Table 27-2  Common Sensors and Units of Measure

Physical Property Sensor(s) Units

Time Timer, counter Second, cycle1
Temperature Thermocouple, resistive-temperature device, thermistor, Fahrenheit (Celsius)
pyrometer
Force Load cell, piezoelectric, linear variable differential Newton, pound (kilogram)
transformer, and capacitive force sensors
Pressure Displacement- and diaphragm-type pressure sensors Pounds force per square inch (kilopascal)
Flow rate Differential pressure flowmeter, mechanical flowmeter, Cubic feet per minute (liters per minute)
mass flowmeter
Electric current Current shunt, Hall-effect sensor, Rogowski coil Amperes
Electric potential Voltmeter Volt
Displacement Potentiometer, voltage differential transformer, inductive Inch (millimeter)
and capacitive sensors; synchro; resolver; encoder;
ultrasonic sensor; machine vision sensor
Velocity Potentiometer; voltage differential transformer; inductive Inches per minute (millimeters per second)
and capacitive sensors; synchro; resolver; encoder;
ultrasonic sensor; machine vision sensor
Acceleration Potentiometer; voltage differential transformer; inductive Inches per minute squared (millimeters per
and capacitive sensors; synchro; resolver; encoder; second squared)
ultrasonic sensor; machine vision sensor
Radiation (visible light, Photodiode, phototransistor, solar cell sensor Lumen (candela)
infrared, ultraviolet)
Acoustic (sound) energy Microphone Decibel

Cycle = Interval of time based on frequency.

1

Source: American Welding Society

It is very difficult to sense many of the process response be used to control the weld volume and profile through a
variables since no sensor exists that can measure such robot control system. Some common sensors and the units
things as mechanical properties and microstructures. they can measure are shown in Table 27-2. Some typical
However, sensors do exist that can measure things sensors are shown in Figs. 27-10 through 27-12, page 878.
such as:
•• Temperature
•• Weld profile
•• Weld size
•• Penetration
•• Radiation

Sensing Devices
Sensing devices are generally transducers that convert en-
ergy from one form to another. They can be as simple as a
thermocouple or as complex as a three-dimensional laser
camera. Thermocouples detect heat and convert it into an
electrical voltage that can be used to regulate a multitude
of devices, for example, the motion control device, which
can increase or decrease the travel speed and impacts the
heat input and resultant temperature, and the power source, Fig. 27-10  Welding current sensor capable of measuring up to
wire-feed controllers, which varies weld parameters to af- 1,000 amps d.c. This production unit is for permanent attachment in
fect the heat input. Three-dimensional laser cameras can a welding system.  © IMPACT Engineering

Automatic and Robotic Arc Welding Equipment   Chapter 27  877


Fig. 27-11  Gas turbine flow monitor precisely measures the flow
rate of welding gases. It can be used for argon, helium, CO2, or any
mixed inert welding gas. Flow rates can be digitally displayed from
5 to 255 SCFH in 1 SCFH increments. The accuracy of the 1 percent
of full scale reading is much better than a conventional ball-type
flowmeter.  © Computer Weld Tech., Inc.
Fig. 27-12  This wire-feed speed sensor uses optical encoder
technology to transmit information to the weld monitor. This,
coupled with the amperage sensor, can be used to detect electrode
extension. These data can be supplied to the motion control
device and electrode extension can be accurately maintained.
Weld volume, profile, deposition rates, as well as other issues may
require accurate control and monitoring of wire-feed speed.  tooling cost, and increases quality and productivity with no mechan-
© Computer Weld Tech., Inc.
878  Chapter 27 Automatic and Robotic Arc Welding Equipment
A less typical sensor, a high speed laser profiling camera,
is shown in Figs. 27-13 and 27-14.
For video of an electrode submerged arc
welding setup with vision control, please visit
www.mhhe.com/welding.
The laser vision camera has been designed for factory
environments. However, more severe environments will
require more intensive maintenance. Wherever possible,
Fig. 27-13  A precision laser sensor and laser vision camera for
applications in the shipbuilding industry. AUTO-TRAC is for seam
finding, seam tracking, and adaptive control for hard automation
(special-purpose CNC machines) welding processes like GMAW
being shown here. It is capable of detecting weld slope, mismatch,
undercut, bead width, convexity, open porosity, pinholes, and
metal drops. The laser profiler acquisition rate is 16,000 points per
second while the sensor acquisition rate is 2,000 Hz allowing it to
easily keep up with the hybrid laser/GMAW process. Advantages of
laser vision-based seam tracking systems over mechanical probes,
human adjustments, or other means include optimized adaptive
welding parameters, extremely accurate wire positioning, no mate-
rial damage due to contactless sensing, preweld joint variation in-
formation, and a perfect overlap for cylindrical parts required to be
leakproof. It is designed for precise torch positioning, the modular
components allow for Ethernet connectivity, and the adaptive soft-
ware module can be interfaced directly to the welding equipment.
All this makes for faster welding speeds, decreases the amount of
operator monitoring, lessens intervention requirements, reduces
ical probe parts to replace.  © Servo-Robot Corp.
 Process Monitoring Systems
Data collection and storage functions are done with the
welding process monitoring system’s computer. The data
processing capability will include:
•• Decision making
•• Statistical analysis
•• Signal filtering
These systems can compare what has been set per the
welding procedure and what is actually occurring, and if it
exceeds the plus or minus tolerance, it can sound an alarm
or shut the welding operation down. These monitors can
store information from a number of welds to allow for off-
line interpretation and statistical process control methods.
Fig. 27-14  Four electrode submerged arc welding setup with vision
control. Electrode wire diameters are 3⁄16 inch and travel speed is varied Process Control Systems
around 20 inches per minute based upon joint gap being measured by
the laser camera.  © Servo-Robot Corp.
In process monitoring systems, the monitor has limited
control. If tolerance limits are exceeded, an alarm sounds
or the system can be shut down. In process control sys-
tems, actual weld controllers are used for the following
operations:
it is important to ensure that the camera is properly iso-
lated to avoid any electrical contact with the tool (robot •• Sequence of operation
or other motion control device) on which it is installed. •• Process variables
The camera head has been specifically designed for arc •• Multiple schedules
welding environments. Circulating compressed air in •• Input and output signaling capability
the cooling channel is sufficient to maintain the camera •• Motion
at its proper operating temperature. For heavy welding
applications, shop air should be switched over to an Torch Weaving
air refrigerating system. The compressed air supplied
to the camera for cooling must be oil-free. The com-
pressed air also acts as an air knife preventing weld
spatter and smoke from accumulating on the camera
window. This air supply must be oil-free as well. Oily Weld Joint
air will progressively cover the permanent camera
window with a thin film of oil and reduce the cam-
era’s sensitivity. Vision systems like this consist of
three major components: Current with Constant
Voltage or Current

Voltage Power Source

•• Control unit Voltage with Constant
Current Power Source
•• Vision head (camera)
•• Cables to link them
Joint Left Side Joint Right Side
The welding arc itself can be a sensor in that the volt-
Joint Center
age or current being supplied to it can be measured
and these data supplied to a controller. The controller
Time or Distance
can than be used to signal motorized cross slides or
the robot arm to keep the weld located in the joint, Fig. 27-15  Through-arc sensing for joint tracking. As the weld moves
Fig. 27-15. away from the joint center the edge of the joint is sensed. These data
Sensors of the various types are of no value unless are fed back through the controller to motion control devices, which will
their data can be monitored and used to control the de- keep the weld tracking the joint.  Source: American Welding Society (AWS)
Welding Handbook Committee, 2001, Welding Science and Technology,
viation that is taking place. Monitors and controls will Volume 1 of Welding Handbook, 9th ed., Miami: American Welding Society,
be covered separately. Fig 10.8, p. 435

Automatic and Robotic Arc Welding Equipment   Chapter 27  879

 Jog
Circuit
Switch
Breaker
Fuse Retract-Advance
Switch
Error Reset Power
Switch Switch
Purge
Digital Push Button
Voltmeter
Snap-in Blank
Digital Inches per
Voltage Sensing-A (RC12)
Minute Meter
Motor Control-C (RC7)
Press to Set
Switches Voltage Control-B (RC13)
Weld Voltage
Weld Wire
Speed
Gas Control Assembly-D (RC9)
Run-in Wire
Speed
115V/Contactor Control-E (RC11)
Preflow Time

Spot-Continuous Strain Relief Clamp (for

Switch Stop Switch Options or User Connections)
Spot
Time Crater Start Switch
Time
Crater Voltage
Burnback
Postflow Crater and Jog
Time Wire Speed

Fig. 27-16  A self-contained weld controller. It is capable of controlling the entire welding sequence for such processes as
GMAW, FCAW, and SAW. It has various input and output signaling capability for controlling such activities as part clamping, motion
control devices, and so on.  Source: Miller Electric Mfg. Co.

These controls may be incorporated into the monitoring
cabinetry, or the robot controller, or they may be a free-
standing controller, Fig. 27-16. This weld controller dis-
plays the voltage and wire-feed speed digitally. It is not
microprocessor based, so it can only remember the last
welding procedure it was set up to run.
Control over a welding operation for automatic or ro-
botic applications is very involved, but the fundamental
goal is to deposit a satisfactory weld. Having good con-
trol over the sequence of operation of the weld or “weld
sequence” is essential. A typical weld sequence requires
control over the following:
•• Start button activation (this may be remote controlled
when the fixture is loaded and the operator is in a safe
position)
•• Preflow of the shielding gas timer (flux in the case of
SAW)
•• Run-in speed (improves starting characteristics by
controlling wire-feed speed prior to arc starting)
•• Arc initiation (can sense when an arc is started)
•• Weld voltage
•• Weld wire-feed speed
•• Stop button activation (this may be remote controlled
by a timer or a limit switch when the torch or gun has
reached a specific position)
•• Crater voltage
•• Crater wire-feed speed
•• Crater time
•• Burnback time (keeps the wire from freezing in the
solidifying weld pool)
•• Postflow timer
Auxiliary equipment can be controlled by the weld
controller and must be properly sequenced with the weld.
A control relay is an electromechanical device that uses a
magnetic coil to open and close small switches, Fig. 27-17.
For example, when the start button is pushed, some con-
trol relays activate (CR54 and CR52). The CR54 relay
will stay energized until the postflow timer times out,
while the CR52 relay will deenergize when the stop but-
ton is activated. If part clamping is required prior to arc
initiation and is required through the weld cooling down,
CR54 would be the correct relay to use. If the motion

880  Chapter 27 Automatic and Robotic Arc Welding Equipment

 CR56*

CR55*

CR54*

CR50*

CR51*

CR52*

Weld Time Spot Time

or
0–Infinity 0–2.5 S
Run-in speed
Welding Wire Speed

Crater Time
0–2.5 S

Weld Speed

Crater & Inch

Speed
Preflow Time Postflow Time
0–5 S 0–5 S
Arc Stop Burnback Time Time
Start Initiation 0–0.25 S
* The dotted line condition indicates the time during the weld cycle that the control relay is deenergized.
The solid line condition indicates the time during the weld cycle that the control relay is energized.

Fig. 27-17  A typical weld sequence for a gas metal arc weld. There are 6 control relays that
can be used for various input and output signaling capability. These signals can be used for
controlling such activities as part clamping, motion control devices, and so on.  Source: Miller
Electric Mfg. Co.

control device were only to move when the welding arc is
on, CR51 would be selected as it energizes upon arc initia-
tion and deenergizes when the stop button is activated. In
other cases you may want the arc to start when the motion
control device is in motion. Take a “running start” and
keep moving during the crater fill operation. The control
relay in this case would be CR54.
Connections to the control relays are done on a terminal
strip. This allows for easy connection of auxiliary equip-
ment. In some cases connections are done through recep-
tacles, Fig. 27-18, page 882. These examples are from one
equipment manufacturer’s owner’s manual. Always consult
the specific equipment manufacturer’s owner’s manual on
the equipment that is being used.
Microprocessor-Based Controllers
These types of controllers use computer power to store
and control various welding conditions, Fig.  27-19,
page 882. These systems allow digital readouts and ac-
curate setting of the weld sequence. A tack-feedback
sensor located on the wire drive motor maintains preset
wire-feed speeds very accurately. Voltage sense leads can
be located as close to the arc as possible to maintain the
set arc voltage. Voltage and wire-feed speed (amperage)
are essential variables, and this system uses closed-loop
feedback controls to maintain them, Fig. 27-20 (p. 883).
This system is primarily used with continuous electrode
processes like GMAW, FCAW, and SAW. Other micro-
processor controls are available for other processes like
GTAW and PAW. This control is capable of running all
the various modes of metal transfers including pulse. It
can be set up for adaptive or nonadaptive pulsing. The
eight programs can be modified to meet specific welding
needs. Additional programs can be stored on data cards.
See Table 27-3, page 873 for some sample gas metal arc
pulse programs.
Controller Communication
Automated factories and workplaces depend on accurate
control systems to make them work smoothly and effi-
ciently. The control system is like the nervous system of

Automatic and Robotic Arc Welding Equipment   Chapter 27  881

 Socket/Pin
Remote 14 Letter Information
24 V a.c. for output A 24 V a.c. circuit breaker protected.
contactor
B Contact closure to A completes
24 V a.c. contactor control circuit.
115 V a.c. output I 115 V a.c. circuit breaker protected.
contactor
A J
B K I J Contact closure to I completes
C L N H 115 V a.c. contactor control circuit.
D M G Remote output control C 0 to +10 V d.c. output to remote control.
E F
D Remote-control circuit common.
End View E 0 to +10 V d.c. input command signal from
14-Pin Receptacle remote control.
M Mode select.
A / V amperage voltage F Current feedback; +1 V d.c. per 100 A.
H Voltage feedback; +1 V d.c. per 10 output
receptacle volts.
Electrical ground G Circuit common for 24 and 115 V a.c. circuits.
K Chassis common.

Fig. 27-18  When receptacle connections are used they are generally hard wired from the manufacturer. In some
instances they may need to be field connected by qualified technicians. Understanding what each socket/pin is used for
is essential for proper equipment operation. Always consult the specific equipment manufacturer’s owner’s manual for
specific details.

the body, making everything work in harmony. Commu-

Fig. 27-19  Microprocessor-based weld control for ­automatic
systems and robots lacking weld control capability. This model
is ready to operate, with eight preprogrammed ­synergic pulse
(adaptive/nonadaptive) programs that can be easily ­customized.
Additional memory space and the ability to transfer data from one
control to another is available on data cards. The unit features
17 dedicated inputs, 14 dedicated outputs, and two user-defined
outputs. A quick disconnect ­allows easy interface with PLC or
other control systems. This controller comes with interconnecting
cables, wire drive head, and wire supply support assembly.  and so on. Motion control devices can also move the
© Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
nication systems for on-site programming and testing
of the controller traditionally have been wireless infra-
red. While it is inexpensive and robust and has done
the job well, it has shortcomings. For instance, infrared
requires a direct, uninterrupted line of sight and this is
not always easy to achieve on a busy weld shop floor or
workspace. The search for a better communication sys-
tem is vital for automation applications. Power sources,
wire feeders, and related equipment need to be prepared
for communication using standard protocols including
TCP/IP (LAN), ArcLink, Anybus, Profibus, CAN, or
even straight communication with a PLC. Other com-
munication strategies are being reviewed. This will
allow those manufacturers’ controllers to link a range
of industrial systems into a single network, which will
allow the end user to move closer to the fully integrated
manufacturing plant.
Robotic Arc Welding Systems
In Chapter 26 various motion control devices were cov-
ered that can move the part under a fixed arc. These de-
vices are head and tail stocks, turntables, turning rolls,
welding process along a fixed weldment. These devices

882  Chapter 27 Automatic and Robotic Arc Welding Equipment

 Disturbing
Input Data
Variables Display
Manipulated
Error Input Variable
Sensor
Welding
Set Point or Process Welding
Equipment Process
Desired Value Controller Process
Controller Response
Variable
Control Variable

Fig. 27-20  Closed-loop feedback control of the welding process.  Source: American
Welding Society (AWS) Welding Handbook

Table 27-3  Sample Pulse Welding Programs Electrode Wire Type

and Shielding Gas
Softwire Selection
Program Hardwire Selections (Aluminum)
A 0.035-in. steel, argon-oxygen 0.045-in. 4043, argon
B 0.045-in. steel, argon-oxygen 0.045-in. 5356, argon
C 0.052-in. steel, argon-oxygen 0.035-in. 4043, argon
D 0.035-in. 309 stainless steel, argon-carbon dioxide 0.035-in. 5356, argon
E 0.045-in. 309 stainless steel, argon-carbon dioxide ⁄16-in. 4043, argon
1

F 0.052-in. 309 stainless steel, argon-carbon dioxide ⁄16-in. 5356, argon

1

G 0.045-in. steel, argon-carbon dioxide ⁄64-in. 4043, argon

3

H 0.035-in. nickel alloy, argon ⁄64-in. 5356, argon

3

would be seamers, side beam carriages, orbital weld-
ing machines, and so on. These systems work fine for
the job they were intended to do. However, they are not
very flexible. Systems designed for flat plate generally
cannot weld pipe, and vice versa. This section will deal
with robotic arms, which can move the arc along a fixed
weldment. The weldment can also be mounted on ma-
nipulating devices (perhaps another robot arm) to move
the weld joint into the most advantageous position. The
robotic work cell can be set up to articulate the move-
ment of the robot arm and the weldment-manipulating
device for the best welding conditions. This also al-
lows for the greatest flexibility in the type of weldments
that can be worked on. Figure 27-21, page 884 shows
an example of a dual robot work cell. The parts in this
example had been welded by a welder using semiauto-
matic applications and the flux cored arc welding pro-
cess with 0.052-inch diameter electrodes. This requires a
30-minute cycle time per part to make the 12 to 16 welds
needed. The aggressive application of an integrated
robot work cell and the use of 0.045 solid wire reduced
the cycle time per part to 6 minutes. Some welds were as
wide as 1 inch, and material thickness in some cases was
5
⁄8 inch. Fitup was an issue in that the parts would vary
from 0.020 to 0.100 inch in and out of tolerance.
As defined by the Robotic Industries Association (RIA)
a robot is “an automatically controlled, reprogrammable
multipurpose manipulator programmable in three axes or
more which may be either fixed in place or mobile for
use in industrial automation applications.” The two main
types of robot arms are the articulated and the rectilin-
ear. The articulated arm typically has six axes of motion,
Fig. 27-22, page 884 while the rectilinear arm has less than
six axes of motion and cannot orient the welding torch or
gun in the best fashion. Since the articulated arms are the
most versatile and have a good cost-to-performance ratio,
they make up 90 percent of the welding robots.
In the last three decades over 1.1 million industrial
robots have been sold. These have typically been of the
fixed type. It is not easy to determine just how many of
these are welding robots. Sales of mobile robots are ex-
pected to increase dramatically. Space exploration was

Automatic and Robotic Arc Welding Equipment   Chapter 27  883