loss.
Since the heat of hydration is a significant contributor to
curing-cycle efficiency, the internal concrete temperature
rather than the ambient air temperature should be monitored
to realize this quantity of heat.
3.4.1 Preset p e r i o d - 7 h preset period can be defined as
the duration of time after the concrete has been batched until
initial set is obtained. During this period, heat is not nor-
mally applied unless it is necessary for maintaining the
initial temperature. The preset period should be established
by determining the initial setting time of the concrete by
procedures in ASTM C 403. It appears that energy conser-
vation and optimum early-age strengths can be achieved by
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 ACCELERATED CURING AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
starting the heat-curing process at times close to the initial
set time.
3.4.2 Rate Of temperature rise-The rate of temperature
rise employed in curing precast or prestressed concrete
products normally varies from about 20 to 80 F (1 1 to 44 C)
per hr. The rate of temperature rise during the initial heating
period has little influence on early-age or later-age com-
pressive strengths as long as a proper preset period is used.
For Type I and III cements, rates of 40 to 80 F (22 to 44 C)
per hr provide slightly higher early-age strengths than 20 F
(11 C) per hr. The 28-day strengths are not significantly
affected by variation in rate of rise from 20 to 80 (1 1 to 44
C) per hr.
3.4.3 Maximum curing temperature-The rate of tem-
perature rise and maximum curing temperature can influ-
ence the required time of curing. Generally, a higher
maximum temperature during the curing cycles reduces the
type of curing required at the maximum temperature. This
time period at maximum temperature is based upon the
compressive strength obtained immediately after heat curing
and possible at later ages.3.7
When the proper preset periods were used during the
investigation by Brown,3.8 he concluded that no significant
differences in early strengths could be found with Type II
cement concretes for maximum curing temperatures of 140,
160, or 180 F (58, 70, or 82 C).
The 28-day strengths of concretes cured at temperatures
of 160 to 180 F (70 to 80 C) are slightly reduced from those
cured at temperatures of 120 or 130 F (48 or 50 C). Con-
cretes cured with a proper preset period will typically un-
dergo a 5 percent strength reduction at 28 days.
3.4.4 Duration of maximum temperature-The duration
of the maximum temperature should not be confused with
the time that the heat source is actually turned on. In most
prestress applications, it is advantageous to turn off the heat
after the temperature of the product has stabilized at the
maximum.3,7
Numerous plant studies have shown that if the heat is
turned off after the maximum temperature has been reached
and the curing environment is well insulated, the 12-hr com-
pressive strength is not significantly reduced.
Significant strength was gained from age 4 to 10 hr, and
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
then the rate of strength gain diminished very rapidly after
10 to 12 hr. The initial rate of strength gain from heat-cured
concrete was measured to be as high as 900 psi (6.2 MF’a)
per hr and was as low as 300 psi (2.1 MPa) per hr for
different but typical mixes used in prestressed concrete. The
lower rates were associated with Type I or II cement con-
cretes having moderate water-cement ratios. Generally,
when a very high rate of initial strength gain was realized, it
was obtained by using a low water-cement ratio in combina-
tion with a Type III cement. The rate of strength gain after
about 10 to 12 hr of total age is small. When a low rate of
initial strength gain is expected, longer duration of max-
imum temperature may be needed.3,9
3.4.5 Cooling period-There is little evidence that rapid
cooling, even to freezing, after accelerated curing is detri-
mental to strength or durability, provided that with pres-
tressed products, detensioning is performed immediately
afterInstitute
Copyright American Concrete the removal of the enclosure. Tests show that typical
Provided by IHS under license with ACI
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
517.2R-7
precast concrete members cool off slowly at a maximum
rate of 10 F (6 C) per hr during the first 4-hr period of
exposure, no greater than 8 F (4 C) per hr during the second
4-hr period, and no greater than 4 F (2 C) per hr during the
third period when exposed to freezing temperatures. These
low rates of cooling suggest that thermal shock does not
occur in typically sized precast prestressed concrete rnern-
bers. The data show that this gradual cooling period pro-
vides additional curing and air-drying time prior to the time
when internal water might freeze. The data also show that
even if the water did freeze, the compressive strength was
not reduced.3.9
Even though extensive investigations show that rapid
cooling rarely affects the concrete products, there are times
when rapid cooling may cause the formation of cracking in
the surface layers of very thick and large-sized units. A
lower rate of cooling has been recommended for such units
(AC1 224.1R).
Occasionally, transverse cracks have been noticed in
beams subjected to cooling prior to detensioning. For this
reason, pretensioned members should be detensioned im-
mediately after the steam-curing cycle has been com-
pleted.3.9,3.10
3.4.6 Effect of variations in the curing cycle on com-
pressive strength and other properties-There is no one
curing cycle that is best for all plants. Each plant is unique
and the curing cycle that is optimum for one plant may not
be effective in another. Many factors act and interact in the
curing cycle, and they influence the strength and other prop-
erties of the product. Factors that are conducive to high
early strengths usually conflict with the factors that are ad-
vantageous for later strengths.
The use of automatic heat-curing systems for control cyl-
inders using heated water or air were developed by John
Laing Research and Development of England and by Pfeifer
during the period of 1972 to 1976. These “master-slave’’
temperature-controller systems allow the off-bed curing of
cylinders so that equal maturity of the cylinders and the full-
sized prestressed concrete members is assured. These sys-
tems have been used in actual precast plant conditions, and
they were found by test to be accurate in providing equal
maturity, i.e., equal time-versus-temperature curves for the
cylinder and the full-sized concrete product.3-9 Under these
conditions, the “master-slave’’ system also provides proper
graduated cooling for the cylinders and overheating because
of improper positioning on the forms will be avoided.
CHAPTER 4-SPECIAL TREATMENTS
4.1 -General
This chapter covers special treatments employed in the
manufacture of precast concrete products which are used as
a part of, or as a complement to, conventional curing pro-
cedures. The treatments discussed are carbonation, hot air
drying, and preheating of concrete prior to molding.
Artificial carbonation treatment was introduced on a com-
mercial scale in the concrete products industry during the
late 1950s and early 1960s. Research demonstrated that car-
bon dioxide (C02) in the normal atmosphere (about 0.03
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 517.2R-8 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE

Reversible, 5 H P Tripie coil

bonation induces shrinkage which, once having occurred,
rieom hcoieir
tends to stabilize the moisture content and the volume of
concrete. Thus, intentional carbonation as practiced by in-
dustry is an effort to promote drying shridcage prior to
Recovery installation of a concrete product.

L20’ -
SIDE V I E W
,
-16’-
FRONT
=a
VIEW
Since the average concrete block requires about 1 lb
(0.4536 leg) of CO2 to fully carbonate, an economic com-
promise to partially carbonate steam-cured block by intro-
ducing waste flue gases (from the boiler furnace) into the
steam luln was necessary. Due to variable effectiveness, and
the long time needed to produce favorable results, this pro-
cedure was not widely used. Various commercial systems
evolved which combined a shorter than normal steam-cur-
ing cycle with hot air drying provided by gas and fuel oil
burners. Even though the in-plant systems do not afford the
degree of carbonation achieved in laboratory studies, some
benefits are obtained by drying with hot air containing the
3-250.000 e T u
Buiners
- products of combustion (including C02).
Most of the carbonation treatment systems used today are
actually a part of the curing process, but some are separate.
In either case, the treatment is more correctly described as a
Fig. 4.2.1-T~uoexamples of use of boiler flue gases for curing and/or drying process using hot air containing CO2
drying-carbonation treatment gas. The often-used term “carbonation curing” is really a
misnomer as the improvements achieved in product proper-
ties in plant operations (more rapid strength gain, reduction
percent) reacts with hydrated portland cement to cause in moisture content, and reduction in potential drying
shrinkage4,l and indicated that concrete products could be shridcage) are affected more by the high temperature than
artificially carbonated to reduce subsequent shrinkage.4.2 by the presence of CO2 gas.
Hot air drying of hardened concrete products is achieved 4.2.1 Drying with gases containing CO2 after acceler-
in a number of ways in addition to the use of flue or burner ated curing-A number of plants have used a product dry-
gases containing C02. Early in the history of precast con- ing system that uses the heat from flue gases which are
crete products, units were partially cured in damp air or fog diverted from the steam boiler. A stack switch automatically
rooms, or with steam, and then partially dried with steam controls the flow of flue gases into the luln while prohibiting
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

radiators built in the luln walls. Some block plants built the entry of heavy smoke when the burner is first started
separate rooms and used oil-fired furnaces and duct sys- (Fig. 4.2.1). Some of the plants also use steam-heating coils
tems, similar to those employed in home heating systems, to obtain higher luln temperatures. A large diameter, pro-
to dry their concrete masonry units. Other plants accelerated peller-type fan is use d to provide circulation within the luln.
the natural air drying rate by directing hot air through can- Tests conducted in plants with this type drying facility
vas-covered cubes of block in the storage yard. Both of these showed CO2 concentration in the lulns ranging from less
latter systems were primarily used to meet specifications on than 1.0 to 3.8 percent. This low concentration, compared
moisture content rather than to promote strength gain. to the 8-10 percent desirable, was believed to be due to
Preheating concrete prior to molding is accomplished in intermittent input of gases (to maintain constant maximum
one of two ways. Either the aggregates and/or water are temperature), dilution by luln leakage, absorption of CO2 by
heated prior to mixing, or the mixture itself is heated while water in the luln, and depletion of CO2 by the carbonation
still plastic. The first method is the natural adaptation of reaction.4,4 Results of the plant tests showed that reduction
cold weather concreting practices, while the second is pri- in drying shrinkage ranged from negligible to 42 percent for
marily based on European production techniques. a 24 hr drying treatment. The plant reporting best results
with concrete block used a maximum drying temperature of
4.2-Carbonation treatment methods 175 F (79 C), 25 percent relative humidity, and a 3.8 percent
Carbonation of concrete is generally considered as an CO2 concentration in the atmosphere of the kiln. Reduction
ongoing chemical reaction between CO2 gas and selected in drying shridcage of up to 37 percent for concrete brick
compounds formed in the concrete during the hydration of was obtained using normal production procedures with a
the portland cement. The principal reaction involves cal- treatment of 24 hr at 200 F (93 C), 30 percent relative
cium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, which, when exposed to C02, humidity, and about 2 percent CO2 concentration in the
combines to form calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and water. atmosphere of the luln.
Theoretically, the process continues until such time as com- It is recommended that plants considering a system of this
plete carbonation has taken place, i.e., no Ca(OH)2 remains type try the following: maximum temperatures of 150-2 12 F
to be converted. Other hydration products which may have (66-100 C); relative humidities of 15-35 percent; CO2 con-
calcium oxide (Cao) as a constituent also appear to partici- centrations as high as possible; and a treatment period of
pate in the process, but not calcium sulfate (CaS04).4.3 Car-
Copyright American Concrete Institute
about 24 hr, consistent with production requirements.
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 ACCELERATED CURING AT ATMOSPHERIC PssGcyRs 517.2R-9 I

KILN ROOF

HIGH VELOCITY AIR

’ KILN VENT

U)NGITüDINM SECTION THROUOH KILN SIKW” INSTALLATION

ANO OPERATION Of JOHNSON KILN AIR CIRCULATOR

DUCTWORK BURNER
VAPORIZING TANK

ELEVATION OF TYPICAL AUTOCURE INSTALLATION

Fig. 4.2.2.2-T h o versions of a popular commercial curing-drying-carbonation system

4.2.2 Acceleruted-curing carbonation drying systems
using kiln burners
4.2.2.1 &stem combining boiler-generated steam and
gas burners-A system using a low pressure boiler to gen-
erate steam for the kiln, combined with gas burners to fur-
ther increase temperature during curing and promote
drying, is used by a number of concrete products plants.
The curing-drying procedure is as follows: the block or
precast units are allowed a presteaming period of 1 to 2 hr;
the steam is then introduced through steam headers located
at the rear ceiling and front floor locations; temperature
increase is usually about 40-50 F (22-28 C) per hr (achieved
with steam and burners on “low fire”); a maximum luln
temperature of 160-200 F (71-93 C) is held about 6 hr (with
steam and burners); the steam is reduced to the minimum
sufficient to help circulation of heat in the luln and the
burners are turned to high fire; and lastly, a maximum dry-
ing-carbonation temperature of 220-450 F (104-232 C) is
achieved in about 4 hr and is held for an additional 6-8 hr.
The advantages of this type of curing-drying-carbonation
system are that one-day strengths are higher than normally
obtained in ordinary steam curing, potential drying
shrinkage is reduced by about 25 percent, and low moisture
content is obtained. Disadvantages are high fuel consump-
tion and disruptive stresses on existing kiln walls and roofs.
Plants that used this system had problems with cracking of
luln walls and roof slabs which were not designed to stand
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the Institute
Copyright American Concrete higher temperature differential required in the process.
Provided by IHS under license with ACI
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
4.2.2.2 Steam andbr hot moist air generated by gas
burners passing through pipes immersed in water ta&-
This process is widely used in the concrete block industry,
and two such systems are shown in the schematic drawings
(Fig. 4.2.2.2). The system with circulating ductworlc has a
better performance as it decreases the variation in curing-
drying temperatures between the front, back, top, and bot-
tom of lulns. When the steaming period is completed, the
hot gases carrying the CO2 are diverted from the vaporizing
tadc directly to the luln.
This system has the advantage of low cost (with few
lulns), low fuel consumption, and relatively good one-day
strength and reduction in drying shridcage. Disadvantages
are that costs would be greater than a steam boiler system
for a large number of lulns. Also, long-term compressive
strengths (60 days) are usually less than those of conven-
tional low pressure steam-cured block (especially with rela-
tively dry block mixes).
4.2.2.3 Oil-fired burners used to vaporize a mist
sprayed onto steel plate-A system used in Australian con-
crete products plants is illustrated in Fig. 4.2.2.3 and de-
scribed in the referenced document.4.5 Gun type oil-fired
burners are fitted with a combustion air blower which forces
hot gases into a mild steel combustion chamber (refractory-
lined) and then into the luln. Water is added with spray
nozzles directed onto the hot entry duct. Axial flow fans,
fastened to the rear wall of the lulns near the ceiling, pro-
vide some circulation. In the Australian concrete block in-
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 517.2R-10
burne
Fig. 4.2.2.3-Onepopular Australian curing-drying-carbonation system
dustry, 86 lulns use this method to cure and dry block. It is
reported that a 10 percent reduction in compressive strength
can be expected if the atmosphere is dry. There were some
reports of color change and efflorescence by some pro-
ducers, but others reported that the CO2 gases helped reduce
these problems. It was reported that this system is more
economical than a steam boiler system if not more than 8
lulns are involved.
4.2.2.4 Miscellaneous curing systems-There are
other types of curing-drying-carbonation systems used in
the products industry. Two such systems were developed by
concrete block machinery manufacturers. The first consists
of a doughnut-shaped boat which floats on heated water.
Racks of freshly molded block are lowered into the boat and
allowed to cure for two revolutions in the hot, humid atmo-
sphere. No drying cycle is included. The second system
consists of a round, doughnut-shaped luln with a continuous
rack mounted on wheels that ride on rails. The “round-
house” is sectioned into areas for preset, steaming, steam
with hot air (from burners), and partial drying. The cycle is
quite short, after which the block are expected to have suffi-
cient strength for stacking. Further strength development
comes with yard storage.
Copyright American Concrete Institute
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No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4.3-Methods of accelerated drying of concrete
products
Products specifications often contain a moisture content
limitation to improve dimensional stability. High tem-
perature drying after steam curing (separate chambers) has
proven satisfactory in reducing the moisture content of con-
crete well below 30 percent of total absorption without sig-
nificantly affecting other physical properties. Tests have in-
dicated some reduction in ultimate compressive strength and
impact-fracture resistance when drying temperatures in ex-
cess of 240 F (1 16 C) were used.4.6 These results, however,
are not necessarily consistent, and plants should conduct
their own comparative tests when considering using high
drying temperatures for shortening the drying cycle.
In addition to the two types of commercial drying runs
shown in Fig. 4.3.1 and 4.3.2, yard storage drying of tar-
paulin-enclosed stockpiles via forced warm air heating is
used.4,7 In this system warm air from portable heaters is
ducted into the enclosures which are vented at or near their
tops. All surfaces of the block piles are kept clear for cir-
-
culation of air within the enclosure, and the tarpaulins are
held tightly closed except for the vents. A frame may be
required to support the tarpaulins and to assure adequate
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 ACCELERATED CURING AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE 517.2R-11

Ex haust Stack

-Mixing Plenum

1,500,000 BTU Oil Furnace

Fig. 4.3.1-Drier at Cleveland Builders Supply Co.

DRY/#G ROOMS- SIDE

Fig. 4.3.2-Dryingroom at Standard Building Products
CO.
I, \

--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

airflow along the outside edges and across the tops of the
piles. Block may be stacked with the cores either horizontal
or vertical, the important consideration being their align-
ment so that channels are formed to allow a relatively unob-
structed hot airflow from the heat duct to the exhaust vent.
It has been reported that butane or natural gas are the
preferred fuels for drying, as the use of oil has resulted in
some staining of light-colored concrete products. This prob-
lem with oil can be reduced if the burners are adjusted for
maximum efficiency.
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4.4-Heating concrete prior to molding
Heated or “hot-mix’’ concretes are defined as plastic con-
cretes having a temperature i n excess of 90 F (32 C). Heat-
ing water and aggregates independently generally results in
mixtures where the concrete temperature is less than can be
readily attained when steam is injected into the plastic mass
during mixing. Since the shorter curing time depends on
being able to maintain elevated temperatures for some
hours, the process necessarily includes heating andor in-
sulating forms and molds. When steam injection is used,
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 517.2R-12 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
H
II
1 claimed to be much lower with steam-injected concrete
Fig. 4.4.2-Concrete mixer equipped with steam injection
system
there appears to be additional benefits with the use of high
pressure steam attributed to its capability of penetration
coupled with reduced condensation. While both methods
suggest the need for additional care during the production
process, control of water in the mix when low pressure
steam is used demands greater attention because of its vari-
able moisture contribution. It should be expected that the
ultimate strength of hot-mix concretes will be less than that
of concretes which have equal water-cement ratios but are
molded at 60-70 F (16-21 C) and subsequently are moist-
cured in that temperature range.
4.4.1 Hot water and a g g r e g a t e d number of plants
have used hot water and warm aggregates to increase the
temperature of concrete prior to molding, especially during
the winter months. The degree of temperature increase ob-
tainable with hot water is rather small, especially for low
water content mixes such as those used in malung concrete
block and pipe.
4.4.2 Steam injected into mixer to produce hot con-
crete-Commercial mixers can be equipped with steam
outlet jets to inject steam into the mix to heat the concrete.
One such arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.4.2. This method
of accelerating the hardening of concrete is used for produc-
ing precast concrete panels in Europe, the Soviet Union,
and Japan. The mixer steam-injection process does elimi-
nate the uniformity and condensate problems associated
with the heating of aggregates in silos. Heating with steam
injected into the mixer, however, can result in too much
water when aggregates are wet unless superheated steam is
used.
As with any method or process, both advantages and
disadvantages are encountered. The advantages claimed for
steam heating in a mixer are:
1. Time for stripping of molds can be appreciably re-
duced. Stripping times as short as 4 hr have been reported
for lightweight concrete wall panels.
2. Steam-mixed concrete can reduce the cycle times nor-
mally employed with subsequent curing, and possibly elim-
inate the usual delay period prior to steam curing.
3. The steam-heated concrete process can be used during
the winter months to help standardize the production-curing
cycle
Copyright American Concrete on a year-round basis.
Institute
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4. Cost of fuel needed to obtain stripping strength is
mixes than with other heating methods. It is reported that
only 57.4 lb (26 kg) of injected steam is needed to obtain
demolding strengths for lightweight concrete, as compared
to 840-1340 lb (381-608 kg) of steam required to heat
tarpaulins.4.8
Disadvantages or problems which should be anticipated
with steam heating concrete are:
1. Increased corrosion of mixing and batching equip-
ment.
2. Difficulty in controlling the desired amount of mix
water, and more variable performance with different ce-
ments (due to variable percent of aluminates in cements,
with higher aluminate contents resulting in lower strengths).
3. Ten to twenty percent less strength at age 1 year than is
typically obtained from concretes cast and cured at normal
temperatures. This is comparable to that experienced in
steam curing of concrete products.
4. An increase in the amount of mix water may be re-
quired with hot concrete to obtain the same workability as
obtained at normal temperatures.
5. Thermal shrinlcage should not be a significant problem
with precast concrete, but it may be a problem with cast-in-
place applications.
Overall steam injection heating of concrete in mixers of-
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
fers potential for accelerating the hardening of precast con-
crete products with a possible savings in the amount of
energy required.
CHAPTER 5-ELECTRICAL, OIL, AND INFRARED
CURING METHODS
5.1 -General
Methods discussed in this chapter include electrical, hot-
oil, and infrared curing techniques. In all of these methods
heat is used to accelerate cement hydration. Generally, high-
early-strength portland cement is also used to further accel-
erate the strength gain of the concrete.
The first attempt to use electrical curing was made in
America in 1924. In Sweden, formal recommendations
were made in 1932 for the accelerated curing of concrete
using wet concrete as an electrical conductor. Following the
Swedish work, additional investigations were conducted in
Germany, France, England, USSR, and Japan.5.1-5.6 These
studies also generally used the fresh concrete as a
conductor.
Other methods of using electrical energy for curing pur-
poses were tried in England, Japan, and the USSR; however,
the first wide-scale use of electrical curing took place in
France in 1960.5.1 In addition to accelerated curing, the
French engineers found the method to be effective in pre-
vention of freezing of fresh concrete in cold weather. To
avoid problems encountered in earlier work, the French in-
troduced insulated resistance wires.
Infrared radiation curing was first used by Russian en-
gineers. Concrete cured by this method showed a more
rapid strength gain than concrete cured by steam. The sys-
tem used by the Russians was particularly applicable to the
manufacture of hollow core concrete products.
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 ACCELERATED CURING AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
5.2-Electrical curing methods
Current applications of electrical curing in the United
States are mostly limited to precast, prestressed concrete
members. While fabricating plants have installed electrical
curing systems, and the method has progressed past the
experimental stage, it is still being improved. This method
has several advantages, among which are:
1. Low capital expense for equipment
2. Relatively small amount of equipment required
3. Automatic and reliable controls
4. Small labor requirement
5. High-early-compressive strength can be attained
6. No fuel storage
7. Uniform temperature and curing over the entire cross
section.
There are several methods available for using electrical
energy as a heat source to accelerate concrete curing. One of
the first methods used the wet concrete as an electrical con-
ductor. Although the basic theory is sound, there are several
problems associated with the method. One is the difficulty
in controlling the temperature as the electrical resistance
changes during the hydration of the concrete. Difficulty is
also encountered when reinforcing steel is used in the con-
crete, as there is a possibility that corrosion can occur.
Another method tried uses the electrical resistance of the
reinforcing wires or bars to produce heat. To accomplish
this a large current at low voltage is required. The method
accelerates the hydration of the concrete near the reinforce-
ment which creates an internal core of hardened concrete
permitting handling of the members at an early age. Since
the reinforcement is heated to temperatures higher than the
surrounding concrete, the differential temperature causes a
slight prestressing of the concrete upon cooling and further
resistance to cracking. The use of reinforcing steel as a
conductor, however, also has problems. One is the high
current requirement which affects the economy of the
method. Other problems are the danger of corrosion and the
tendency to short-circuit through metal forms or other metal
reinforcements.
To overcome some of the above problems, a seven-wire
prestressing strand was developed having a center wire
which is electrically insulated from the surrounding wires.
Pilot tests on this strand were promising, but projected pro-
duction costs have restricted its use.
Still another method developed to use electrical energy as
a heat source is the utilization of electrical heating blankets.
The heating blankets are economical, portable, and can be
used for heating large areas such as slabs. In addition, if the
blanket is properly constructed, it acts as a vapor barrier to
prevent the escape of moisture. In Europe, wire-mesh heat-
ing elements have been used for heating slabs. Problems
with the use of electric blankets are that hot spots can occur
if complete contact is not maintained between the concrete
and the blanket.
The most popular method of using electric heat at the
present time is electrically heated steel forms. The heating
elements are applied directly to the outside of the forms and
then covered with insulation, which is very efficient for thin
precast sections such as T-beams. Since each section of
Copyright American Concrete Institute
Provided by IHS under license with ACI
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
aOi3-
517.2R-13
form is a separate system, heat can be applied and regulated
along the length of the precasting bed.
The most efficient method of using electrical energy to
accelerate curing is to have embedded, insulated resistance
wires in the concrete. Proper spacing of the wires can pro-
vide a uniform heat throughout the cross section. After the
desired strength has been attained, the wires are cut and
remain in the concrete member. Control specimens can be
cast and cured with conditions identical to the prototype
member by using independent automatic controls to regulate
the heat intensity. The use of internal resistance wires to
heat concrete has several advantages including low cost,
uniform heating, automatic controls, and safety.
5.2.1 Equipment f o r internal electrical curing-The
equipment required for electrical curing of concrete varies
with the method used. In general, the equipment consists of
heating elements, power supply, heat controls, and elec-
trical measuring devices. A brief description of equipment
that is commonly used follows:
Heating elements. There are three types of insulated
conductors that can be used for the curing process:
1. Longitudinal reinforcement coated with synthetic
films. Compounds with a base of phenolformaldehyde resin
have been found to insulate the steel, while a good bond to
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
concrete is still formed.
2. Insulated, center core wire of a prestressing strand.
This method may be the most effective. At the present time
the only production of this type strand has been experimen-
tal and is very expensive.
3. Insulated resistance wire. The type commonly ac-
cepted for large-scale adoption of electrical curing as an
economical process uses low-cost insulated wire. This wire
can be drawn from common metals which satisfy the mini-
mum strength requirement. The insulating sheaths must also
have sufficient resistance to high temperatures, be flexible
enough to conform to the shape of the product, and tough
enough to withstand the tensile, bending, and abrasive
forces. Irradiated polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or Teflon coat-
ings satisfy the requirements for insulation.
5.2.2 Heat controlling instrument-One of the advan-
tages of electrical curing is that temperatures can be easily
controlled. The same curing temperature can be reproduced
repeatedly in the product. There are several major instru-
ments which can be used for heating control, some of which
are briefly described below:
1. Circuit switch unit: An instrument which can be oper-
ated manually on and off to obtain temperatures following a
design curve.
2. Variac: A variable voltage transformer. Increasing or
decreasing the voltage will change the power input to pro-
d u c e the desired temperature curve.
3. Versatronilc control and circuit breaker: An automatic
circuit breaker controlled by the desired temperature. The
temperature can be monitored with a thermocouple.
5.2.3 Limitations and suggestions for internal electrical
curing-Although the resistance wire is well insulated,
there is no guarantee that the resistance wire will function
properly after casting and consolidating the concrete. Per-
sonnel using vibrators must be trained to prevent damage to
the heating elements. It is recommended that the voltage be
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 517.2R-14 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
kept low and other precautions talen to insure the safety of
personnel from electrical hazards.
Research on the compressive strength of concrete has
shown that the strength at a particular time is a function of
the total thermal energy absorbed by the freshly cast con-
crete.5.7 From an economic point of view, it is preferable to
use the minimum number of heating elements and locate
them where they will be most effective. In addition to the
heat source provided by the electrical resistors, the heat of
hydration of the cement provides a significant amount, thus
reducing the total power requirement.
Results from temperature distribution shidies5.7 indicate
that with internal electrical curing the temperature along the
surface of the beam is uniform due to the high thermal
conductivity of the steel forms. It is also noted that the heat
flows from the inside of the mass to the outside, which is
opposite to the heat flow in steam-cured members.
Cores talen from test specimens5.7 showed some variation
in the modulus of rupture and compressive strength. This
variation was similar for the specimens with equal distribu-
tion of heat, unequal distribution of heat, and specimens
cured by steam. Higher strengths were obtained from the
thicker sections of all specimens. For all specimens, the 28-
day strength exceeded the design strength of the concrete.
5.2.4 Effect of internal electrical curing on properties of
prestressed concrete beams-Extensive tests were con-
ducted at The Pennsylvania State University5.7 on pre-
stressed concrete beams to determine the effect of electrical
curing on prestress loss, bond, transfer length, cracking
loads, and strength. These tests were conducted on small
beams and full-scale I-beams with steam and internal elec-
trical energy.
The prestress loss studies indicated that a 10 percent
lower prestress loss was obtained with the electrically cured
beams than with the steam-cured beams. The bond transfer
length in the electrically cured beams, however, was 20
percent greater than for the steam-cured beams.
Hammerhead-type beams were tested to evaluate the flex-
ural bond strength of the concrete cured by the different
methods. These tests did not show any significant difference
in the flexural bond strength.
Four full-scale, prestressed I-beams were cast from iden-
tical concrete on the same prestressing bed. Three of the
beams were cured with electrical energy, and one was cured
by steam at atmospheric pressure. No significant difference
was found between the two curing methods in camber, flex-
ural stiffness, beam cracks, or surface strain under load.
The electrically cured members showed less prestress loss
than the steam-cured beam, but more strand slip at transfer
of the prestressing force. The ultimate strength of the elec-
trically cured beams was higher than for the steam-cured
beam. This ultimate strength was based on yielding of the
steel strand and not on complete destruction of the beams.
5.2.5 ï!iíerrnal and mechanical properties of concrete
during the curing cycle--In the design of any system to be
used for accelerated curing of concrete, it is essential that
the thermal and mechanical properties of the fresh concrete
be laiown. As part of their studies on electrical curing,
researchers
Copyright American Concrete Institute
at The Pennsylvania State University5.8 evalu-
Provided by IHS under license with ACI
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
ated the modulus of elasticity, ultimate strength, coefficient
of linear expansion, heat of hydration, modulus of heat
transfer, and specific heat of concrete for the first 24 hr of
the curing cycle. These tests were conducted on a high-
early-strength concrete having a design strength of 6000 psi
(41 MPa). Curing temperatures studied were 75 F, 125 F,
and 175 F (24 C, 52 C, and 78 C). Concretes cured at 75 F
(24 C) were used as the basis of comparison for the higher
curing temperatures. In addition to studying the thermal and
mechanical properties, an analytical procedure was devel-
oped to predict the temperatures and energy requirements
for heating irregular-shaped concrete members with either
internal or external heat sources. While only one concrete
mix was tested, these results are indicative of the behavior
of most commonly used portland cement concretes.
5.2.5.1 Mechanical properties-Since the effect of
the preset time was studied in previous research,s it was 93s.10
not considered as a variable. Specimens cured at elevated
temperatures were heated immediately after casting. As a
result of this zero preset time the mechanical properties
exhibited erratic behavior. The results, however, did indicate
that the modulus of elasticity of concrete cured at 175 F (78
C) for 24 hr was 25 percent higher than that for the same
concrete cured at 75 F (24 C). Also the compressive strength
at 24 hr for concrete cured at temperatures above 125 F (52
C) for 24 hr was 50 percent greater than that for concrete
cured at 75 F (24 C).
5.2.5.2 ï!iíerrnal properties-To investigate the coeffi-
cient of linear thermal expansion, concrete specimens were
cast at room temperatures 75 F (24 C) on a roller assembly.
At different preset times for each specimen, a uniform heat
was applied, and the elongation of the specimen was care-
fully measured. Results of this series of tests are shown in
Fig. 5.2.5.2. This graph, which plots the coefficient of
linear thermal expansion versus the preset time, shows that
the Coefficient of expansion varies by a factor of ten during
the first few hours after mixing the concrete. Therefore, it is
important that when heat is used to accelerate the curing of
concrete, it should not be applied until a preset time of 4 or
5 hr have elapsed to permit the concrete to reach a constant
coefficient of thermal expansion that is very close to that of
the steel forms and molds.
Previous tests indicated that preset times less than 4 hr
affected the compressive strength of the concrete, but data
are not available to indicate the probable cause of this loss of
strength. The free water in the freshly mixed concrete may
be the cause of this large variation in the Coefficient of
expansion. After hydration is initiated, the amount of free
water is decreased and the thermal properties of the solid
materials become predominant. This phenomenon is also
apparent in the other thermal properties discussed below.
The thermal, dimensional changes in plastic concrete are
especially critical in molded, precast structural products. In
this type product the molds usually restrain dimensional
changes in one or more directions, and since thermal defor-
mation is a volumetric change, deformations larger than
those indicated by the Coefficient of thermal expansion can
tale place in the unrestrained direction of the concrete.
The heat of hydration is increased as the temperature
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
increases, and the magnitude is approximately ten times
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 ACCELERATED CURING AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE 517.2R-15
U

O . 600
greater at 175 F (78 C) than at 75 F (24 C) during the first 6
hr. Thereafter, the values remain relatively constant.
The modulus of heat transfer decreases rapidly in magni-
tude during the first 6 to 8 hr at all temperatures and then
0.500
remains relatively constant. Higher temperatures yield
higher moduli of heat transfer values which are approx-
imately proportional to the thermal conductivities at ele- 1-
Ls
vated temperatures. The movement of water within the O
0.400
concrete during the first 2 hr may not materially affect the v

r(
conductivity, but it does sharply influence the flow of heat. I_
The specific heat of uncured concrete increases with in- r(

creased temperature. Test results showed an increase of 20 8

*
v 0.300
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

percent from 75 F (24 Cl to 175 F (78 C). The water content 4

during the first few hours before hydration is completed
appears to exert a major influence.
5.2.6 Problems with electrical curing-Since electrical 0.2001
curing is still in the development stage, it can be anticipated
that problems still persist with the method. Some of the
b
problems are associated with the electrical distribution sys-
tems and controls; however, improvements are constantly o. 1oc
being made with these devices. O . O75

When thin sections are cured with electrical energy there 0.0X
is a tendency for cracking to occur. This cracking usually 0.02:
takes place at the junction of a thin section and a larger O.OO(
20 40 60 80
mass, such as in a T-beam where the flange meets the stem.
The exact cause of this cracking has not been determined, P r e s e t Time H o u r s

but it is possible that thermal stresses caused by rapid cool-

ing may be high in this area.
There has not been sufficient research to determine when
internal curing or external curing should be used. Applying
heat through the steel forms appears to work well for thin
sections, but for uniform heat in thick sections, internal
resistance wires give better results.
Heated metal forms and electric blankets present other
problems. Warping of steel forms has been detected and
attributed to differential temperatures in the forms. When
electric blankets are used, hot spots occur unless the
blanlcets have complete contact with the wet concrete.
Rapid loss of moisture from the wet concrete does not
appear to be a problem. Adequate moisture barriers can be
placed on the wet concrete and the proper amount of mixing
water will provide sufficient moisture for complete
hydration.
5.3-Use of hot oil or other fluids for heating forms
Hot oil has been extensively used to accelerate the curing
of concrete by heating the steel forms. The oil is heated at
an external point and circulated through pipes or cavities
provided in the steel forms. This method provides a uniform
and constant temperature to the outside of the fresh concrete
when the pipes or cavities are properly located and the
forms are properly protected to minimize heat loss.
The properties of the concrete cured by this method
should not differ from those cured with electrically heated
forms, as oil is used only as the vehicle to transfer heat from
some external source to the exterior of the concrete. In
essence, it is another method of applying dry heat to fresh
concrete.
One of the advantages of using hot oil is that a constant
temperature can be maintained in the heated forms. Since
Copyright American Concrete Institute
Provided by IHS under license with ACI
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
Fig. 5.2.5.2-CoefJicient of linear thermal expansion dur-
ing the preset period
steel forms are used with this method, their high thermal
conductivity usually produces a constant uniform tem-
perature on the exterior surfaces of the concrete. A disad-
vantage of the method is that heat remaining in the oil at the
completion of the curing cycle is usually wasted unless it
can be diverted to other casting beds.
5.4-Infrared curing of concrete
Thermal radiation in the form of infrared rays has had
limited application in accelerated curing of concrete. This
method was tried in the Soviet Union and found to be both
effective and economical according to Mironov and Mal-
inina (I964).5. l l
Recently, idfared heaters were used in Sweden to accel-
erate curing of concrete in tunnel liners. Radiation was not
applied directly to the concrete but was directed to the steel
forms. Unpublished reports indicate that the curing results
were satisfactory, even though the heaters were not uni-
formly distributed. This nonuniform heat naturally pro-
duced nonuniform concrete strengths. Temperatures near
the heaters were 70 C (158 F).
Infrared curing was also used in Sweden on horizontal
surfaces of concrete. In these applications the concrete sur-
face was sometimes covered by plastic foil, and LPG-fired
infrared radiation heaters were used.
For concrete enclosed in steel forms it was found that
1000 watt heaters located 6-7 in. (150- 175 mm) from the
forms produced the best results. More data are needed on
infrared curing before specific recommendations can be
made on this method.
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 517.2R-16 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
CHAPTER 6-REFERENCES
6.1 -Recommended references
The documents of the various standards-producing organ-
izations referred to in this document are listed below with
their serial designation.
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
AASHTO
“Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges,”
American Concrete Institute
201.2R Guide to Durable Concrete
212.1R Admixtures for Concrete
212.2R Guide for Use of Admixtures in
Concrete
222R Corrosion of Metals in
Concrete
224.1R Causes, Evaluation, and Repair
of Cracks in Concrete
Structures
306R Cold Weather Concreting
308 Standard Practice for Curing
Concrete
ASTM
c 33 Standard Specification for
Concrete Aggregates
c 150 Standard Specification for
Portland Cement
c 330 Standard Specification for
Lightweight Aggregates for
Structural Concrete
c 331 Standard Specification for
Lightweight Aggregates for
Concrete Masonry Units
c 403 Standard Test Method for Time
of Setting of Concrete Mixtures
by Penetration Resistance
c 494 Standard Specification for
Chemical Admixtures for
Concrete
c 595 Standard Specification for
Blended Hydraulic Cements
C 618 Standard Specification for Fly
Ash and Raw or Calcined
Natural Pozzolan for Use as a
Mineral Admixture in Portland
Cement Concrete
c 9x9 Standard Specification for
Ground Iron Blast-Furnace Slag
for Use in Concrete and
Mortars
Copyright American Concrete Institute
Provided by IHS under license with ACI
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
These publications may be obtained from the following
organizations:
American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials
444 N. Capitol St., NW, Suite 225
Washington, DC 20001
American Concrete Institute
PO. Box 19150
Detroit, MI 48219-0150
ASTM
1916 Race St.
Philadelphia, PA 19 103
6.2-Cited references
Introduction
1.AC1 Committee 517, “Low Pressure Steam Curing,” AC1 JOURNAL,
Proceedings V. 60, No. 8, Aug. 1963, pp. 953-986.
Chapter 1
1.1. Hogan, F. J., and Meusel, J. W., “Evaluation for Durability and
Strength Development of a Ground Granular Blast Furnace Slag,” Cement,
Concrete. and Aggregates, V. 3, No. 1. Summer 198 1, pp. 40-52.
Chapter 2
2.1. Shideler, J. J., “Calcium Chloride in Concrete,” AC1 JOURNAL.
Proceedings V. 48, No. 7, Mar. 1952, pp. 537-559.
2.2a. Evans, R. H.. “Use of Calcium Chloride in Prestressed Con-
crete,” Proceedings, World Conference on Prestsessed Concrete (San
Francisco, July 1957), University of California, 19-57, pp. A31-1-A31-8.
2.2b. Evans, R. H.. and Williams, Alan, “Use of X-Rays in Measuring
Bond Stress in Prestressed Concrete,” Proceedings, World Conference on
Prestressed Concrete (San Francisco, July 1957), University of California,
1957, pp. A32-1-A32-8.
2.3. Godfrey, Howard J., “Corrosion Tests on Prestressed Concrete
Wire and Strand,” Journal, Prestressed Concrete Institute, V. 5, No. I,
Mar. 1960, pp. 45-51.
2.4. Monfore, G. E., and Verbeck, G. J., “Corrosion of Prestressed
Wire in Concrete,” AC1 JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 57, No. 5, Nov. 1960,
pp. 491-515.
2.5. Wright, T. E., “An Unusual Case of Corrosion of Aluminum
Conduit in Concrete,” Engineering b u m a l (Montseal), V. 38, No. 10,
Oct. 1955. pp. 1357-1362.
2.6. “High Alumina Cements,” Building Research Digest No. 27,
Building Research Establishment, Garston, Watford, Feb. 1951, 6 pp.
2.7. Robson, T. D., “Characteristics and Applications of Mixtures of
Portland and High-Alumina Cement,” ChemistQ and IndmtQ (London),
Jan. 1952, pp. 2-7.
Chapter 3
3.1. Keunning, William H., and Carlson, C. C., “Effect of Variations
in Curing and Drying on the Physical Properties of Concrete Masonry
Units,” Development Department Bulletin No. D13, Portland Cement As-
sociation, Skokie, 1956, 129 pp.
3.2. Hanson, J. A., “Optimum Steam Curing Procedure in Precasting
Plants,” AC1 J ~ ~ R Proceedings
N ~ ~ , V. 60, No. 1, Jan. 1963, pp. 75-100.
3.3. Kirkbride, T., “Review of Accelerated Curing Procedures,” Pre-
cast Concrete (London), V. 2, No. 2, Feb. 1971,pp. 87-90.
3.4. Mansfield, G. A., “Curing-A Problem in Thermodynamics,”
Rock Products, V. 51, No. 8, Aug. 1948, p. 212.
3.5. Copeland, R. E., “Kilns and Appurtenant Facilities for Low Pres-
sure Steam Curing,” National Concrete Masonry Association, Hemdon,
1971.
3.6. “Concrete Pressure Pipes,” AWWA Manual No. M-9, American
Water Works Association, Denver.
3.7. Pfiefer, D. W., and Landgren, J. R., “Energy Efficient Accelerated
Curing of Concrete-A Laboratory Study for Plant-Produced Prestressed
Concrete,” Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, Dec. 1981, 66 pp.
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 ACCELERATED CURING AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
3.8. Brown, H. E., ?An Investigation of the Effect of the Gypsum
Content and Steam Curing Variation on the Compressive Strength of Port-
land Cement Concrete,? MSc thesis, University of Virginia, Charlottes-
ville, Aug. 1963.
3.9. Pfiefer, D. W., and Marusin, S., ?Energy-Efficient Accelerated
Curing of Concrete-A State of the Art Review,? Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, Mar. 1981, 116 pp.
3.10. Preston, H. Kent, ?Effect of Temperature Drop on Strand Stresses
in a Casting Bed,? Journal, Prestressed Concrete Institute, V. 4, No. 1,
June 1959, pp. 54-57.
Chapter 4
4.1. Shideler, Joseph J., ?Investigation of the Moisture-Volume Sta-
bility of Concrete Masonry Units,? Development Department Bulletin No.
03, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Mar. 1955, 54 pp.
4.2. Toennies, Henry T., ?Artificial Carbonation of Concrete Masonry
Units,? A C I J O U R N A L . Proceedings V. 56, No. 8, Feb. 1960, pp.
737-756.
4.3. Verbeck, G. J., ?Carbonation of Hydrated Portland Cement,? Ce-
ment and Concrete, STP-205, ASTM, Philadelphia, 1958, pp. 17-36.
Also, Research Department Bulletin No. 87, Portland Cement
Association.
4.4. Toennies, Henry T., and Shideler, Joseph J., ?Plant Drying and
Carbonation of Concrete Block-NCMA-PCA Cooperative Program,?
AC1 JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 60, No. 5, May 1963, pp. 617-634. Also,
Development Department Bulletin No. D64, Portland Cement Association.
4.5. Kirkbride, T. W.. ?Bumer Curing,? Precast Concrete (London),
V. 2, No. 11, Nov. 1971, pp. 644-646.
4.6. ?Accelerated Drying of Concrete Masonry Units,? National Con-
crete Masonry Association, Hemdon, 1955.
4.7. ?Accelerated Drying Facilities, Methods and Costs,? Convention
Reprint, National Concrete Masonry Association, Hemdon, 1956.
4.8. Schneider, Dietmar K., ?Increasing Production and Profits with
Hot Concrete,? Journal, Prestsessed Concrete Institute, V. 18, No. 4, July-
Aug. 1973, pp. 21-32.
Committee members voting on the 1992 revisions:
W. Calvin McCall
Chairman
Steven H. Gebler
Eugene D. Hill, Jr.
Frank A. Kozelisla
Ken B. Rear
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright American Concrete Institute
Provided by IHS under license with ACI
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
517.2R-17
Chapter 5
5.1. Martinet, C., ?Electsical Process of Curing Precast Reinforced
Concrete,? Concrete Building and Concrete Products, Dec. 1963.
5.2. Fleming, A. G., ?Electrical Curing of Concrete and Mortar,?
Concrete, Dec. 1939, pp. 11-12.
5.3. Brund, A., and Bohlm, H., ?Electrical Heating of Concrete,?
Building Science Abstracts (London), V. 5, Aug. 1932, Abstract No. 1498.
5.4. Rethy, A., ?Progress in Electrical Heating of Concrete,? Building
Science Abstracts (London), V. 7, Nov. 1934, Abstract No. 1886.
5.5. Skramtaeu, B. G., Shuhenkin, P. F.. and Bazhenov, Yu M.,
?Complex Use of Chemical and Electrical Heating for the Production of
Precast Reinforced Concrete,? Beton i Zhelezobeton (MOSCOW), V. 6 ,
1964, pp. 243-246.
5.6. Ady, Nancy, ?Electrical Curing of Concrete,? Special Bibliogra-
phy No. 20, Library, Research and Development Division, Portland Ce-
ment Association, Skokie, Mar. 1966.
5.7. Chi, C. T., and Bamoff, R. M., ?Intemal Electrical Curing of
Restressed Concrete,? Small Industries Research, Pennsylvania State Uni-
versity, University Park, 1970.
5.8. Book, Norman L., and Bamoff, Robert M., ?Time Temperature
Study of Accelerated Curing of Concrete,? Structural Research Report,
Department of Civil Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, Univer-
sity Park, Sept. 1973.
5.9. Pu, Dennis C., ?Electrical Curing of Concrete,? MSc thesis, Penn-
sylvania State University, University Park, 1967.
5.10. Cadwallader, G. H., ?Electrical Curing of Concrete,? MSc the-
sis, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, 1968.
5.11. Mironov, S. A., and Malinina, L. A., ?Uskorienie tvierdienia
betona,? Moskva (U.S.S.R.).
This report was submitted to letter ballot of the committee and was
approved in accordance with AC1 balloting requirements.
Thomas H. Sadler
Billy M. Scott
Bryce P. Simons
Luke M. Snell
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