Professional Documents
Culture Documents
iji
[In preparation.
TV
SATURDAY REVIEW.
'In departments Dr. ZELLER'S book is both comprehensive
all its
and trustworthy. He seems to have said the last word on Greek philo-
sophy and
;
his volumes are among those monuments of nineteenth-
century German research which make one wonder what will remain for
the scholars of the twentieth century to do. He brings to his task the
two essential qualities vast learning, and the power of moving at
pleasure in the rarefied atmosphere of abstractions It is evident
that Mr. GOODWIN, to whom this part of the undertaking fell, had no
sinecure in his work of translation and verification. He has gone
bravely through with it, however, and both his work and that of Miss
ALLEYNE, who translated the text, leave almost nothing to be desired.'
GUARDIAN.
'
This is a translation of Dr. EDUARD ZELLER'S Plato und die altere
Akademie, a work of great value to students of PLATO, but hitherto only
in part accessible to English readers. The text has been admirably
translated by Miss ALLEYNE, who has proved herself fully competent to
deal with the philosophical terminology of the German original, and to
execute a translation which does not, like some translations, proclaim
itself as such by an un-English structure of ita phrases and sentences.
Copious notes and references have been added by Mr. GOODWIX, Fellow
of Balliol College, who shares with Miss ALLEYNE the responsibility of
the work. The value of Dr. ZELLER'S work has been amply acknowledged
by Professor JOWETT in the Preface to the second edition of his PLATO :
NEWLY TRANSLATED
FROM THE THIRD GERMAN EDITION Of
DR E. ZELLER
BY
LONDON
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
1877
2017262
vi PREFACE.
GLENFRIAES, TORQUAY :
May, 1877.
CONTENTS.
PART I.
CHAPTER I.
CHAPTER II.
PART II.
SOCRATES.
CHAPTER III.
CHAPTEK IV.
D. The StuiiAvwv 82
1. False views of the taift&viov . . . .
2.
3.
4.
.....
Regarded by Socrates as an oracle
Limited in its application
Correct view of the Sai^vtov .
.
.
.
.
. .
.
84
90
94
CHAPTEK V.
CHAPTER VI.
CHAPTER VII.
CHAPTER VIII.
CHAPTER IX.
CHAPTER X.
dangerous 213
PART III.
CHAPTER XI.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.
'
. . .
239
245
t
CHAPTER XII.
C. Eristic 264
1.
2.
Euclid
Eubulides
... 265
268
3. Alexinus . 268
4. Diodorus on Motion Destruction the Possible 269
5. Philo. The Possible Hypothetical sentences
Meaning of words . . . . . . 273
6. Stilpo. Subject and Predicate the Good Cynic
Morality 275
CHAPTER XIII.
THE CYNICS.
PAOK
D. Practical results of Cynic teaching 314
1. Renunciation of Self 315
2. Renunciation of Society. Family Life Civil Life
Modesty 319
3. Renunciation of Religion 327
K. Cynic influence on Society 331
CHAPTEK XIV.
THE CYRENAICS.
A. History of the Cyrenaics 337
B. Teaching of the Cyrenaics 344
1. General position 346
2. Feelings the only object of knowledge . . . 347
3. Pleasure and pain 352
4. The Highest Good 354
5. Modified form of the extreme view . . . 356
C. Practical Life of the Cyrenaics 361
CHAPTER XV.
RETROSPECT.
IXDKX . . 393
PAET I.
CHAPTER I.
sophy was the position won by Athens since the close union and
of the Persian war. In that great conflict the con-
sciousness of a common brotherhood had dawned
1
So called by Hippias in Plato, Prot. 337, D.
p 2
4 STATE OF CULTURE IN GREECE.
1
On this point compare the vol. viii. 137, ed. 1870; vol.
excellent remarks of frrote, vii. 7, ed. 1872.
Hist, of Greece, P. II. c. 67,
STATE OF CULTURE IN GREECE.
CHAP, follows that all that has been said respecting the
connection between tragedy and principles of morality
applies also to the connection between tragedy and
principles of theology : nay more, in exactly the
same way tragedy must busy itself with the nature
and state of men whose deeds and fate it depicts.
In all these respects a most decided and thorough
3
Agam. 1001 compare the Agam. 1563
1
; ; Choeph. 309 ;
(&) SopJio-
T the spirit of this new age Sophocles has
oles.
given the most fitting expression. Agreeing as he
does in principle with his predecessor, his poems,
nevertheless, convey a very different impression. The
keynote of the poetry of Sophocles is likewise reve-
rence for the Grods, whose hand and laws encompass
human life. From them come all things, even mis-
power no mortal can
l
fortune ; their never-decaying
2
withstand nothing can escape its destiny
; from
;
3
their eyes no deed and no thought can be hid ; their
eternal laws, 4 created by no mere human power, dare
no one transgress. Men, however, are weak and
frail, mere shadows or dreams, a very nothing, capable
3 '
Electra, 657. (Ed. R. Trach. 1, 943 ;
Fr.
<
(Ed. Rex, 864 Ant. 450. ; 532, 583.
5 "
Ajax, 125; (Ed. R. 1186; (Ed. Col. 1215.
ILLUSTRATED BY TRAGEDIANS. 11
1 * in
Ajax, 127, 758 (Ed. Col.
;
Fr. 834, 227, 809, 865 ;
1
Fr. 104. lo in the Prometheus, espe-
2
Compare the character of cially v. 887, &c.
ILLUSTRATED BY TRAGEDIANS. 13
1
Ant. 523.
14 STATE OF CULTURE IN GREECE.
CHAP, people which having, by most successful efforts, risen
'_
to a happy use of its powers, and so to fame and
position, enjoys existence, and which has learned to
look on human nature and all that belongs to it in a
cheerful spirit, to prize its greatness, to mitigate its
good man fares well and the bad fares ill ; that a _
l
modest lot is preferable to fitful greatness ;
that the
1
Bacch. 1139. lo Schl. Hip- ZELLER'S Philosophie der Grie-
polyt. 1100. Kirchh. Fr. 77, chen, vol. i. 790, 3. For the
80, 257, 305, 355, 395, 507, 576, traces thereof, which are prin-
621, 942, 1014, 1016, 1027 cipally found in some of the
Nauck. fragments, compare HAK-
2 TUNG'S
Fr. 329, 53, 254, 345, 514, Euripides Restitut.
940. 109, 118, 139. Anaxagoras,
*
Suppl. 197. however, does not, like Euri-
pides, make Earth and Ether,
4
Troad. 880 ;
Hel. 1442.
Compare the concluding verses but Air and Ether come first
of this piece, which also occur after the original mixing of all
at the end of the Andromache things. The well-known and
and Bacchae. Fr. 797, 832, 875, beautiful passage (Fragment
969. 902) commending the investi-
ptor, who contemplates with
*
Hippol. 1427.
8
The testimony of the an- innocence the eternal order of
cients respecting the connec- immortal nature, is referred to
tion between Euripides and Anaxagoras. Compare also Fr.
Anaxagoras has been quoted in 7. Younger men, like Prodicus
16 STATE OF CULTURE IN GREECE.
CHAP, to the better Sophists, he is too far removed from the
'
2
Tantalus is a fable. 1
Likewise in the Electra the CHAP.
5
1
743. Troad. 877.
2 Here. Fur. 1250
Sophocles,Antig. 1033, ; Iph. Aul.
makes Cleon attack the pro- 1034; Orestes, 410, and the
phet, but his accusations are fragment of Melanippe Fr.
refuted by the sequel. Not so 483.
7
with Euripides. Fr. 935, 869.
* 8
Hel. 484. Fr. 905, 981.
4
Fr. 288 compare Fr. 892.
;
ILLUSTRATED SY TRAGEDIANS. 19
1
Fr. 904 says the ruler of sciousness (yvta/jui addvaros)
allthings is now called Zeus, after it has united with the
now Hades, which would point immortal Ether. From this
to the opinion that the popular he deduces the belief in retri-
Gods are only different names bution after death, and he asks
for the one God. Helios and (Fr. 639, compare Fr. 452, 830),
Apollo are identified (Fr. 781, whether on the whole life is
1 1
) according to
the tradition not a death and death a life,
of Orpheus. On the other hand, in the
J 192.
Hippolyt. Troades, 638, it is stated that
*
Compare teller's Philoso- the dead man is feelingless,
phie der Griechen, Part I. pp. like an unborn child ;
in Fr.
388, 430, 822, 846. 536 that he is a nothing, earth
4
Suppl. 532, the genuineness and a shade Fr. 734 appears
;
>
1
As for instance :
?; y\S>ffa but that all means of vengeance
H<!>HOK, &c. Hippol. 607, or are lawful in case of injury,
the language of Eteocles in It is true Euripides does not
Phcen. 504, 525, that men will give these as his own senti-
do anything for power, and ments. Yet even his cotem-
even commit crimes for a poraries noticed their resem-
throne or that of the old man
;
blance to the moral teaching
in lo 1051, that it befits the of the Sophists,
fortunate man to shun wrong,
ILLUSTRATED BY DIDACTIC POETRY. 21
7
the happiest lot.' Hence the highest practical
1
Zeller's Geschichte der well as by JEschylus, a poet of
Philosophie, Part I. p. 925, and the good old time. Arigtoph.,
Nauck. Trag. Frag. 599. Clouds, 1352.
2
Better's Philosophie der Fr. 32, 36, 38, 39, 85
Greichen, Part I. p. 427 (Ger- Fr. 42.
man). Fr. 5.
8 7
Called by later writers, as Fr. 1, 2, 3, 21.
r STATE OF CULTURE IN GREECE.
CHAP, wisdom consists, in his mind, in equanimity, in a
'
nothing is for
impossible. Him
Zeus governs all
things according to his will ; He bestows success or
5
failure law, which governs mortals and immortals,
;
6
accomplishes its purposes with mighty hand. Nor
are the deeds of men hid from the all-seeing eyes of
God. 7 Only beautiful and noble traits can be attri-
buted to the deity he who accuses it of human
;
Tl'uSapos . .
avTiKpvs tliruv,
. Nem. x. 29.
ri 8e6s ; STI rb itav.
fi
*
1
Her. iii. 108. vii. 12, 57 ;
viii. 37, 65 ;
fx.
2
ii.120 iv. 205
; ; vi. 84 ; 100. Here belong the pro-
viii. 129; vii. 133. phecies of Bakis and MUSSEUS,
*
For this reason he hesitates viii. 77 ix. 43, respecting the
;
1 4
i. 60. ii. 120.
z s
i. 8. vii. 129.
3
ii. 56.
ILLUSTRATED BY HISTORIANS. 27
2 s
1
vii. 50. ii. 35. ii. 53 ;
iii. 82.
ILLUSTRATED BY COMEDY. 29
5
running riot with its demagogues and sycophants ;
1
i. 76 ; iii. 40 ;
v. 89, 105, nians, 676.
5
Ill; vi. 85. Wasps; Clouds, 568. The
2
iv. 61. Sycophants are taken to task
1
Clouds, 882 Knights, 1316.
;
on every opportunity.
Wasps, 1071 the Achar- ;
30 STATE OF CULTURE IN GREECE.
CHAP,
poetry, empty, effeminate, free-thinking, faithless to
_J its moral idea, fallen from its artistic height :
l
s
Frogs Achar. 393. Wasps, 1029, 1284
1
; ;Peace,
2
Clouds; Birds, 1282, 1553; 951 ; Achar, 959; Clouds, 542.
Frogs, 1491.
ILLUSTRATED BY COMEDY.
de- CHAP.
young champions of Spartan severity are as
bauched as the demagogues that the sovereign ;
'
1
Wasps
; Birds, 38. Knights, 32.
2 7
Eccles. v. 456 conf Plato,
;
.
Clouds, 369, 396, 900, 1075 ;
1
Plut. 665.
ILLUSTRATED BY NEW RELIGIOUS IDEAS. .",3
exceptional cases ;
now the mischief and abuse which
was perpetrated by such appeals reached an incredible
pitch.
2
To judge by the numerous allusions in the
writers of this and the following generation, the
1
Herod, viii. 7 ix.
; 437, to the polemic of Euripides.
8
mentions prophecies of Bakis Amongst others, Philolaus
and Musaeus respecting the (teller, Part I. 388) and Plato
Persian war. (Phaedo, 69, C. ; Rep. ii. 363, C.
2
This is particularly evident 364, B. ; Laws, vi. 782, C.), and
in Aristophanes, who loses no more particularly Euripides and
opportunity of lashing the pro- Aristophanes. The former
phets. Not to mention cursory (Hippol. 949) describes Hippo-
attacks, as in Clouds, 330 ; lytus as a pupil of Orpheus,
Birds, 521 ;
in Knights, 109, and (Fr. 475) introduces a
818, i.50, 967 (comp. Lysist. mystic, who, initiated into the
767), he shows what liberal use orgies of Idasan Zeus, of Zag-
Cleon and other demagogues reus, and the Curetes, devotes
made of superstition to flatter himself to an Orphic life. The
the self-love of the people, and latter not only depicts (in the
to direct its will by the so- Frogs, 145, 312) the life of the
called prophecies of Bakis. In initiated and uninitiated in
Peace, 1047, he introduces a Hades as rudely and vividly as
prophet Hierocles, who, from the consecrated priests do in
interested motives, opposes the Plato, but also (in Peace, 374)
conclusion of peace, and is hints at the opinion that man
evidently meant for a real cannot die quietly without re-
person ;
in the Birds, 959, a ceiving initiation before death,
prophet, who thrusts himself in and (in Wasps, 119) alludes to
at the founding of a city, to the custom of initiating the
catch a trifle. Such like pheno- sick for the purpose of healing
mena may have given occasion them.
34 STATE OF CULTURE IN GREECE.
CHAP, ent thing to have recourse to the so-called answers
'
future retribution ; |
and even of this change traces CHAP.
I.
may be seen in the poetry of the time of Euripides. 2
1
Comp. Zeller, Vol. I. 54, holds up Hippolytus as a type
388, 581, 654. of an Orphic, probably only
* because this despiser of Aphro-
Besides Euripides (p. 19, 1),
Melanippides (Fr. 6 in BergJt, dite (Hippol. 10, 101), by his
Lyr. Gr. p. 982) appears to have typical chastity, reminds of
regarded the soul as immortal, Orphic virginity. A vow of
lo, too (Fr. 4 in Bergk, p. 464), chastity also occurs in Electra.
v. 254, and it is well known
appropriates the Pythagorean
belief in immortality. A reso- that marriage was forbidden to
lution of souls into aether may many priestesses, though more
also be implied in the popular rarely to priests.
belief mentioned by Aristo- $(vya> yfVffftv T6 fipOTtOV KO.I
phanes (Peace, 832), that the OV Xpl/UTTTdjUeyOS (Eu*
VfKpoQJIKT}*
dead become stars. rip., Fr. 475, 16), consequently
8
See Euripid., Hippol. 949 ;
the same Ka0api5eij/ iirb ir{)$ovs
Fr. 475 ; Plato, Laws, vi. 782, al \txovs (touching a corpse
CHAPTEK II.
mere effect ;
whilst under the influence of sophistry, CHAP
philosophy had come to disbelieve, not only in indi- -
tw of con-
ethical and dialectical questions. After Socrates ceptions.
1 *
Comp. ZeUer's Phil, der In the sense given, Ibid. I.
metaphysics.
Such an increase of territory showed that the
whole platform of philosophy had changed. Why
else should thought have embraced other and more
extended materials, had it not been changed in it-
doctrines.
Whilst denying the independent existence of the
Platonic ideas, he nevertheless asserts that reality
consists not in matter but in form, and that the
and the end of science. Far from reaching the sub- fro l'"**-
jective idealism of Fichte an idealism in fact only Uanphilv-
possible in modern times the philosophy of this *l'
fl
ff-
44 STATE OF CULTURE IN GREECE.
They did not, as did the Epicureans and Stoics, cut CHAP.
short the question by practically begging it.
n *
They
did not, as did the Sceptics, despair of knowledge.
philosophical life.
(2) Plato. The Socratic search for conceptions has grown in
Plato to a discovery of them, to a certainty of pos-
(4) Diffi- One phenomenon only will not fall into this his-
SO CH A TES.
CHAPTER III.
1
The best ascertained date been condemned in April or
in the life of Socrates is the May 399 B.C., and have suf-
date of his death. According f ered death in May or June the
to Demetrius Phalereus and same year. Since at the time
Apollodorm (in Diog. ii. 44), of his death he had passed his
it happened in Olympiad 95, seventieth year {Plato, Apol.
1 (Diod. xiv. 37), probably in 17, D.), but not long (Crito,
the second half of the month 52, E. calls him in round num-
Thargelion. For at this time bers seventy), his birth cannot
must be placed the return of have fallen later than 01. 77, 3,
the Delian Oeupls, which, ac- or 469 B.C. If his birthday is
cording to Plato (Phaedo, 59, rightly fixed for the 6th Thar-
D.), arrived the day before the gelion (Apoll. in Diog. ii. 44,
execution of Socrates. Comp. Plut+ Qu. Conv. viii. 1, 1,
K. F. Hermann, De theoria ^lian, V. H. ii. 25), and was
Deliaca, Ind. Schol. Getting, not past at the time of the
1846. About a month earlier judicial enquiry, we should
(XenopJwn, Mem. iv. 8, 2,
says have to go back for it to 470
definitely thirty days), i.e. in or even 471 B.C. (Comp.
the month Munychion, the ju- BocTth. Corp. Inscript. ii. 321 ;
CHAP. music l
deserve no credit. We hear further that he
III.
learnt enough of geometry to be able to grapple with
difficult problems, and that he was not ignorant of
2
astronomy ; but whether he acquired this knowledge
in his youth, or only in later years, and who was his
such intimate terms with him the two ladies consisted in free
that the comic poets charged personal intercourse, even al-
him with borrowing his trage- lowing that Diotima is a real
dies from Socrates. (Of. Diog. person, and the Menexenus a
ii. 18; ^lian, V. H. ii. 13. genuine dialogue not only
;
8
Xen. Mem. i. 1, H ;
iv. 7, 6.
1
Socrates calls himself in The authorities are : for
Plato a pupil of Prodicus Anaxagoras, Arigtid. Or. xlv.,
(Zeller, 1. c. i. 873, D.), of Aspa- p. 21, and the nameless authori-
sia (Menex. 235, E.), and of ties referred to by Diog. ii. 19
Diotima (Symp. 201, D.), all of and 45, whom Suidas ZuKpar.
which statements have been re- according to custom follows;
peated in past and present for Archelaus, Diog. ii. 16, 19,
times. See Hermann, Soc. 23, x. 12, and those mentioned
Mag. p. 11. We may suppose by him, lo, Aristoxenus, and
that the instruction given by Diocles. Besides these Cicero,
53 SOCRATES.
was acquainted. 1
A well-known passage in Plato's CHAP.
2 m.
Phaedo describes him as advancing from the older
natural science and the philosophy of Anaxagoras to
his own peculiar views. But it is most improbable
that this passage gives a historical account of his in-
tellectual development, if for no other reason, at
least for this one, 3 that the course of development
there leads to the Platonic theory of conceptions; let
alone the fact that it is by no means certain that
Plato himself possessed any fuller information re-
Considering it to be
III.
his special calling to labour for the moral and intel-
lectual improvement of himself and others, this con-
viction forced itself so strongly upon him, as to
A. Plato (Eep. vi. 496, B.) writers, the matter stands thus :
gree had with making Luther a Plutarch (Coh. Ira, 13, 461),
religious reformer. The story who however tells the same of
of the response given to his the wife of Pittacus, Tranq. An.
father when he was a boy ii. 471 ;
JElian (V. H. xi. 12) ;
SOCRATES.
3
impossible to act as a statesman in the Athens of
that day without violating his principles, and loath-
1 *
In the Crito, 52, B. ; 53, A., Plato, Apol. 33, A., or as
he says, that except on military the Gorgias (473, E.) ironically
duty he has only once left expresses it because he was
:
1
Socrates asserts this in pense, Apol. 38, A. %TI nal
Plato quite explicitly. In Apol. Tvyxavei jue'-yiffTOj/ ayaObv bit
31 ;
iv. 4, 2 ;
Hellen. i. 7, 15 ; 20, that he gave instruction in
Plato, Apol. 32, A. Gorg. 473, ; rhetoric, needs no further re-
E. epist. Plat. vii. 324, D. see
; ;
futation.
also LMZOC, De Socrate cive, 8
Proofs in all the dialogues.
92-1 23 Grate's Hist, of Greece,
;
See particularly Plato, Apol.
viii. 238-285. 21, B. 23 B. 29, D. 30, E.
; ; ; ;
*
Plato, Apol. 33, A. iy& Se :
Eep. i. 336, B. The Socratic
88c<rKaAos fitv ovStvbs *&ir<n' method will be discussed here-
^yti-djuTji/'
i 5e ris /aov \4yovros after.
KalTatfjia.vTovirp6,TToirros tin6vij.ei Xen. Mem. i. 1, 10; iii.
*
1
3, 10 ;
4 ; 56, 8, 5, 42, is no- poi fira.Ko\ov0owTfs ols paKiffTa.
thing else, this art consisting <rxo\-fi Itrriv, nl ruv ir\ov<riuTd-
in making friends lovable, by ra>i>. Still we find among his
virtue and prudence. ardent admirers, not only Antis-
Plato, Apol. 30, A. ; Conf. thenes, but also Apollodorus
1
'-
CHAPTER IV.
1
Cicero de N. D. i. 34, says Sia
that his teacher, the Epicurean
Zeno, called him an Attic buf- Synesius (Enc. Galv. 81) will
foon. Epicurus, however, ac- have this limited to his younger
cording to Diog. x. 8, appears years that of Cyril, c. Jul. vi.
;
to have spared him, although 185, C.; Theod. Cur. Gr. Aff.
he depreciated every other xii., 63, p. 174 ore 8 <f>A.e :
Lect. Att. 246 (from whom we Cyril. 186, C. Theod. 1. c.) that
have already heard similar Socrates was in other ways
things, p. 58, note 61, 3
; 64, temperate, irpbs 6e r^v T&V
;
the following statements that fj.ev fivcu, aSiKiav fie /j.^ irpotreTi/ai,
;
2
cannot even with certainty infer that Socrates only
became what he was after a severe struggle 3 with his
1
8ee the end of 2
t lie Phaedo. See page 66, note 2.
74 SOCRATES.
1
Most of the traits and Adulat. 32, p. 70 Coh. Ira, 4, ;
which have been since lost, or xiii. 27, 32 Athen. iv. 157 c. ;
;
self,
2
and represents him at the close of the banquet
as leaving all his companions under the table, and
1
Xen. Mem. 2, 26: fa 8e affection. Not only is there
fifjuv ol vaiSes niKpais KV\IL TTVK.- no allusion to it in the judicial
va firityeKcifaffiv, OVTUS oi> fiia- charge, but not even in Aris-
{opfvoi inrb TOV olvov fitdiitiv, tophanes, who would undoubt-
aA\' ava.Tffi6on.tvoi irpbs rb ircuyvt- edly have magnified the smal-
wSfinepov a<(>i6nf6a. lest suspicion into the gravest
2
Symp. 176, C. ; 220, A.; charge. The other comic poet s,
213, E. according to Athen., v. 21 U,
3
Xen. Mem. i. 2, 1 ; 3, 14. knew nothing of it. Nor does
We have already seen that Xenophon deem it necessary
Aristoxenus and his followers to refute this calumny, and
cannot prove the contrary. therefore the well-known story
4
i. 3, 14; ii. 1, 5; 2, 4; iii. of Plato's banquet has for its
11 iv. 5, D.
; Conf. Conv. iv. object far more the glorin'ca-
38. tion than the justification of
6
The cotemporaries of So- his teacher. On the other
crates seem to luive found no- hand, the relations of Socrates
tiling to object to in Socratic to Alcibiades, in the verses
76 SOCRATES.
4
purporting to be written by In his Alcibiades he speaks
Aspasia, which Athentcus com- of the love of Socrates for
municates or. che authority of Alcibiades. See Aristid. Or.
Herodicus, have a very sus- xlv. irepl p-^ropiKris, p. 30, 34.
*
picious look, and Tertulliaii, Prot. beginning ; Symp.
Apbl. c. 46 mistakenly applies 177, D. ; 218, B. ; 222, A. ; not,
the words SiafyOelpfiv rovs vtovs to mention other expressions
to paederastia. In Juvenal for which Plato is answerable.
6
(Sat. ii. 10) Socratici citusdi Plato, Apol. 28, E.
XenopJion, Mem. i. 1, 2, as-
7
refer to the manners of his
own time. sures us not only that Socrates
1
Xen. Mem. iv. 1, 2 ; Symp. took part in the public sacri-
4, 27; Plato, Symp. 213, C. ; fices, but that he was frequently
216, D. ;222, B" Charm. 155,
;
in the habit of sacrificing at
D. home. In Plato he invokes
2
Xen. Mem. i. 2, 29 3, 8 ; ; Helios, Symp. 220, D. and his ;
his last days, when for fear of violating the laws, CHAP.
**'
he scorned the ordinary practices of defence, and
after his condemnation refused to escape from
prison.
1
The epitaph which Simonides inscribed on
the tomb of Leonidas might very well be inscribed
on that of Socrates : He died to obey the state. 2
belief in
oracles mentioned, good to himself, and much
which he always conscien- harm to his friends and de-
tiously obeyed (Mem. i. 3,4; pendants. The Apology speaks
Pluto, Appl. 21, B.) and the as if entreating the judges
use of which he recommended were unworthy of the speaker
to his friends (Xen. Mem. ii. and his country.
2
(5, 8; iv. 7, 10; Anabas. iii. 1, Xen. says: irpoei\rro fj.a\\ov
5). He was
himself fully per- rots vofiois tupevuv airoOavew 1)
by Xenophon ?
2
How strange that plain unadorned
common sense must have appeared to his cotem-
Plato, Symp.
qitardscn, D. Dsemon. d. Socr. an. R. 12, places the occa-
25, 63 and Alberti, Socr. 148 sion during the battle of
have entirely mistaken the Delium.
*
meaning of the text in suppo- Conf. p. 76, 7, and 89.
*
sing that it attributes to So- Conf. p. 60, 2. In the
crates any ecstatic states. passage here quoted Socrates
*
Symp. 220, C. The circum- refers to dreams in which the
stances may indeed be regarded deity had commanded him to
:is a fact still we do not know
;
devote himself to his philoso-
t'rom what source Plato derived phical activity. In the Crito
his knowledge of it, nor whether 44, A., a dream tellshim that
llu> authority which he follow- his death will follow on the
c(l had not exaggerated the third day.
time during which Socrates *
Volqvardsen, Das Daemo-
stood there. Favorinus in mum d. Socr.und seine Inter-
(ii-U. X. A. ii. 1,makes the one preten. Kiel, 1862. Ribbing,
<><v;iion into many, and says Ueber Socra*es' Daimonion
SOCRATES.
not a per- boasted; in modern times this view was for a long
8
time the dominant one. 2 It was no doubt somewhat
1
The first -named excuse is condition of the brain during
universal. Marsilius Ficinus rapture affects the nerves of
(Theol. Platon. xiii. 2, p. 287) the abdomen and irritates
had assumed in Socrates, as them. To exercise the intellect
well as in other philosophers, a immediately after a meal or to
peculiar bodily disposition for indulge in deep thought pro-
ecstasy, referring their suscep- duces peculiar sensations in
tibility for supernatural reve- the hypochondriacal.' In the
lations to their melancholy same strain is Meiners, Verm.
temperament. The personality Schr. iii. 48, Gesch. d. Wis-
of the dtcmon not however
is sensch. ii. 538. Conf. Schwarze,
called in question by him or by Historische Untersuchung war :
o 2
84 SOCRATES.
ipol S :
phon. They are the following : re Kal eleadbs o~-n/j.eI6i> /act ylyveo~6ai
(1) Xen. Mem. iv. 8, 5, where eytvero ael 6e /xf eTriff^ei ft by
Socrates, when urged to pre- fj.f\\cairpdrreiv Kal riva (ptavrif
pare a defence, replies : a\\a eSo|a avr6Qev aKovffai, 5} fJ.e OVK
vfy rbv Ai'a, $7877 ft-ov emxetpovvros, ea airlevat irplv kv cKpoaicaffwfJ.ai,
(ppovriffat rrjs trpbs robs Siicaaras &s n 7ifj.aprT)K6ra (Is rb Qetov.
airo\oyias rjvavriit>eij rb $ai/j.6i>iov. (7) Ibid. Euthyd. 272, E. as ;
(2) Plato Apol. 31, D.: Why Socrates was about to leave
did not Socrates busy himself the Lyceum, eyevero rb elaObs
with political matters ? The fffine'iov rb oai/*6viov, he therefore
Saifj.6viov was the reason rovr' : sat down again, and soon after
effnv 'o
fj.oi evavrmvrai ra vo\t- Euthydemus and Dionysodorus
riKa irpdrrew. (3) Ibid, (after really came in. In all these
his condemnation) a singular : cases the Sa^vtov appears to
occurrence took place, r> yap have been an inward voice de-
eliadvtd fiat fj.avriK^ j\ rov Satpoviov terring the philosopher from a
tv fi^v r$ irpSffOfv %p6va> iravrl particular action. Even the
iravv irvKvfy ael $v /col irdw tirl more general statement that
ff/jLiKpois evai>riovfj.fvi), el n /nf\- the $atfj.6i>ioi> always made ite
\oi/jii fj.^i 6p6cas irpdett> vvvi St. . . .
warnings heard whenever So-
HIS CHARACTER.
doing something.
what should be done, by approving what it does not
forbid. In a similar way it indirectly enables
Socrates to advise his by not hindering
friends
him from approving their schemes, either by word
or by silence. 2 The subjects respecting which the
crates thought of a political viov only have reference to par-
career, falls in with this con- ticular future actions (not only
ception of In a similar of Socrates, but of others), from
sense the passage in the Re- which it dissuades. The two
public vi. 496, D. should be latter authorities are, however,
understood, when Socrates re- worthless.
marks that most of those who '
Apol. 31, D. : Sri p.oi 6e16v
had the capacity for philosophy n /col yiyverai
^aifj.6viov ....
were diverted therefrom by e/tol 8e TOUT' la-rlv IK ircuSbs aod-
other interests, unless peculiar ptvov <pu>vfi TIS yiyvontvi), $) ftrav
circumstances kept them, such yevijTai atl airorptiret pe TOVTO
as sickness, which was a hin- & &c /ueAXw irprreiv, irp<rrpirti
drance to political life. rb 3 ofarorc. Phaedr. 242, C.
8'
t)fjLfTtpo>'
OVK &tov \eyeiv rb 2
From the Platonic state-
Saifj.6viov a'Tifie'iov t) yap irov nvi ments respecting the Scu^di/iov
&\\if ovStvl ruv f/j.irpoaOfy which have just been given,
ytyove. The heavenly sign Xenophon's statements differ,
keeps Socrates true to his making it not only restraining
philosophical calling, by op- but preventing, and not only
posing him whenever he con- having reference to the actions
templates taking up anything of Socrates but to those of other
else, as for instance, politics, people. Mem. i. 1, 4 (Apol. 12) :
1
Volquardsen 1. c. confounds Apol. 17, A., as meaning that it
two things in explaining the was not a question of a simple
prohibition, mentioned by Xen. defence, but of a defence in
Mem. iv. 8, 4, to prepare a the usual legal style with all
defence in the sense of Pluto, the tricks and manoeuvres of
HIS CHARACTER. f
say,
3
that the heavenly voice often made itself heard
on quite unimportant occasions. Kemembering fur-
ther that Socrates was more than anyone else, perhaps,
bent on referring actions to clear conceptions, and
accordingly excluded from the field of prophecy, and
therefore from the province of the Sapovtov, every-
visions ;
all the more so in proportion as the object ('HAP.
Hermann, Platonismus i.
1
The genius of Socrates is not
236 similarly Krlsehe, For-
: Socrates himself. . . . but an
schung. i. 231. oracle, which, however, is not
2
The objections hereto raised external, but subjective, his
by Volqvardxen, pp. <56, 63, and oracle. bore the form of
It
Alberti, Socr. 68, are partly knowledge, which was, how-
answered by the argument ever, connected with a certain
which has preceded. Besides, unconsciousness.
Ihey have more reference to
5
Krixche I.e.: What is not
words than to things. So far in our power, what our nature
:is this is the case, there is no cannot bear, and what is not
use in disputing. By tact we naturally found in our im-
aoderatand not only social but pulses or our reflections, is
moral tact, not only acquired involuntary, or according to
but natural tact, and this word the notion of the ancients,
seems very appropriate to ex- heavenly to this category be-
:
.
self-knowledge. Feelings whose origin he has not
discovered are seen to exercise over him an irresistible
power. On the other hand, the when it doe&
Bat/j.6viov
CHAPTER V.
Xenophon.
losopher himself, was scarcely capable of under-
standing a philosopher like Socrates. The object,
moreover, of the Memorabilia was a limited one, to
defend his teacher from definite charges. We are
therefore justified in assuming a priori that there
was more in Socrates than Xenophon describes.
Indeed, there must have been more, or he could not
have played the part he did in the history of philo-
sophy, nor have exerted so marvellous a power of
attraction on the most intellectual and cultivated
men of his time. The character, too, which Plato
gives him would otherwise have too flatly contradicted
the picture of him present to the mind of his reader.
Besides, Xenophon's dialogues create the impression
that philosophic matter has, with detriment to its
meaning, been put into the unphilosophic language
of every-day life ; and that there are gaps left, to
1
On the philosophical merits p. 50. Conf. Gesch. d. Phil,
o Socrates, ScnMermachffir, p. 81.
*
Werke, iii. 2, 293, first printed Geschichte der Wissen-
in Abhamlluntren dcr Berliner schaften in Griechenland uud
Aca.lemie, Philos. Kl. 1818, Bom, ii. 420.
n 2
100 SOCRATES.
1
Mem. 1,1 and 20; 2, 1
i. ;
discourses at home and filled
3, 1; iv. 4, 25; 5, 1; 8, 11. up their sketches by further
2
It cannot be inferred from enquiries. Nay, the very dis-
Plato, Symp. 172, C. 173, B. ;
;
coiu-ses which are vouched for
Theast. 143, A., that Socrates' by this supposed care, cannot
f riends (as Volqttardgen, Daemon possibly be historical. Such
d. Sokr. 6, says) took down his statements cannot therefore-
AUTHORITIES FOR HIS PHILOSOPHY. 103
afterwards from his own or his friends' memory has CHA i>.
mean more than similar ones .... rovrcav 5rj ypfyu 6ir6<ra ki>
in Farm. 126, B. Neither does Sianvwovfixrw. iv. 3, 2 ; others
Mem. i. 4, 1 refer to writings have reported similar conver-
of pupils of Socrates, but to sations respecting the Gods, at
the views of opponents. Mem. which they were present iy&> :
his Gesch. d. Philos. i. 174, 178, 38, A., and above, p. 41).
100 SOCRATES.
Accordingly
we observe him in his dialogues pursuing enquiries,
which not only have no moral purpose, 2 but which,
1
Plato, Apol. 21, where So- subordinate one he was no
;
, , TT 11
must also know why they do -i ,
it. He i
demands
i
that
i
1
In Plato, Apol. 22, B., witli this, Gesch. d. Philosophic,
Socrates observes In his sift-
: ii. 50. Brandis only differs
ing of men he had turned to in unessential points, Khein.
the poets, but had soon found Mtis. von Nielnihr und Brandis,
that they were usually not able i. 6, 130; Gr.-R6m. Phil. ii. a,
to account for their own works. 33. To him the origin of the
'Eyi/wi/ o5f .... Sri ov aotpia. doctrine of Socrates appears to
iroioiev & iroio'tff, a\\a <f>vffei TIV\ be a desire to vindicate against
Kal tvOov(Tidoi>Tts, Siinrep ol Oco- the Sophists the absolute worth
/jidi>Ttis Kal xp7j(Tju<p5or Kal yap of moral determinations and ;
avrol \tyovffi /Afv iro\\a Kal KoAa, then he adds to secure this
:
l<raffi 5e ovtiv 3>v \4yovffiv. Be- piirpose the first aim of So-
sides,no one knows the limits crates was to gain a deeper
of his knowledge, but thinks insight into his own conscious-
to understand all things. He ness, in order to be able to dis-
had also observed the same tinguish false and true know-
in the x<'POT X*'a'> the re- ledge with certainty. Similarly
presentatives of sciilpture and UranisK, Gesch. d. Phils. Kant,
art. i. 155. The important feature
3
Soklalermaektr, Werke, iii. in Socrates was this, that to
2, 300:
'
The awakening of the him morality appeared to be
idea of knowledge, and its a certain kind of knowledge,
firstutterances, must have been proceeding from the thought
the substance of the philosophy of the good inborn in the soul.
of Socrates.' Hitter agrees
110 SOCRATES.
<r<t>d\\ecr6ai Kal &\\ovs a<pd\\iv ye'j/7) TO, trpdy/j-ara. 5e7v o$v Trei-
wv evftta. ffKoirwv ffvv rots ffwovffi pa<r6ai '6n fjia.\Lff-ra irpbs TOVTO
'
CHAP,
'
exhaustive enquiry into its subject. By means of
sophistry this dogmatism had been overthrown. It
was felt that all impressions derived from the senses
were relative and personal, that they do not represent
things as they are, but as they appear and, that, ;
1
Particular proof of this will be given subsequently.
I
114 SOCRATES.
1, liJ ;
and Plato's Crito, 53, A. Compare the views of Rot-
*
has been already seen
It 1. c., and Brandis for the
scJier,
that Socrates placed his own opposite view. Ueber die
'
CHAPTEE VI
THE PHILOSOPHICAL METHOD OF SOCRATES.
admitted,
1
sounds far too indefinite to invalidate our
assertion.
This process involves three particular steps. The A. TJie
the Socratic knowledge of self. Holding as he juwwlettM
first is
-
did that only the knowledge of conceptions constitutes 'f *c}fi l
'
1
Mem. iv. 6, 15: 6ir6re tie
speaking in Plato, Apol. 21, B.,
a.vr6s TI rip \6yia Sn^ioi, 810 TWI> says that according to the
/uA(0Ta 6fjLo\oyov/jL(i'wi/ ^TTopfvero. oracle he had interrogated all
vofj.ifai> TuuTTjj/rV aa<pa\tiav elvcu with whom he was brought
A<tyou. into contact, to discover whe-
2
Xan. Mem. iii. 9, 6: p,cu>iat>
ther they had any kind of know-
iva-v-riov fj.ff f<f>ri t?vai ffo- ledge and that in all cases he
;
enquiring into the Delphic 6bv elSevai, a\\' ovros /uei/ oifrrof
yvwQi ffeavrov, says that self- rt eioevat OVK elSws, eyiii Se laffirep
'
Svvavrai Kal a fi-fi'
Kal a /J.ev &v$pes AQt]val.oL, rip 6vn 6 6ebs
firiffravratirpdrrovres (self- ffotybs fivai, Kal ev rtp XPWP'V
examination always refers in roury rovro \ey(iv, on i] avQpw-
the first place to knowledge, iriirri ffo<pia 6\iyov nvbs a|ia
because with knowledge right io-rl Kal ovSev6s. Symp. 216,
action is given) Tropiovrai re D. ayvoet itdvra Kal ovoev blSev,
:
It is assumed as a matter
1
spiritual and the disadvantages
of course, that every one can of a sensual love are unfolded,
give an account of what he apparently (as a careful survey
knows and is, Plato, 1. c. 190, C. ;
of the Platonic Symposion will
Chai'rn. 158, E. show) by Xenophon, speaking
2
See above, p. 75. Besides for himself, but undoubtedly
Brandis ii. a, 64, reminds us following in the train of So-
with justice that treatises on crates. Even ^Eschines and
eptas are mentioned not only by Cebes had treated of pcos in
Plato and Xenophon, but also the Socratic sense. See Pint.
by Euclid, Crito, Simmias, and Puer. Ed. c. 15, p. 11, and 1he
Antisthenes, which shows the fragment of ^Eschines in ^Iris-
importance of it for the So- tid. Or. xlv. p. 34.
3
cratic schools. The chief pas- Hegel, Gesch. d. Phil. ii.
tio,,* and,
be i iev ed that he possessed the notion and the method
the iHetliod
ofjmmfbij of true knowledge. Without this conviction he
tii">i?'~
would neither have been able to confess his own igno-
rance, nor to expose that of others, both being only
rendered possible by comparing the knowledge he
found with the idea of knowledge residing within
himself. The fact that this idea was no where to be
found realised was in a challenge to him to set
itself
conceptions or induction.
1
For even if Socrates does
not always make for formal definitions, he at least
CHAP. experience.
1
This chance element in his principles
VL
he, however, endeavours to eliminate by collecting
opposite instances, so as to correct and supplement
varying experiences by one another. The question,
for instance, before him being the conception of in-
1
As for example in the com- 2
Mem. iv. 2, 11.
*
parison of the politician with Ibid. iii. 9, 10.
the physician, pilot, &c.
METHOD OF INDUCTION. 131
3
given case. As in seeking conceptions he always
1
Mem. iii. 10, 9. then shows that his conduct
1. c. iv. 6, B. falls under this conception;
in
*
For instance, in order to order to put his duties before
reprove Lamprocles for his con- a commander of cavalry, he
duct to Xanthippe, he first begins (Mem. iii. 3, 2) by
(Mem. ii. 1) lets him give a what is his employment,
stating
definition of ingratitude, and and enumerating its different
K 2
132 SOCRATES.
right.
Asking further as to the objects on which Socrates
practised his method, we encounter in the Memora-
bilia of Xenophon a motley array of materials in-
'
parts ;
in order to prove the See above, pp. 131; 121, 1.
2
being of the Gods, he begins Conf. Schtvegler, Gesch. d.
with the general principle that Griech. Phil., 2 Aufl., p. 121.
3
all that serves an end must As in the cases quoted on
have an intelligent cause p. 131, 3.
(Mem. i. 4, 4) ;
in order to 4
For instance, Mem. i. 2, 34
1
See p 109
134 SOCRATES.
CHAPTEE VII.
1
CHAP. SOCRATES, says Xenophon, did not discourse concern-
YIL
ing the nature of the All, like most other philosophers
A. Futida- before him; he did not enquire into the essence of
Irtrictionlf
^ e world an d the laws of natural phenomena ; on
the sub- the contrary, he declared it folly to search into such
\ er t subjects ; for it is unreasonable to quiz things divine
Ethics.
before fully understanding things human ; besides,
the conflicting opinions of natural philosophers prove
that the object of their research transcends the capa-
'
Mem. i. 1, 11. Conf. p. 124, 1. Ibid. iv. 7.
HIS TEACHING CONFINED TO ETHICS. K
i>
fjLfyia-rov <ppovf)ffas tirl rif rets Leg. xii. 966, E.
TWI/ 6fS>v jurfxaj/is tfyyc-iaOat
4
Mem. i. 4 iv. 3. No argu-
;
3
and it is expressly stated
X-c., Met. i. 6 (987, b, 1) r
that Socrates perused their ZwKpdrovs 8e irepi /j.ev T& r/0ta
works, in order to iind in them trpajfj.aTevofjLfvov, irepl Se rijs
what was morally useful for SA.TJS <pvffecas ov6ev. xiii. 4 j
liimself and his friends. De Part. Anim. i. 1 (642, a, 28) :
1
Schleiermaclier and Ritter. eVl 2co/cp<xTovs Se rovro pev [rk
2
Krische, 208, as though bpiffaafai T^V ovfflav'] riv^er), rb
Socrates made any distinction Se frreiv T& irepl Qva-fcas eA7je.
between training for a philoso- Conf. Eth. Eud. i. 5 1216, b, 2. ;
v. 29, 87 ; Eep. i. 10 ;
Seme, cording to Demetrius of By-
Kp. 71, 7; Sext. Math. vii. 8; zantium, Dioy. ii. 21.
(Jell N. A. xiv. 6, 5, and, ac- Phaedo, 100, B.
138 SOCRATES.
1
In this respect Socrates is necessary consequence, in his
like Kant, Kant's position in intellectual principles ;
with
history being also not unlike the same jiistice may it be said
his. As Kant, after destroying of Kant, that, notwithstanding
the older Metaphysics, only his critic of pure reason, he-
retained Ethics, so Socrates, must, whilst disputing the
after setting aside natural Metaphysics of Wolff, have-
science, turned his attention necessarily seen that his prin-
exclusively to morals. In the ciples would lead him consis-
one case, as in the other, the tently to the Idealism of Fichte
one-sidedness with which the and the natural philosophy of
founder begins has been sup- Schelling both of whom, and
;
is it a question of
deducing particular moral acts and
relations from knowledge, than he contents himself
partly with falling back upon prevailing custom, or
else there intervenes an accidental reference to pur-
VII.
no one intentionally does wrong for this would be ;
3
power in man, and cannot be overcome by passion.
identical therewith, also does. 3, on the statement &s
What is said, iii. 9, 14, respect- Kuv irovrip'bs ovti' &KWV
ing tinrpal-ia in contrast to Bran-dig remarks with justice
ev-rux'tt, that it is Kpdriffrov (Gr.-rom. Phil. ii. a, 39) that
tiriT^fvfjM, also refers to know- this refers in the first place to
ledge. For fvirpal-la consists in the arguments of the Platonic-
Socrates (see Meno, 77, B. ;
iroieii', or as Plato's Euthydemus Prot. 345, D. ; 353, C.), but that
281, A, explains it &n<rHjjU7j : the same is asserted by Xeno-
teaches to make a right use of pJton, Mem. iii. 9, 4 ; iv. 6, 6
all goods, and as KctTop6ov<ra and 11 ;
and by Plato, Apol.
rr)V irpa^iv it produces finrpayia 25, E. fy& ft . .
: rovro r .
OVK op66v, aperfy yap tan Kal OVK rdSe avnKe^eiv en ofo/icu, ws ovxl
(irtffT-hfM). If, therefore, any- Kal fi avSpela 5i8aKr6v. Plato,
one seems to act contrary to Prot. 349, E., where it is proved
his better judgment, Socrates by various examples divers,
does not allow that is really knights, peltastas that of eiri-
the case. He rather infers the <rri]p.oves ruv /j.}) ^wiffrafjievav
contrary. His conduct being eappatewrepoi Arist. Eth.
elffiv.
VII.
he prudent and wise who knows how to use what
is
2
is good and noble, and how to avoid what is evil.
/jt^l
&ftviov avSpeia Iffriv. The knowledge in which one virtue
same thing is conveyed by the consists, whilst lacking the
definition in Laches, 194, E. knowledge in which another
(which is not
imperilled much consists ; but he assumes, just
by the objections raised thereto as Plato's Socrates does in the
from a Socratic point of view). Protagoras, that where ono
Courage is rj TVV Seivuv ml virtue is, all must be there, all
QappaXeviv eiri(TTrjfj.ri only 8a.ppa- ; depending on the knowledge of
\eos must not be rendered the good. From this doctrine
'bold' (as ScJiaarsckmidl,Samm\. of Socrates the Cynic and Me-
d. plat. Schr. 409, does). It garian notions of the oneness
means rather, according to of virtue arose.
198, B., as it so often does, ft ^
MORAL VALUE OF KNOWLEDGE. 145
1
Plato, Meno, 71, D., and 8e?T<M. Conf. Plato, Rep. v.
Aristotle, Pol.i. 13, probably, 452, E.
following the passage in Plato,
*
Mem. iii. 9, 1 ;
iv. 1, 3 ;
2
guished them, and to prove that virtue consists in
knowledge, that it requires knowledge, and can be ac-
148 SOCRATES.
cither by
eustom. or l
Mem. iv. 6, 6 : Ateaia 8e voi.uu.ov S/KOIOI/ cleat, and when
There
is, therefore, according to his view no abso-
3
vantage are the measures of good and evil. Hence
in the dialogues of Xenophon he almost always bases
his moral precepts on the motive of utility. We
should aim at abstinence, because the abstinent man
4
has a more pleasant life than the incontinent : we
should inure ouselves to hardships, because the hardy
man is more healthy, and because he can more easily
5
avoid dangers, and gain honour and glory : we
1
Xen. Mem. iv. 6, 8, con- thing similar is found in Plato's.
.Juding : rb &pa oxpe'Aiyiiop ayaQdv Protagoras, 358, B.
to'Tiv '6-rcf &v o)tf>f\t/j.ov rj -rb . . .
3
On the other hand, little
XpTJ<n uoj' &pa na.\&v
/
tffTi irpbs $ importance can be attached ta
&" $ xrfvw conf. iv. 1, 5;
',
the treatment of happiness as
5, 6 ; Symp. 3
5, Plato, Prot.
;
the highest end of life in Mem.
333, D. ; 353, C., where So- iii. 2, 4. All Greek philoso-
crates meets Protagoras with phers do the same, including
the statement rai/r'
: efftlv Plato, Aristotle, and even the
ayaJda. & tffnv u(f>e\i/J.a roTs a,vQpti>- Stoics.
and afterwards explains
TTOIJ,
4
Mem. i. 5, 6 ; ii. 1, 1 ;
conf.
good to be that which affords iv. 5, 9.
-'
Xen. Mem. iii. 9, 4 : some- conf. i. 6.
INCONSISTENCY OF SOCRATIC MORALITY. 151
1
On what follows compare 3
Crito 47, D : as in
the
Ribbing, p. 83, 91, 105, whose treatment of the body, the
researches are here thankfxilly physician's must be
advice
acknowledged, whilst all his followed, so in questions of
conclusions are not accepted. right and wrong the advice of
2
See Zeller's Phil. d. Griech. him f tl p-i\ aico\ove-f)ffo/j.ft',
u iroietTO*, ra Se <f>av\6-
fyiyvero T$ 8e a57co> a.Tria\\vro. rfpa TTfpl ir\fiovos.
2
If,moreover, life in a diseased Ibid. 29, B.
body has no value juer' littivov :
3
Mem. i. 4, 13 God has :
&oa /Siwrbv fifuv 5ie</>0ap/ieVou, tj> not only taken care of the
^b aStKOV AwjSarat -rb 5e S/KOIOI/ human body, a\\' Sirep fteyurrov
provided this is not
bvivT]<riv,
a (^auA^Tepoj/but a ico\v TtfJitwTf- fve<pvfff, i. 2, 53 and
pov than that 49, A wrong- :
55,where the statement Sri rb
doing always injures and dis- is proved by
&(j>pov &Ttfj.6i> iff-rf
graces him who commits it. the fact that you bury the
Apol. 29, D. as long as he soon the soul tv
1
:
body as as 37
lived, he would not cease <f>i\o- u6vri yiverat <pp6mi<ns has left it,
ao<f>u>v Kal vfj.1v TrapaKf\fv6/j.fvos iv. 3, 14 :
avOpuwov ye ^ux^?,
. . .
\tyuv oildrrep ttco6a, '6n, & flirep TI Kal &\\o TUI> avOfMairivuv
Tov 6elov (ifrexet.
IJ.fv OVK alffx^v
4
Mem. i. 2, 4: Socrates
. . . KOI 6o|rjs Kal TI^TJS. recommends bodily exercise
within certain limits rain-nv :
CHAP. stance,
1
that among the Socratic schools side by side
VII.
with the morals of the Cynics and the criticism of
the Megarians, a place was found too for the Cyrenaic
doctrine of pleasure ; and that the founders of these
schools to all appearance were firmly persuaded that
1
To which Hermann, Plat. i. trine neither to be found in
257, rightly draws attention. the Memorabilia (iii. 8, 4-7;
When, however, this writer 10, 12 ;
iv. 6, 9 2, 13), nor in
;
but probably in too free a man- -jrovqpa avrbv irotovvra ayaObv rbv
ner for us to be able to gain ffvvovra. airoStlfai, ouSe yt avai-
from them any information ffxvvrtav teal a-Kpaalav irapt
respecting Socrates. pevov lyKparri icalaltiovnevov
2
Xeu. Symp. 8, 12, the lead- iptiipfvov ironjtrcu.
ing thought of which at least 4
See p. 75.
is Socratic. Mem. i. 2, 29 ; 3,
66 SOCRATES.
1
Conf. Plato, Symp. 178, C. ; A.,the character of Xanthippe
180, C. ; 217, E. (which has no pretensions to
2
Conf. Plato, Symp. 192, A. great tenderness) be considered
3
See p. 145, 2. the joking character of the
4
Xen. (Ec. 3, 10 but the
;
conversation in Xen. Symp. 2, .
1
Mem. 2, 56.
i. In keeping as the son of a poor labourer,
with this,he urges a friend Xenophon and Plato as men of
(ii. 7) to
employ the maids of rank and property,
his house in wool work, and 2
Mem. ii. 6, 35 /cal art Hyi'ia-
:
another (ii. 8) to seek for occu- Has avSpbs aperriv ilvai VIKV rovs
pation as a steward, refuting /j.ev <pi\ovs iroiovvra TOVS 8e
in both cases the objection, tydpobs KUKWS.
that such an occupation was 3
Mem. iii. 9, 8: cf>66vov 5e
unbecoming for free men. (TKOTTUV '6,n efoj, \VTTT\V fteV TO,
Xenophon held a different e^fvptcntev ainbv ovra, ov-re /XS'I/TOJ
view (see (Ec. 4. 2, and 6, 5), rty tirl <t>i\wv dri/xiais viire T?>
and it is well known that eV e-^Gpuv tiirvxicus yiyvofjifvriv.
Plato did also. Socrates speaks
LOVE FOR ENEMIES. 17
logues,
1
Socrates declares it to be wrong to injure CHAP.
another :the same thing as wrong-doing,
injury is '_
and wrong-doing may never be permitted, not even
towards one from whom wrong-doing has been suf-
fered. The contradiction of these two accounts is
2
hard to get over : for assuming it to be granted
that the Socrates of Xenophon is only speaking from
a popular point of view, still the fact would remain
that Xenophon cannot have been conversant with
1
Crito 49, A. Also Rep. i. principle opposed to slavery.
334, B. If he held many things which
2
The remark of Meiners according to Greek prejudices
(Gesch. der Wissenschaft. ii. belonged to slaves not to be
456) will not pass muster that unworthy of a free-man, it by
Socrates considered it allow- no means follows that he dis-
able to do harm (bodily) to approved of slavery; and the
enemies, but not to injure view that slavery is contrary
them in respect of their true to nature (mentioned by Aris-
well-being, Xenophon express- i. 3) is not attri-
totle, Polit.
ly allowing icanus iroie'iv while buted to Socrates as its author.
Plato as expressly forbids it. Had it belonged to him, it
3
See p. 153. would undoubtedly have been
4
Still less are we justified so mentioned. But the whole
in asserting as Hildebrand connection does not suit So-
ap] H-iirs inclined to do (' Xeno- crates, to whom the distinct ion
phont. et Arist. de CEconomia between Qfaei and v6w> is.
publica Doctrina, part i. Marb. foreign. We ought rather to
1845) that Socrates was in think of the Cynics.
172 SOCRATES.
CHAPTEK VIII.
1
For Socrates, as has been crates is desirous of convincing
already shown, understands by a friend of the existence of the
the good what is useful for Gods, and hence proposes the
man. question Whether more intel-
:
2
See Mem. i. 4, 2, which
in ligence is not required to pro-
the argument from analogy is duce living beings than to pro-
most clearly brought out. So- duce paintings like those of
VIEWS OF NATURE. l\
air, in that not only the sun shines by day, but also
the moon and the stars by night ; in that the heavenly
1
Mem. i. 1, 19 ; 3, 3 ; 4, 11 ;
TWV re nal <rvvex<av, eV $ irdvva
iv. 3, 3. Ka\a ital ayaOd tort, Kal del pev
2
Mem. iv. 3, 16. xp u fj-^ vois arpiflri re Kal vyia
8
Compare Zeller's Introduc- KOI ayi]pvrov ifape%<i>i>, Barrov
tion to his Philos. d. Griechen, Se vo^aros avap-apriyrois inrripf-
p, 3. rovvra, ovros rek /jLfytffra /j,ev
4
Mem. i. 4, 5 ; 7, 17 : 6 Q irpdrrwv dp'drai, T<5e Se OIKOVO-
apx^s iroiwv avBp&irovs, ffo<j>ov n<av a.6paros rjiuv IffTiv. Krisclie's
TWOS S-nniovpyov Kal (f>i\o^ov argument (Forsch. 220) to prove
rbv TOV 6eov 6(p6a\/j.bi>, r$]v TOV that this language is spurious,
SeoC fyp6vT)ffiv. although on his own showing
5
Mem. iv. 3, 13. The Gods it was known to Phaedrus,
are invisible o'l re
; yap &\\oi Cicero, and the writer of the
iliuv aya6a 5.5<Wes ovSev treatise on the world, appears
Tct^
rroi/rtav ei$ Touju^wes \6vies SiSoa- inconclusive.
<ru/, na.1 6 rbv o\ov K&ap.ov ffWT&r-
176 SOCRATES.
so God
present throughout the Universe.
is And if
the soul, notwithstanding the limitations by which it
is confined, can perceive what is distant, and have
thoughts of the most varied kinds, surely the know-
1
Mem. i. 4, 8 : ffb 5e cravrbv rip iravrl <j>p6vriffiv TO iravra Sirtas
<$>poviH.&v
Tt SoKeis ex fiv !
&M.O01 tu>
avry ySv y, OVTQI TiOeffBai Kal
Sf ouSojuov ovSev otei <pp6vift.ov ju^ rb ffbv fjifv o/u,ua SvvaffBai 4irl
flvcu . .
,
Kal rdSe TO uirep/ieyeOrj iro\\a ffrdSia eiicveiff6ai, fbv Se
elements,
Kal irATJOos fareipa (the TOV Qeov ofyOaX/j.bv aSwarov ell/at
or generally, the parts of the Upa. ^c&v^a dpav /uijSe, r^jv a^v
world) S(' a(ppoai>VTiv TIV& oSrcas Tj/vxV fal iffpl Ttav tvOdSe Kal
fjiev
CHAP.
ledge and care of (rod must be able to embrace all
and more. 1 Besides had not a belief in the provi-
2
dential care of (rod been already taken for granted,
in the argument for His existence from the relation
of means to ends ? Was not the best explanation of
this care to be found in the analogous care which
the human soul has for the body ? A special proof
of this providence Socrates thought to discern in
oracles 3 by them the most important things, which
:
N
178 SOCRATES.
Compare Hermann
6
1
in Mar- The above description of
burger Lectionskatalog, 1835-6, the philosophy of Socrates
Plat, 684. rests on the exclusive autho-
* condemna-
40, C. ;
after his rity of Xenophon, Plato, and
tion. Aristotle. What later writers
3
Death is either an external say is for the most part taken
sleep, or a transition to a new from these sources, and when-
life, but in neither case is it an ever it goes beyond them, there
evil. is no guarantee for its accu-
4
Cyrop. viii. 7, 10. Several racy. It is, however, just pos-
reasons are first adduced in fa- sible that some genuine utter-
vour of immortality, but they ances of Socrates may have
need to be greatly strengthened been preserved in the writings
to be anything like rigid proofs. of JSschines and others, which
(Compare particularly 19 are omitted by our authorities.
with Plato's PhiEdo, 105, C.) In that category place the
In conclusion, the possibility of statement of Cleanthes quoted
the soul's dying with the body by Clement (Strom, ii. 417, D.),
is left an open question, but in and repeated by Cicero (Off. iii.
either case death is stated to 3, 11), that Socrates taught the
be the end of all evils. identity of justice and happi-
s
He
actually says in Plato, ness, cursing the man who first
Apol. 29, A. Conf. 37, B. : made a distinction between
death is feared as the greatest them the statements in Cic.
:
evil, whilst it may be the Off. ii. 12, 43 (taken from Xen.
greatest good :
ty& 5i . . . oi>K Mem. 6, 39 ; conf. Cyrop. i.
ii.
et5ws tKavas irtpl fSii' tv 'AfSoi; 6, 22) in Seneca, Epist. 28, 2 ;
;
CHAPTER IX.
1
Conf. p. 98.
182 SOCRATES.
'
ing,' with less accuracy, All virtueis
knowledge.'
Nor need we feel surprise that the defects of the
Socratic philosophy, its popular and prosaic way of
1
See above, pp. 80 2
; 150, 1. Werke, iii. 2, 259, 287.
184 SOCRATES.
1
Syxnp. 215, E. : fcav yap iSiv av TIS /cal VTOS avTtav yiyv6-
O.KOVW ['ZoiKpdrovs'] TroAu p.oi fj.a\- /xecos irpiaTOV /j.fi>
vovv ex ovras
\ov $ TUV KOpvflavTi&vTwv % re fvSov /JLOVVOVS fvpfifftt TUV \6ya>v,
tcapSia TrrjSti Kal SaKpva tK-^l-rai eiretTO OeioTaTOvs Kal ir\(io~T'
inrb TUV Xoyuv TUIV TOVTOV. 6pw ayd\ft.uT' apeTTjs eV auToIs UXOVTUS,
8e Kal &\\ovs irafj.Tr6\\ovs TO. Kal 4irl ir\tio~Tov TeivovTUS, /ua\-
avTa irdtrxovras: this was not \ov Of firl TTO.V 'oaov trpoa^Kei
the case with other speakers, ffKOTTtlV T( fJL(\\OVTl Ka\(f Ktt-
otiSe Te9opvBi]T6 /J.QV % tyuxb 0118' yadtf fffeaBai. AlbertVs (p. 78)
TjyavdKTei us avSpairoSw^us Sia- objections to the above use of
Kfi(j.evov, (similarly Euthydemus these passages resolve them-
in Xen. Mem. iv. 2, 39) a\\' selves into this, that those ele- '
-i AI f ji anceofthe -i i -i
need not surprise us, were they only of the kind re- Socratic
ported by Xenophon. The investigations of Socrates
as he gives them, appear trivial and
may often
7l hrcd '
5
be secured by kind acts and attention ;
these and
such-like maxims, which are often lengthily discussed
1
29, B. 38, A.
; ; 41, E. HerA&iv. Conf. 33, B. An ex-
2
Apol. 23, C. :
irpbs Si TOV- ample of such sifting is to be
TOJJ of vtoi pot 4iraKo\oi,0owT(s found in the conversation of
ofs nd\tffTa <rx<Aij tonv ol riav Alcibiades with Pericles, Mem.
Tr\ovffturdr(av aurJ/uarot ^at/jot/- i. 1, 40.
*
ffiv anovovrfs ts7ao/jifv(av TUV Mem. iii. 10, 9.
4
av0ptairui>, Kal av-rol TroAAa/cts fyte Ibid. iii. 12, 4.
*
U.I/JLOVVTO.I flra l-KiXfipovaiv fi\Aous Ibid. ii. 10, 6, 9.
186 SOCRATES.
1
Comp. Hegel, Gesch. d. Phil. ii. 59.
HIS RELATION TO THE SOPHISTS. 1
Sophists. The
Sophists were not a sect or n
school, but a profession, men of the most varied
views, for the most part highly deserving and- meri-
torious people, at whose views we have not the
least reason to take offence. If then, Hegel and
his followers attacked the common notion of the re-
lation of Socrates to the Sophists, because Socrates,
in one respect, agreed with the Sophists, Grrote
attacks it for the very opposite reason, because the
most distinguished of the so-called Sophists are at-
1
Proofs in Protagoras and cism, whereas Protagoras, Pro-
Gorgias, Thaeetet, 151, D. 162, ;
dicus and Hippias used pre-
D. 164, D. 165, E. Kep. i.
; ; ;
vious authorities as they found
354, A. vi. 498, C.
;
them leaving untouched the
2
Zeller, Part I. 882, 938. moral notions current. II. 410
3
As is done by Grote, Plato and 428 he observes respect-
I. 305. Respecting Socrates' ing Plato's statement (Soph.
explanation in Plato's Crito 49, 232, B.) that the Sophists talk
D., that he was convinced that themselves and teach others to
under no circumstances is talk of things which they do
wrong-doing allowed, it is not know, which Socrates did
there observed here we have ;
all his life long. In so saying,
the Protagorean dogma Homo he forgets that Socrates in
Mensura . . . which Socrates examining into the opinions
will be found combating in of men neither pretends to
the Thaeetetus proclaimed . . . better knowledge himself nor
by Socrates himself. How un- is content with the negative
like the two are will however purpose of perplexing others.
be seen at once by a moment's His aim was rather to substi-
reflection on Protagoras' saying, tute permanent conceptions for
Conf. Part I. 899 ... p. 259, unscientific notions. He for-
535 iii. 479. Grote even as-
; gets, also, that in the case of the
>rrts that not the Sophists but Sophists, owing to their want,
Socrates was the chief quibbler of earnest intellectual feeling,
in Greece he was the first to
; owing to the shallowness of
i
1
Hermann even allows this personal contrast to the So-
in saying (Plato, i. 232) that phists than from his general
the importance of Socrates for resemblance to them. Sophis-
the history of philosophy must try differed from the wisdom
be gathered far more from his of Socrates only in the want of a
192 SOCRATES.
CHAP. fruit-bearing germ. But how is though his view of the So-
IX. this admission consistent with from ours in that
phists differs
- making the second period of he denies a closer connection
philosophy commence with the between their scepticism and
Sophists instead of with So- their ethics. He makes the dis-
crates ? On the other hand, tinctive peculiarity of Socrates
the latest treatise on the ques- to consist in the desire to
tion before us (Siebeck, Dnter- reform ethics by a thorough
suchung zur Philos. d. Griech. and methodical intellectual
p. 1, Ueber Socr.Verhaltniss zur treatment, whereas the So-
Sophistik) is decidedly of the phists aspiring indeed to be
opinion here expressed ;
and teachers of virtue, accommo-
likewise most of the later edi- dated themselves in their in-
tors of the history of Greek phi- struction without independent
losophy. Striimpell, too (Gesch. inquiry to the tendencies and
d. Pralit. Phil. d. Griech. p. 26), notions of the time.
writes to the same effect, al-
HIS TRAGIC END. 103
CHAPTER X.
*
im- f'lcc **": >
teiicc, and
2
peached, when in the year 399 B.C.,
3
an accusation death.
79 ;
and Hermann, 9. They JElian, V. H. xi. 10, that he
are gathered from Plato, Meno, drew up an indictment against
90, A. Schol. in Plat. Apol. 18,
;
Socrates. But it is also clear
B.; Lysias adv. Dard. 8; adv. from Favorinus, that this in-
Agorat. 78 Isoc. adv. Callim,
;
dictment was not used at the
23 Plut, Herod, malign. 26, 6.
;
trial. Indeed it would appear
p. 862; Coriol.c.14; Aristotle in from Favorinus that it was not
Harpokrates v. Sfudfav Schol.in ;
written till some time after
^Eschin. adv. Tim. 87 ; Diod. the death of Socrates. Conf.
xiii. 64. He is mentioned by Uebermeg, Gesch. d. Phil. i. 94.
3
Xenopli. Hell. ii. 3, 42, 44, as This is proved by the Eu-
well as by Isocrates, 1. c., as a thyphro, allowing, as Schleier-
leader of the Democratic party, macher, PL Werke, i. a, 52, and
together with Thrasybulus. Werke, ii. 191
Steinliart, Plato's
2
For the various conjectures and 199 do., that this dialogue
about him consult Hermann, was hastily penned after the be-
p. 12. Besides the above-named ginning of the trial, its object
persons a certain Polyeuctus, being to prove that Socrates,
according to Favorinus in Diog. though accused of impiety, had
ii. 38, took part in assisting a deeper piety and a keener
the accuser. Prooably "Awros appreciation of the nature of
ought to be written in this piety, than one who had in-
passage instead of IIo\i5ewcTos, curred ridicule by his extrava-
and in the following passage gances, but had nevertheless
Tlo\vevKTOs instead of "Avvros, brought himself into the odour
being here probably of sanctity;
a view which, not-
THE ACCUSATION. 196
2
contrary to his nature. Partly considering it wrong
and undignified to attempt anything except by
simple truth partly finding it impossible to move
;
his position was felt. 19, A.; 29, A.; 30, C. ; 34, C.,
Comp. Xen. Mem. 6 and Xen. Mem. iv. 8, 4-10.
1
iv. 8, ;
Plato, Apol. 19, A.; 24, A.; Cousin and Grote, however,
28, A. ; 36, A. give him credit for a great deal
2
Mem. iv. 8, 5, So-
In Xen. more calculation than can be
crates says that when he wished reconciled with the testimony
to think about his defence, the of history, or -with the rest of
Satptviov opposed him and ac- ;
his character. Cousin (CEuvres
cording to I)iog. ii. 40 Cic. de ;
de Platon, i. 58), seems to
Orat. i. 54
Quintil. Inst. ii. 15,
;
think that Socrates was aware
30; xi. 1,11; Vol. Max. vi. 4, that he must perish in the con-
2 ; Stol. Floril. 7, 56, he de- flict with his age, but he forgets
clined a speech which Lysias that the explanation given in
offered him. It is asserted by Plato's Apology, 29, B., is only
J'liifu, Apol. 17, B., that he a conditional one, and that the
spoke without preparation. passage in that treatise 37, C.,
The story in Xenophon's Apo- was written after the judicial
logy, 22, to the effect that sentence. Similarly Volquard-
2
SOCRATES.
-t{on
have been expected. The majority of the judges
would most unmistakeably have been disposed to
pronounce him innocent, had not the proud bearing
1
here, inconceivable.
is supposing the board to have
According to Plato, Apol.
1
been complete at first, may
36, A., he would have been ac- have absented themselves dur-
quitted if 3, or as another ing the proceedings, or have
reading has it, if 30 of his refrained from voting. Or, if
judges had been of a different the reading rpidKoma, which
mind. But how can this be has many of the best MSS. in
reconciled with the statement its favour, is established in
of Diog. ii. 41 KareSiKaffdrj
:
Plato, we may suppose that the
SiaKoffiats oySo^Kovra fata TrAeiotrt original text in Diogenes was
TWV vaoKvovatav I Either
ij/7)<pois as follows KOTeSiKao-erj SIOKO-
:
'
the text here must be corrupt, ffiais oySoyKovTa ijrfjQois, trhfioffi
or a true statement of Diogenes TUV avoXvovaiav. We should
must have been strangely per- then have 280 against 220,
verted. Which is really the together 500, and if 30 more
case it is difficult to say. It is had declared for the accused,
generally believed that the he would have been acquitted,
whole number of judges who the votes being equal.
condemned him was 281. But 2
This course of events is not
since the Helirea always con- only in itself probable, taking
sisted of so many hundreds, into account the character of
most probably with the addi- the speech of Socrates and the
tion of one deciding voice nature of the circumstances,
(400, 500, 600, or 401, 501, 601), but Xenophon (Mem. iv. 4, 4)
on tliis hypothesis no propor- distinctly asserts that he would
tion of votes can be made out certainly have been acquitted
which is compatible with if he had in any way conde-
Plato's assertion, whichever scended to the usual attitude
reading is adopted. We should of deference to his judges. See
have then to suppose with also Pluto, Apol. 38, D.
Buck, in Stiver n on Aristoph.
200 SOCRATES.
1
^lian (V. H. ii. 18), the Mem. de 1'Acad. i. 47. 6, 1. It
chief authority for the pre- was therefore unknown to the
vious hypothesis, knows no- German writers of the last
thing about a suborning of century, who for the most part
Anytus by the Sophists. follow the old view for in- ;
2
The political career of Da- stance, Kleiners, Gesch. d. Wis-
mon, who according to the use senschaft, ii. 476 Ttedemann,
;
sentences ever passed, this was the most strictly legal. ____!__
giving up
Socrates to personal animosity ; always
the unfounded idea that the Sophists were
^
p
fa
ona
L
\Anytux
in any way connected therewith.
2
A great deal may may ha
be said in favour of this aspect of the case. In a grudge.
3
Plato, Socrates expressly declares that he is not the
victim of Anytus or Meletus, but of the ill-will which
he incurred by his criticism of men. Even Anytus,
it is however said, owed him a personal grudge.
4
Plato hints at his being aggrieved with the judg-
ments passed by Socrates on Athenian statesmen,
5
and, according to Xenophon's Apology, took it amiss
antecedently probable.
3
To convince men of their
is the most thankless task
ignorance you can choose.
Anyone who can persevere in it for a life-time so re-
1
Later writers give more an improbable story ought not
details. According to Pint, to have deceived lAizac (De
Ale. 4; Amator. 17, 27, p.
c. Socr. Cive, 133); especially
762 and Satyrus in Atlienceus,
;
since Xenophon and Plato
xii. 534, e, Anytus was a lover would never have omitted in
of Alcibiades, but was rejected silence such a reason for the
by him, whilst Alcibiades accusation,
2
showed every attention to So- Lilian, V. H. ii. 13. Diog.
crates, and hence the enmity 1. c.
3
of Anytus to Socrates. Such Compare Grote, 1. c. 638.
PERSONAL HATRED NOT THE ONLY CAUSE, 20
1
This is just possible. That Thrasybulus faithful to the
the character of Anytus was treaties, and not abusing his
not unimpeachable we gather political power to make amends
from the story (Aristot. in liar- for his losses during the oli-
/inrn/tian 9K<tCett> Diodor. xiii.
; garchical government.
(54; Pint. Coriol. 14), that
'-
The astonishment expres-
when lie was first
charged sed by Tenneman at this is
with treason he corrupted the. natural from his point of view,
judges. On the other hand Only his solution of the diffi-
r*<H:r. (in Callim. 23) praises culty is hardly satisfactory,
him for being together with Apol. 18, B. 1S, B. 23, D.
; ;
208 SOCRATES.
'
1
Polit. 299, B. ; Rep. vi. 488, both of them justly recognise
496, C. ; Apol. 32, E. ; Gorg. (Hegel, Phiinomeno 1. 560 ;
473, E. ; 521, D. JSsthetik, 537, 562 Jtotscher,
;
1
Seep. 29. Peace, 732; Wasps, 1022;
2
Compare Rchnitzer, trans- Clouds, 637.
lation of the Clouds, p. 24, and 4
Compare Droygen,Aristopli.
the passages quoted by him Werke, 2 Aufl. i. 174, which
from Welcker, Siivern and seems to go too far.
Botscher.
210 SOCRATES.
f 2
212 SOCRATES.
CHAP. aristocratical
sympathies. Such were Charmides, 1
X.
and Xenophon, who was banished from Athens *
about the time of the trial of Socrates, perhaps
even in connection therewith, because of his intimacy
with Sparta and the Spartans' friend, Cyrus the
younger. Lastly, one of the formal indictments is
referred to as charging Socrates with speaking dispa-
3
ragingly of the democratic form of election by lot,
and with teaching his audience to treat the poor with
4
insolence, by so frequently quoting the words
cusers also took advantage of), political activity of Socrates ing only.
as a plea for not delaying, but after the battle of Arginusae
for striking when the time for by remarking that the oli-
action came. The real impor- garchs elected on the council
tance of the quotation from board their brethren in politi-
Homer, he contends, must not cal sentiments. It is true the
be sought in the verses quoted levity of Alcibiades made him
by Xenophon, but in those dangerous to the democratic
omitted by him (II. ii. 192-197, party, but in his own time he
203-205) the charge was not
: never passed for an oligarch,
brought against Socrates for but for a democrat. See Xen.
spreading anti-democratic sen- Mem. i. 2, 12 ; Thuc. viii. 63,
timents, which Xenophon alone 48 and 68. With regard to the
mentions, but for promoting condemnation of the victors of
the establishment of an oli- Arginusse, Athens had then not
garchical form of government. only partially, as Forchhammer
This is, however, the very op- says, but altogether shaken off
posite of historical criticism. the oligarchical constitution of
IfForchhammer relies upon the Pisander. This day be gathered
statements of Xenophon, how from Frerefs remark, 1. c. p.
can he at the same time assert 243, from the account of the
that they are false in most im- trial (Xen. Hell. i. 7), as well
portant points ? And if on as from the distinct statement
the other hand he wishes to of Plato
_(Apol. 32, C.
ol :
CHAP, not only the Grods of the republican party, but the
**
Grods of Athens. If in some few instances, as in the
trial for the mutilation of the Henna?, insult to the
Grods was brought into connection with attacks on a
republican constitution, the connection was neither a
necessary one, nor was it named in the indictment of
Socrates. Further, as regards the corruption of
youth, this 'charge was certainly supported by the
1
1
Mem. i. 2, 9. opinions. Since then, Droysen
2
Xen. Mem. i. 2, 49 ; Apol. and Schnitzer, Forchhammer,
20 and 29. p. 25, and Kochly, Akad. Vortr.
8
Mem. i. 2, 56. 1, have further gone into the
4
Ratscher (Aristophanes, p. question.
272) gives a review of previous
CONDEMNED ON GENERAL GROUNDS. 216
As1
assumed by G. Her-
is Similarly Van Heusde, Charac-
mann, Praef. ad Nubes, p. terismi, p. 19, 24. Conf. Wig-
33, 11, and by others. Com- gers' Sokr. p. 20.
pare, on the other hand, Rot-
4
Who was 10 years older
scher, p. 294, 273, 307, 311; than Socrates, and certainly
Siivern, p. 3. not his pupil, although possibly
2
Praef. ad Nubes Rhein.
; an acquaintance.
Mas. ii. (1828) i. K. S. 191. Frogs, 1491.
8
In his translation of the See p. 18.
Clouds, see liotsclter, 297.
216 SOCRATES.
philosopher.
0) This is
Aristophanes must, then, really have thought to
jfttjNprr
discern in the Socrates whom the history of philoso-
axsignedto phy sketches features deserving his attack. Saying
the Clouds, this, however, is, of course, not saying that he did
1
Clouds, 98. at Alcibiades, who is concealed
2
In the treatise already re- under the name of Phidippides.
f erred to, pp. 19, 26, 30, 55. See, on the contrary, Droysen,
s
Not to mention the false p. 180 ; Schnitzer, p. 34.
opinion, which however is sup-
4
Such as the calculation of
ported by Hertzberg (Alcibiades, flea-jumps,
p. 67), that the play was aimed
CONDEMNED ON GENERAL GROUNDS. 217
_ CHAP.
special danger.
5
And there is every reason for be-
lieving his assurance.
If then the impeachment of Socrates has, never- (d) Socra-
1 2
Ritter, p. 31. Marbacli* Clouds, 910; Knights, 1373.
Gesch. d. Phil. i. 185, 9 ;
and Further details in Silvern,
Schmegler, Gesch. d. Phil. 30. Clouds, 2i.
CONDEMNED ON GENERAL GROUNDS. 21
Meno, 91, C.
*
How largely this circum- as well as by the above-men-
fctance contributed towards the tioned authority, JEschines.
condemnation of Socrates is
220 SOCRATES.
1
It is well known that Hegel is inferior to the treatise of
has defended it on the side of Preller (Haller, A. L. Z. 1838,
Greek law, and Dresig, a hun- No. 87), although many of its
dred years earlier, maintained details are valuable. Z/iizac,
in a very superficial treatise, de Socrate cive 1796, despite
that Socrates, as an opponent his usual learning, does little
of a republican government, for the question. Grote's re-
had been justly condemned. marks, on the other hand,
Forchhammer goes a great deal touching the extenuating cir-
further in his treatise, and so cumstances, which, without
does Denis. See p. 178, 3. altogether justifying, excuse
Kochly, on the other hand, the condemnation of Socrates,
confines himself, in Acad.Vortr. are deserving of all attention.
i. 382, to the assertion that in Gi-ote, Hist, of Greece, viii.
the indictment of Socrates 678, 653.
guilt was equally divided and
2
Forchhammer repeats the
reduced to a minimum on charge without proof, as if its
either side. The answer of truth were obvious of itself,
Heinsius to Forchhammer (So- and he speaksof orthodoxy and
crates nach dem Grade seiner heresy like a modern theolo-
Schuld. Lips. 1839) is unimpor- gian. But a Greek thought
tant, and the learned Apologia far less of belief than of out-
Socratis contra Meliti redivivi ward service, and hence Xeno-
Calumniam, by P. van Limburg phon, Mem. i. 1, 2, refutes the
Brouwer (Gron. 1838), is de- charge by an appeal to the fact
ficient in insight into the that he had sacrificed to the
general questions involved, and Gods.
JUSTICE OF THE SENTENCE. 221
1
Compare p. 76, 7 ; 89 ; 149, Leben und Schriften, p. 480).
1 ;
178. If Forchhammer considers it
2
Xenophon therefore appeals incredible that Meletus should
to the 5a.tfi.6nov (Mem. i. 1, 2) have given such a careless
in good faith as a proof of reply to Socrates, he forgets
Socrates' belief in the Gods, that it is always the way of
and Plato compares his revela- the world to confound relative
tions with the prophecies of with positive atheism, doubts
Euthyphro (Euthyphro, 3, B). about particular religious no-
indeed known, from other
It is tions with the denial of all re-
sources, how much private di- ligion. This is quite universal
vination was practised, besides in the nations of antiquity,
appealing to public oracles. and therefore the early Christ-
3
Not only Aristophanes but ians were called &6foi.
4
Meletus brings this charge See p. 135, 1.
*
against him in Plato, Apol. 26, Mem. i. 2, 12,
C., p. 10, like Ast (Platen's Forchhammer, p. 43.
222 SOCRATES.
1
Plato's Apol. 33, D., men- follow his training rather than
tions a whole string ;
also that of their parents. This
Xen. Mem. i. 2, 48. fact Xenophon's Apology al-
2
Mem. i. 2, 56 Plato, Char,
; lows, and attempts to justi-
163, B. Conf. p. 212, 4. fy. But in order to decide
3
Mem. i. 2, 49. whether it is an established
4
Conf. Mem. ii. 2, 3. A fact, and whether Socrates is
further charge is connected here to blame, it is indeed
with the above, viz., that he quite possible we need a more
induced many young men to trustworthy authority, and we
UNFOUNDED CHARGES. 22
1
Xen. i. 1, 17. Plato, Apol. 23, C. See p.
z
See pp. 66; 67; 148; 176.
4
166. Chaerephon, ibid. 21, A.
Q
SOCRATES.
(2) Rela- Nor were the political views of Socrates the only
tion borne
things which gave offence. His whole position was,
by his
theory to as Hegel has so well indicated, 3 at variance with the
the ancient
morality. ground occupied by the old Greek morality. The
moral life of Greece, like every national form of life,
rested originally on authority. It relied partly on
the unquestioned authority of the laws of the state,
and partly on the all-powerful influence of custom
and training, which raised general convictions to the
rank of written laws of God, traceable by no one to
To oppose this traditional morality
a definite origin.
was regarded as a crime and conceit, an offence
against God and the commonweal. To doubt its
rightfulness never occurred to any one, nor was
indeed permitted and for this reason, the need of
;
1
Compare p. 65. rights. But this law had long
2At an earlier period it fallen into disuse, if indeed it.
might have given offence, that had ever been in force ; and
Socrates appeared to hold aloof who can blame Socrates for re-
from the political questions of maining neutral when he could
his time,and an appeal might conscientiously side with none
have been made to the old law of the conflicting parties ? Per-
of Solon, Plut. Sol. c. 20 Arist.
; haps it was a political narrow-
in Gell. N. A. ii. 12, 1, threaten- ness, but it was not a crime.
8
ing neutrals in case of an in- Gesch. d. Phil. ii. 81.
ternal quarrel with loss of civil
HIS RELATION TO THE ANCIENT MORALITY. 227
* l
Plat. Apol. 29, C. 4
Mem. iii. 6 iv. 2
; ; Plato,
2
See p. 167 and 223. Symp. 216, A.
3 s
See p. 167, 3. Plato, 1. c.
HIS RELATION TO THE ANCIENT MORALITY. 229
ready in a
Peloponnesian war such a view can no longer be state of
1
Hegel, 1.c. p. 100, is here when a verdict of guilty had
most nearly right, although lie been brought in, the judges
regards the Athenians exclu- could only choose between the
sively as the representatives penalty demanded by the
of the old Greek morality, plaintiff and that asked for by
Forchhammer, on the contrary, the defendant in the present
;
quite just. If this were allowed, Athenians had long since de-
not a word could be said against parted from the ancient state
the sentence of death. For, of things,
according to Athenian custom,
232 SOCRATES.
>
1
Conf. p. 29. Time. iii. 82 ;
ii. 53.
z 4
Clouds, 1083. Plato, Rep. i. 330, D.
HIS RELA TION TO THE MORALITY OF HIS TIME. L>fi
CHAPTEE XI.
Plato, Crito, Phaedo, 59, B., 60, Sym. 222 B.) ; Theages (PL
A., 63, D., 115, A. Euthyde- ; Apol. 33 E. Rep. vi. 496, B.)
; ;
1.
c.) ;
also Apollodorus (Mem. 33, E.) ; Epigenes (Phsedo, 59,
iii. 11, 17 ; Plato, Apol. 34, B. ; Mem. iii. 12) ; Menexenus
A., 38, B. ; Phsedo, 59, B., 117, (Phsedo, 59, B.; Lysis, 206, D.) ;
D. ;
Symp.); Aristodemus(Mem. Ctesippus (Phsedo, Euthyde-
238 SOCRATES.
2
1
Mem. i. 1, 11 ;
iv. 7. Ibid. iv. 6.
3 conf. 106, 2.
Ibid. iii. 10, 1 ;
i. 1 ;
XL
requires that woman should have a recognised, social
position, and have more care spent on her education,
and that her union should be made into a real com-
panionship for life, and should be based on a recipro-
city of capacities and performances.
2
He exhorts to
work, without, however, like his teacher condemning
the Greek prejudice against manual labour. 3 By
many of his expressions he gives us to know what is
4
his ideal of a beautiful and happy life ; but he
neither attempts to give a philosophic reason for his
6
shares the belief of his nation in regard to predic-
tions and sacrifices, himself understanding their inter-
1
Cyrop. viii. 7, 17. See p. phon may be the nameless
179. friend referred to in this pas-
-
Tbid. i. 1, 3. See p. 167. sage.
:1
llnd. viii. 2, 14; Mem. i. Cyrop. i. 2,2; viii. 8, 13;
-', :2. vii. 5, 72.
'
Hml. 6, 12, speaks of these
6
A weak echo of the prin-
dutics in language similar to ciple of Socrates is found i.
Mem. iii. 1. Perhaps Xeno- 4, 3.
244 THE SO CHAT1C SCHOOLS.
CHAP. thing centres in the person of the prince. The state
__J is an Asiatic kingdom. The highest aim to which
all its institutions tend,
1
is the strength and wealth
of the sovereign and his courtiers. Even this view is
anything, nor employs any to begin with (Diog. ii. 34, 62)
form for deduction, not even he was still poor in after-life
the favourite method with So- on his return to Athens. He
crates, that of definition (p. did not venture it is said to
467). In what then does his found a school, but delivered a
importance for philosophy and few speeches and treatises for
history consist ? The applica- money (Diog. ii. 62; what
tion of the thoughts of others, Atlien. xi. 507, c. and Diog. ii.
without verifying their con- 20 say is not credible). Whether
tents or observing their me- the dirty stories are true which
thod, may in many respects be Lysias in Atlien. xiii. 611, tells
very meritorious, but it cannot of him is a moot point. His
be regarded as a service ren- writings according to Atlien.
dered to philosophy. give the impression of an hon-
./Eschines, son of Lysanias
1
ourable man. The time of his
(Plato, Apol. 33 E), against death is not known.
whom Dioff. ii. 60, can have no 2
According to Diog. ii. 61,
weight, is praised for his ad- 64, Phryiiichus in Phot. Biblio-
herence to Socrates (Diog. ii. thek, c. 151, p. 101, seven of
31 Senec. Benef i. 8). Plato
;
. these were considered to be
mentions him (Phasdo, 59, E.), genuine. The scanty remains
among those who were present of them have been collected by
at the death of Socrates. Ido- Hermann, De JEschin. Socr.
meneus, however (Diog. ii. 60, Reliquiis, Gott. 1850. See Ibid.
35 iii. 36), transferred to him
; p. 8.
*
the part played by Crito in Longin. irepl eupe'y. ;
Ehet.
Plato, probably only out of Gr. ix. 559 (ed. Walz).
spite to Plato. We afterwards Phrynieh. in Phot. Cod. 61,
encounter him in the company Schl. 158, g. E; Hermagenes,
of the younger Dionysius (Diog. Form. Orat. ii. 3 ; Rhet. Gr. iii.
ii. 61 63 Pint. Adul. et Am.
; ; 394. M. Psellos in Con. Catal.
c. 26, p. 67 Philont. v. Apollon.
; of Bodl. MSS. p. 743 quoted by
i. 35, p. 43; Lncia, Paras, c. iii. 469, against
Grote, Plato,
32, conf. Diodor. xv. 76), to which authority Timon in Diog.
whom he had been recom- ii. 55 62 carries no weight.
;
Probably he altogether an
1
shoemaker Simon. is
2
imaginary person.
In addition to Plato, four founders of Socratic
schools are known to us Euclid, Phsedo, Antisthenes,
:
CHAPTER XII.
careful work has not been Attica, Grate, Plat. in. 471, A History
added to by Mallet's Histoire concludes, but without suffi- ftJi e
de 1'Ecole de Megare, Par. 1845. cient reason, from Dionys. gc j(00 L
More independent, but some- Judic. de Isao, c. 14 Karpo-;
1
Diodorus, a native made a gross mistake, irp&rov
in Caria, belongs to the most must be read for rplrov. See
distinguished dialecticians of Mallet, p. 96. Callicrates, also
the Megarian School. Cic. De mentioned by Athenaeus, is
Fato, 6, 12, calls him 'valens known from Diodor. xx. 21, as
'
dialecticus Sext. Math. i.
;
a favourite of Ptolemy Soter.
3
309, SiateKTiKiiraros Sext. Stilpo of Megara (Diog. ii.
and Diog. ii. Ill, give two 113) must have lived until the
epigrams of Callimachus ad- end of the fourth century. At
dressed to him. His fallacies least he survived the capture of
and his researches into motion, Megara by Ptolemy Lagi, and
and into hypothetical sen- his defeat by Demetrius Polior-
tences, will be mentioned here- cetes, two events which hap-
after. Pique at a dialectical pened 307 and 306 B.C. respec-
defeat inflicted by Stilpo at tively, Diodor. xx. 37 and 45.
the table of Ptolemy Soter, is On the former occasion the
said to have killed him (Diog. ;
interview with Diodorus Cronus
Plin. Hist. Nat. vii. 53, 180). may have happened for Stilpo
;
applying to them.
1
fied in By making use of the CHAP.
XII.
testimony of Plato, and by considering the inward
1
The following are the rea- violent altercation ensued be-
sons. It is clear and generally tween the parties. are We
allowed that Plato's description not by this state-
obliged
is too minute to be without ment to refer this view to an
reference to some philosophic earlier period than that of
School then existing. Even Socrates. And among the So-
DeHxten, De Plat. Sophistes cratic Schools there is none to
Marb. 1869, p. 44, is reduced to which it can be attributed
admit thi*. There is also defi- with so much probability as to
nite reference to a Socratic the Megarian. Some think
School in the passage where an that the passage refers to Plato
opinion is attributed to certain (as Socher, Plat. Schriften, 265,
philosophers, to the effect that and ScJiaarschmidt, Die Samm-
true existence only belongs to lung der Plat. Sch., 210, do); and
immaterial things. A philoso- this reference commends itself
phy of conceptions was un- most to those who with them
known before the time of So- declare that the Sophistes is
crates, and the description not the work of Plato. The
agrees with no one of the pre- reference would of course be
Socratic Schools. The philo- to an earlier form of Plato's
sophers of conceptions are teaching or to such Platonists
clearly distinguished from the as had failed to advance with
Eleatics, and are manifestly their school. This is the view of
quite different from them. Ucbenveg, Unters. Plat. Schrif.
Still less can the Pythagoreans 277 ; Pilffer, Ueber d. Athetese
be thought of, as Mallei has d. Plat. Soph. Berlin, 1869, 21 ;
8
268 THE SOCRATIC SCHOOL.
CHAP. connection of the several doctrines, we hope a pic-
XII l
Diog. ii. 119, says of him: sal and different from any
e\tye, rbv \tyovra avOpdnrov tivai particular man. He denies
fj.r)Seva (in which we suggest that what is shown to him is
flirelv instead of elvai), otfre yap cabbage, because there was
r6v5f Xtytiv odre r6j/5e. r( yap cabbage 10,000 years ago in ;
fj.a\Xov r6vSe % TOcSe; otfre apa other words, because the gene-
-r6vSf. Kal ird\iv rb \a,^avov OVK ral conception of cabbage
tart rb
SeiKfvfJifvov. \dxavov means something unchange-
able, not something which has
'
ception, but against the reality rov Trdffxtiv Kal iroitlv Svvdpecas,
and the same thing, the Good. For the same reason 1
CHAP.
the moral aim, as Socrates had already shown, is
always one the knowledge uf the Good, and if we
speak of many virtues, all these are but vary ing-
names for one and the same virtue. 2
What, however, is the relation of other thing's to
this one Good? Even Euclid, as accounts tell us,
denied any existence to what is not good; 3 from
which it follows immediately, that besides the Good
nothing real exists. This statement is on better
4
authority attributed to the later Megarian School.
Therewith many conceptions, the reality of which
had been originally assumed, were destroyed as such,
and reduced, in as far as any reality was admitted
about them, to mere names of the Good. 5 Here,
tt>p6vijffiv, ore Se Otbv, Kal &\\ore icti/j.ei'a. r<? ayaBw avi'ipei /XT; elvai
vovv xal ra \oiird. <paffK<av.
2
Diog. vii. 161, says of the
4
Arist. in Em. Pr. Ev. xiv.
Stoic Aristo aperds T' o6rt
:
17, 1 oOtv fyiovv ovrol ye [of
:
n'iav iro\\.ots v6/j.a<n KO\oviJitmiv. KOUS] rb bi> ev elvai Kal rb /x^j bit
us ol yity^ptKol. That this one etepov tlvai, /xrjSe yevvao~0ai rt
virtue was the knowledge of /xrjSe fyOfiptaQai p-noe KivflffOai
the good, appears not only Toirapdirav.Arist. Metaph. xiv.
from the internal connection 4 1091, b, 13, refers to Plato,
;
sage before quoted, does not this oneness excludes in its ab-
mention a good which is One. stract form any development
On the contrary, he speaks of or subordinate distinction. But
his philosophers of conceptions it is quite possible that the
2
ii. 107 : rats re cnroSei^efftv the meaning given above is the
Mara.ro ov Kara aAAa real meaning of these words.
\-f)fj.^ara
3
tear' lirttyopav. Since in Stoical Ibid. KO.I rbv Sia TrapajSoATjs
terminology which we are of \6yov avrjpei, \iyui> tfroi <?
6/j.oiuis
course not justified in ascribing avrbv t) ?
avojuoiW oWo-rao-flai
'
to Euclid on the strength of xal tl fitv d^oitav. irepi avra
this passage X^jujua means the 6?/ jtaAAop ^ ofs onoia torn*
major premiss, or more often ai>a<rrpt<f>tffdai el 5' t avop.oi<i>v,
both premises, and !irpopa the icapt\K(iv TTJV
conclusion (Ih'yckx, 151 1'rantl,
;
266 THE SO CRAT1C SCHOOL.
CHAP. ing in the Sophistes of the philosophers of concep-
_ tions, says that in their discourses they destroy matter
called Sia\av6dvuf, the Electra, Vit. Auct. 22, and Prantl. The
the tyKfKa\v(iij.ti>os, the (rcopiTrjs, Kfpa-rirns is as follows Have :
the Kfpariviis, the <pa\a.Kp6s. The you lost your horns ? If you
first of them -is given as fol- say Yes, you allow that you had
lows in Arint. Soph. El. 25, 180, horns. If you say No, you
a, 34, b, 2 Ales, ad loc. Cic.
;
allow that you have them still.
Acad. ii. 29, 95 If a man says Diog, vii. 187 vi. 38
; Seneca,
;
1
See p. 254, 1. (v 3 KOCT/JLOV KptiTr6v tffri' iroii}-
'*
In Dlog. ii. 135. riKbv &pa KOI ypa.^a.riKi'iv la-rw
3
Sejct. Math. ix. 107 Zeno : 6 /cdo>os.
*
had concluded, because the Cic. N. D. iii. 8, 21 ; 10, 26 ;
must have reason. See Cic. Sext. Pyrrh. iii. 243, men-
De N. D. ii. 8, 21; iii. 9, 22. tions asimilar argument against
To this Alexinus replied rb :
becoming in general, in imme-
irot-nriKbv TOV /ur; iroiTjriKov ol rb diate connection with the proof
7pa/ujuaTi/cb>
la-ri
rov
noil
^ rb7pa/iju<mcoO
(caretraj
given above
is
: Neither can what
come into being, for it exists
Kpii-n6v
&\\as rex'''1 ' 6ftapovfj.fvvv npt~n- already nor can what is not,
;
T&V 4<TTi rov p.)) Totovrov. oiiSt for nothing can happen to it ;
270 THE SOCRATIC SCHOOL.
CHAP. accurate form of the same proof. All that moves 1
XII '
8
consequently nothing at all is. Id. ix. 362 Pyrrh. iii. 32
; ;
1
Sext. Math. x. 112, 118. A agreed therein with the Elea-
fxirther argument, the first tics.
2
argument of Zeno's, is not at- Sext. Math. x. 48 ;
85 ; 91 ;
1
See Sext. 91, 97. Diodorus neously). This example is
here proves the assertion that sufficient to show how erroneous
anything predicated of the past Grote's view (Plato iii. 501) is,
may be'true, whilst it is not that Diodorus only intended to
true predicated of the present assert that present motion is
by such irrelevant statements only the transition point be-
as that it can be said of Helen tween the past and the present,
2
that she had three husbands Sext. Math. x. 347.
3
(one after another), but never See p. 261.
that she has three (cotempora- 4
Cic. De Fato, 6, 12; 7, 13 ;
PHILO THE MEGARIAN. 273
2
thing possible nothing impossible can result but ;
18 we ought to be proud of
:
a(popfj.ut> T>pa>TTJT0ai <paivtTai KOI-
moral actions, OVK Inl Tip Tbv VTJS yap O&TTJS /UOXTJS Tots Tpurl
1
Alex.-Simpl. in Categ.- Philo, do not affect his real
Schol. in Arist. 65, a, 39, b, 6 ; meaning at all, however much
Boelts, 1. c. Panthoides, accor- they may follow from the words
ding to Epict. Diss. ii. 19, 5, of his definition. Hence Prantl,
attempted by another turn to p. 454,can hardly have quite
avoid Diodorus' argument, by grasped the meaning of Philo.
4
disputing the sentence that Gell. xi. 12 ; Amman., De
every thing past must be of Interpret. 32, a ; Schol. in Arist.
necessity. 1103, b, 15 ; Simpl. Categ. f. 6,
2
See Sext. Pyrrh. ii. 110; h. In order to show that every
Math. viii. 113 ;
i. 309 ;
Cic. word has a meaning, Diodorus,
Acad. iv. 47, 143. according to Ammon., gave the
*
The inferences by which name oA\o/iV to one of his
Sextus, M. viii. 115, refutes slaves.
STILPO THE MEGARIAN. 275
ayaBov ;
. . . and again, c. 23 :
evapyri -jrp6Taffiv, ori Sav ol \6yoi
ov (ify- a\\a rb ^irl ^Ti\irtevos erepoi TavTO. erepa effTi Kal OTI
TOIOVTOV tffTiv. el
Trepl Iwirov TO Ta erepa KfX^ipiffTai a.\X4]Xtav,
rpexfiv KaTriyopovfifv, oti tprjcn tSoKovv SeiKvvvai avTov avrov Ke-
Tavrbv elvai Ttf irepl ov ttariiyo- X<apio-iAvov fKaffTov :i.e. since
the conception of StaKpar-ns
ai/Bp&Trqi TOV ri ?iv fj.ovo-iK6s is a different one to
tlvai rbv \6yov, erepov Se rep that of 2co/cpaT?7s \tvKis, the
'
ayaBif Kal Trd\tv rb "ir-rov tlvai one according to Megarian
TOV Tp\ovTa elvai Sia(pfpfiv 4a- '
1
See Chrysipp. in Pint. Sto. at the death of relatives.
Eep. 10, 11, p. 1036, and pp. 211, What Alex. Aphr. De An. 103,
2 ; 210, 6. a,remarks also probably applies
2
See p. 251, note 3. to Stilpo, that the Megarians
Sen. Ep. 9, 1 ' An merito
*
: look on cur-x.\i\<ria. as irpwrov
reprehendat in quadam epistola oiKe'toy.
Phitarck, Demet. c. 9 ;
4
Epicurus eos, qui dicunt sapi-
entem contentum
se ipso esse Tranquil. An. c. 17, p. 475 ;
iis, quibus summum bonum ii. 13, 153 (Stob. Floril. ed.
visum est animus impatiens.' Mein. iv. 227). That Stilpo
And a little further on Hoc :
'
thereby lost his wife and
inter nos et illos interest :
daughter is probably a rheto-
noster sapiens vincit quidem rical exaggeration of Seneca.
incommodum omne sed sentit ;
The well-known '
omnia mea
illorum ne sentit quidem.' mecum porto,' attributed by
Connected herewith is the ob- Seneca to Stilpo, is by Cicero
servation of Stilpo in Teles, in referred to Bias of Prisne.
Stob. Floril. 103, 83, in order *
Pint. An. Tran. c. 6 ; Diog.
to warn from excessive grief ii. 114.
278 THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS.
CHAP. would not allow to be an evil.
1
To be independent
of everything without, and to be absolutely free from
wants this highest standard of Cynicism for the wise
man was also his ideal. And lastly, the free attitude
towards religion adopted by the Cynics was also shared
2
by him, and finds expression in many of his utterances.
Whether, and if so, in what way, he attempted
(r?) TJie to set up a logical connection between the Cynic and
1
In the fragment in Stob. these subjects could not be
Flor. 40, 8. discussed in the street. The
2
According to Diog. ii. 116, story in Pint. Prof, in Virt.
he proved that the Athene of 12, p. 83, of the dream in which
Phidias was not a God, and he conversed with Poseidon is
then before the Areopagus apparently invented to justify
evasively replied that she was his omission to sacrifice.
not a Otis but a fled, and when 3
Conf. Diog. ii. 106, and p.
Crates asked him as to prayers 263, 3.
and sacrifices, replied that
ELEAN-ERETRIAN SCHOOL.
1
See Preller's Phsedo's Life story, thatno conquest of Elis
and Writings, Rhein. Mus. took place at that time, where-
fur Philol. iv. 391. Phsedo, as Diog. says of Phasdo arv-:
4
Categ. Schol. in
Simpl. Ktav Ttav irepl nxdrcava KO.} Eevo-
Arist. 24 of Airo TTJS
68, a, :
Kpdrriv . . .
Karf(pp6ffi.
8
'Eptrpias avfipovv ras TTOI^TTJTOS Diog. 134.
ELEAN-ERETRIAN TEACHING. &
derided for being a Cynic, but we know that he 1
CHAP.
busied himself with enquiring as to the chief good
in a practical way. He affirmed that there was only
one good intelligence, 2 which, to his mind, was
identical with a rational direction of the will. What
3
Diog. 140
1
: TO. fi(t> oSc vpura Sj/catoeruvrjj' \4ytffQoi, KaBdirtp
Kairetypove'iro, KVUV Kal Afjpoj inrb fiporbv Kal avOpcairov.
5
riav "Epfrptiwv O.KOVUV. That he exercised a con-
2
Cic. Aead. ii. 42 Diog. : siderable influence, on his
123 irpbs 81 rbv tl-novra TroAAo
: friends by his teaching and
ra 07060 eirvQtro ir6(ra rbv api6- his personalty is shown by
fibv Kal ft i>oni(oi ir\fl<a riav e/co- Plutarch, Adul. et Am. c. 11,
r&v and in 134 are some ques- p. 55 Diog. ii. 127-129.
;
*
tions to prove that the useful Diog. 125 ~R(tav6s rt tirifjie-
:
CHAPTER XIII.
THE CYNICS.
the men living about 366 B.C. is usually called the battle of
and Pint. Lycurg. 30, Sch., Delium. The story, however,
is of no account, for Diog. ii.
quotes a remark of his on the
battle of Leuctra. According 31 quotes the same words of
to Eudocia ( Villoison's Anecd. Socrates in a different way.
i.
56), he attained the age of
2
Xen. Mem. iii. 11, 17 Sym. ;
account in Diog. vi. 1, that An- nor does Antisthenes deny his
tisthenes was praised by So- teaching. At a later period
crates for his valour in the Antisthenes wrote against Gor-
battle of Tanagra. This objec- gias, Athen. v. 220, d.
5
tion applies even if the battle According to Xen. Symp. 4,
referred to was not the victory 62, he introduced Prodicus and
of the Athenians in the year Hippias to Callias, and recom-
456 B.C. (in which it is impos- mended to Socrates an unknown
sible that Antisthenes can have Sophist from Heraclea.
taken part), but the battle Hermippus in Diog. vi. 2 ;
423 B.C. between Delium and Ges. Abh. i. 253, which was
Tanagra (Th-uc. iv. 91), which intended for those who, like
THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS.
CHAP. commit his views to writing in numerous treatises, 1
XIII.
the language and style of which are most highly
2
praised.
3 4
Among the pupils of Antisthenes, Diogenes of
are by him divided into 10 Stob. Eel. ii. 348, u, a), and the
volumes. a few
Excepting Corinthians placed a marble
fragments, the only ones which dog on his grave. (Diog. 78.)
are preserved are the two 4
Steinltart, Diogenes, Allg.
small and comparatively worth- Encyc. sect. i. bd. xxx. 301 ;
less declamations, Ajax and Gottling, Diogenes der Cyniker.
Ulysses, the genuineness of Ges. Abh. i. 251 Bayle, Diet.
;
adv. Jovin. ii. 206.) When this Plut. Tran. An. 4, p. 466 An. ;
vi. ;
Val. Max. iv. 3 Diog. ii. ;
14 ;
Cent. 1. c. Tatian adv. ;
288 THE SO CRAT1C SCHOOLS.
CHAP. coarse humour, strength of character, admirable even
XIII.
in its excesses, fresh and vigorous mind, have made
besides Crates and Stilpo: vi. 91), his life must have lasted
Onesicritus, the companion to the third century. Another
and biographer of Alexander, Crates, a pupil of Stilpo, who
with his sons Androsthenes and is mentioned Diog. ii. 114, must
Philiscus (Diog. vi. 75 ; 73 80; ;
not be confounded with the
84 ; Pint. Alex. 65 for parti-
; Cynic Crates. He is probably
culars respecting Onesicritus the same as the Peripatetic of
in Miillei-, Script. Rer. Alex. that name in Diog. iv. 23. In
M. p. 47) Monimus of Syra-
;
zeal for the Cynic philosophy,
cuse, the slave of a Corinthian Crates gave away his consider-
money-changer, who was driven able property. For the different
HISTORY OF THE CYNICS.
chia l
and her brother Metrocles 2 were gained for the CHAP.
XIII.
Cynic School. The names of several immediate and
remote pupils of Metrocles 3 are known, through whom
the School may be traced down to the end of the third
century. Yet all its nobler features were cultivated
170, 259, also mentions moral the former was the teacher of
and satirical poems. Accor- Demetrius, the latter of Ti-
ding to Julian, Or. vi. 200, b, marchus, and both of them of
Plutarch also wrote an account Echecles. Contemporary with
of his life. From Diog. 91 ;
Echecles was Colotes, Diog. vi.
Apul. Floril. 14, we learn that 102. Contemporary with Me-
he was ugly and deformed. trocles was Diodorus of Aspen-
1
The daughter of an opulent dus, mentioned in Zellers Phil,
family from Maronea in Thrace, d. Griech. vol. i. 289. At an
who from love to Crates re- earlier period, under Antigonus
nounced her prospects and the Great, lived the Cynic
habits of comfort, and followed Thrasylus (Plut. Reg. Apoph-
him in his beggar's life, Diog. theg. Antig. 15, p. 182 Vit.
;
nippus.
2
Soon after it became extinct as a School,
1
A
pupil of Echecles, and dan Ikaromen. 15, who makes
previously, as it would seem, Menippus an eye-witness' of a
of the Epicurean Colotes (Diog. number of things, all of which
vi. 95, 102), of whom we only happened about 280 In B.C.
hear that he occasionally ap- the face of so many clear
peared in the mask of a fury, proofs, the language of Diog.
to add greater force to his vi. 99, who, speaking of Me-
2
teaching of Socrates. The many-sidedness, however, (i) jpe^'
of Socrates, whereby the intellectual and the moral JJJJJJJ
elements were completely fused, and the foundations Itrwnledy
13, 61. (Stob. Floril. ed. Mein.) (pdixp Kal yap Ti/iV ^X el Ka ^
2
Diog. 103 :
ypdfj.fj.ar a yovv jro\vT(\(iav. Ibid. 74, 75.
^ fiavBdvtiv ftyaffxtv o 'Avn- '
Diog. 86 : ravr ?x w off ^
aOtvrjs rovs ffwfypovas ytvo^tvovs, (fiadov Kal e(pp6fTiffa Kal fjLtra
Iva i^ $iaffrpf<poivTo TO?S aAAoT- Movawv fff^v' i6di)i>. TO S iroAAa
piots. Kal u\/3ia TV<POS f/Mptye. A pa-
It would be hardly credible rody of this verse is the epitaph
204 THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS.
CHAP. and Monimus. Diogenes too is said to have zealously
1
XIII.
impressed on his pupils the sayings of poets and of
2
prose writers. Besides, it cannot be conceived that
men, who wrote so much that was good, should have
declared war against all culture. One thing we may
however take for established, that the value of culture
was exclusively estimated by its efficacy in producing
the Cynic type of virtue. Hence this School depre-
ciated all speculative knowledge, only studying logic
and physics, in as far as these sciences seemed neces-
that they are language which does not touch the CHAP.
XIII.
thing Allowing with regard to composite
itself.
evSf \erai KOI 8i5acu, &ffirff> ap- adai, erf pa uvra fKeivoiv ois irpoffri-
yvpov ri fj.ev effnv, nv, on 8' olov 6erat. Selj/ 8e, efaep fiv Svvarbv
Karrirepos. &ar uvorias effri yuec avrb \eyfo~6at Kal elxev onte'iov
r)S ff8ex f fivfu opov Kal \6yov, avrov \6yov, avev rvv a\\tuv
clov rijs ffvvGtTov, la.v re aiV0T)T7) vvv 8e aSvva-
airavrtav \eyeff6ai.
5
(O.V re roTjTTj rj
'
*| >v S a.vrr) roi/ elvai oriovv ruv irpcaraiy
irpuTdii' OVK fffriv. That this, pr)6f)tat \6ycf uv yap tlvai avrip
too, belongs to the description
'
ttXA* T) ovo/j.a^eo'Bai P.OVOV ovojia
of the teaching of Antisthenes, yap fxeiv ra Se eK rovruv
/j.uvov
201, E., and is wrongly denied \fKrat, OVTW xal ra bv6p.aia avruv
by Eraiidis, b, 503 the ex-
ii. ; ffufj.TT\aKtvra \6yov yeyovei/ai
pressions indeed Aristo-
are ovop.ar<i)v yap avtt.ir\oK^v elvai
telian. Alexander, on the pas- \6you ova-lav. And
201, C e<pt) :
sage, explains it more fully, Se r$)v it.ev p.era \6yov 86^av a\r)6r)
but without adding anything e'lriffrri/urii' elvat, -r^y Se fiAo'joj'
fresh. That this view was not e"/CT6s evKrr-iinijs Kal Stv pet/ ytti)
lirst put forward by the dis- eart \6yos, OVK eiriar-nra. elvai,
ciples of Antisthenes, appears ourwffl Kal ovondfav, ?x et a 8' >
Diogenes and Plato, with this p. 264. For the Cynical attack
difference, that he uses rpavf- which Antisthenes made on
Co-rris and Kua06ri]s instead of Plato in his ~SdBty, see Diog. iii.
ai'6pti>Tr6rris. Amman, in Porph. 35, vi. 16; Athen. v. 220, d,
Isag. 22, b, says : 'Avriffdfvr)s xi. 507, a. A trace of Ant s-
(\rye TO. yevij nal TO e5j Iv thenes' polemic against the
floats tirivoicus elvcu, and then doctrine of ideas is found in
he mentions av0pcoir<$TTj$ and the Euthydemus of Plato, 301,
tTrir^Trjs as examples. The same A. Plato there meets the as-
language, almost word for sertion of the Sophist that the
word, is found in Tzetz. Chil. beautiful is only beautiful by
vii. 605, f. Plato is no doubt the presence of beauty, by say-
referring to this assertion of ing : lav olv irapayfvnTai ffot
Antisthenes, when in the Pann. &ovs, fiovs fl, Kal '6n vvv ty<l> (rot
\6yoi> tli/at . . . Siv Kal awd- irpdypaTos \oyov Xfyri, T&Tf avTi-
CYNIC MORALS. 301
2
difference betweenknowledge and opinion. Indeed,
the whole School prided itself in no small degree on
1
Compare p. 293, 6 Xen. Stob.
Symp. 4, 34, puts words to the
same effect in the mouth of
;
Ekl.
TV Tvxw
ii. 348 :
evopuffav
fTUTp4ireii>.
Aioye'j/Tjr
avr$
^ 6pav
Kal \t-
Antisthenes vopifa, & HvSpes,
'
: yovffav TOVTOV S' ov 8uva.fj.aL
TOVS afdpiatrovs OUK fV ry O"IKW Pa\4eiv K<>va \vfffffirripa. (The
r'bv TtKovrov TT]V trtviav %\tiv,
teal same verse is applied by David,
&\\' Iv rats tyvxais this is then Schol. in Arist. 23, to Antis-
further expanded and Epictet.
; thenes.) Conf. Stob. Floril.
Diss. iii. 24, 68, makes Diogenes 108, 71.
8
say of Antisthenes : 8i8oe /ue This is what Diogenes
TO ^ttt Kal TCt OVK ffjid '
KTTJ(TtS says of himself in Evict.
OUK ip.i\
'
*
Diog. 12 (teaching of An-
tisthenes) :
avaQaiperov 8ir\ov Kal &
aperlj . , .
T?XOS aff^>a.\f<Jtarov
1
otiff inrb
fywTTjfoh rl ainj vfptytyovfv tn
(I Kal nT)8fv &\\o, ovd' for'
<pt\offo<pias, <f>T)'
rb yovv irpbs 4
Trotrof rvx^v irapf- See note 2.
<TKfvaff6ai and 105 :
apto-Kfi aw- See Diog. 105 :
4pVict 8'
THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS.
CHAP. what is wealth without virtue ? A prey for flatterers
XIII.
and venal menials, a temptation for avarice, this root
of all evil, a fountain of untold crimes and deeds of
in Stob. 97, 27; 15, 10; the Diog. 11 says of Antisth. r-fiv :
same in Julian, Or. vi. 199, D. T' a5oW ayaObv Kal t<rov r$
2
Stob. Floril. 93, 35 ^1076- :
ir&vtf, and 72 evyeveias 5e Kal
:
VTJS f\eye, JUT)TC ev ird\ft irXovffla So^as Kal TO rotavra iravra 8(6-
jUTJTe fi> oiKiq apfriiv oiKflv 8vva- 7rcue (Diogenes), irpoKO(Tfj.-fiiJ.aTa
o-0of. Crates therefore disposed Kaitias elvai \fycav. In 41 he
of his property, and is said to speaks of 5<J{ijs f^ave^fiara.. In
have settled that it should 92: e\fj 8e (Crates) ^f'xp' TOW-
only be restored to his children SOU 5e<V tyiKoffofyelv, ptxpi &v
when they ceased to be philo- $6<offiv ol ffrpa-riryol flvai 01/17-
sophers (Diog. 88, on the autho- \drat. Compare also 93. Doxo-
rity of Demetrius Magnes). pater in Aphthon. c. 2, Rhet.
TOS GVK fffre KO.KOV, ovSe yap al- of happiness, a happy man
<rxp6v. See p. 302, 3. could not be found.
z 6
Diogenes in Diog. 68. Di0ff. vi. 3 :
epura vavei
,
^6s,
, ,
et
.,
Se w,
,
^^
e\evdeplas irpoKpivuv.
jg-f^ ^
Therefore
^ ^^
On
Xpovos
eavSe rovrois
fipoxos.
& Svvy xp^ai, dAntisthenes
^ ^^
^
y
p
> _^uc t.
^
'HpaK\ewriK6s rts
in lAidan,
8, Diogenes replies to
the same subject compare the query as to whom he was
also Diog. vi. 38 51 67 Stob. ; ; ; imitating rbv 'HpaK\ea, at the
:
2
Diog. vi. 2, says of Anti- o-rparevofjiai 8e Sxrirep eKetvos eirl
says in Exc. e Floril. Jo. ruv ira6wi>. See Dens. Cyn. 13,
Damasc. ii. 13, 87 (Stob. Floril. Julian, Or. vi. 187, C.
5
ed. Mein. iv. 200) that boys, Plato, Phileb. 44, B. (Conf.
CYNIC MORALS. 307
X 2
308 THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS.
CHAP, it as a means of education, 1 the Cynics, however, so
'
z
rexvrt, a\\d TIVI Sucrx.eptia cf>v- AtJtai. xii. 513, a: 'Avri-
ae<as OVK ayfwovs, \iav, K.T.\. crBevris Se T^V TjSov^y ayaBbv flvat
See p. 305, 6. <t>daK(av, trpofftOriKe Tr\v d/jLercupi-
Arist. Eth. x. 1 Some A.TJTOJ/, but we require to know
1
:
airotyaiveu' r^]v fjSovTiv (j>av-T&V SiwKreov, d\\' ov^l ras wpb ruv
Awf, Kal fl /J.$i fffriv fieweiv yap irAvtav.
4
TOVS iro\\ovs Trpbs O.VTTJV Kal Soi'- Floril. 9, 49 24, ] 4, wliero
;
\fveiv ra?s ffSova'ts, Sib Se'tv els probably the Cynic Diogenes
Tovvaintov ayeiv f\6e?v yap tu> is alluded to. It is, however, a
otfrcos ttrl rb fnftrov. D'wg. vi. 35 :
question whether the words
fj.iUf'iffOat, e\eye (Aioye'wjs) TOVS are taken from a genuine
'
rov S6r]S fiSovris (afjs, TWV 5e ertpous Se'Sot/ce 8ov\os &>v \4\rt9ev
fvavritav virfpdvta ovres, irtvias eavr6y. Diogenes in Dwy. 75 :
Diogenes in Divg. 24 els rbv : tiedoes not prove that the first
fliov irapfffKfvd^fa-dai Sell/ \6yov rj of these statements belongs to
Bp6x ov
2
so Diog. 3.
- ^ a different school from that
SchoL Lips, on H. O. 123 to which the second belongs.
5
( Winckelmann, p. 28) 'Avri- :
Diog. 12 :
a.va<pa.(pcrov oir\ov
<r6fvris tyt\a\v, ws ft TI irpdrrei 6 f,ape-rh. Xen. Mem. i. 2, 19 :
ffofybs Kara -rraaav [aptT^f eVep^e?. Iffus olv efaoiev &v iro\\ol Ttav
3
Dwg. 12 according to Dio- <t>affK6vr{av<pi\o<ro(pf'ii', on OVK
des :
avSpbs Kal yvvaiKbs av Trore 6 Siitaios aSixos yevotro,
ovSe awQpwv v^piffT^s, ovSf &\\o
6
Diog. 10 : SiSaK-rV aireSefoi/ue ovSev, 5>v uddfiffis laTiv, 6 [taOkv
J) TT}V apfrr)f. 105 :
a.veiriffT'ft/j.wv av irore "yeVotro.
apfffKti 8' avrots ical r^]v aper^v
a
The maxim that prudence
fiitiaKTTjv flvcu, Ka6a <pr]<rlt> 'Atri- is insuperable. See p. 142, 3.
a6eirr\s Iv rep 'Hpa.K\ei, Kal ava.- The maxim that you cannot
7
elvau TO. TUV fiAAaij/. Ibid. 12 ayaOovs avSpas 6ewi> et/cdcas elvat.
re *
yuTjSej' firnpfirftv.p. 30i5,See dvfyp dyudbs ov itaaav finepiur
2. The ])assage in Arigt. Etli. fopr^iv riye'irai ;
Exc. e Floril.
X. \ ii. 14, 1053, b, 19, probably Joan. Damasc. ii.13, 76 'Art- :
also refers to the Cynics : ol 5i oQtvijs tpuryefls inr6 TWOS -ri Si-
rbv Tpo\i6fj.evov Kal rbv Svffrv- 5a|ei rbv vibv, tiitfV ft fi.tv Otots
Xau fifyd\ois iffpiiriirrovra tv- nd\\ei avp&iovv, $i\6ao'pov, et 5e
Saiuova (pdffKomfs cTrat, ta.v
y d.v6prl>irots,
314 THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS.
the universal fate of mortals. Accordingly all man-
1
CHAP.
XIII.
kind are divided into two classes. Innumerable fools
stand opposite to a small number of wise men.
1
Dioy. 33 :
avairhpovs eA.eye had found .nowhere, but boys
(Aioye'j/Tjy)
ov TOIIS Kuxpoiis /cat he had found in Lacedaemon.
rv(p\ovs, a\\a rovs /J.-T] Uxovras Ibid. 41 the story of Diogenes
;
iT'flpav. 35Ibid.
rovs ir\fi- : with his lantern. Ibid. 86 f -
'
flirovTa TlvBta. vtKca &i'5pa$, tyw 6t\et [rovs iro\\ovs] &yei. Com-
ffv 8' dj/- 2.
/iej/ oZv, fiirtv, &vSpas, pare p. 292,
8pd7ro5o. Ibid. 27 : men he
CYNIC SELF-RENUNCIATION. 315
clothing.
1
In scantiness of diet they even surpassed CHAP.
xni.
the very limited requirements of their fellow coun-
2
trymen. It is said that Diogenes tried to do without
3
fire, his meat raw, and he is credited with
by eating
saying that everything, without exception, human
4
flesh included, might be used for purposes of food.
Even in extreme age he refused to depart from his
accustomed manner of living, 5 and lest his friends
should expend any unnecessary care on his corpse, he
forbad their burying it at all.
6
A life in harmony
2
Antiquit. iii. 21, 14), from Their ordinary food con-
which it will be seen, that the sisted of bread, figs, onions,
word did not originally mean garlic, linseed, but particularly
something worn out, but a of the Bfpfjwt, or beans of some
rough dress which rubbed the kind. Their drink was cold
skin; an t/jidriov rplpov not an water. Diog. 105 25 48 85 ; ; ; ;
22 76 105.
; ;
Teles in Stol. Clirys. Or. vi. 25.
4
Floril. 97, 31, p. 215. Mein. In Diog. 73, this principle
The Cynic ladies adopted the is supported by the
argument,
same dress, Diog. 93. This that everything is in every-
single article of dress was thing else, even flesh in bread,
often in the most miserable &c. Diog. refers for this to a
condition. Sec the anecdotes tragedy of Thyestes, the writer
about Crates, Diog. 90, and the of which was not Diogenes,
verses on him, Ibid. 87. Be- but Philiscus. A similar state-
cause of the self-satisfaction ment was subsequently made
with which Antisthenes ex- by the Stoics. See Zeller's
posed to view the holes in his Stoics, &c.
5
cloak, Socrates is said to have See Diog. 34.
6
observed that his vanity peered See the accounts which
through them. Diog. 8. differ in details in Diog- 79 ;
318 THE SO CRAT1C SCHOOLS.
CHAP. with nature, the suppression of everything artificial,
1
XIII.
^ .
the most simple satisfaction of all natural wants, is the
watchword of his School. 2 They never weary of belaud-
ing the good fortune and the independence which they
owe to this freedom from wants. 3 To attain thereto,
bodily and mental hardships are made a principle.
4
2
nay, they accustomed themselves thereto, on
l
posure CHAP.
;
3
to know himself, and the best revenge you can take
is to amend your faults. 4 Should life from any
reason become insupportable, they reserved to them-
5
selves the right, as the Stoics did at a later time, of
1
Antisthenes in Diog. 7,
requires KOKWS O.KOVOVTO.S Kap-
:
yvijaluv fj Siairii
4
repdv fw.\\ov 77 t \idois TIS f3d\- Diog. in Plut. Inimic. Util.
AOITO. He also says in Epict. 4, p. 88 and Poet. 4, p. 21.
Diss. iv. 6, 20 (conf Diog. 3) . :
5
When Antisthenes in his
jScuriXiKbp, 3> Kvpf, Trpdrreiv fnev last illness became impatient
3, KotKws 5' aKoveiv. It is said under his sufferings, Diogenes
of Diogenes, Diog. 33, and offered him a dagger (Diog.
also of Crates, Diog. 89, that 18) to put an end to his life,
when his body had been ill- which Antisthenes had not the
treated, he only wrote by the courage to use. That Diogenes
side of his blains the names of made away with himself is
those by whom they had been indeed asserted in several of
inflicted. the accounts to which refer-
2
Diog. 90 says of Crates, T&J ence has been made, but can-
jrSpvas Mr-riSts t\oi$6pfi, ffvy- not be proved. In j&lian, V.
YVfj.vd.fav eavrbv irpbs ras j8Xa- H. x. 11, he refuses the con-
temptuous challenge to put an
3
Antisthenes remarks, Diog. end to his sufferings by sui-
12 :
irpo<rex flv T0 ** ^X^P ^' ^P^' cide for the wise man ought
;
XIII.
others, and nothing which is out of his power ought
() Of to influence his happiness. To these matters belongs
family
'life. family life. Not that Antisthenes would do away
with marriage, because he thought it useful to keep
2
up the race of men; but Diogenes early discovered
that this object might be attained by a community
of wives. 3 Deeply imbued as these philosophers were
with Grecian peculiarities, it never occurred to them
to require, in the spirit of a later asceticism, the en-
tire uprooting of all sexual desires. Natural impulses
might, however, be satisfied in a far more simple way. 4
1
In Dioff. 6, Antisthenes in Chrysippus, according to JHoy.
reply to the question, What vii. 33, 131, projected the same
good philosophy had done him, state of things for their ideal
answers rb SvvaffBai tavrf 6/u-
: state.
\t"iv. Out of this came the 4
Something of the same
caricature of later Cynicism, kind has been already observed
described by Lwnan, V. Auct. in Socrates, p. 163, 1. With
10. Yet Diogenes and Crates the Cynics this treatment of
were anything but haters of the relation between the sexes
their fellow-men. becomes an extravagance and
-
Diog. 1 1 :
ya.fi'fiffeiv re [rbv a deformity. In Xen. Symp.
~
4, 38, Antisthenes boasts of his
(Tvi>i6vra comforts, since he only asso-
The conjecture ciates with those fair dames to
( Winkelmann, p. 29, according whom others would have no-
to Hermann) appears mis- thing to say. That he did so
taken : Antisthenes might well on principle is stated in Dio//.
require evQveffrarcu Trpbj reKvo- 3. That he declared adultery
iroitav, women most
suited for permissible, as Clemens. Floril.
child-bearing, whilst consider- v. 18 says, is by no means cer-
much toil, danger, and expense Kal irarplSos. Far less objec-
for an enjoyment, which might tionable is the maxim of Antis-
be had much more easily. See thenes in Diog. 12: rbi/ S'tKawv
Diog. 4 ;
51 ;
60 ; 66 ;
89 ;
Plut. irepl ir\elovos iroif'io'da.t TOV cruyye-
Ed. Pu. 7, Schl. p. 5; Stob. n$9,
Floril. 6; 39; 52. Diogenes
*
See pp. 310, 1, and 277.
322 THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS.
CHAP. to have seen nothing revolting in marriage between 1
2
his friends to buy him back. Not that such conduct
was a vindication of slavery. On the contrary, the
1
Dio Chrys. Or. x. 29, whose yap rbv juev Sov\ov elvai rbv tf
statement is confirmed by its i\e60fpov. 8' ovOfv Statpf-
<t>v<rfi
1
The above description rests irtpl V&IJLOV % irepl
only in part on direct testi- which appears to be identical
mony, but the combination with the woAtTiK-bs SiaXoyos men-
which is the basis of it does tioned by Athen. v. 220, d, is
not lack great probability. We in itself probable, and is con-
know on authority that Dio- firmed by Plato's Politicus.
genes in his iro\iTfia (Dioff. Rejecting, as his dialogue does,
80) demanded a community of the analogy between states-
wives and children, and that manship and the superinten-
in the same treatise he pro- dence of a flock, we might
posed a coinage of bones or naturally think that Plato was
stones (a.ffrpa.ya\oi) instead of provoked to it by some such
gold and silver, Atlien. iv. 159,e. theory and since we know
;
1
It is expressly told of Dio- to breakfast in public. Fol-
genes, Diog. 37; 54, that he ex- lowing out this principle, he
postulated with a woman who not only took his meals in pub-
lay in an indecent position in lic in the streets (Diog. 48 ; 58),
a temple, and that he called but he also did many other
blushes the colour of virtue. eccentric and startling things,
2
See the following note, and in the sight of all passers by
Cic. Off. i. 35, 128 Nee vero :
(Diog. 35 ; 36). It is even
audiendi sunt Cynici aut si qui asserted of him, Diog. 69 :
quod ea, quse turpia non sint Theod. Cur. Gr. Aff. xii. 48, p.
(for instance, the begetting of 172, says the same of him,
children) nominibus ac verbis mentioning an instance. We
flagitiosa dicamus (that we have already, p. 320, 4, observed
consider it unseemly to name that these statements can
them), ilia autem qu;s turpia hardly be altogether fictitious.
sunt (stealing, &c.) nominibus But it is incredible that Crates
appellemus suis. and Hipparchia, as is said to
3
This is especially said of have been the case, consum-
Diogenes, Diog. 22 rravrl Tp6ir<p
: mated their nuptials in the
lXW ro Te&vra., apicncav 11 Kal midst of numerous spectators.
KaBetStav Kal 8ia\ey6nfvos, and There are, however, not a few
according to Diog. 69, he sup- authorities for it Diog, 97 ;
:
familiarity.
To the same source may be referred the Cynic (d) Re-
attitude towards religion. Xo course of study under ^^L
Antisthenes was needed to make men doubt the truth
the popular faith.
)f Such doubts were raised on all
and since the appearance of the Sophists, had
sides,
Fel. Oct. 19, 8, and Lact. Inst. quid in Herculem ludit, with-
i. 5, epit. 4. Clemens, Protrept. out, however, giving further
46, C., and also Stromat. v. particulars. Compare what
601, A., says 'Ai/Ti0-0eVijs
: . . . was said of Socrates, p. 175.
*
6tbv ovSevl toiKevcu $i\aiv Sdirep The Cynics are therefore
avrbv ovSels ti<n.aO(ti> & dtttvos Atheists in the ancient sense
Svvarai. Theod. Cur. Gr. Affect, of the term, i.e. they denied
i. 75, p. 14 'Ai/TKr0eVTjs ....
: the Gods of the state, although
trepl roG Oeov
rav oAa>v /3oo airb from their point of view they
fl>c6vos ov yixapi^erat, o(f>6a\/j.o'is were certainly right in reject
-
2
have carried this process nearly so far as the Stoics ;
"
1
According to Stob. Floril. Even their Ethics are
he explained the legend
29, 92, scanty enough, and their sys-
of Medea boiling up the old tern gave no opportunity for
into young to mean that, by those lengthy, physical dis-
bodily exercise, she made ef- cussions, on which the Stoics
feminate men young again. were so great.
2
Dio says this expressly, 4
jElian, V. H. xiv. 33 ; Diog.
and little has come down to us vi. 54.
of Cynic interpretations.
332 THE SO CR AT1C SCHOOLS.
CHAP. Notwithstanding these pretensions, the indepen-
_ dence of these philosophers was not so great that they
could dispense with every relation to others. It was
1
Diog. 11 : ical fpaa8-f)fffffOai praising the Spartans, replied :
5e p6vov yap etSeVai TOC ffocpbv, ovSe yap larpbs vyifias &v iroimi-
rivoiv xpfy fpav. 12: a^ifpaffros KOS ev TO?S vyiaivovcri TTJV Starpi-
6 aya86s ' at ffwovSaloi (pi\oi. fify iroielrai. Accordingly, Dio-
Antisthenes wrote both an genes calls himself in Lucia ti,
'Epa>Ti/cbs and an 'Epwfufvos V. Auct. 8, ^AeuflepccT^s TGOV av-
(Diog. 14; 18), and he had Opcairwv Kal larpbs ruv Tra6uv, and
mentioned love in his Hercules he expresses astonishment in
(Prod, in Ale. 98, 6 Winckel- ; Dio. Or. viii. 7, that men le>s
mann, p. 16). An 'EpcariKbs of frequently apply to him, the
Diogenes is also mentioned, healer of souls, than they do to
Diog. 80. an oculist or dentist.
2
See p. 314.
4
When Diogenes was pur-
s
Diog. 4 : 'A.t>Ttff9fvns ^PCOTTJ- chased by Xeniades, he is said
6els Sia ri irtKpws TO?S /jLaOnrats to have told Xeniades that he
eV<7rA.TjTTei, Kal ol larpol, <priffi, would have to obey his slave,
rots Kd/j.vovffiv Ibid. 6 : Kal of just as in another case he
la-rpoi <$>i)<ri, fiera ra>v voaoiivruiv would have to obey a pilot or
flirlv, a\\' ou irvpfTTovffiv. In physician. Diog. 30 ; 36 ; conf.
Stob. Floril. 13, 25, Diogenes, 74 ;
Plut. An. Vitios. c. 3, p.
when asked why he remained 499 ;
Stob. Flor. 3, 63 ; Philo,
in Athens, whilst he was always Qu. Omn. Pr. Lib. 833, E.
CYNIC INFLUENCE ON THE WOULD. 3J
1
According to Epict. iii. 24, See p. 319, 3.
7
66, Diogenes read a lesson to Diogenes in Stob. Flor. 13,
the pirates who captured him. 26 : ol /j.fv &\\oi Kvves rovs %-
It cannot, however, have done Bpovs SaKvuvini/, tyk 8e rovs
much good, for they sold him <(>t\ovs, 'tva, a&a<a.
8
notwithstanding; and the story See p. 318.
9
is altogether very uncertain. flvai rbv aa-
Svfffta.ffra.KTov
2
Diog. 63, and above, p. 332, 3. reiov. Antisth. in Philo. Qu.
*
Diog. 4, and p. 332, 3. Omn. Pr. Lib. 869, C.
* 10
Diog. 4 ;
51 92
;
Stob. ;
In Pint. Virt, Mort. c. 12,
Floril. 14, 16 ;
Antisthenes in g, E., p. 452, Diogenes says of
Plut. Vit. Pud. c. 18, g, E., p. Plato rl 5' feciccw l x fff^v,
:
4
Lucian V. Auct. 10. Because Hermog. Progym. c. 3 ;
3
See Diog. 27 ; 83 85 ; Zte- ;
41 (the lantern) Stob. Flor. 4, ;
CHAPTER XIV.
1
THE CYRENAICS.
1
See Wendt, De Philosophia his teaching from Ischomachus,
Cyrenaica, Gott. 1841. and was at once so taken by it
* that he did not rest till he had
The accounts of ancient
and the views of modern made his acquaintance. See
writers on the life of Aristip- Dioff. ii. 78 ;
80.
4
pus are found in detail in Aristippus is not only uni-
H. Stein's De Philosophia
v. versally described as a follower
Cyrenaica, Part, prior, de vita of Socrates (Diog. ii. 47 ; 74 ;
Aristippi (Gott. 1855), which 80 Strabo, xvii. 3, 22, p. 837
; ;
ought to have proceeded some- IMS. Pr. Ev. xiv. 18, 31 Stein., ;
XIV.
From Gyrene, his luxurious home, which at that time
was at the height of its wealth and power, 2 he had
brought habits far removed from the simplicity and
abstemiousness of Socrates. 3 Perhaps he had been
only says that Aristippus and prove it. It is, however, known
Cleombrotus had been in from Plato, Theastet. 161, B. ;
JSgina; that on this fertile 162, A., that the celebrated
island they caroused on the mathematician, Theodorus of
day of their master's death, as Cyrene, was a friend of Pro-
Demetr. de Elocut, 288, asserts, tagoras, and the principles of
is barely possible. The accu- Protogoras are also afterwards
racy of Plato's statement is met with in Aristippus. From
indisputable, notwithstanding the zeal with which Aristippus
Diog. iii. 56 ii. 65
;
but ;
followed Socrates it may be
whether Aristippus left Athens further conjectured that" the
from excessive regard for his study off philosoph y was to him
own safety, or whether his thing.
weakness led him to wish to
HISTORY OF THE CYRENAICS.
1
The chronology of his life have been from all that is
is very uncertain. Neither the known. See Stein., p. 29.
time of his birth nor of his See Xen. Mem. ii. 1 iii. 8.
;
z 2
10 THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS.
CHAP, example of the Sophists, by passing a great portion
V J of his life in various places without any fixed abode. 1
Joan. Damasc. ii. 13, 145 (that time the elder Dionysius, at
Aristippus is meant here ap- another the younger Dionysius,
pears from 146 conf. Diog. ii. ;
at another simply Dionysius, is
68). Also Xen. Mem. i. 2, 60, spoken of. Conf. Stein., p. 57.
appears to have an eye on him. It is asserted
by the Scholiast
The amount of these fees is on Luoian, Men. 13, that Aris-
estimated at 1000 drachmas by tippus was at Syracuse under
Plutarch, at 500 by Diog. 72. the elder Dionysius. This
1
He says of himself in Xen. statement is borne out
by
Mem. ii. 1, 13 : ovS' elsiro \lrfiav Hegesander in Athen. xii. 544,
c for the Antiphon there men-
;
came impossible to find out Cur. Gr. Aff. xi. 1 Diog. ii.
;
2
were Hegesias l
and Anniceris. These three men CHAP.
XIV.
established separate branches of the Cyrenaic School,
which bore their respective names. 3 Amongst the
4
pupils of Theodoras were Bio the Borysthenite, and
5
perhaps Euemerus, the well-known Greek rationalist,
1
A cotemporary of Ptolemy he appears as a cotemporary of
Lagi, who is said to have pro- Menedemus (see p. 281), and
hibited him from lecturing, the Persasus (teller's
Stoic
because he described the ills Stoics, &c.). He
appears, there-
of life so graphically that many fore, to have lived to the middle
were led to commit suicide. of the third century. Accord-
Cic. Tusc. i. 34, 83 Valer. Max.
; ing to Diog. iv. 51, he left the
viii. 9, 3; Plut. Am. Prol. 5, Academy, which he first fre-
p. 497. Suicide was also the quented, and joined the Cynics
subject of his book 'AiroKap- (which reads in our text of
Tfpuiv, Cic. 1. c. Hence his Diogenes as if he had deserted
name neia-iddvaros, Diog. 86, the Academician Crates, in
Suid. 'ApiffT. order to become a Cynic, but
2
Probably also under Ptole- this is not possible in point of
my L, although Suidas, 'Avci/c., time ;perhaps the original
places him in the time of Alex- text meant that by the agency
ander. Conf. Antisth. in Diog. of Crates he was brought over
ii. 88. from the Academy to Cynicism).
8
For the GeoSApftoi and their He then turned to Theodore,
teaching see Diog. 97; Calli- and at last to Theophrastus,
machus in At/ten, vi. 252, c ; for Diog. 151. His free thought
iv.
the 'tiyi)a-uutoi, Diog. 93 ; for the and the instability of his moral
'AwiKtpftoi, ibid. 96; Strabo, principles {Diog. iv. 49, 53)
xvii. 3, 22, p. 837; Clemens, recall the School of Theodore,
Strom, ii. 417, B. Suid. 'AWIK.
;
in which Numenius in Eus. Pr.
Strabo calls Anniceris 6 SOKUV Ev. xiv. 6, 5, actually places him.
liravovOuffai TTJV Kvprii/aiK^v a'tpe- In other respects he is rather a
ffiv KO.\ irapayajt'if our' OUTTJS r^v literary wit than a philosopher.
'AvviKtpfiav. To the Annicereans See Diog. iv. 46-67, various
belonged Posidonius the pupil, sayings of his in Plutarch.
and probably also Nicoteles, the 6
Euemerus of Messene, ac-
brother of Anniceris. Suid. 1. c. cording to the most numerous
4
This individual lived at and approved authorities ; ac-
Athens and other places {Diog. cording to others, of Agri-
iv. 46, 49, 53; ii. 135). Accord- gentum, Cos, or Tegea (see
ing to Diog. iv. 10, where, how- Sieroka, De Euhemero. K6-
ever, the Borysthenite appears nigsbg. 1869, p. 27), is often
to be meant, he was acquainted mentioned in connection with
with Xenocrates. In Diog. iv. Theodorus, Diagoras, and other
46, 54, ii. 35; Athen. iv. 162,d, Atheists (Sieroka, 19, 31). The
344 THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS.
CHAP. while amongst his contemporaries was Aristotle of
XIV. 1
Gyrene.
B. Teach- The Cyrenaic teaching, the leading traits of which
n lie 2
\ y?f* .
undoubtedly belong to Aristippus, like the Cynic,
notion that Theodore was his undertaken by Ennius, or of a
teacher rests solely on hypo- revision of this translation in
thesis. For we have no busi- Lactant. Inst. i. 11, 13 (see
ness to write" Eirfipepov in Diog. Vahlen, Ennian. Poes. Keliq.,
ii. 97 instead of 'Eirrfivpov (with p. xciii. f) 17, 22, 1. c. 169.
;
this was the only School which Math. ix. 171, 34 ; Aug. C. D.
at that time busied itself with vii. 26 ; Ep. 18 Serm. 273, 3 ;
;
combating the popular belief. Higgin. Poet. Astron. ii. 12, 13,
Doubtless, too, that tame reso- 42, D. See also SieroTta- and
lution of the myths into history, Steinhart, Allg. Encykl. v.
for which Euemerus is known, Ersch. d. Gr. i. vol. 39, 50;
is also quite after their taste; in- Muller, Frag. Hist. Graec. ii.
deed, the Cynics who, together 100.
with the Cyrenaics, were at 1
According to Diog. ii. 113,
that time the representatives president of a philosophical
of free thought, did not resort School in the time of Stilpo,
to natural explanations, but to apparently at Athens. Dio-
allegory. In point of time genes there calls him Kupnva'i-
Euemerus may easily have K.&S. JElian, however, V. H.
been a pupil of Theodorus. He x. 3, in recording a saying of
lived under the Macedonian his, calls him Kvprjvatos. He is
Cassander (311 to 298 B.C.), probably the Cyrenaic, who,
the latter having sent him on according to Diog. \. 35, wrote
that journey on which he a treatise Trepl VOHITIKWV. A say-
visited the fabulous island of ing in Stob. Floril. 63, 32, be-
Panchsea, and pretended to longs to him according to some
have discovered in a temple MSS., but to Aristippus accord-
there the history of the Gods, ing to Cod. B.
2
the account of which is given The thing is not altogether
in his Ifpa avaypcup-f). Diodor. undisputed. Eus. Pr. Ev. xiv.
in Eu,s. Pr. Ev. ii. 2, 55 ; Pint. 18, 31, f, says of the elder
De Is. 23, p. 360. Copious Aristippus, without doubt on
extracts from this work are the authority of Aristocles :
found in Diodorus,v. 41-46, and a\\' ovStt utv ovrcas 4v Ttf fyavtpta
fragments of the translation vtpl Tf\ovs $te\fa,TO, 8ti ttjuei 5e
TEACHING OF THE CYRENAICS. 345
general
jwsition. disproved by the fact that they were themselves un-
able to keep clear of theory, the sole object of their
of his School
otherwise be rives olov "ApitTTtTTTros irpoeirijAa-
. .
(pafflv avrovs &xpWra ^7-
.
a, 33 ;
Ibid. 817, a, 11 Syrian
;
these several parts, nor how old res OVK (povro rrji/ airo rovruv
FEELINGS THE SUBJECT OF KNOWLEDGE. 349
that this doctrine did not be- X'>v<nv tVatrrns yap TOV ISiov
1
Sext. Math. vii. 199 :
avd\oya Kal r^v \tiav r^s ffapKbs Kivqaiv
8e flvai 5oKe? rots irtpl Kpirripiiav r\os tlvai \eyet. Math. vii. 199 :
AeyojaeVois /caret rovrovs rovs av- rOiv iruOtav ra fj.ei> iirrtv rjSea,
yap
SpaS Kal TO. TTtpl rf\S>V \y6[JI.(Va '
ra 8t a\yeivd, rci Se p.crav. That
SirJKeiyap ra irafljj Kal firl ra these statements come, on the
re'ATj.Ibid. 200. whole, from the elder Aristip-
2
Euseb. Pr. Bv. xiv. 18, 32, pus, appears to be established by
says of the younger Aristippus several passages in the Philebus.
on the authority .of Aristocles : After Socrates (p. 31, B.) has
rpsis yap t<p-r) KarafrraTeis flvat there shown that pain consists
iff pi rfyv rtfj.fr fpav ffvyKpaaiv fj.iav in a violation, and pleasure in
fjifv Ka6' $v a\yov/j.fv, toiKv'iav To3 a restoration, of the natural
Kara 6d\affffav Xfipuvi erepov 8e '
connection between the parts of
KaO' ^v i]S4fj.f9a., rip Aeiy Kv/j.art a living being, he appends (p.
f<pofjiotov/ui.fvt]v tinai yap \fiai> K'L- 42, D.) the question What :
'
rty /j.ei>
\eiav Kiv^ffiv rrjc T]$OVT)V, ctA.Ai(TT' elirfs ctAA.cs
yap y o^ucu,
rbv Se ir&vov rpax^a-v Kivriffiv. r6Se \eyfts, ws aei rovruv n
Ibid. 89, 90 :
/ueVas re Kara- avayKatov fi^lv ffupfraiveiv, els ol
yap airavia &ce
'
<rrdffeis aiv6fj.aov a.T)5oi>lav Kal (rotpoi tyaffiv del
aicoviav. Sext. Pyrrh. i. 215: re Kal KO.TUI pti. Accordingly
the answer is modified to mean
PLEASURE AND PAIN. 353
OVK afcrjuoa^ej/, cos ael yfveais 0-a.va.i elva.i T^V T}$ovi]v. Nor can
fnnv. oiiorla 8e ou/t Herri rb nap&ita.v we allow that there is a dis-
ffiovris Ko/uiJ/ol
; 70^ ST) rives a5 crepancy (as Su-semihl, Genet.
roihov rbi/ h6yov f'lrixeipovfft Entw. d. Plat. Phil. ii. 35, note,
fj.t\vvfiv rifjuv, ois Se? x'V"' *X 6U/> 720 asserts) between the lan-
These latter words clearly prove guage of Plato, p. 42, D., and
that the assertion, all pleasure the statements which attribute
consists in motion, had been to Aristippus the assumption of
uttered by some one else, when an intermediate state between
Plato wrote the Philebus and ; pleasure and pain. Hence we
since with the exception of cannot countenance the con-
Aristippus no one is known to jecture that Aristippus acquired
whom they could be referred from Plato the more accurate
(Protagoras did not draw the limitation of his teaching.
ethical. conclusions of his prin- Why did not Aristippus say:
ciples), since moreover this as- We are at all times in a state
sertion is universally attributed of gentle or violent motion, but
to the School of Aristippus, pleasure or pain only arises,
since too the epithet Ko/xifbs when we become conscious of
suits him best, it is most pro- this motion ? Yet this is exactly
bable that both this passage what he did say according to
and the passage connected with Diogenes, and what Plato
it on the two kinds of motion makes his representative say,
and rest, are his. The same though certainly riot without
applies to the remark, that some conversational help.
small changes make no impres- 1
Diog. 88 ; 87 ; Plato, Phil.
sion. Likewise, Diog. ii. 85, 11, B. See above p. 347, 1.
*
says of Aristippus re\os 8' :
Dioff. ii. 8!) : 8vvaff6ai 5<=
Diog. .89 :
y 8e rov a\yovvTOS rfiovriv fitvroi f^v TOV
faipfffis (Sis ftprirat Trap' 'ETTI- TjfKal T(\os iivai, Ka6d <pr](n Kal
Tlavainos fvrf irepl TWV alptffewv,
ouSe 7) a^ovia a.Kyrt<iiv. ov TT]v KaTaffTri/j.aTtK^]v riSov^i'
tm yao flvai &/j.(poTfpa, T^V 3ir' avaipfffti a.\yrfi&vuv Kal
TTJS aTroj/ias r\ TTJS OTjSoviay Kirf)- oTov dviix^'70'ioj', TIV 6 'EiriKovpos
(Tecas. (Trel r) airovia olov Kadtv- CLTroSe^fTai Kal Te\os flvai (priffi.
Sovr6s tffTi Ka.TaffTo.ffis. Such Perhaps the words in Cic. Fin.
explicit statements probably be- ii. 6, 18 (after his having said
long to a later time, and are due similar things, i. 1, 39), are
principally to the School of taken from a similar passage :
A A 2
356 THE SOCRATIC SCHOOL.
CHAP. The character of the things whence the feeling of
/ pleasure arises is in itself unimportant. Every plea-
sure as such is a good, nor is there in this respect
1
Diog. 87 :
/UT; Siatpeoeiv re ffeaQai, Oepfvov T/Soj/V elvai raya-
ySoviiv ySovrjs, /njSe %i$i6v n 06v, tt-ra avi^fcrdai ao\> Ktyoirros
elvat. Plato, Phileb.
12, D., -ras fj.tvval ru/as a7a0as ^8oi/dy,
where the champion of plea- T&S Se rivai erepas avrwv /ca/cas.
sure answers the objection of Just as little will Protarchus
Socrates that good pleasures (36, C.) allow that there is
must be distinguished from imaginary pleasure and pain.
bad ones thus eiVi ^ei/ yap
: See p. 347, 1.
-
air' evavriuv .... aural trpay/nd- Dioff. 88 : elj/ot Sf T^V r]So^v
TtaVj ov }jd)V avTai ye aA\^\ai? ayaObv KO.V cnrb TWV acrY?]/u.oTCtTajj/
yfvr\rai, KaOd
'
t vain leu TTCOS yap riSov^ yer/Sovrj <pT]<riv 'ITTTT^OTOS eV
^
aurb
ou% 6fj.oiorarov &j/ tti\, rovro rf -aepl alpffffiav.
aronos
ti
a\\'
yap /cat
olv
r)
1
Diog. 87 says that the Cy- allow of different kinds of plea-
renaics denied a difference in sure, those of the body and
degrees of pleasure, but this is mind for instance. Ritter'g
undoubtedly a mistake. Diog. remarks on Diog. ii. 103, do
ii. 90, says that they taught; not appear conclusive. Just
that bodily feelings of plea- as little can those of Wendt
sure and pain were stronger (Phil. Cyr. 34, Gott. Aug. 1835,
than mental ones. See p. 358, 3. 789) be entertained. Accord-
Plato too, Phil. 45, A. : 65 E., ing to Diogenes the Cyrenaics
in the spirit of this School, only denied that any object
talks of fjityiffrai TUV ySovuv, nor taken by itself and indepen-
is there the slightest reason dently of our feelings was more
for equalising all enjoyments in pleasant than another,
2
their system. They could not Diog. 90 Sib [?.] nal naff avryv
:
allow that there was an abso- aiperfis O&TTJS TTJS ijSovrjs TO. iton\-
lute difference of value be- TIKO. tviu>i> ^ovSiv b\\ripb. iro\-
tween them, some being good Actais lva.vTiovfff)a.i us SvffKo\w-
and others bad but they had
;
TO.TOV avro"is Qatveo-Qai T\>V &6poi-
no occasion to deny a relative fffj.bv rwv rfioviav (vSatfjiovlav itot-
difference between the more or otrruv. See p. 355, 1.
less good, and they might even
358 THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS.
CHAP. demned by the laws of the state and public opinion. 1
XIV.
Lastly, they also directed their attention to the
difference between bodily and mental pleasures. 2
1
Dioff. 93 : ju7)5eV TI elwi 6repov Se rb jjSeirfloi in
belongs Cic. Tusc. ii. 13, 28. Conf. Exc. e Floril. Joan. Da-
2
Dioy. 89 ou iroo-us
:
(j.tt>roi masc. ii. 13, 138.
3(50 THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS.
CHAP.
freeing from the prejudices and
l
good things of life ;
oi>x <5
airex^efos, a\\' 6 343, according to Soter Timon ;
^Sia-ra froTfveiv
'
and Socrates Tatian adv. Grac. c. 2 Tert. ;
2
payment for his instruction but did not hesitate ;
remark was addressed that the 82, Diog. 67, 73, and Athen. xii.
reason why philosophers ap- 544, tell further, on the author-
peared before the doors of the ity of Hegesander, that once
rich, and not the contrary, was having been placed at the
because philosophers knew bottom of the table by Diony-
what they wanted, whilst the sius because of some free ex-
rich did not. The same story pression, he contented himself
PRACTICAL LIFE OF CYRENAICS. 303
for giving fifty drachmas for a same to him whether the house
partridge, Aristippus asked if in which he lived had been
,he would have given a farthing occupied by others before he ;
.for it. The reply being in the did not care whether a fish liked
.affirmative I, said Aristippus,
; him, if he liked the fish. The
ido not care more for fifty Cynicism is betrayed by the
drachmae than you do for a far- anecdotes in Diog. 81, p. 341,
thing. Diog, 66, 75 or with a ; 4, although they are not other-
different turn in Atlien. viii. wise at variance with Grecian
843, c., where the story is told morals.
_f>
f him and Plato apropos of a
PRACTICAL LIFE OF CYRENAICS.
<t>epfu> KOI paKos. The same re- avaXanfiavovffa Sia TTJS 6tyas
mark, and not the story of the fvtpyas Iv avrrj r) Sidvoia ito\\d-
purple referred to by
dress, is KIS uvaKalr) rrjv
iptiv. The same
Pint. Virt. Alex. 8, p. 330: way of thinking is expressed in
ov 6av/j.do/j.at -rbv 2w/c- his definition of pleasure as a
TI Kal rpi/3coi/i \n<p Kal gentle motion of the mind. The
x^M^St xpwptvos 5t' storms of passion would change
/
trfipft rb ti/i/xiM 01') this gentle motion into a violent
and Hor. Ep. i. 17, 27, on which one, and turn pleasure into pain.
passage the Scholiast tells how
7
See p. 347, 1 .
Aristippus carried off the sur- See p. 363, 4, and the story
coat of Diogenes from the bath, that he bade his servant who
leaving his purple cloak in- was carrying a heavy burden
stead, which Diogenes refused of gold cast away what was too
to wear at any price. much for him. Hor. Senn. ii.
3, 99 ; iJiw/. 77.
OVK t\ofji(u. Diog. 69, Finding himself on board a
THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS.
CHAP. their loss. To him no possession appears more
1
XIV.
valuable than contentment, 2 no disease worse than
avarice. 3 He lives an easy life, but he is not on that
account afraid of exertion, and approves of bodily
exercise. 4 His life is that of the flatterer, but he
often expresses himself with unexpected candour. 5
6
Freedom he esteems above all things, and hence will
1
v)St(TToj is the name which Plut. Prof, in Virt, 9, p. 80..
5
Greg. Nauz. 307, gives him, and Diog. 70; Stob. Floril. 1'J, 6.
6
Ibid. 323, he commends him for Stob. Floril. 20, 63.
7
rb eu \dpiffToy TOV rp6irov Kal ffTpoi- See the adventure with
pfaw. ^schines in Plut. Coh. Ira. 14,
p. 462, Diog. 82, which iStob.
2
See Aritt. Ehet. ii. 23 ;
Diog. 71, 73. See also p. 3G3, 3. Flor. 84, 19, probably by mis-
3
Athen. V. H. vii. 3. men- take, refers to the brother of
tions a letter of sympathy ad- Aristippus.
dressed to some friends, who
8
Stob. Floril. 37, 25: 'Apt-
had met with a severe misfor-
tune. He quotes from the in- ffTiv ev T(f /
personal they ;
in the very nature of his system,
lie
1
Even Cicero, who is not ge- iis, qui bene dicta male inter-
nerally his friend, says (Off. i. pretarentur posse enim asotos
:
B
370 THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS.
CHAP, ledge, an untiring critical exercise ; theirs a total
'.... renunciation of knowledge, an indifference to all
theoretical enquiries. His was a scrupulous conscien-
his Ges. Abh. 233, nor are they declared the corresponding con-
regarded as such by Hitter, ceptions for instance, that of
Gesch. d. Phil. ii. 106. Her- the good to be relative. In
mann thinks that Aristippus the next place it is equally un-
was only lacking in the reli- true to say that the Cyrenaics
gious and moral tone of So- only denied the universal va-
crates, but that he steadily ad- lidity of judgments but not that
hered to his logical principles. of conceptions for they de-
;
1
As Schleiermaclusr maintains, Gesch. d, Phil. 87.
376 THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS.
CHAP, at which Aristippus aimed, can only be secured by
'
quences.
1
The value of an action depending upon CHAP.
^^'
its results to the doer, he concluded that any and _
every action might under circumstances be allowed.
If certain things pass for immoral, there is a good
reason why this should be so, if the masses are to be
kept within bounds the wise man, tied by no such
:
Lact. Ira Dei, 9, probably re- dead men, who were raised to
peat after him. Likewise Plut. the rank of Gods for their
Comm. Not. 31, 4, p. 1075, says : benefits to mankind. Diodorus
Even Theodorus and those who in Mis. Pr. Ev. ii. 2, 52. To
shared his views did not de- the latter class of beings Eue-
clare God to be corruptible, merus referred the whole of
&\\' OVK (iriffTtvaav us effri -rt
Mythology, and supposed it to
&<pOapToi>. Ej)iph. (Expos. Fid. be a history of princes and
LATER CYRENAICS. THEODORUS. 379
Diog. 98 reXos
1
: 8' vne\dn&ave 102 ;
Pint. Exil. 16 ; Philo, Qu.
Xapac Kal \vw-tjv T^IV /*/ <hrl Omn. Pr. Tib. p. 606, 884,0.)
Qpovfjffei, T))V 5' eirl a.<ppoffvvri that Lysimachus threatened to
ayaQk Se <J>pdi/7jcrii/
KOI StKaioffvvriv, crucify him, upon which Theo-
KO.KI Se ray evavrias e|ejs, jue'tra dorus uttered the celebrated
That justice
Se ^8o//V Kal ic&vov. saying, that it was indifferent
should be
reckoned among to him whether he went to
good things may be brought corruption in the earth or in
into agreement with what is the air. Cic. Tusc. i. 43, 102 ;
2
Diog. 94 Qixrei T' ovSev
: T]Sb given in the text. Similarly
^ drj5es inre\d[j.&ai>oi> 5tci Se Epiplianiitu, 1. c. ;
conf. p. 343, 1.
*
(Tirdviev ^ evifffj,l>v fy K6pn> rovs Ibid. :
f\eyov TO, a/xapTrj/iara
p.fv fySenBai TOIIS 8" aijScos fX v '
ffvyyi tau.i\s rvyxdveiv ov y&p
3
Ibid. 95 : ical T$ i*tv &<$>povi fK&vra anaprdveiv, a\\d rivi
rJ fpv \vffire\es, flvat. rif 5e irdOfi Karriva-yKaff^fvov KOI
aSid<popoy
'
which pro- nuriifffiv, /j.a\\ov S fj.e
i LATER CYRENAICS. ANNICERIS. 383
1
Clemens, Strom, ii. statement in Diog. ii. 96 of 8'
417, B. : :
XIV '
2 ras xp f ^ as ^vov
Clemens, 1. C. continues : re <j)i\ov n$i Sict
nSoi'ais, aAX^ Kal firl 6ni\la,LS Kal 3iriffTpt<t>eff6aia.\\a Kal wapa T^JV
4vl (pi\ori/j.tais. Comp. Cic. Off. ytyovvlav ?is eVeico Kal
ttivoiav
iii. 33, 116. See p. 347, 2. iroVous viro^fvf^v, nal TOI nQf^fvov
The expression in Clement, TV ^ov^v Tf\os ical axS^evov M 1$
IK TTJS irpd^etas vepiyii'Oft.fvr.v arepfffBat aur^s Spas eKov<rttas
ilSov^i', probably refers not only viro/j.tvt'it> 5t& rV Trpbs riv <pi\ov
to the pleasure resulting from afropyi]v.
4
an action, but to the pleasure Ibid. 96 : n^i flval re avrdpinj
immediately bound up there- r'bv \6yoi> wpby rb 6appriffat Kal
with. rrii rwv iro\\cav 5<5|Tj? inrtpavu
3
Diog. 96 : fateKncov 8t Kal yevevBai Sew 8" avt6ifff8ai Sib
<pt\lav fV fily
Kal X<ipiv Kal irpbs rty eK TTO\\OV ffwrpatpe'iffai' r]fj.1i>
rt
yoyeas TI/U^V Kal virtp irarpiSos <f>av\i)v StdOffftv.
LATER CTRENAICS. SUMMARY. 3&
c c
38S THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS.
CHAPTER XV.
BETROSPECT.
1
Cic. de Orat. iii. 16, 61, quasi familise dissentientes in-
observes with some justice, but ter se, &c. For instance, Plato
somewhat superficially : Cum and Antisthenes, qui patien-
cssent plures orti fere a Socrate, tiam et duritiam in Socratico
quod ex illius variis et diversis sermone maxime adamarat, and
et in omnem partem diffusis also Aristlppus, quern iliac ma-
disputationibus alius aliud ap- gis voluptariae disputationes
prehenderat, proseminatie sunt delectarant.
390 THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS.
CHAP, first recast after the mind of Socrates. In this way
'
the one-sidedness of the smaller Socratic schools
was indirectly instrumental in enforcing the demand
for a comprehensive treatment which should connect
the different aspects of the Socratic philosophy more
closely with each other and with earlier systems, and
decide the importance of each one relatively to the
rest. In both ways these Schools influenced Plato
and Aristotle, Euclid supplying to Plato the basis
for his theory of ideas, Antisthenes and Aristippus
the groundwork for his theory of the highest good.
Of greater importance is the fact that those fol-
lowers of Socrates prepared the way for the course
taken by philosophy after the time of Aristotle.
True as it is that the post-Aristotelian systems are
not immediately connected with the imperfect
Socratic Schools, and that those systems would
have been impossible without Plato and Aristotle ;
still it must not be forgotten that these thinkers
193 ;
his dislike for Socrates, ment of his leading thought,
203 ;
based on some supposed 348 considers feeling produced
;
Socrates, 57
'
Clouds supposed to have been
Archipylus, an Elean philosopher, suggested by Anytus, 203, 206
280 [see Clouds'] considered So-
;
ARI OLE
feet Schools, 50 introduces in- ;
Attic prose, models of, 245 philo- ;
at, 54, 55, 183 the abode of So- ; political views, 213 against his
;
crates, 193, 230; state of public moral and religious views, 214
opinion, 234 political intrigues ; Charmides, a disciple of Socrates,
of, 51; not governed by Sophists, 212
204 fall of, 218 old constitu-
; ; Chronology of the life of Socrates,
tion re-established by enemies 53, n. 1
of Sophists, 219 ancient glory ; Chrysippus, blames Menedemus
of, 219 Gods of, 214 Aristippus
; ;
and Stilpo for plausible fallacies,
led to Athens, 337 282
Atomists, views of, known to Socra- Civil life, 165; renunciation of,,
tes, 57 by Cynics, 319
Atreus, story of house of, 8 Cleon, 210, 30
INDEX,
CLI
Clinomachus, 251 Cynics,284; historyof,284 teach- ;
*
Clouds,' the, of Aristophanes, on the world, 331 go back to ;
210, 215 ; scope of, 214 ; portrait of, 300 declare contradiction
;
^Conceptions, theory of, characte- 310 wisdom and folly, 313 re-
; ;
128 ; proof by, 128, 130; rejected combined with those of Mega-
by Euclid, 259 developed to
;
rians by Stilpo, 275, 284 said ;
CYR ELE
Cyrenaic School, a development of Dialectical tendency supreme in>
the Socratic, 50, 247 separate ; Socrates, 39
branches of, 343 views advo- ;
Didactic poetry illustrating philo-
cated within, 376 sophy in fifth century, B.C., 21
Gyrene, 251 Dike, JEschylus' conceptions of, 8 :
ceptions, 39 a characteristic
;
250
of Socratic period, 40 the foun- ;
I
exists beyond the time of exer- 177; identified with the Good
cise, 261 ; substitutes the Good by Euclid, 263
INDEX. 390
IDE
Gods, Socrates charged with re- Hegesias, a Cyrenaic pupil of An-
jecting the, of his country, 213 ; tipater, 343, 376; adheres to
Cynic views of, 327 the maxims of Aristippus, 380 ;
,
doubts of, 189, 218, 255; world, 259 his doctrine of the
;
TTECUBA
H
Hegel's view
in
doubts of, 18
of
Euripides, 17 ;
the Sai^vwv, 96 ;
TCHTHYAS,
1 Euclid, 250
the successor of
Knowledge, true, only gained by the Good, 263; agree with Plato,
conceptions, 42, 109 [see Con- 260; attack popular notions,
ceptions] virtue consists in, ac-
;
264 ;
f ond of fallacies, 267 ;
cording to Socrates, 140 de-; later, indebted to Cynics, 275,
preciated by Cynics, 292 ; So- 277 inconsistencies of, 386
;
cratic search for true, 124, 108, Meiner's view of sources of So-
n. 1 ; 109, n. 2 ; moral value of, cratic authority, 99
145 Meletus, the accuser of Socrates,
of Self, the Socratic, 121 193, 203, 205, 206 said to have ;
'
REALISM,
tions expanded by Plato into, taph on Leonidas, 77
298 Sinope, the birthplace of Diogenes,
Reason, God conceived as the, of 287
the world, 176, 262; the only Society, renunciation of, by the
thing which gives a value to Cynics, 319 influence of Cynics
;
76 ;
imbued with Greek pecu- reached before the Sophists in-
liarities, 74, 76 ; abstraction, troduced systematic education,
78, 81 ; not an insipid ideal of 55 life begun in trade, 159
;
:
82, 84, 89, 96 his aim to train ; of, 236; death, 200, 235, 285:
men, 114, 263 portrait, 105, 240 ; ; place in history, 186
his appearance, 77 accuracy ; , Philosophy of, 250, 253; ap-
of Xenophon's description chal- pearance at a philosophical
lenged, 135 crisis. 2 different from pre-
;
soc SOC
restricted to ethics, 134, 139; 40; different from what had
analytical, 131 ; opposed to preceded, 39; developed by
doubting, 123; his deviation Plato, 42, 391 leads to Idealism,
;
others, 170; theory of proof, tion of, 389; cover the same
131 chief merit, 131 ; philo-
; ground as Socrates, 50 doctrine ;
meet the want of the age with apathy, 277 his captiousness,
;
cal shock to their age, 186 ; their his free views on religion, 283
relation to Socrates, 187, 188, Stoa, Stilpo the precursor of, 253,
333 ; moral teaching of older, 284 took the Cynic principles,
;
Schools of, 218 pernicious in- ; apathy, 46, 117 later philoso- ;
SUB
of truth, 116 views of indi-
; Tragedy, Greek, involves a con-
vidual independence, 161, 382 ; tradiction, 7 ; analysis of, 5
comprehensive system of, 283 ; Tribon, the, 316
secure freedom by suicide, 319 ; Trojan War, legend of, 3
in advance of Cynics, 381
Subjective character of the theory
of Socrates, 116, 117 TTNITY, Greek, in Socratic age,
Superficial treatment of morals
by Socrates, 155 Utility, the practical test of vir-
Silvern, theory of, on the scope of tue, 124 with Socrates, 134
;
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