EE522 NOTES: APERTURE ANTENNAS

The equivalent Principle

• Volume region: V, surface of V is S, the outward normal

direction of S is n̂ .
• Original problem: Source in V, Field generated by the
source is E and H.

• General equivalent problem: Field internal to V is any

field E1 , H1 , Equivalent magnetic current M and electric
current J on S. If the equivalent currents satisfy
J S 1 = nˆ × ( H − H1 ) , M S 1 = ( E − E1 ) × nˆ
Then the field generated by the equivalent source
external to V are the same as the field in the original
configuration.

• There is no restriction of the internal field E1 , H1 in the

above equivalent problem. Hence one choice is to make
E1 = 0, H1 = 0 . For this case, the equivalent currents are:

J S = nˆ × H M S = E × nˆ , (on S )

Since the field inside S is zero in this case, we are free to

introduce any material to S (1. Same as external, 2. PEC, 3.
PMC). For planar surface S, the problem can be simplified
using PEC or PMC material inside S.
Field radiated by Js and Ms: is equal to the summation of
the field radiated by Js and that by Ms:
e− jβ r
(
E A = − jω Aθ θ + Aφ φ ,
ˆ ˆ A=µ ) 4π r ∫S
J S ( r ') e j β rˆ⋅r '
dS '

e− j β r
(
H F = − jω Fθ θ + Fφ φ ,
ˆ ˆ F =ε )4π r ∫S
M S ( r ') e j β rˆ⋅r '
dS '
Since E and H are related by
(
EF = η H F × rˆ = − jωη Fθ θˆ × rˆ + Fφ φˆ × rˆ )
= − jωη ( − F φˆ + F θˆ )
θ φ

We have the total field:

E = − jω ( Aθ + η Fφ )θˆ + ( Aφ − η Fθ )φˆ 

Let Js and Ms exist on Sa, and define

P = ∫ Ea (r ') e j β rˆ⋅r ' dS ', Q = ∫ H a (r ') e j β rˆ⋅r ' dS '

Sa Sa

(1) Aperture in ground plane:

j β e− jβ r
Eθ =
2π r
( Px cos φ + Py sin φ )
j β e− jβ r
Eφ = cosθ ( − Px sin φ + Py cos φ )
2π r

(2) Aperture in free-space:

j β e − j β r 1 + cos θ
Eθ =
4π r 2
( Px cos φ + Py sin φ )
j β e − j β r 1 + cos θ
Eφ =
4π r 2
(− Px sin φ + Py cos φ )
Example: Uniform rectangular aperture

Lx Ly
Aperture field: Ea = yˆ E0 , | x |≤ 2
, | y |≤
2
To calculate Py:
rˆ ⋅ r ' = rˆ ⋅ ( xx ˆ ' ) = ux '+ vy '
ˆ '+ yy
a sin( β ua )
∫− a
j β ux '
e dx ' = a
β ua
Hence :
Py = E0 ∫ e j β ux ' dx ' × ∫
Lx / 2 Ly / 2
e j β vy ' dy '
− Lx / 2 − Ly / 2

sin ( β uLx / 2 ) sin ( β vLy / 2 )

= E0 Lx Ly
β uLx / 2 β vLy / 2

The radiation field (for aperture in free-space):

j β e− jβ r sin [ β ( Lx / 2)u ] sin  β ( Ly / 2)v 

Eθ = E0 Lx Ly sin φ
2π r β ( Lx / 2)u β ( Ly / 2)v
j β e− jβ r sin [ β ( Lx / 2)u ] sin  β ( Ly / 2)v 
Eφ = E0 Lx Ly cos θ cos φ
2π r β ( Lx / 2)u β ( Ly / 2)v

E-Plane ( φ = 90o ): cos φ = 0, Eφ = 0, u = 0, v = sin θ

sin ( β Ly / 2) sin θ 
FE (θ ) =
( β Ly / 2) sin θ
H-Plane ( φ = 0o ): sin φ = 0, Eθ = 0, u = sin θ , v = 0
sin [( β Lx / 2) sin θ ]
FH (θ ) = cos θ
( β Lx / 2) sin θ
Half-Power beamwidth ( Lx , Ly >> λ ):

Since sin(1.39) /1.39 = 0.707 ,

From ( β Lx / 2) sin θ H = 1.39, θ H = sin −1 ( 2 ×1.39λ / 2π Lx ) ≈ 0.443λ / Lx
λ λ
HPE = 0.886 ( Rad ), HPH = 0.886 ( Rad )
Ly Lx
Note: the HPs are inversely proportional to the size in the
corresponding cutting plane.
The approximate HP expressions give good estimations
even when Lx, Ly as small as 1.5 wavelength.

4π
Directivity: Du = Lx Ly . (100% aperture efficiency)
λ2

Example: Determine the half-power beam width for E and

H plane and the directivity of a rectangular aperture
( 10λ × 20λ ) with uniform aperture field.
Solution:
λ
HPE = 0.886 = 0.0443 ( Rad ) = 2.48o ,
20λ
λ
HPH = 0.886 = 0.0886 ( Rad ) = 4.96o.
10λ
4π 4π
Du = 2 Lx Ly = 2 10λ × 20λ = 2513.27 (34dB)
λ λ
 E−plane
90
Exact
50.76λ / Ly
80

70 sin[(βa/2)sinθ]/[(βa/2)sinθ]

60
HPy

50

40

30

20

10
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Ly / λ
H−plane
90
Exact
50.76λ / Lx
80

70 cosθ sin[(βa/2)sinθ]/[(βa/2)sinθ]

60
HPx

50

40

30

20

10
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Lx / λ
Rectangular aperture with tapered aperture field
Consider constant direction of E:
Ea = eˆ Ex ( x) E y ( y ), ( x, y ) ∈ S a
Then the aperture integration is
Lx / 2 Ly / 2
Pe = ∫ Ex ( x ')e j β ux '
dx ' × ∫ E y ( y ')e j β vy ' dy '
− Lx / 2 − Ly / 2

Example: open-ended rectangular waveguide:

(aperture on ground plane):

The aperture field is constant in y-direction and cosine

variation in x-direction.
b/2 sin [( β b / 2)v ]
∫−b / 2
e j β vy ' dy ' = b
( β b / 2)v
 π x '  j β ux ' 1 a / 2 j ( β u +π / a ) x '
∫− a / 2  a  2 ∫− a / 2 
a/2
cos   e dx ' =  e + e j ( β u −π / a ) x '
 dx '

1 2 j sin [( β ua + π ) / 2] 1 2 j sin [( β ua − π ) / 2]
= +
2 j ( β ua + π ) / 2 2 j ( β ua − π ) / 2
cos( β a sin θ cos θ / 2)
=
1 − [(π / 2)( β a sin θ cos φ / 2) ]
2

sin( β b sin θ / 2)
For E-plane ( φ = 90 ): o FE (θ ) =
β b sin θ / 2

sin( β a sin θ / 2)
For H-plane ( φ = 0 ): FH (θ ) = cos θ
1 − [( β a sin θ ) / π ]
o
2
Directivity calculation
Assumption: (1) Pattern peak near broadside
(2) Aperture relatively large to λ .
(3) Aperture field close to plane wave.

4π ∫ Ea dS '
D= 2
Sa

λ ∫ Sa
Ea dS '

Example: Using the above formula to calculate the

directivity for the open-ended waveguide.
π x'
2 2
 2a  2
∫− a / 2 ∫−b / 2
a/2 b/2
cos( ) dx '× dy ' =   b
a π 
2 π x' ab
∫− a / 2 ∫
a/2 b/2
cos ( ) dx '× dy ' =
a −b / 2 2
4π (2a / π )2 b 2 4π  8ab  4π
D= 2 = 2  2  = 2 (0.81)ab
λ ab / 2 λ π  λ
In the above, the directivity is reduced by a factor of 0.81
compared to uniform aperture of the same size. This
reduction is caused by the tapered aperture, hence the 0.81
here is called aperture taper efficiency that is defined by
ε t = Dt / Du
where
Dt is the directivity of the tapered aperture field.
Du is the directivity of a uniform field aperture of the
same size.
Example: calculate the aperture taper efficiency for a
rectangular aperture whose aperture is given by
 | x'| 
Ea = yˆ 1 − , ( x ', y ') ∈ Sa
 a / 2 
Solution: the x-direction tapering is called triangular taping.
2
a/2  | x'|  a  | x'| 
a/2 a
∫− a / 2  a / 2 
1 − dx '∫− a / 2  a / 2 
=
2
, 1 − dx ' =
3
1 ( ab / 2) 2 3
Aperture taper efficiency ε t = ab ab / 3 = 4 .

Example: An aperture operating at 10GHz has physical

2
aperture area of 0.785 m , a gain of 38dB, a directivity of
39dB. Compute (1) Effective aperture, (2) Maximum
effective aperture, (3) aperture efficiency, (4) radiation
efficiency, (5) aperture taper efficiency.

At 10GHz, λ = 3 × 10 /(10 × 10 ) = 0.03m

8 9
Solution:
G = 38dB ⇒ G = 6309.6
D = 39dB ⇒ D = 7943.3
Du = 4π Ap / λ 2 = 4π (0.785) /(0.032 ) = 10961 (40.4dB )
(1) Effective aperture
Ae = Gλ 2 /(4π ) = 6309.6 × 0.032 /(4π ) = 0.452m 2
(2) Maximum effective aperture:
Aem = Dλ 2 /(4π ) = 7943.3 × 0.032 /(4π ) = 0.569m 2
(3) Aperture efficiency: ε ap = Ae / Ap = 0.452 / 0.785 = 0.576
(4) Radiation efficiency: er = G / D = 6309.6 / 7943.4 = 0.794
(5) Aperture taper efficiency: ε t = D / Du = 7943.4 /10961 = 0.725 .
H-plane sectoral Horn Antenna

Aperture field distribution:

 π x  − j ( β / 2 R1 ) x2
Ea = yE0 cos 
ˆ e
 A
A/ 2 b/2
Py = E0 ∫ cos(π x '/ A)e j β ux '− j ( β / 2 R1 )( x ') dx ' × ∫ e j β vy ' dy '
2

− A/ 2 −b / 2

Steps to evaluate the integral

A/ 2
I =∫ cos(π x '/ A)e j β ux '− j ( β / 2 R1 )( x ') dx '
2

− A/ 2

(1) Convert cosine function into exponentials:

cos(π x '/ A) = (1/ 2) e jπ x '/ A + e − jπ x '/ A 
(2) Write exponential into p( x '+ q) 2 + c
 π / A+ β u 
(π / A + β u ) x ' + ( β / 2 R1 )( x ')2 = ( β / 2 R1 ) ( x ')2 + x '
 β /(2 R 1 ) 
 1 2π / A+ 2 β u  2π / A+ 2 β u   2π / A+ 2 β u  
2 2
= ( β / 2 R1 ) ( x ') +
2
x '+  −  
 2 β /(2 R1 )  β /(2 R )   β /(2 R )  
 1 1
2 2
 2π / A + 2 β u   2π / A + 2 β u 
= ( β / 2 R1 )  x ' +  − ( β / 2 R1 )  
 β /(2 R1 )   β /(2 R1 ) 
= p ( x ' + q )2 + c
Where
2
2π / A + 2 β u  2π / A + 2 β u 
p = ( β / 2 R1 ), q = , c =− ( β / 2 R1 )  
β /(2 R1 )  β /(2 R1 ) 
(3) Evaluate the integral into Fresnel integrals:
Let p ( x '+ q) = (π / 2)τ
2 2

A/ 2 π t2 j (π / 2)τ 2
∫ e jp ( x '+ q ) dx ' =
2 p ∫t1
dτ
2
e
− A/ 2

π
=
2p
[C (t2 ) − C (t1 ) + jS (t2 ) − jS (t1 )]
Where
π π
t1 = (q − A / 2), t2 = (q + A / 2)
2p 2p
And the Fresnel integrals are defined by:
C ( x) = ∫ cos(πτ 2 / 2)dτ , S ( x) = ∫ sin(πτ 2 / 2)dτ
x x

0 0

The total radiation field is

e− jβ r
Eθ = j β (1 + cosθ ) sin φ Py
4π r
e− jβ r
Eφ = j β (1 + cosθ ) cos φ Py
4π r

Directivity: For a given axial length R1, there is an

optimum value of A/Wavelength for which the directivity
is maximum. The optimum H-plane horn: A = 3λ R1 .

Explanation: For given R1, when A increases from

beginning from A=a, the aperture size increases, hence the
directivity will increase. However when A is too large, the
phase error will be so large as to cancel the radiation in the
main beam direction, resulting in reduction in directivity.
 Computer assignment

Write a computer program to calculate the radiation pattern

of H-sectoral horn antenna (H-plane, use equation 7-119).
The input parameters to your program are: a, b, A, λ .
And the output is the radiation pattern as a function of θ
from 0 to 80 degrees with increment of 1 degree. Your
program may have the following structures:

Start of program
Input parameters
Calculate derived parameters (such as R1 , β , etc. ).
Determine the number of integration points N and dx.
Open a file for output.
Loop for theta=0 to 80
Perform the numerical integration to get f (θ ) :
Sum=0
Loop over integration grids j=1,2,…N
Calculate x'
Calculate integrand h
Sum=sum + W * h
End loop j.
F=abs(sum)
Write (theta, F) to output file.
End loop theta.
Close file.
End of program.
Usually 0.05λ as the initial grid size. Hence the number of
grid point is N = int [0.5 + A /(0.05λ )] , and the actual grid size
is determined by ∆x = A /( N − 1) . A simple method to
evaluate the numerical integration is to use the trapezoidal
rule. The following FORTRAN code shows the application
of the trapezoidal rule to calculate
F (θ ) = ∫
A/ 2
e j β x 'sinθ dx '
− A/ 2

IMPLICIT NONE
INTEGER I, J, N
REAL WL, A, DX, W, THETA, BETA, PI
COMPLEX F, CX
PARAMETER(PI=3.1415926)
WRITE(*,*) 'Input A, WL=?'
READ(*,*) A,WL
OPEN(1,FILE='sample.ptn',status='unknown')
BETA = 2.0 * PI/WL
N = 0.5 + A/ (0.05 * WL)
IF (N < 2 ) N=2
DX = A / FLOAT(N-1)
DO I=0, 80
THETA = FLOAT(I)*PI/180.0
F=0.0
DO J=1,N
X= - 05.* A + DX * FLOAT(J-1)
W=DX
IF((J .EQ.1).OR.(J.EQ.N) ) W=0.5 * DX
CX=(0.0,1.0) * BETA * X * SIN(THETA)
F=F+W * EXP(CX)
END DO
WRITE(1,*) THETA, ABS(F)
END DO
CLOSE(1)
STOP
END
Circular apertures:
Aperture is on x-y plane (z=0).
Aperture radius=a.
Will consider: uniform and tapered distribution.

1. Uniform aperture field

Ea = xE
ˆ 0 , ( x, y ) ∈ S a
2π
ˆ 0∫ ∫
a
P = xE e j β rˆ⋅r ' ρ ' d ρ ' dφ '
0 0
Again,
rˆ = xˆ sin θ cos φ + yˆ sin θ sin φ + zˆ cos θ
r ' = xˆ ρ 'cos φ '+ yˆ ρ 'sin φ '
rˆ ⋅ r ' = ρ 'sin θ cos φ cos φ '+ ρ 'sin θ sin φ sin φ '
= ρ 'sin θ cos(φ − φ ')

ˆ 0 ∫  ∫ e j βρ 'sinθ cos(φ −φ ') dφ ' ρ ' d ρ '

a 2π
P = xE
0  0 
a
ˆ 0 2π ∫ J 0 ( βρ 'sin θ ) ρ ' d ρ '
= xE
0

ˆ 0 (π a 2 ) 2 J1 ( β a sin θ ) /( β a sin θ )
= xE

The radiation field:

j β e− jβ r 2 J ( β a sin θ )
E = (θ cos φ − φ cos θ sin φ )
ˆ ˆ E0 (π a 2 ) 1
4π r β a sin θ

2 J1 ( β a sin θ )
E-plane pattern ( φ = 0 ): F (θ ) = θ
β a sin θ
2 J ( β a sin θ )
H-plane pattern ( φ = 90 ): Fφ (θ ) = cos θ 1
β a sin θ
For large apertures, the HP values for E and H plane are
almost the same, they equal to
HP = 1.02λ /(2a) (rad )
Side lobe level ( a >> λ ): -17.6dB
4π
2 (
Directivity: D = π a2 ) .
λ
u

Example: An aperture antenna with uniform aperture field

has HP=2 degrees. Find the size and the directivity of the
antenna.
Solution: From HP = 1.02λ /(2α ), a = 0.61λ / HP = 17.48λ
Du = 4π (π a 2 ) / λ 2 = 4π × π × 17.482 = 12061, (40.8dB)

Tapered aperture field:

Aperture taper efficiency will reduce
SLL will reduce
HP will increase.

Parabolic taper:
  ρ ' 2  8 J ( β a sin θ ) λ
Ea = 1 −    , f (θ ) = 2 , ε t = 0.75, SLL = −24.6dB, HP = 1.27
  a   ( β a sin θ ) 2
2a

Parabolic squared taper:

2
  ρ ' 2  48 J 3 ( β a sin θ ) λ
Ea = 1 −    , f (θ ) = , ε t = 0.55, SLL = −30.6dB, HP = 1.47
  a   ( β a sin θ ) 3
2a
Parabolic reflector antennas

Parameters: D---Aperture diameter

F/D---Focal length-to-diameter ratio

Points on surface can be specified in two ways:

(1) by ( ρ ', z f ) : ( ρ ') 2 = 4 F ( F − z f )
(2) by (rf ,θ f ) : rf = 2 F /(1 + cosθ f ) = F sec 2 (θ f / 2)
Re lation of ρ ' and rf :
2 F sin θ f θf
ρ ' = rf sin θ f = = 2 F tan
1 + cos θ f 2

Normal direction: nˆ = −rf cos(θ f / 2) + θˆ f sin(θ f / 2)

Properties:
(1) Rays from the focal point "O" will be reflected by the
parabolic surface
(2) All reflected rays are parallel to the axis z f .
(3) The ray path from "O" to reflecting points to focal
plane have the same distance (that is equal to 2F).

Feeder pattern: General

F (θ f , φ f ) = θˆ f Fθ (θ f , φ f ) + φˆ f Fφ (θ f , φ f )
Feeder pattern: Linear:
F (θ f , φ f ) = uˆi F f (θ f , φ f )

Methods to obtain the radiation pattern of the reflector

antenna:
(1) GO/Aperture distribution method
Find the aperture field distribution and integrate
over the aperture (flat, focal plane) to get the
radiation field.
(2) PO/Surface current method
Use PO approximation to calculate the current
distribution over the reflecting surface (curved)
and integrate over the parabolic surface to get the
radiation field.
PO/Aperture Distribution Method

Ray tube: formed by rays originated from "O" in a small

angular region " dΩ ". This ray tube has a footprint on the
focal plane of "dA".

Conservation of power: Powers flowing through any cross

section in the ray tube are the same.

Using the power conservation concept, we can show that

the electric field magnitude over the focal plane is inversely
proportional to the distance from "O" to the reflecting
surface:
1
Ea (θ f ) ∝
rf
The reducing in field magnitude given in the above
equation is called spherical spreading loss (because the
reflected rays are parallel, the power does not spread over
the reflecting part of the ray tube). Based on this analysis,
the electric field distribution on the focal plane can be
shown to be
Ff (θ f , φ ')
Ea (θ f , φ ') = V0 e − j 2 β F uˆr (for linear feed)
rf
Where uˆr is the same as the reflected electric field and can
be found using the Snell's law:
Er = 2( nˆ ⋅ Ei ) nˆ − Ei ,
uˆr = 2( nˆ ⋅ uˆi ) nˆ − uˆi
  j β e − j β r 1 + cos θ
 Eθ =
4π r 2
( Px cos φ + Py sin φ )
 − jβ r
 E = jβ e 1 + cos θ
 φ
4π r 2
(− Px sin φ + Py cos φ )

P = ∫ Ea (r ') e j β rˆ⋅r ' dS '

Sa

2π a Ff (θ f , φ ')
= V0 ∫ ∫ uˆr e j βρ 'sinθ cos(φ −φ ') ρ ' d ρ ' dφ '
0 0 rf
In the above equation,
θ , φ − − − − Angle of observation
ρ ',φ ' − − − −Integration variables
rf ,θ f − − − Variables related to ρ ',φ ':

( )
rf = 4 F 2 + ρ '2 /(4 F ), θ f = 2 tan( ρ '/ 2 F )

Example:
Let the feed be a short dipole the is parallel to xˆ f -
axis. Then the primary pattern is given by
Ff (θ f , φ ') = 1 − cos 2 θ f sin 2 φ '
rˆf (rˆf ⋅ xˆ f ) − xˆ f
uˆi =
1 − (rˆf ⋅ xˆ f ) 2
For axial symmetric feed pattern (primary pattern),
Ff (θ f ) is independent of variable φ ' , then
a F (θ )
P (θ , φ ) = 2π V0 ∫ f f uˆr J 0 ( βρ 'sin θ ) ρ ' d ρ '
0 rf