Photovoltaic Technology

Photovoltaic Technology
1 Cells and Modules........................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Module quality and standards ........................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Bankability ....................................................................................................................................... 12
2 Inverter technologies .................................................................................................................... 16
2.1 Fundamentals .................................................................................................................................. 16
2.2 Pulse width modulation (PWM) ...................................................................................................... 20
2.3 Inverter components ....................................................................................................................... 23
2.4 Inverter topologies .......................................................................................................................... 26
2.5 Inverters for thin modules ............................................................................................................... 29
2.6 Inverter efficiency............................................................................................................................ 31
2.7 Inverter data sheet .......................................................................................................................... 35
2.8 DC input voltage .............................................................................................................................. 38
2.9 DC- Comparison of inverter topologies ........................................................................................... 40
2.10 Inverter concepts............................................................................................................................. 42
2.11 Grid compliance............................................................................................................................... 48
2.12 Grid management functions of inverters ........................................................................................ 52
2.13 Possible network disturbances of inverters .................................................................................... 56
2.14 PV- plant certification for grid connection ...................................................................................... 60
2.15 Transformers ................................................................................................................................... 68
3 Grid – tied PV system design ......................................................................................................... 75
3.1 PV array – inverter sizing ................................................................................................................. 75
3.2 String sizing ...................................................................................................................................... 76
3.3 Racks ................................................................................................................................................ 87
3.4 Inverter sizing .................................................................................................................................. 95
3.5 Transformer sizing ........................................................................................................................... 99
3.6 Sizing DC and AC cables ................................................................................................................. 106
3.7 Sizing of junction box and DC main switch .................................................................................... 113
3.8 Electrical safety devices ................................................................................................................. 116
3.9 Lightning and overvoltage protection ........................................................................................... 126
4 Commissioning of PV systems ..................................................................................................... 131
4.1 System documentation.................................................................................................................. 131
4.2 Testing of the PV plant .................................................................................................................. 134
4.3 Commissioning procedure ............................................................................................................. 143
5 Operation and maintenance (O&M) of PV systems ...................................................................... 147
5.1 Monitoring ..................................................................................................................................... 147
5.2 Categories of malfunctions/ grid problems ................................................................................... 157
5.3 Fault analysis and trouble shooting............................................................................................... 167
5.4 O&M (Operation and maintenance) ............................................................................................. 174
2
1 Cells and Modules

1.1 Module quality and standards
Modules are produced according to International and European performance standards. There are
different standards for the different technologies such as crystalline (IEC 61215) or thin-film (IEC 61646)
technology. Both standards require random samples to be taken for testing from a production batch. The
module production samples are tested and certified according to these standards by specially equipped
independent testing laboratories such as the German TÜV.
The tests consist of a visual inspection of hot spots, or cracked cells as well as electrical tests such as
insulation resistance and wet leakage current. The modules are tested under different simulated irradiance
conditions such as outdoor exposure, UV exposure, light soaking, as well as under different environmental
conditions. The ‘Standard Test Conditions’ (STC) that the modules are exposed to are irradiance of
1000W/m² in a given atmosphere with an air mass factor of 1.5 at a cell temperature of 25°C. In order to
simulate the environmental conditions of installed modules the measurements are repeated at a lower
irradiance (800W/m²), and a higher cell temperature (47°C) under Nominal Operating Cell Temperature
conditions (NOCT).
In special ‘damp heat’ chambers the long-term resistance to different weather conditions is tested. The
damp heat test exposes the modules to high air temperature and humidity.
3
In the ‘temperature cycle’ test, the temperature is cycled between hot and freezing in order to simulate
different seasons. The module bypass diode is tested by increasing the current to 1.25 times the module’s
short-circuit current, Isc, as measured at STC for one hour while maintaining a constant module
temperature.1 The diode must still function properly after this test.
The maximum power point of the modules is tested under STC in order to ensure that the maximum output
power at STC is not less than 90% of the minimum value specified by the manufacturer. The temperature
coefficients are controlled as well.
In mechanical load experiments the resistance against snow, static or ice loads, wind loads and hail is
simulated. The mechanical load test is done with a module that has just passed the damp heat test and can
thus be considered as a module that has been exposed to high environmental stress.
The modules are fixed according to the installation manuals of the module manufacturer. This is very
important, for example, for frameless thin-film modules. 2,400 Pa is then applied (which equates to a wind
pressure of 130 km/hour) for 1 hour on each face of the module.i If the module data sheet indicates that
the module can withstand a wind or snow load of 5400 Pa, the load applied to the front of the module
during the last cycle of this test is increased from 2 400 Pa to 5 400 Pa.During the test there should be no
intermittent open-circuit detected. At the end of the test there should be no major visual defects.
Maximum power Pmax (for IEC 61215 only) and insulation resistance are checked after this test.ii
The hail impact is tested with standardised ice balls (25 mm / 7.53 g) that are projected by a launcher at 11
specified points on the module +/- 10 mm. At the end of the test there should be no major visual defects.
Maximum power Pmax (for IEC 61215 only) and insulation resistance are checked after this test. Laboratory
statistics show very low failure rates for this test.iii
The robustness of the connectors is tested as well.
The terminations undergo a stress test that simulates normal assembly and handling through various cycles
and levels of tensile strength, bending and torque tests as referenced in standard, IEC 60068-2-
21.ivNowadays even the combination of installation systems and modules is tested and certified for defined
mechanical loads caused by wind or snow.
IEC 62782 (Dynamic Mechanical Load Testing for PV modules) defines a dynamic mechanical test that
simulates the vibrations of wind pressure and wind suction. 1000 Pa are applied using pneumatic push and
pull cylinders. 100 push and pull cycles are applied at a rate of 1 to 3 cycles per minute. Nowadays some
module manufacturers are subjecting their modules to even more rigorous dynamic mechanical testing.
They are applying a higher frequency and a higher load in their laboratories in order to constantly improve
the construction of the modules.2
The Certification according to these performance standards ensures a high quality. This is essential for
issues such as guaranteeing the performance of a PV system. In Germany, these module certificates must
be submitted as one of the requirements for obtaining permission to connect to the public grid.
1,2,3,4,5
Arndt, Regan, and Robert Puto. "Basic understanding of IEC standard testing for photovoltaic panels." 2010
[2012]. http://tuvamerica.com/services/photovoltaics/ArticleBasicUnderstandingPV. Pdf (2010).
2
Compare Geoffrey S. Kinsey: Dynamic mechanical load testing Solar Power International Workshops on Bankability
Chicago, IL October 21, 2013
4
The safety standard IEC 61730 defines design characteristics of the modules (such as minimum distances of
conductive parts from the module edges, wall thickness of the junction boxes, etc.) as well as requirements
of the materials used in the modules (UV stability, temperature parameters, protection class, etc.).
Tests are performed both on complete solar modules (with and without frames) and on individual module
components (junction box, backside foil).
Different electrical hazards such as dielectric withstand, ground continuity, cut susceptibility, impulse
voltage, reverse current and partial discharge are tested as well as mechanical impacts from a test bag with
a weight of 45.5 kg (approximately 5400 Pa/m² kinetic energy) and the ability of a possible conduit fixed to
the junction box to withstand a bending force.3
Further tests address the resistance against fire and different temperatures.
Even the information that should be included on datasheets and module labels is defined in a European
standard (EN 50380).
3
Compare TÜV Rheinland Immissionsschutz und Energiesysteme GmbH Renewable Energies: “PV module safety
qualification according to IEC 61730:2004. EN 61730:2007.” January 2009
5
A special requirement of IEC 61730 is that the test samples have to be preconditioned with environmental
tests as described in IEC 61215 or IEC 61646 prior to the actual safety tests.
For qualification it is therefore recommended that testing according to IEC 61215 or IEC 61646 is combined
with the IEC 61730 tests. In this way, test samples that have already passed the IEC 61215 or IEC 61646
environmental tests can be used for the IEC 61730 safety tests.
Such a combination results in a testing tree (as shown in the image above), which covers both standards in
an optimal way.
The thermal cycling test simulates the different temperature during the day and year and thus simulates
the environmental influences on the module. The modules are made of different materials that might react
differently to temperatures changes.
The ambient temperature is heated up to 55°C and then cooled down to 25°C. A cycle is an interval of
heating up and cooling down within this 30°C temperature difference. A thermal cycling test TC 50 means
an exposure of 50 cycles.
I-V measurement including Isc, Voc and Pmax is performed at every 5°C of temperature difference.
The Damp Heat Test DH1000 exposes the module to high ambient temperatures and high relative humidity
for 1000 hours, thus simulating the exposure to an extreme environment for 40 days. Delamination and
humidity entering the module due to an inadequate seal can be observed if the module fails this test. The
6
damp heat test also prepares the module for the following mechanical load test since it can be considered
already “stressed” after the damp heat exposure.
The electrical insulation is tested with a dielectric strength tester. It applies a DC voltage up to 1000V plus
twice the maximum system voltage which is mostly 1000V. There should be no breakdown and the module
should be completely undamaged.
For modules with an area larger than 0.1 m2, the resistance shall not be less than 40 MΩ for every square
metre.
Corrosion, ground fault, and thus electric shock hazard can be tested with the wet leakage current test. The
module is completely submersed in a water tank, except cable entries of junction boxes not designed for
immersion (lower than IPX7). A test voltage up to the maximum system voltage of the module is applied for
2 minutes between the shorted output connectors and the water. Then the insulation resistance is tested
again.4
The pass/fail statistics highlight that most of the failed module samples show hot spots or delamination
after the temperature cycle test or during the damp heat test. This shows that ensuring reliability under
different weather conditions is the most difficult challenge for module producers. Other frequent causes of
failure are insufficient electrical insulation and soiling as well as insufficient quality of the bypass diodes.
If two or more samples fail one of the tests, the module does not qualify for certification. If one sample fails
one of the tests, two further samples will be undergo the complete testing procedure. If one of these two
samples fails one of the tests, the module will not be certified. If both additional samples pass all the tests
the module will be certified.5
4
Compare Arndt, Regan, and Robert Puto. "Basic understanding of IEC standard testing for photovoltaic panels." 2010
[2012]. http://tuvamerica. com/services/photovoltaics/ArticleBasicUnderstandingPV. Pdf (2010).
5
Compare Compare Arndt, Regan, and Robert Puto. "Basic understanding of IEC standard testing for photovoltaic
panels." 2010 [2012]. http://tuvamerica. om/services/photovoltaics/ArticleBasicUnderstandingPV. Pdf (2010).
7
Tolerances in maximum power output are related to the manufacturing process.
The power output is checked with a so-called flasher that exposes each and every module coming off the
production line to an irradiance of 1000 W/m² under Standard Test Conditions (STC). The measured values
are documented and allocated to the module serial number and represent the peak power (i.e. the nominal
power) of the module. Each module cell coming off the production line is “flashed” and documented in the
same way. The cells are then sorted according to nominal power output and defined tolerance. Module are
then produced with cells of the same nominal power output.
The power output of from a production batch of both cells and modules follows a normal distribution
(Gaussian) curve, i.e. most of the modules have the same power output, only a few modules show the
maximum power output, and only a few modules show the minimum power output of a production batch.
The module manufacturer sorts the modules according to the nominal power and creates nominal power
classes. These power classes will be shown on the data sheet. If, for example, the data sheet shows 3
nominal power classes 245 Wp, 250 Wp and 255 Wp with tolerances of -3% and +5 %, the nominal power
ranges for the three classes will be:
 Nominal power range for power class 245 Wp is 238Wp – 257 Wp.
8
The nominal power range for the modules in the whole production batch is thus 238 Wp to 268 Wp and
most of the modules will have an average nominal power of 252 Wp. By creating three power classes the
manufacturer includes the whole production batch and always delivers modules with a slightly higher
power on average.
Cell manufacturers create power classes in the same way to ensure that manufacturing is as homogenous
as possible. PV module manufacturers with their own cell production are able to make their module
production the most homogenous and can thus reduce tolerances. High tolerances of ± 10% cause
mismatch losses when the modules are connected in a string. Nowadays, however, most quality module
manufacturers have power tolerances less than ± 5% and even have what we call positive tolerances, so
they guarantee as a minimum the nominal power with a positive tolerance. This allows energy yield
assumptions to be made with higher confidence.
The module power warranty is defined for 10 to 30 years with a certain percentage of the initial power
after a defined time. 90% of the initial power after 10 years and 80% after 25 years are fairly common. This
guaranteed power percentage refers to the flash data that, along with the module serial number, is part of
the quality control report delivered with the modules. The module power warranty is thus defined for the
peak power indicated by the flash data. The flash data differs from the nominal power within the
tolerances.
9
The documentation delivered with the modules is only one guarantee of the module quality. The flash data
associated with the serial number as well as the module installation plan of the PV plant should be a part of
the installation documentation. Having comprehensive system documentation also leads to technical due
diligence. According to IEC 62446 the system documentation includes all datasheets and certificates of the
components and warranty conditions, information according to the grid connection and grid codes, the
system design the site survey report and the cable plan. The whole system documentation and the testing
report should be handed over to the system owner. (See Chapter 04 Commissioning of PV Systems –
System documentation). Some measures to ensure the long-term quality of a PV installation are given here:
A visual inspection of the modules, pallets and transportation boxes must be undertaken upon delivery. If
any (even slight) damage is discovered, this must be well-documented and communicated to the supplier.
The modules should be tested during installation to ensure that no damaged modules have been installed.
The open circuit voltage of every module can be measured and documented as well as its polarity, but, in
most cases, the open circuit voltage of each string is sufficient. Some samples from every container (100
kWp) can be tested by electroluminescence: a good method to identify micro cell cracks caused by
insufficient packaging and vibration/knocks during transportation. Electroluminescence also identifies
breaks in the junctions.
Each string and, if in doubt, each module can also be tested by a mobile IV–Curve analyser, since some
failures cannot be detected by testing the open circuit voltage.
10
During operation and maintenance an infrared camera can display high series resistance, hot spots,
overheated bypass diodes, etc. Other quality tests and inspections over the lifetime of the PV installation
might be defined and documented as well as the monitoring data. This documentation is very important for
financing and bankability and is often required by investors.
11
1.2 Bankability
Typical economic indicators of project bankability are a positive net present value and a reasonable internal
rate of return.
With PV projects there are additional aspects of bankability that need to be considered all the way along
the value chain, from silicon wafer and ingot manufacturers, PV cell and module manufacturers and whole
sale distributors through to project developers, consultants, EPC contractors and O&M service providers.
All stakeholders along the value chain need to prove their own bankability, as well as have confidence in
the bankability of their business partners, both upstream and downstream. For example, PV module
manufacturers need assurance that they are getting high quality ingots, as well as that project developers
buying their product will be able to pay. This confidence can largely be achieved through trust and
transparency.
PV module manufacturers must be able to prove the high quality and longevity of their product in order to
be attractive to project developers and/or investors and banks. They can achieve this through certification
and quality guarantees as well as a good track record in the field.
Project developers are the major stakeholder of PV projects. They have a high impact and influence on
project bankability since they are responsible for product selection, system installation and often also
O&M.
12
Experience and financial strength will make them more attractive to investors. They must also provide
system performance predictions with a high level of confidence to convince investors of the low risk of
their investment.
Equity investors will typically look for mature projects with low risk, for example, turnkey projects or
projects close to completion. Many successful project developers have therefore adopted a strategy
whereby they finance turnkey projects themselves to a late stage in development at which point they sell
them to the equity investors.
Alternatively, equity investors are often keen to create long term partnerships with project developers
based on trust and where both parties stand to gain through future joint ventures.
They will also be attracted by the option to resell a project or by the possibility of receiving capital gains
and tax advantages.
Banks will be looking for predictable and stable cash flows as well as a reliable legal environment. This
could mean, for example, that instruments and mechanisms (such as a regulated feed in tariff) are in place
to ensure that the investment will be secure for a length of time longer than the predicted payback time of
the project. 6
6
Goetzpartners & COLEXON (eds.) (2011): Hampl, N.;Lüdeke-Freund, F.; Flink, C.; Olbert, S. & Ade, V. (authors):The
Myth of Bankability – Definition and Management in the Context of Photovoltaic Project Financing in Germany.
13
The bankability criteria are more or less the same for the different stakeholder groups:
company size, the legal structure and the type of organization are the indicators usually considered when
determining financial standing. Company age can further be an indicator of experience, know-how,
qualified staff, good reputation or strength of brand. Other commonly used indicators of a successful
company are balance sheets and the shareholder structure.
To define the position of the company within the business field other aspects such as the products and
materials used, the developing capacities and business partnerships are as important as prior success
proven by references. Confidence in the company will be further stabilised through good relationships with
banks and investors, guarantees for modules, and yield guarantees for existing PV installations.
Once project developers are established in large-scale projects they can develop strategies such as forming
partnerships with module manufacturers to produce OEM PV modules exclusively for their projects. Once
these modules have made it onto the banks’ ‘white lists’, the project developers have more flexibility and
stability against, for example, demand shortages leading to price hikes on the market.7
7
goetzpartners & COLEXON (eds.) (2011): Hampl, N.;Lüdeke-Freund, F.; Flink, C.; Olbert, S. & Ade, V. (authors):The
14
The table shows strategies (some similar, some different) which module manufacturers and project
developers are adopting to ensure long term bankability. A project, product or service will be bankable not
purely based on its economic credentials (NPV, IRR), but also on its legal and technical credentials. It cannot
be measured directly (similar to quality) and so needs to be assessed based on a set of criteria or indicators
such as performance and track record. 8
By developing certificates in close cooperation with technical institutes and service providers, module
manufacturers can win the confidence of other stakeholders. The certification and testing of their products
helps to create an established brand. Testing products above and beyond the standard requirements
increases the confidence of the market in the product. Continuous improvement of effectiveness and
efficiency in product development as well as long-term yield data reports strengthen the perception as an
established brand. Module manufacturers that achieve and prove financial robustness by being established
in other branches, by self-financing projects, or by offering insurances, increase the reliability of guaranties
and therefore the confidence in further projects.
A good relationship with banks and investors and exclusive partnerships with premium module
manufacturers help project developers to enter the market. Successful references and gained reputation in
other business fields are further proof of competence and strengthen the confidence of bankers and
investors.
8
Goetzpartners & COLEXON (eds.) (2011): Hampl, N.;Lüdeke-Freund, F.; Flink, C.; Olbert, S. & Ade, V. (authors):The
15
2 Inverter technologies
2.1 Fundamentals
Inverters transform direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC). Electrical energy is usually transmitted
and distributed in AC form and the vast majority of appliances consumes AC power. As PV modules produce
direct current (DC), inverters are required in grid-tied PV systems. In off-grid systems with AC appliances,
inverters are also required.
DC is transformed into AC using power electronics: switches are turned on and off, producing a square AC
waveform on the output.
The block diagram of an inverter is displayed in the slide; the DC input is symbolised by '=', the AC side is
illustrated by a sine wave: '~'.
16
Inverters are either line-commutated or self-commutated. Line-commutated means that the grid voltage
determines the commutation of the inverter: using thyristors as switches – thyristors can only be switched
on – the grid voltage turns them off again. Without the power grid, this type of inverter does not operate.
Line-commutated inverters create a square shaped AC output signal with low power quality and a high level
of harmonics.
Self-commutated inverters use semiconductor devices which can be switched on and off. They can be used
in stand-alone applications as well as in grid-tied PV systems. In grid-tied applications, the commutation
must be synchronous to the grid.
Inverters fed by a current source (a source of constant current, independent of the load) are referred to as
current-type inverter. A voltage-type inverter is fed by a voltage source, which is as PV modules can be
regarded.
In PV applications, usually self-commutated voltage-type inverters are used.
17
The section of the inverter that incorporates the switches is referred to as bridge, or power bridge. The
slide shows a full bridge (or H bridge) inverter with four switches. Full-bridge inverters are used in PV
applications. There are also half bridge inverters that incorporate only two switches.
When switches S1 and S4 are synchronously closed (switched on), voltage at the output is +VDC. When S2 and
S3 are synchronously closed, output voltage is reversed (-VDC). This is the basic principle of an inverter:
switches are controlled to generate a square AC waveform from a DC input.
Both switches S1 and S2 (or S3 and S4) cannot be on simultaneously as this short circuits the DC source.
There are four deﬁned and one undefined states. In undefined state, all switches are off.
The table lists the defined states:
S1 S2 S3 S4 VAC
1 on on + Voc
2 on on - Voc
3 on on 0
4 on on 0
18
States 1 and 2 are used to generate the square waveform, as illustrated in the time-voltage diagram: for
the first half period (1/2 T), state 1 produces a positive voltage at the output; for the second half period,
state 2 produces a negative voltage at the output.
The period T indicates the duration of one cycle. Due to f = 1/T, at a grid frequency of 50 Hz, the duration of
one cycle is 0.02 seconds.
States 3 and 4 produce no voltage at the output because the circuit isn’t closed in these states.
19
2.2 Pulse width modulation (PWM)
20
The application of inverters delivering a square wave AC voltage is limited to resistive loads with low
requirements regarding power quality, such as light bulbs.
For inverters feeding into the grid or powering off-grid AC applications, a sine wave of voltage and current
is essential. Pulse width modulation (PWM) is a technique to provide rectangular pulse waves of very short
duration whose average voltage behaves similarly to a sine wave.
The major advantage of PWM is that power losses in the switching devices are low.
In sine pulse width modulation, a comparator compares the voltages of a high frequency signal (carrier
signal) with a reference signal (for grid-tied PV, this would be the grid voltage).
The switches are controlled by comparators: if the reference signal is higher than the triangular signal, the
comparator synchronously closes the switches S1 and S4, producing a positive voltage on the output. A
second comparator uses an inverted triangular signal, switches S2 and S3 and produces a negative voltage
on the output.
The pulses produced by S1 and S4 form the positive half of the sinusoidal signal, while S2 and S3 form the
negative half.
21
The diagram illustrates half a period of the comparison of both signals as well as the resulting output signal,
whose average behaves similarly to a sine wave.
For illustration purposes, the carrier signal is of a significant lower frequency than in reality.
The carrier signal is usually a triangular shape signal with a frequency between 10 and 100 kHz,9 minimizing
non desirable effect like noises, ripple currents and harmonic distortion. Two parameters describe PWM
technique: the modulation index ma and the frequency modulation index mf.
The modulation index is the ratio of the amplitudes of both signals:
𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇
𝒎𝒂 =
𝑽𝒄
The amplitude index controls the amplitude of the output signal.

The frequency modulation index compares the frequencies of both signals:
𝒇𝒄
𝒎𝒇 =
𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒇
The higher the carrier frequency is, the more sinusoidal the output waveform becomes.
In order to be able to operate at a power factor different to 1 (i.e. the inverter provides reactive power) the
PWM signal must lag or lead compared to grid voltage. The phase shift is set by delaying the signal from the
comparators. Theoretically, a phase shift between -180° and +180° is possible. In practice, the angle is
limited as distortion occurs at high phase angles.10
Additionally, to be able to handle reactive power, reverse power flow from AC to DC is required. Energy
from reactive power must be able to flow via the power bridge and is stored in the DC capacitor before
being re-fed into the grid.11
By providing reactive power, PV systems are able to regulate and stabilise grid voltage. As reactive power
flow decreases the transmission of active power, it should be provided locally. Consequently, by stabilising
grid voltage locally, PV inverters can decrease the requirements for additional power lines.
The newest generation of PV inverters are also able to operate as phase shifters – independent of PV
power output and even at night.12
9
Leitfaden Photovoltaische Anlagen, DGS.
10
Implementation of grid-connected photovoltaic system with power factor control and islanding detection - S.
Mekhilef, N.A. Rahim, 2004 IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference.
11
Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering, A. Luque, S. Hegedus, Wiley.
12
Nachtarbeit möglich, Photovoltaik 09/2014.
22
2.3 Inverter components
23
To convert DC into AC, the central component of an inverter is the power bridge consisting of switches.
Besides switches, inverters also contain filters to smooth the AC output, devices for safety and monitoring,
and may also include transformers and data connections.
As switches, three-terminal power semiconductor devices such as IGBTs, MOSFETs or GTOS are used.
An IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistor) is used in medium- to high-power applications. It has three
terminals – gate, collector and emitter. Current coming from the PV module is injected into the collector.
Via the gate terminal, the output at the emitter is controlled.
MOSFETs (metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors) were the best solution for power switches
before the introduction of IGBTs. MOSFETs are recommended for low voltages (< 250 V), while for higher
voltages, IGBTs are more suitable. MOSFETs offer higher switching frequencies than IGBTs, which are
recommended for frequencies below 20 kHz.13 Many common inverters use frequencies below 20 kHz.
GTOS (gate turn-off thyristors) have a maximum switching frequency of about 1 kHz; in contrast to
conventional thyristors, they can not only be switched on, but also turned off.
For solar inverters, IGBTs and MOSFETs are the most common devices.
13
IGBT or MOSFET: Choose Wisely, Carl Blake and Chris Bull, International Rectifier.
24
DC/DC converters can be used for maximum power point (MPP) tracking by adjusting the voltage in the
panel circuit in order to enable the panels to operate in the MPP. DC/DC converters are also able to boost
DC voltage from the panels to a level near grid voltage.
Inductors and capacitors are used for filtering on both sides of the inverter – DC and AC. On the DC side,
the DC bus link capacitor decreases ripple voltages induced by IGBT switching. Ripple voltages cause the
operating point of the PV panels to oscillate and thus reduce PV output.14
On the AC side, inductors and capacitors smooth the output signal and filter harmonics. The signal
produced through pulse width modulation is similar to a sine wave, but differs from an ideal sine wave. The
deviation is described as total harmonic distortion (THD), which should be below 5%.15 Thus, THD describes
the power quality of inverters.
There are two concepts regarding transformers: low frequency (LF) transformers transform the AC output
(grid frequency, usually 50 Hz) to a different voltage level. High frequency (HF) transformers on the other
hand transform a PWM high frequency signal, which is then further inverted into a low frequency rhythm.
HF transformers are smaller and lighter than LF transformers. They incorporate a higher number of
components, which makes their design more complex and might decrease their reliability. Both options
galvanically isolate DC and AC side, while there is no isolation when using transformerless inverters.
Inverters should feature a safety device to monitor voltage, frequency and impedance of the utility grid and
disconnect in case of disturbances. The purpose is to avoid islanding, which refers to a grid-tied inverter
feeding into a “dead” line and thus potentially harming technicians and hindering the reconnection of other
devices. In Germany, this device is called ENS.
The inverter must also protect itself against overvoltage and overheating.
To supervise the performance of inverters, monitoring systems measure relevant system parameters. The
data can either be stored in a data logger or is directly communicated, e.g. to the power plant operator.
14
PV Inverter Performance and Reliability: What is the Role of the Bus Capacitor?, Jack D. Flicker, Robert Kaplar,
Matthew Marinella, and Jennifer Granata, Sandia National Laboratories.
15
Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering, A. Luque, S. Hegedus, Wiley.
25
2.4 Inverter topologies
Electrical transmission and distribution systems generally have three phases, with some exceptions on the
distribution level. In three-phase systems, at least three conductors carry alternating current. The phases
are shifted against each other, i.e. the current peaks in the individual conductors are delayed by one third
of the period T (120°).
The advantage of three-phase systems is that a constant amount of power is transmitted while in single-
phase systems the transmitted power oscillates with the doubled grid frequency.
The inverters described so far produce one output signal (single-phase). Three-phase inverters produce
three signals with a phase difference of 120° between the phases.
Single-phase inverters for low power applications can be connected to one phase of a three-phase system.
For medium- and high-power applications, three-phase inverters are used to avoid imbalances in the grid.
The three-phase inverter displayed in the slide incorporates six switching devices. Via pulse width
modulation, in each conductor an AC waveform is generated.
26
27
Inverters can incorporate transformers or they can be transformerless. The main difference is that
transformers provide galvanic isolation between the utility grid and PV array. Moreover, transformers
cause up to 2% losses and feature a metal core and additional windings. Thus, transformerless inverter
have a higher efficiency, are 50-70% smaller and cheaper to produce.
Without a transformer, the PV system must be able to directly provide voltage significantly higher than the
peak voltage of the utility grid: either directly by the PV array or by DC/DC converters. These converters
also cause losses. Central PV inverters usually work with a transformer.16
In transformers, energy is transferred by inducing a magnetic field in the metal core on the input side
(primary winding), which induces voltage in the secondary winding. The winding ratio determines the
ration of input and output voltage. Consequently, there is no direct current conduction path, which is
referred to as galvanic isolation.
Some module technologies, such as thin-film based and rear-contacted c-Si based PV module technologies
require galvanic isolation, therefore they are not suitable for transformerless inverters.
Without galvanic isolation, a residual current device (RCD) on the AC side is required.
16
28
2.5 Inverters for thin modules
Thin-film modules have different voltage characteristics compared to silicon based modules. Therefore,
inverters for thin-film modules should have a larger input voltage range: the difference between open
circuit voltage and MPP voltage is larger when using thin-film modules. Compared to c-Si PV modules, thin-
film modules produce lower currents and higher voltages.17 Thin-film modules have a maximum operating
voltage of 750 V.18
During the first months of operation, the output of thin-film cells gradually decreases by 10% to 30% due to
the Stabler-Wronski effect. Therefore, when installing thin-film modules, they exceed the power ratings,
which must be taken into account when selecting an inverter.
Between the PV array and the grounded frame, a capacitance can appear: the modules themselves are
electrically chargeable and the capacitance increases with increasing module area and decreasing distance
between modules and frame. As transformerless inverters do not isolate the DC and AC side, the capacitive
current can discharge through the inverter and the ground connections.
On the DC side, the negative pole of the circuit should be grounded.
17
Thin-Film PV: A System Designers Guide, Rick Holz, SolarPro Issued 4.1, Dec/Jan 2011.
18
29
Many thin-film modules require inverters with transformers or negatively grounded transformerless
inverters. The reason is that the transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layer can corrode when using an
improper inverter configuration. The TCO layer is a transparent layer between the glass and the
photoelectric conversion layer of thin-film modules (radiation passes through the TCO) and is conductive to
carry currents. Not all thin-film modules incorporate TCO layers.
One reason for TCO corrosion is moisture in the module; another reason is improper grounding. With the
negative pole of the PV array grounded, an electric field is generated which repels positively charged ions
(Na+) contained in the glass, thus preventing corrosion.
TCO corrosion is irreversible and causes the TCO to become milky and decreases its conductivity.19
Consequently, TCO corrosion represents a risk of permanently decreasing power output of the module.
19
Technical information: Module technology (Duennschicht-TI-UEN114630 | Version 3.0), SMA.
30
2.6 Inverter efficiency
31
Inverter losses should be minimised because energy losses are directly connected to monetary losses.
Therefore, the efficiency of inverters should be as high as possible.
The inverter must be able to handle the maximum power output of the array, which occurs under very high
irradiation conditions. For the majority of the time, irradiation is lower, e.g. due to the time of the day, the
season or clouds. Therefore, inverters rarely operate at rated power, rather their most common state is
part load operation. The graph illustrates that efficiency changes depending on the ratio P/Pnom.
Consequently, the efficiency at rated power can be of limited informative value.
To be able to assess efficiency more accurately, efficiency definitions have been created that consider the
part load behaviour of inverters as well as the climate conditions.The European efficiency was defined by
the Joint Research Centre and is based on the climate in Ispra in Italy.
𝜼𝒆𝒖𝒓𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑 ∗ 𝜼𝟓% + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 ∗ 𝜼𝟏𝟎% + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑 ∗ 𝜼𝟐𝟎% + 𝟎. 𝟏 ∗ 𝜼𝟑𝟎% + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 ∗ 𝜼𝟓𝟎% + 𝟎. 𝟐 ∗ 𝜼𝟏𝟎𝟎%
The definition takes into account inverter efficiencies at 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 50% and 100% of rated power.
These efficiencies are weighted according to the frequency of occurrence of the corresponding irradiance
32
conditions: 48% of their operating time, PV systems provide half of their rated output in Ispra. Rated power
is only considered to occur at a percentage of 20%.
The Californian efficiency definition takes into account different part load operating points and is adapted
to Californian climate, which is sunnier than in Italy:
𝜼𝒄𝒆𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 ∗ 𝜼𝟏𝟎% + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 ∗ 𝜼𝟐𝟎% + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 ∗ 𝜼𝟑𝟎% + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏 ∗ 𝜼𝟓𝟎% + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑 ∗ 𝜼𝟕𝟓% + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 ∗ 𝜼𝟏𝟎𝟎%
Besides DC power input, inverter efficiency is also affected by DC voltage. There is no general rule how DC
voltage influences efficiency.20
To consider different voltage levels the European efficiency definition has been extended; ηEuro+ weighs 3
different ηEuro at minimum input voltage, rated voltage and 90% of maximum input voltage.
20
Status and relevance on the DC voltage dependency of the inverter efficiency – Baumgartner et al – 22nd European
Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition 2007.
33
Occasionally the power input at the inverter can be higher than the nominal rated power, this can occur if
the PV generator is oversized or there are very high radiation conditions (due to cloud enhancements).
The PV generator can be oversized – which corresponds to undersizing the inverter – in order to increase
partial load efficiency of the inverter. The diagram shows the efficiency curve of two inverters: efficiency is
highest at P/Pnom between 30% and 50% and decreases when approaching 100%.
Undersizing the inverter can have two economic advantages: a cost decrease due to the smaller inverter
size and higher revenues due to higher conversion efficiency in part load operation.
When undersizing the inverter, its behaviour under overload conditions should be considered during the
planning process. Firstly, the inverter abandons the MPP of the solar array towards the open circuit voltage,
which results in an output limitation. Secondly, exceeding the rated power of the inverter (overloading)
increases the thermal load in the inverter. Inverters are able to operate in overload state for a short period,
but are programmed to shut off after this defined time span to avoid damages.
The decision on oversizing the PV array should be based on three factors:
1. Inverter efficiency curve: how much is the conversion efficiency increased when shifting the
operation towards part load?
2. Solar insulation distribution: what is the PV output range and how often will certain radiation
conditions occur? The second part of the question determines how much the PV array can be
oversized and how often the inverter will shut off.
3. Temperature coefficients of the modules: module temperature influences voltage and power
output of the PV array.
34
2.7 Inverter data sheet
35
The inverter data sheet describes the inverter by listing all relevant parameters. Electrical parameters are
required when selecting inverters and sizing the system, mechanical parameters such as weight must be
considered when installing the inverter, and the data sheet also lists additional features such as data
connections and protection devices.
Some manufacturers state that only the online version of the data sheet on their website is up-to-date in
order to avoid claims caused by using outdated data sheets.
The data sheet describes the input on the DC side which is relevant for sizing the system and for yield
calculations. In the example in the slide, the inverter has one MPP tracker that is able to handle two strings.
AC parameters describe the output voltage(s), which must be suitable for the voltage of the utility grid. Also
the output power is given in real power (W) and apparent power (VA). In the example, both are the same,
as the inverter is not able to provide reactive power (constant power factor, cos phi = 1).
The inverter can be used in systems with 50 Hz and 60 Hz grid frequency.
The maximum efficiency of the inverter as well as the efficiency according to the Euro-eta definition is
given.
Data sheets also describe the protection devices of the inverter.
For inverter selection and installation, the general data such as dimensions, weight, operating temperature
range, climatic category and the cooling concept are important.
36
In addition to the inverter efficiency given in the list, data sheets may also include the efficiency curves of
the inverter. In this case, the efficiency curve is displayed for different DC input voltages.
The diagram shows that depending on the DC input voltage, efficiency can vary by about 2% at certain
operating modes. The small diagram shows the Euro efficiency against MPP voltage. It is highest at lower
voltages.
As inverters are selected from an existing product range, but the DC input is determined by the size of the
PV array, an ideal 1:1 match of inverter and array is rare.
37
2.8 DC input voltage
Temperature has a negligible effect on PV current, but affects PV voltage and consequently also the output
power. As the I-V curves in the diagram show, PV voltage decreases with increasing temperatures.
Due to the effect on voltage, the most extreme temperature scenarios have to be considered when
selecting the inverter.
As for low voltages, two parameters have to be considered: the minimum DC voltage is the lowest voltage
at which the inverter is able to operate. The start voltage is the value at which the inverter starts operating,
e.g. in the morning or after disconnection due to a grid fault. Minimum voltage is lower than start voltage.
Besides a voltage decrease due to temperature, degradation of modules and their voltage tolerance must
also be taken into account. Additionally, minimum input voltage relates to grid voltage and, as such, feed-in
must be possible even at the highest permitted grid voltage (e.g. 230 V + 10%).21
Regarding high voltages, the lowest ambient temperature must be considered.
21
Designing PV plants optimized for economic efficiency, SMA Technical information.
38
The diagram shows two ranges of the inverter: operating range and MPP range. The inverter should
generally be able to operate within its MPP range to ensure that the array always provides its maximum
possible power. However, an inverter that has a higher efficiency but does not reach the MPP in all
conditions can produce a higher yield than an inverter of lower efficiency that always operates within its
MPP range.22
If the MPP voltage of the array falls below the input voltage of the inverter, the system continues to
operate at the minimum input voltage, which is higher than the present MPP voltage of the array. This
results in an energy loss.
If the open circuit voltage of the array falls below the start voltage, e.g. due to high temperatures at
midday, the inverter will not be able to reconnect in case of a disturbance. This may result in a significant
decrease in power output. Therefore, the open circuit voltage of the PV array must be higher than the start
voltage of the inverter in all cases.
Exceeding the MPP voltage range of the inverter does not represent a threat to the inverter. In contrast,
voltages above the operating range can cause damages.
22
Designing PV plants optimized for economic efficiency, SMA Technical information.
39
2.9 DC- Comparison of inverter topologies
Single-phase inverters produce a one phase signal that is either fed into a single-phase grid or into one
phase of a three-phase system. Therefore, their design is simpler than the one of three-phase inverters.
Additionally, grid-connection is easier, firstly because fewer connections are required and, secondly,
because single-phase configurations are used in low voltage systems and for smaller applications.
Three-phase inverters are used for larger applications and may also utilize higher voltage levels. Naturally,
they must feed into a three-phase power system. Large-scale installations usually use three-phase
inverters.
One advantage of three phase configurations is that three phases provide a constant total power flow.
Therefore, the energy storage requirements regarding the inverter’s DC link capacitor are reduced.
40
Currently available inverter technologies come with and without integrated transformer, i.e. with and
without galvanic isolation. Transformerless inverters are smaller in size and lower in weight. Moreover,
they achieve higher efficiencies compared to transformer-based inverters due to avoiding transformer
losses, which can amount to 1-2%.
DC/DC converters in transformerless inverters cancel out the loss advantages. Without DC/DC converters,
the PV array must directly provide a voltage level that is above grid voltage in order to feed electricity into
the grid.
There is no galvanic separation between DC and AC sides in transformerless inverters. This means that
there is direct current conduction path from the input to the output. For this reason, additional protection
measures, such as residual current devices (RCD), are required.
Due to the direct conduction path, transformerless inverters have a higher electromagnetic impact on the
environment. There is higher electromagnetic interference produced by the inner electronics, which might
cause noise for other electronic components. For this reason, inverters should be grounded to reduce the
effects. Electromagnetic interference is lower with galvanic isolation.
Transformer-based inverters allow for lower DC voltages as the transformer raises voltage to feed-in level,
increasing safety on the DC side. The lifespan of transformer-based inverters is longer, their weight and size
is higher and the transformer causes additional losses.
41
2.10 Inverter concepts
There are different inverter concepts regarding their size, location and connection in the system:
 Central inverters collect the DC power of multiple strings via a DC bus and provide AC power at a
single location. They have the largest power ratings compared to the other concepts.
 String inverters convert the DC power of one string and feed into an AC bus. Compared to central
inverters, the number of string inverters is higher in a system of equal size.
 Module inverters directly provide AC power at the back of the module.
Each configuration has advantages and disadvantages; the selection of the inverter concept depends not
only on system size but also on additional aspects and requirements of the system. The closer the inverter
is located to the module, the shorter DC wiring becomes. Moreover, the lower the number of modules
connected per inverter, the more individually the maximum power point can be tracked and the better
effects of shading, contamination and module mismatch can be minimised.
On the other hand, a low number of large inverters can be a more economic solution, as prices per kW
usually decrease with increasing power output.23
23
String vs. Central Inverters for Commercial Applications, Verena Sheldon, James Worden, Mark Edmunds, SolarPor
Issue 2.1, Dec/Jan 2009.
42
Power optimizers – a relatively new development – perform maximum power tracking on module level. As
their output is still DC, power optimizers can be included in all inverter concepts and on average increase
power output by between 12% and 15%.24
Module inverters can also be called micro inverters. Compared to other concepts, they are more costly, but
they are able to increase power output by up to 25%. Together with power optimizers, they are referred to
as module-level power electronics (MLPE). MLPE enable the installation of PV systems on locations
unsuitable without MLPE, e.g. due to complex shading conditions.
The market of MLPE is expected to more than triple between 2014 and 2018 and an increasing number of
suppliers now provide MLPE equipment.25
24
Kleine Helfer im String – Interview with J. Nell – Photovoltaik 12/2013.
25
Solar Microinverter and Power Optimizer Market to Break $1 Billion Barrier in 2018 – IHS press release 09/2014.
43
The design of PV systems with string inverters is modular. String inverters are connected to a single string
and usually have a power rating below 10 kW. The inverter can be near the string in order to minimize DC
cable lengths. DC lines may have a larger diameter and can thus be more expensive and more difficult to
lay. Compared to central inverter concepts, overall line losses can be similar.26 Proximity to the string
usually requires that the inverter is installed outdoors, e.g. on walls, poles or on the mounting structure of
the modules.
When using string inverters, module type, orientation and pitch as well as shading and temperature
conditions can differ between strings. As one MPP is tracked per string, one module type should be used
per string and conditions for modules within the string should be as similar as possible in order to avoid
mismatch losses.
The distributed architecture of string inverters increases the control and communication requirements.
Regarding redundancy and replacement of inverters, the string inverter concept is advantageous because
in the case of failures, only one string is lost and replacement is simple and inexpensive.
In smaller systems below 350 kW, string inverters provide a cost advantage.27 By using many string
inverters that are connected on the AC side, large system sizes can be reached.
26
Advantages of Distributed and Central Architectures in Solar Arrays – Advanced Energy – 2013.
27
Advantages of Distributed and Central Architectures in Solar Arrays – Advanced Energy – 2013.
44
A central inverter connects multiple strings and converts the DC input at a single location. The power rating
of central inverters begins in the low kW-range. In terms of investment, central inverters are the most
economic solution due to their low price per kW. However, initial investment should not be the single
criterion when selecting an inverter concept.
Central inverters require longer DC cabling between modules and inverter than string inverters.
Transportation of central inverters can be expensive and complex – large central inverters weigh more than
1 t -, which particularly applies when site accessibility is limited. Due to their weight, central inverters
should be installed on a concrete foundation. Compared to a large number of string inverters, system
monitoring is easier.
As there is no redundancy, failures of central inverters result in complete energy loss.

Maintenance of central inverters on the other hand is less complex as fewer components have to be
maintained.
Unless the central inverter has multiple DC inputs with individual MPP tracking, the MPP of the entire PV
array is tracked, which is not ideal in order to maximise the output of the individual modules.
Consequently, conditions for modules (e.g. orientation, temperature and shading) should be as similar as
45
possible on each location in the array and modules should be of the same type in order to avoid mismatch
losses.
Instead of tracking the MPP of the entire array, DC/DC converters tracking the MPP of individual strings can
be used. In this case, a DC bus of constant voltage connects the DC/DC converters and the central inverter.
Also, power optimizers can be applied directly at the modules.
To improve efficiency under part load conditions, a master/slave concept can be used. Instead of using a
single inverter with a large power rating, multiple smaller inverters operate in parallel. The master/slave
concept is common for large inverters (> 20 kW), but has been extended to power ratings below 5 kW. In
master/slave operation, the master inverter operates as single inverter until its power limit is reached.
When power increases, slave inverters are activated.
46
The tables above summarise the advantages and disadvantages of string and central inverter
configurations.
String inverters permit flexible design: i.e. larger systems can be built up in a modular way. Central inverter
systems, on the other hand, require the whole system to be channelled through a single point (the central
inverter) before it can be connected to the public grid.
Installation of string inverters is more complex as more components are involved, while the effort to install
a large single inverter is lower.
String inverters already provide string monitoring, which must be additionally implemented when using
central inverters.
DC losses in central concepts are higher compared to string inverters as these are realised with DC cables,
whereas most of the cabling in a string inverter concept is AC cabling.
When using string concepts, a larger number of MPP trackers is involved. Therefore, shading effects are
easier to minimise when using string inverters as they are able to track the MPP of the string and avoid
mismatch losses between strings.
47
Many designers prefer to install string inverters even for large field installations due to their redundancy
and easy maintenance. If there is a fault in a string, only this string stops working while the rest of the
installation continues to operate. Additionally, spare string inverters can easily be kept in stock so a faulty
inverter can quickly be replaced. The defective device can then be sent to the manufacturer for repair while
the system continues operating at full output.
With central inverters, a big part of the system stops generating if an inverter failure occurs. Faults are less
frequent, but maintenance and exchange of components is more complex and time-consuming. Therefore,
a warranty contract with the inverter manufacturer is required.
2.11 Grid compliance
48
To ensure the technically safe, disturbance free and grid-supportive operation of PV plants, the following
aspects must be considered and questions answered:
 The loading capacity of network equipment:

o Is the grid segment able to absorb the electrical power of the PV plant at all times?
 Voltage changes in the undisturbed grid:

o Is the voltage change due to the PV plant within defined limits?
o How can it be limited?
 Potential network disturbances caused by the PV plant:

o What kind of disturbances could be caused by a PV system?
o What are acceptable limits?
 The behaviour of PV plants in the case of grid disturbances:
o If there is a grid disturbance, which automatic and active control features does the PV
system have to have to be able to support the grid or to avoid further adverse effects?
It is important to understand that the assessment of the connectivity and compatibility of a PV plant
(especially larger ones) with an electricity network strongly depends on the layout, condition and
characteristics of the respective grid segment where the plant is installed. It also depends on the layout and
capacity as well as the electrical parameters of the PV plant itself.
Therefore, a general statement about the connectivity and compatibility of PV plants is not possible.
Connectivity and compatibility must be assessed individually by local grid operators. A good reference
regarding these issues is the German ‘Technical Guideline: Generating plants connected to the medium-
voltage network’28. The guideline is available free of charge in English. It can be downloaded from
http://www.bdew.de/internet.nsf/id/A2A0475F2FAE8F44C12578300047C92F/$file/BDEW_RL_EA-am-MS-
Netz_engl.pdf .
28
BDEW. (2008). Technical Guideline: Generating plants connected to the medium-voltage network (Guideline for
generating plants’ connection to and parallel operation with the medium-voltage network). Berlin: BDEW
Bundesverband der Energie- und Wasserwirtschaft e.V.
49
50
One of the key questions to be answered when a PV plant is to be connected to the network is whether the
network equipment can absorb the additional load. Network equipment is power lines, transformers and
other equipment.
The diagram shows a very simple medium voltage network. It consists of two medium voltage loops
connected to the substation on the left hand side of the diagram. This substation links a higher voltage (HV)
network with the medium voltage (MV) network. In the upper and lower loop, transformers link low
voltage (LV) networks to the respective MV networks.
The loading capacity assessment needs to be done for the network division at which the PV plant is to be
connected. (In the diagram, this would be the second loop on the bottom where the new PV plant would
be connected.)
Such an assessment investigates whether the new generator could increase the load on the network
equipment sufficiently to damage or destroy it. In the case of network equipment, such as power lines and
transformers, it is mainly the electrical current which causes thermal and – in the case of a short circuit –
even mechanical stress.
There are two operational states causing the flow of electrical current: the constant current load and the
load in the event of a short circuit.
51
The constant current load is the current that is caused by all electricity generators connected to the
medium voltage line. In this case it is assumed that all generators inject their maximum apparent power at
the same time. Power lines, transformers and other equipment have constant current load limits, which
may not be exceeded when the maximum power of all generators is injected.
In the event of a short circuit, network equipment will be exposed to very high currents until protection
devices against over-current are triggered. Although this happens within a few tenths of a second the
thermal and mechanical stresses can be significant. Network equipment is designed to withstand such high
currents, but, of course, only within physical limits. In most cases it will be at the bus bar of the substation,
which is connecting the medium with the higher voltage level, where the highest short circuit is expected.
Although a PV system could theoretically inject a short circuit current, it will in most cases be much lower
than short circuits at the bus bar of the substation. Therefore, from a worst-case perspective, the German
Medium-Voltage Guideline, for instance, assumes that for PV systems only the rated nominal current load
(=constant current load) at the network connection point has to be added to the highest possible short
circuit potentially generated from other equipment such as the substation bus bar.
2.12 Grid management functions of inverters
52
PV inverters monitor the parameters of the public grid and they must be disconnected from the grid in the
case of grid failures or problems, or when there is maintenance on the lines. This does not represent a
problem in the network if there is only a small amount of power generated and supplied by local sources.
PV plants, whether large or small can generally be considered as local source. Conventional power plants
can be considered large power stations providing power for the whole region. If there is a large share of
locally supplied electrical energy in the power network, these power stations should be included in grid
management through, for example, the control of active and reactive power.
Large PV farms can be monitored by the grid operator who may demand certain changes in power output
from the farm, e.g. when provision of reactive power is needed. This is a common situation in Germany
where there is a large penetration of renewable energies into the grid.
Again, PV inverters supervise the parameters of the public grid and must be disconnected from the grid in
the case of grid failures or problems, or when someone is working on the lines. In the past, the lion share of
all grid-tied inverters in Germany had to disconnect from the grid at 50.2 Hz in order to lower the
frequency. As long as PV capacities were comparably small this rule did not cause any problems. But, when
PV capacities reached the Gigawatt range, a sudden shutdown of hundreds of thousands of inverters at
50.2 Hz could lead to the situation that the frequency would even decrease below an acceptable level and
potentially lead to a black-out.
In Germany, this was often referred to as the 50.2 Hz problem. To avoid this, the grid codes were revised
and the shutdown threshold was increased to 51.5 Hz for all inverters with an installed capacity of more
than 10 kWp. Also, inverters now have to gradually reduce their active power output before shutting down
completely.
There are other grid management functions depending on the voltage level where a PV plant will feed into
the grid. These are defined in grid codes which may vary if a decentralised renewable power plant feeds in
into the low (LV), medium (MV) or high voltage (HV) grid. Important stipulations of these grid codes refer to
automatic control of active power depending on the prevailing frequency, reactive power control
depending on defined set points, active power limitation through remote control and fault ride-through.
These will be discussed in the following.
Source:
- Generating Plants Connected to the Medium-Voltage Network, BDEW, 2008
53
The main measure to stabilise network frequency is controlling the active power output of a power plant.
When frequency increases the active power output of a PV plant needs to be decreased. In extreme
situations of over- or under-frequency, the inverter has to shut down completely.
In PV plants, active power control can easily be accomplished by forcing the operating point of the inverter
away from the maximum power point. By doing so, it is possible for the active power output to be adapted
gradually. Thanks to this technical possibility, PV power plants can comply with the German grid code
according to which active power output has to be reduced with a gradient of 40% per Hertz when
frequency reaches levels above 50.2 Hz. Gradual reduction is carried out only until 51.5 Hz are reached and
then the inverter must shutdown completely. The generator may restore its normal power output only
when the frequency is smaller than 50.05 Hz. Power reduction usually happens automatically in order to
reduce reaction time. But there is also the possibility of controlling active power upon signalling from the
network operator. The inverter also has to shutdown if the frequency decreases below 47.5 Hz. This
example is taken from rules that apply in Germany. Other countries may have other limits or parameters
but the principle of automatic active power reduction depending on the prevailing frequency, as well as
active output control through signalling, should be applied everywhere to secure grid stability. State-of-the-
art inverters today can be programmed easily to meet country-specific stipulations.
Sources: Photovoltaic based energy farming in Jordan: sample plant and system design for grid-connected
PV systems, RENAC, 2014 (Jens); Generating Plants Connected to the Medium-Voltage Network, BDEW,
2008
54
Manufacturers of electrical appliances design their products to operate with a certain nominal voltage in
order to achieve effective performance and comply with safety standards. In order to achieve voltage
stability at consumer terminals, the voltage at all nodes in a power system must be maintained within
defined limits. The main measure to maintain voltage stability is the provision of reactive power which is a
typical feature of state-of-the-art PV inverters.
In alternating current circuits, reactive power is caused by the presence of inductors or capacitors.
Inductors or capacitors generate a phase shift between the sinusoidal current and voltage curves.
If the current follows the voltage, the load behaves like an inductor or is ‘underexcited’ (e.g. electrical
motors, transformers or power lines under high load). If the voltage follows the current, the load behaves
like a capacitor or is ‘overexcited’ (this is the case if, for instance, power lines are under low load). Phase
shift is indicated by the phase difference angle φ (phi).
If a phase shift applies, the product of voltage and current (i.e. power) is oscillating between positive and
negative values. This means that a certain share of the power is only oscillating back and forth. This so-
called reactive power is not able to perform work but is putting strain on the power network.
Ohmic losses in power lines are also caused depending on the reactive power (causing higher currents),
which means that additional reactive power also causes additional resistive losses. In other words, if
reactive power is compensated, these ohmic losses can be reduced. Capacitive reactive power can
55
compensate inductive reactive power and vice versa. In most cases and especially in the medium voltage
grid (where often many electrical motors causing inductive reactive power are connected) capacitive
reactive power needs to be provided to at least partly compensate this effect.29
The diagram shows a control scheme based on the ratio of instantaneous power to rated power as required
in Germany. When power output is low, cos φ is 0.95 (overexcited), at 50% of rated power, only active
power is produced (cos φ = 1) and near rated power cos φ is 0.95 (underexcited).
These capabilities require the PV inverter to be oversized as the inverter needs a small share of its power to
shift current and voltage, i.e. provide reactive power.
Even though this oversizing represents extra costs, costs are lower than for other forms of reactive power
supply.
2.13 Possible network disturbances of inverters
In public electric power supply it is the mechanical spinning of conventional power plants such as steam or
hydropower turbines that generates a nearly perfectly smooth power sine wave in the network.
29
Heuck, K., Dettmann, K.-D., & Schulz, D. (2010). Elektrische Energieversorgung. Wiesbaden: Vieweg + Teubner
Verlag.
56
The operation of a PV plant may cause certain disturbances in the network, which have to be kept within
admissible limits. Such potential disturbances are30:
 Sudden voltage changes

 Harmonics and inter-harmonics
 Audio-frequency centralized ripple control
 Long-term flicker
Switching operations at a generator causes voltage changes. To be able to control voltage it is important
that the rate of the voltage change does not exceed certain limits, or, in other words, sudden voltage
changes must be avoided. The German Medium-Voltage Guideline defines a voltage change rate of 2% as
admissible if the switching operation is not carried out more often than once every three minutes.
Harmonics and inter-harmonics are overlaying currents that interfere with the sinusoidal current. Harmonic
means that the frequency of the overlaying oscillation is an integer multiple of the network frequency.
Inter-harmonics are non-integer multiples of the network frequency. Through the rising share of electronic
power devices in the power grid, the wave shape is increasingly deviating from its original form31. Such
electronic power devices are electrical appliances with rectifiers (e.g. computers) but also inverters as are
used in wind or photovoltaic power plants. Today, inverter electronics is able to provide an extremely
smooth sine wave so that its effect is negligible.
Audio-frequency centralized ripple control is a technique which sends three-phase signals in the form of
pulse sequences to the network. These signals are sent out by the grid operator to switch certain loads on
and off (e.g. street lighting). In Germany this technique is further being used to activate power injection
limitation of PV generators if keeping grid-stability requires the full or partial shutdown of such capacities in
a certain network segment.
The signal is transmitted via the power lines themselves. If audio-frequency control is used in the network
in question, it has to be ensured that the PV plant is not causing an interference voltage which is capable of
distorting the signal. Technical solutions for this problem, such as audio-frequency suppressors, are
available.
Long-term flicker is currently considered as non-relevant for photovoltaics by the German Medium-Voltage
Guideline and will thus not be described in further detail.
30
31
Heuck, K., Dettmann, K.-D., & Schulz, D. (2010). Elektrische Energieversorgung. Wiesbaden: Vieweg + Teubner
Verlag.
57
58
One form of dynamic grid support is fault ride-through capability. Until 2011 in Germany, photovoltaic
systems were required to shut down immediately in the event of a sudden significant voltage drop. The
reason for this was to avoid islanding. Islanding is dangerous because utility workers performing
maintenance on the line may not realise that a circuit is still powered.
However, as more renewable generation units came online, it was no longer acceptable for all of these
units to switch off simultaneously if a widespread disturbance across the network occured. Therefore in
2003, German grid operators were the first to introduce new requirements including fault ride-through,
especially for wind turbines, these requirements were extended to PV plants in 2011.
Fault ride-through describes the ability of renewable power plants to remain grid-connected for a specified
time span in the event of voltage drops. The diagram displays fault ride-through characteristics as
applicable in the German Medium-Voltage Guideline.
The red line defines the most serious fault that generators have to withstand: they must be able to ride-
through a fault of 0.5 seconds where voltage drops down to 30% and does not return to 90% of nominal
value until 1.5 seconds after the disruption. Generators are allowed to disconnect if the voltage drops
below the red line. In any case, generators may not disconnect for 150 ms if the voltage drops to 0%.
59
In addition, during this low voltage ride-through, generators feed reactive current into the grid in order to
support restoration of the normal operational state of the network.32
Today, low voltage ride-through requirements are met by the majority of PV inverters. Usually adjustments
to other country or grid specific limits can be accomplished easily.
Sources:
- Photovoltaic based energy farming in Jordan: Sample plant and system design for grid-connected
PV systems, RENAC, 2014 (Jens)
- Generating Plants Connected to the Medium-Voltage Network, BDEW, 2008
2.14 PV- plant certification for grid connection
32
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The compliance of generating units with the German Medium-Voltage Guideline has to be certified with a
type-specific unit certificate. In other words, in grid-connected PV applications each inverter type has to
have its own unit certificate. This certificate is issued by accredited testing institutes. The certificate is
accompanied by a simulation model which allows the evaluation of the behaviour of the inverter in case of
a disturbance.33
A plant certificate needs to be provided in Germany as soon as the total apparent power of a generator
exceeds 1 MVA or the connecting line from the PV plant to the grid-connection point is longer than 2 km.34
The diagram shows the workflow of the connection processing and shows at which stages unit and plant
certificates have to be provided.
33
SMA. (2013, March 18). BDEW-Mittelspannungsrichtlinie. Retrieved from http://www.sma.de/loesungen/pv-
netzintegration/bdew-mittelspannungsrichtlinie.html
34
61
62
63
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To obtain grid-connection, certain documents need to be submitted to the network operator so that the
planned grid-connection can be assessed and a connection offer can be prepared by the network operator.
These documents include:
 Site plan: it needs to show the location of the plant including streets around the plant. Also,
borderlines of the site need to be specified including the location of generating units and
connection facility.
 Data sheets to show technical specifications of devices included in the generating plant. This must
also include available unit certificates of inverters.
 Circuit diagram containing all electrical installation, equipment data sheets, information on the
plant owner’s own medium voltage lines, switchgear, cable lengths, protection equipment, etc.
 Transformer data, such as rated capacity, relative impedance voltage and transformation ratio.
 Information about the PV plant´s short circuit current at the transfer point to the network operator
 Electric properties verification of: network interactions, feed-in power, plant´s behaviour when
connected to the grid, short circuit current contribution, active power output, dynamic network
support, reactive power operation under normal network operation conditions, properties of
disconnection equipment and connection conditions.35
35
Sources:
- Generating Plants Connected to the Medium-Voltage Network, BDEW (2008)

- Technical Conditions for Connection to the Medium-Voltage Network , BDEW (2008)
65
Grid-tied PV inverters in Germany have to comply with BDEW technical conditions for connection to the
medium voltage network including generator control and communications, frequency control, dynamic
reactive support, dynamic grid support and certification. Generators have to provide on-site control or
remote control of generator output and communications platform to the electric utility. Inverters are
required to provide frequency control, variable power factor to control voltage rise, reactive current during
voltage dips, and low voltage ride-through to prevent early disconnection during system disturbances.
To prove compliance with these provisions, inverters have to undergo a certification process based on
defined testing and simulation models. The certificate is also called a unit certificate in contrast to the plant
certificate, which refers to a complete power plant and not to the inverter only.
The certificate of the DAR (German accreditation council) above is an example of a unit certificate. This
certificate confirms that the inverter complies with the ‘Technische Richtlinie Erzeugungsanlagen am
Mittelspannungsnetz’ (Technical Guideline for connecting electricity generation to medium voltage grids),
which includes the regulation on static stability from 01.07.2010 and the regulation on transient stability
(fault ride-through) from 01.01.2011. 36
36
Source: Technical Conditions for Connection to the medium-voltage network , BDEW (2008).
66
67
2.15 Transformers
68
69
PV transformers/substations convert voltage levels, and in the case of PV systems they usually increase the
AC voltage of the inverter to grid level. In the case of separate substations, they usually feed into the
medium voltage (MV) grid.With the exception of small systems, transformers are typically three-phase.
They are either fed by a central inverter or connected to a common skid that connects up to four inverters.
There are three main construction types of PV substations:
• Pad-mounted transformers are enclosed in a metal cabinet and mounted on a concrete pad. The
electrical connections are underground. Besides their application in residential areas and for
commercial and industrial buildings, they are common collectors used in wind and PV farms.
• Indoor transformers are installed in an (existing) building.
• Transformers in fenced enclosures feature overhead wiring as the fence shields the transformer.
Space requirements are higher compared to the other configurations.
Substations can by dry-type or filled with oil. Dry-type transformers are cooled by air ventilation, can be
installed indoors and do not require a basin in the case of leakages.In liquid filled transformers, the
windings and the cores are immersed within a dielectric fluid. The fluid insulates the components and
facilitates transfer of waste heat generated in the core and windings. Either mineral oil or vegetable oil is
applied as fluid. Vegetable oil represents a less flammable and biodegradable option.
Liquid filled transformers require a basin to take up oil in the case of leakages and must be mounted
outdoors.
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Typically, in PV plants connected to the medium voltage grid, a pad-mounted, three-phase, liquid type
transformer is installed. When selecting the transformer, the inverter manufacturer must at least be
consulted or the manufacturer should also provide the transformer to ensure that the components
match.The transformer must be three-phase due to the magnitude of power generated by the PV array. A
pad-mounted solution is straightforward to implement, especially in ground-mounted solar parks. As peak
power of the solar farm correlates with peak temperatures during the day, the thermal characteristics of
liquid type transformers are well suitable for this purpose. As these types of transformers are delivered in
one piece, site access and site properties must be considered from the very beginning of the planning
process. Manufacturers provide information about the delivery conditions and the installation process of
substations, e.g.:
“Delivery takes place by truck equipped with assembly crane. For this, the following conditions must be
fulfilled:
• Driveway: paved
• Gradient: max. 4%
• Width: min. 3.5m
• Ground clearance: 0.25m”v37
37
Installation requirements for various station concepts of the TRANSFORMER COMPACT STATION, SMA Technical
Information.
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The winding and transformation ratio of conventional transformers is constant. The transformation ratio
determines the difference between voltage levels. For 400 V on the low voltage side and 20 kV on the
medium voltage side a transformation ratio of 1:50 is required.
In conventional power systems with a smaller number of producers (large power stations) connected to
high voltage levels and the consumers connected to medium and low voltage levels, the direction of energy
flow is almost exclusively from high to low voltage.
In this scenario, it suffices to regulate voltage in the substation between high and medium voltage. The
transformation ratio between medium and low voltage is constant.
With a constant coupling of low voltage and medium voltage, the voltage band of ± 10%38 is shared
between low and medium voltage, which decreases feed-in capacity (feed-in of electricity increases
voltage).
With an increasing number of decentralized energy sources, e.g. wind turbines connected to medium
voltage and PV systems connected to low voltage, the direction of energy flow can be reversed and the
effect of voltage increase due to feed-in at these voltage levels must be taken into account.
Variable local power transformers decouple low and medium voltage due to their adjustable
transformation ratio and, therefore, increase the capacity of feed-in into the low voltage level.
38
According to DIN EN 60038 – regulates voltage levels in Germany.
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If the voltage band of ± 10% is shared between low and medium voltage, this range must include
transformation tolerances, voltage drops along power lines (medium and low voltage) and in substations,
as well as voltage increase due to feed-in at medium voltage (max. 2%).
Therefore, the maximum voltage increase due to feed-in at the low voltage level is limited to 3%, a value
that can quickly be reached even at low feed-in capacities.
Additional power lines or an upgrade of existing power lines increase feed-in capacities. However, this can
be a costly solution.
The factor limiting feed-in at low voltage is usually the voltage band and not thermal capacity of the power
lines (which would limit current). Variable local power transformers increase feed-in capacity by decoupling
medium and low voltage: the maximum voltage increase is raised from 3% to up to 11%.
Therefore, they represent a cost-effective option to increase feed-in capacity as variable local power
transformers exploit existing equipment more effectively.
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Variable local power transformers can usually be installed in existing transformation stations, replacing
conventional transformers. Also they represent an alternative to grid extension as the utilization of existing
lines is optimized. In terms of power, variable local power transformers can increase feed-in capacity in
suburban grids (densely populated and high density of PV systems) by a factor of 2. In rural grids that are
less populated and feature longer power lines causing higher voltage drops, feed-in capacity can be
increased by a factor of up to 4. In terms of investment, variable local power transformers are an economic
solution to solve voltage problems compared to other approaches, such as grid extension or limitation of
active power. For the latter, compensations must be taken into account.
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3 Grid – tied PV system design

3.1 PV array – inverter sizing
When designing a large-scale PV power plant, it’s important to get a feeling for how the plant will be laid
out. Photovoltaics represent a highly modular technology and can be implemented for small installations
as well as large installations. Therefore, even for large installations, it’s important to maintain the modular
nature of the technology and design the layout in a way that builds on this strength.
Just as a single module is made up of individual cells, which are linked together to form strings of cells
within the module, so can modules be wired together to form strings, which can be connected in parallel to
form sub-arrays, which then make up the overall PV array of the entire site. Modules are often connected
together on modular mounting structure racks, so-called “racks” or “tables”. One table provides a
standardized mounting and connection scheme for a certain number of modules, which is based on the
design of the plant. This individual table is then repeated tens, hundreds, or even thousands of times
across the site.
Based on the components selected, a certain number of module strings from these tables are wired in
parallel through DC combiner boxes and then routed to inverters. The inverter converts the PV DC power
into AC power and provides the right combination of power quality characteristics so that it can be fed into
the electrical power network.
In order to properly size the array and the inverter, the overall limiting factors affecting the power plant
design must be clarified. In addition, the specific technical operating characteristics and limits of the
selected components will directly determine the amplitude of voltage and current that can flow through
each portion of the system, and this will therefore provide limitations for the system design. Most
fundamentally, the ambient climate conditions of the site will determine the available solar input and
operating conditions of the PV modules, which will directly affect their performance and output.
When initially designing a PV system, the primary limiting factors should first be clarified. It is also wise to
visit the site in order to have a firsthand impression of the site limitations, the character of the land and the
soil, as well as the surrounding area. Such information can be collected on a site planning data sheet. If
there is ample land available for a plant, it is likely that there will be other limits, including budget and the
ability to receive a permit to connect to the local electricity grid.
If the specific location is known, a map of the site should be obtained that provides as much detail as
possible with regard to the area, including land boundaries, shading objects, nearby houses, businesses,
access roads, and sensitive environmental areas (such as natural bodies of water). For later planning
purposes, information as to existing underground or overhead cabling, water and gas piping, soil type and
risk of natural disasters such as flood level, should also be obtained in as much detail as possible.
Environmental impact assessments, biodiversity measures, archaeological inspections and soil analyses also
form an important part of the siting and approval process, as well as providing valuable input for proper
operating and maintenance (O&M) planning and land and resource management (these assessments
should be coordinated in detail with local officials and subject matter experts; legal council is often
necessary).
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At the later planning stage, an in-depth site survey is essential to verify any assumptions made during the
initial sizing and layout, as well as to create a detailed map of the topography and the specific location of
any natural elements or technical way leaves (e.g. piping, cabling) present on the site.
3.2 String sizing
Initial array sizing is then highly dependent upon local weather conditions. Multiple sources for weather
data should be researched and considered. By providing the specific latitude and longitude, different
weather data sources can provide a varying range of information about the site. Solar irradiation,
temperature, cloudiness indices, etc., are typically recorded and averaged over a number of years in order
to minimize the potential for error. Sources that utilize a longer time range of data should be preferred as
they provide a larger sample size.
In addition, sources that also utilize ground stations in the target area will typically provide more accuracy
than sources that rely solely on satellite-based observation. In general, it is wise to consult various sources
and not to rely solely on one source.
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At an absolute minimum, the following information is needed:
 Average daily Global Horizontal Irradiation (GHI) [kWh/m2/day]
 Average daily temperature [°C]
For increased accuracy, and if the site experiences extreme weather conditions, such as particularly cloudy
conditions or particularly hot or freezing conditions, the following data is necessary:
 Average daily Diffuse Irradiation [kWh/m2/day] (also required for PVSyst simulations)
 Average daily minimums and maximums of Solar Insolation [kW/m2]
 Average daily minimums and maximums of temperature [°C]
 All of the above data provided for each month throughout the year; not only yearly values
The latitude will determine the sun’s angle in the sky throughout the year. This will help to decide upon the
tilt angle of the PV array racks as well as the spacing between racks.
When local climate data has been collected, the next step is to begin with the string sizing, which is directly
limited by the operating conditions of the inverter. Therefore, data sheets for the available PV modules as
well as for the selected inverter are necessary for further calculations. Furthermore, the sizing of the
inverter can be undertaken.
By adjusting the DC power at the input of the inverter compared to its nominal AC power at the output of
the inverter, the inverter can be either undersized or oversized. Undersizing the inverter (e.g. installing
more nominal PV DC capacity than the inverter can convert to AC power – i.e. the ratio of DC to AC power
is greater than 1) is also known as “overloading” the inverter.
It is vital to realize that the sizing of the array and the inverter is an optimization process. Best practices
exist, but individual sites can be optimized differently based on local climate conditions and the behaviour
of the selected components.
With regard to inverter technical specifications, at least the following values are necessary for proper
system sizing:
 Maximum power point tracking voltage range (min and max DC input voltage within the MPPT
operating window)
 Maximum DC input voltage
 Maximum DC input current
 AC output and power quality characteristics (necessary for grid connection and should be consulted
on in thorough detail with the local electrical network authority).
77
The inverter should be sized in a way that permits the inverter to work with a high efficiency. Inverter
efficiency curves depend on the instantaneous input power as a ratio of the nominal inverter power.
Therefore, because the output DC power of the solar array fluctuates with the incoming solar irradiation, so
does the relative efficiency of the inverter to which they modules are connected.
Since the input current depends directly on the irradiation, sizing according to the monthly irradiation level
of the installation site is important. One goal is to have the inverter begin operation early in the morning,
so that even with a low irradiation level the current from the PV array will already meet the input current
range of the inverter.
In addition, at midday during peak irradiation, the inverter should continue to operate thus working in full
load operation. If the inverter has been sized too small, when irradiation levels spike the input DC power
beyond the inverter’s capacity, the inverter will only convert the amount of energy equal to its maximum
capacity. This is known as “clipping” because the inverter clips off the spikes in available power, which are
lost to heat to protect the inverter from overheating. Furthermore, some inverters have internal
overheating protection built in and will disconnect the PV array for a certain period of time if they enter an
overheating condition.
In summary, if the inverter is too far overloaded, then it will fail to deliver all of the available power during
moments of peak irradiation. This could have a significant effect if a high percentage of the total available
solar energy at the site occurs during periods of high irradiation.
On the other hand, an inverter that has been sized too large will start up slowly at the beginning of the day
because the early morning sunshine might not provide enough PV output to meet the input current range
of the inverter. Furthermore, the inverter will stop its operation relatively early in the evening when the PV
current again falls below the inverter’s operating current range.
In the wintertime, the inverter may convert only a minimum of incoming power during excessively foggy
and cloudy days because the irradiation is not sufficient to generate enough current. Later in the text, we
will see that the decreased operating efficiency of an inverter when working in partial load conditions
might have a more negative effect on overall performance compared to an overloaded inverter that clips
during periods of high irradiation.
Importantly, these design decisions directly affect the overall economic profitability of the power plant, as
undersizing or oversizing implies a balance between additional cost of equipment (e.g. more PV racks)
versus the total output and sale of the electricity (which, of course, depends on the compensation
mechanism for the site). Furthermore, the lifecycle of the inverters may be affected if running in partial or
full load operation. It is also wise, therefore, to explore this topic in detail with the selected inverter
manufacturer.
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As we have learned, solar cells operate at a higher temperature compared to the ambient temperature
because of physical heat losses in the cells. Furthermore, when solar cells heat up, the voltage output
drops significantly, and the current output increases slightly, thereby resulting in an overall decrease in
power output.
The cell temperature can be calculated with the equation presented above.
NOCT [ºC] is the normal operation cell temperature in contrast to the standard test condition STC (cell
temperature 25°C). When solar cells are tested in the laboratory under Standard Test Conditions, they are
flashed with a very short pulse of light while maintained at 25°C and are thereby prevented from heating
up during operation.
However, during normal operation, cells typically heat up to a normal operating temperature equal to the
NOCT (NOCT is measured in the laboratory at an insolation of 80 mW/cm 2, an ambient temperature of
20°C, and a wind speed of 1 m/s flowing across a module mounted with an open backside). A typical value
for NOCT is around 47°C cell temperature, and this parameter should be specified on the data sheet of the
module. In the equation above, S [mW/cm2] is the instantaneous insolation level.
To calculate the daily extreme operation conditions of the modules (e.g. minimum voltage, maximum
voltage, maximum current) based on NOCT, the instantaneous insolation as well as the ambient
temperature can be set equal to the average maximum or minimum daily values.
79
These extreme cell temperatures will be used to calculate the module MPP voltage, the minimum and
maximum open circuit voltage VOC , as well as the maximum short circuit current ISC under different
conditions.
80
With regard to the characteristic curve, or the I-V Curve, of PV modules, we have already seen that both
voltage and current output depend on the cell temperature and on solar insolation/irradiance. Clearly, both
of these parameters change during the day and over the course of the year.
To reiterate:
 Current is:
o Strongly affected by solar irradiance (direct linear relationship)
o Weakly affected by temperature (slightly increases as temperature increases)
 Voltage is:
o Strongly affected by temperature (decreases significantly with increasing temperature)
o Weakly affected by solar irradiance (increases very quickly and then stays relatively
constant compared to irradiance)
In order to meet the MPP voltage range, a parameter indicated on the inverter data sheet, we need to
calculate the highest and lowest voltages that will be produced by the PV array with the help of the
module’s temperature coefficient. The temperature coefficients for voltage and current at STC are
indicated on the module data sheet and sometimes the module manufacturer even gives the data at NOCT.
In this case the equation can be adapted by calculating the NOCT temperature for a given ambient
temperature (see previous slides on NOCT).
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If the module datasheet does not include the temperature coefficient for VMPP, the module temperature
coefficient for the open circuit voltage, TC of Voc [mV/K], can be used as in the equation above. If the
temperature coefficient TC is provided for VMPP [mV/K], then that should be used when calculating the
adjusted VMPP, whereas TC of Voc should be used to calculate the temperature adjusted VOC.
From an engineering perspective, a major goal of the design process is to test the limits of the system and
make sure that the components will still operate safely (and then to optimize system performance under
normal conditions). If we are calculating the highest possible voltage that might occur because we want to
make sure that we will not damage our inverter, then we should consider the highest possible voltage that
will occur – namely the VOC of the array. However, if we are calculating the range of voltages that will occur
during normal operation because we want to make sure the voltage will stay within the MPPT range of the
inverter, then we might decide to calculate the adjusted voltage based on VMPP, since that will determine
the voltage output during normal operation.
Since voltage decreases with increasing cell temperature, to calculate the lowest MPP voltage we will
adjust the voltage subtracting the voltage loss from the MPP voltage at STC by using the temperature
coefficient that is rated either in VMPP [%/K] or VMPP [mV/K]. (TMaxCell - 25K) determines the difference of the
extreme maximum cell temperature compared to the temperature at STC. This differnce can also be called
∆ T or “delta T”.
Since the temperature coefficient is rated [mV/K] we multiply it by ∆ T in order to know the voltage that
has to be substracted from the MPP voltage at STC VMPP. The result in the squared brackets is negative
because the temperature coefficient is negative.
Similar to this calculation we calculate the highest MPP voltage by calculating the voltage to add to the
MPP voltage at STC (in this case the value to add will likely be positive because the lowest ambient
temperature will likely be lower than the STC temperature of 25°C, therefore the voltage will increase in
temperatures below 25°C).
Both, the highest MPP voltage VMPPmax. and the lowest voltage VMPPmin. of the array should fall within the
MPPT input voltage range of the inverter.
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83
84
We can calculate the maximum VOC voltage with the same equation. The maximum VOC voltage should be
lower than the maximum DC input voltage of the inverter even at the lowest cell temperature, which
occurs at the lowest ambient temperature at the site.
The number of modules that can be connected to a string is therefore determined by the maximum input
voltage of the inverter.
As long as the maximum voltage of the string VOC string (equal to the voltage of one module multiplied by the
number of modules, as the modules in the string are all connected in series) is lower than the rated
maximum DC input voltage of the inverter, modules can be added to the string.
Since the number of modules in a string is determined by MPPT range of the inverter, the highest MPP
voltage VMPPmax. of the string and the lowest voltage VMPPmin of the string must fall within the MPPT voltage
range of the inverter. The cable losses in the DC cabling between the string and the inverter should also be
taken into account, as this loss will decrease the string voltage that is actually seen by the inverter. For
example, if the VMPPmin planned is within e.g. 3% of the lower limit of the MPPT voltage range of the
inverter, and in addition there is a ca. 3% loss in the DC cable connecting the string with the inverter, then it
is possible that the voltage that appears at the inverter will fall below the inverter’s MPPT operating
voltage range.
85
While the number of modules connected in series within one string will determine your sub-array voltage
characteristics, the number of strings connected in parallel will determine your sub-array current
characteristics. Once the number of modules that compose a string is determined, the number of strings
connected in parallel can be calculated with the help of the current temperature coefficient TIsc. Here again
the maximum short circuit current Iscmax with the maximum cell temperature expected Tmaxcell is calculated.
The highest temperature is used because current output slightly increases with increasing cell temperature.
This maximum short circuit current of a module Iscmax is also the maximum short circuit current of each
string. With modules connected in series within a string, the current of the string remains the same
throughout. The number of strings connected in parallel can be calculated now by comparing the maximum
short circuit current of one string Iscmax with the maximum DC input current of the inverter. This maximum
short circuit current of a PV sub-array is the sum of the string current Iscmax of all strings connected in
parallel.
Strings can be added in parallel as long as the maximum current of the resulting larger sub-array Iscmax
remains lower than the rated input current of the inverter.
Note that this sizing for maximum current uses the Iscmax for calculation and not the lower IMPPmax, because
for this step we are concerned about the maximum possible current that the inverter can encounter (the
upper limit) and not the normal operating condition.
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3.3 Racks
87
The physical length and width of a table can be calculated using the equation above. The number of
modules, the number of the rows (not to be confused with strings), and the distance between the modules
(about 0,02 m) also called clearance C [m] are the determining factors for calculating the size of a standard
rack, also called a module table.
Normally the racks are planned in close cooperation with the provider of the mounting structures. They
have planning sheets asking for all information needed to calculate in detail the racks. The composition and
stability of the ground is also important for a long life constitution of the construction and the provider
should supply a static calculation based on the planned weight distribution. With this information, the
solution for proper installation can be determined.
The number of rows typically ranges between 3 to 5 rows per table. Cost consideration is an important
factor here, as the number of rows per rack will directly affect the pitch (distance) between racks because
of shading, as well as the number of racks that will fit into a particular area. Therefore, optimization of this
parameter will involve balancing cost of the mounting structures (including installation cost and
complexity), shading losses, and the total number of modules that can be installed on a site given the
selected mounting solution.
The modules are typically placed in landscape where shading effects have a lower impact.
88
Even if the calculation of the distance between the racks is done correctly, sometimes the ground can
experience shifting that can lead to sinking racks. In this case a landscape installation is advantageous
because only the lowest row will be shaded. Even when the shaded modules are connected to the
unshaded modules the landscape installation by activating the bypass diodes guarantees a higher energy
yield in case of shading.
Most of the module manufacturers define the position of the clamps on the longer side of the module
frame to minimise mechanical tensions. The mounting system should take this into consideration and
should allow a fixation of the module clamps on the long side for landscape installations.
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Photovoltaics represent a very modular technology that can be appropriate for a wide range of solutions,
from micro-watts to megawatts (sometimes even gigawatt range). For large installations as well as small, it
is favourable to maintain the modular character of the technology.
Therefore the design concept of systems, even in the megawatt scale, is a concept of joining solar units. A
solar unit is the rack or module table, consisting of a specific number of modules, a mounting structure, the
cabling, the DC junction box or the string inverter depending on the inverter concept. A certain number of
these solar units will be connected together to form a PV sub-array, which is connected to an inverter
(central or string depending on the inverter concept).
Regardless of the size, a PV system should always be symmetric and built up with the same number of
modules on a rack and or in a string. Therefore the output current and voltage, can be easily compared and
interpreted. In this way, a solar unit will be replicated many times in a large scale plant.
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Cabling represents a significant portion of overall electrical costs, and therefore efficient wiring practices
are very important for cost savings. Table layout and inverter positioning should be optimized to reduce the
distance to junction box and to the inverter, thereby the amount of cable required. Choosing quality
cabling is important, not only to reduce electrical losses, but also to avoid damage and failure to the overall
plant. For example, cables should also be sized correctly to be able to handle the maximum voltage and
current characteristics they will encounter. Furthermore, they should include sturdy UV-resistant
insulation.
Positive and negative cabling should ideally be realized with the least possible distance between them,
thereby reducing so-called cable loops, which can pose an increased risk of lightning strike. Cable loops can
induce voltages during thunderstorms and should be avoided (see Lightning and Overvoltage protection).
As depicted in the slide, many EPCs utilize so-called butterfly wiring. The main argument for this is
economic – a better pay back ratio can potentially be achieved by using the lowest row as a sacrificial row
to better tolerate inter-row shading during some weeks of the year when the sun elevation angle is low in
the sky. Therefore, the distance between rows can be decreased and higher PV power can be installed by
packing the modules closer together on the installation site.
All costs from the planning to installation, which are calculated on a price per power installed (cost/Wp)
base, are therefore positively affected. To determine whether this advantage exceeds the lower energy
yield due to inter-row shading, cost simulations should be calculated over the entire lifetime of the system.
It is always advantageous to have symmetric cabling for standardization and balanced electrical losses. This
might manifest all modules in a single table row making one string, or of all modules in the whole table, or
two adjacent rows in two module tables making up one string. In this way, the PV system is built up a
symmetrically contributing to ease of planning, purchasing, installation, monitoring and maintenance. This
can also allow for better electrical performance of the system, and the performance data can easily be
compared between several parts of the PV plant or between various PV plants.
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The ideal tilt angle depends mainly on the latitude of the location of the system. The tilt angle can be
calculated with the simplified rule of thumb presented above. However, it is also possible to simulate, e.g.
using software such as PVSyst, the optimal tilt angle to achieve the maximum energy yield throughout an
entire year for a given location. Some online databases, such as PVGIS, also provide an “optimal tilt angle”
analysis for sites in Europe and Africa. However, the tilt angle will directly affect the inter-row spacing, so
EPCs will often utilize tilt angles that are far below the optimal tilt angle for a location – this enables a
significant increase in the total amount of power that is able to be installed on the site.
The second equation gives the distance between the rows needed for a shadow-free alignment at the
winter solstice (Dec. 21st. or June 21st., at noon, lowest sun altitude of the year). Please note that this
calculation basis presents an economic compromise and does not guarantee that there may not be any
shadow at all during winter months. The sun is at its highest point at midday noon, so the mornings and
evening sun will still lead to inter-row shading. In case of doubt, a plant simulation can be effected using
simulation programs, (e.g. PVSyst, PVGIS) in order to quantify yield losses.
It’s also important to take into consideration the total amount of electricity that is produced in lower
irradiation months (e.g. winter) compared with the total overall electricity that can be produced during
months when the sun is higher in the sky. It may be more advantageous to orient the tilt angle towards
maximizing power output during the best irradiation months of the year.
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The minimum distance between the bottom of the lowest module and the ground should generally be
more than 0,5 m in order to provide good ventilation but also to avoid shading from growing vegetation.
Some PV installation realized by EPCs show rows that are placed much closer to avoid cabling and area
costs. They have calculated that the price-pay-back ratio is advantageous over 20 years even if there are
mutual winter shadings on the lowest row. On the other hand the real life-time can be longer than the
usually calculated 20 years, which means that more electricity will be produced over the real lifetime of the
plant compared to what is typically considered in the financial calculations.
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3.4 Inverter sizing
The sizing factor is typically ± 10% of the nominal power of the inverter.
If for example a 20 MW plant is planned on the base of 500 kW inverters, one needs 40 units for a 20 MWp
plant as a first approach. As the planning process continues in detail, the number of inverters will be
probably deviate from the nominal number.
Depending on the distribution density of irradiance vs. irradiation at the location, the inverter can be sized
up or down to maximize yield. Overloading inverters, for example, this can be achieved by either installing
more modules or, if this is not possible, by removing inverters from the design.
Inverter manufacturers typically provide a recommendation for the sizing factor range that might be for
example a sizing factor 80% < PDC max / PMPP at STC < 120%.
For an inverter of 500kWp and the 240 Wp module that would be:
80% (400 kWp) < PDC max / PMPP STC < 120% (600 kWp)
Therefore, different configurations of modules between 400 and 600 kWp can be connected to each 500
kWp inverter, or the number of inverters can be modified – for example, 34 inverters with a total nominal
power of 17 MW could be sufficient to realise a 20 MWp PV system. Important to remember, modules can
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be connected in series up to the system voltage indicated on the module data sheet as well as the
maximium input voltage of the inverter, both of which are normally 1000 V.
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To choose the number of inverters a general decision between oversizing and undersizing of the inverter
needs to be taken. Depending on the distribution density of irradiance vs. irradiation at the location, the
inverter can be sized up or down to maximize yield.
If the majority of available energy (irradiation) is available during periods of high power insolation
(irradiance), then the modules will often be operating near their maximum power point, P MPP (adjusted
downwards for temperature). Therefore, it is prudent to size the inverter so that it will be able to convert
the majority of this high power energy.
On the other hand, if high irradiance conditions (e.g. 1000 W/m2) are unusual, and the modules are
normally offering at nearly 50% of their nominal power output, then it would be wise to increase the
number of panels, thereby increasing the total power output, so that the inverter can operate closer to its
nominal power condition and feed more electricity into the grid.
By overloading the inverter with a higher DC power input (nominal DC power at STC), the inverter will be
pulled into a different region on its operating curve (see slide). Note that below ca. 10 – 15% of its nominal
output, inverter efficiency is below or close to 90% compared with its maximum efficiency, (e.g. in the
range of 95 – 98%).
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The inverter normally achieves its maximum efficiency in the 50 – 70% load factor range, after which it may
drop back down a couple percentage points. In low irradiance conditions, an overloaded inverter
(“undersized”), will very rarely operate in the early low efficiency area of the curve, because the higher
quantity of modules will still be able to produce enough power so that the inverter is running at a higher
load factor.
Oversizing (“underloading”) means that the nominal inverter power is higher than the nominal PV power.
This approach is generally recommended for sunny locations to avoid losing power produced during sun
peaks.
The efficiency curve for European countries shows the probability of a certain irradiation level occurring in
Europe. The image in the slide depicts different points on the inverter efficiency curve according to the
Euro efficiency irradiance probability. In sunnier countries P100 and P50 will show higher probabilities for
higher irradiation and since the efficiency is slightly decreasing with a higher irradiation it would be
favourable to slightly oversize the inverter to move the inverter’s operating point to the left on the curve,
i.e. away from the maximum P100. Low irradiation levels such as P5 to P30 will be rare during the day and
over the year. Therefore, lower efficiency at this level is acceptable in these low irradiation periods,
because the overall percentage of energy produced during these periods is low compared to periods of
middle to high irradiation
Furthermore the lifetime of the inverter may be longer if it isn’t working at full power most of the time and
potentially disconnecting in case of overheating. Note that a disconnected inverter has zero efficiency.
Undersizing (“overloading”) means that the nominal inverter power is lower than the nominal PV power.
This approach is generally recommended in low irradiation countries.
An undersized inverter works closer to its upper limits in case of middle to high irradiation, so there is a
certain risk of failure and lifecycle reduction. On the other hand, however, the initial costs are
advantageous because fewer inverters are needed. Additionally, during periods of low irradiation (e.g. P5,
P15, etc.), which occur frequently in such countries, the inverter’s operating point on the efficiency curve
will be pushed to the right, toward higher inverter efficiencies.
Such reflections help lead to a decision for the inverter design concept. For example, it can be better to
choose a string inverter concept in case of undersizing the system because of the risk of failure. If one
string inverter fails, there will likely still be many other strings running, and power will continue to be fed
into the grid, whereas the failure of a single central inverter can take many more PV modules offline. . On
the other hand, it might be easier with central inverters to improve efficiency by realising a master-slave
concept. In such a concept, only one inverter will be online during periods of low irradiance, whereas the
incoming power will be split to multiple inverters during periods of middle and high irradiance. In this way,
the MPP modus starts even in case of low input current, thereby capturing more available power overall.
Inverter manufacturers and project developers alike are continuing to gather more field experience with
this topic and are constantly researching new solutions that are appropriate for regions with different
insolation profiles.
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3.5 Transformer sizing
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Transformers are electrical conversion devices that utilise inductive coils and magnets in order to “step-up”
or “step-down” voltage levels from a primary circuit to a secondary circuit. While power electronic
inverters will normally produce low voltage AC, e.g. 380 V AC, transformers are used to boost the voltage of
the inverter output up to a voltage level that is necessary to interact with a medium or high voltage grid
connection. These voltage levels vary by country and the surrounding distribution infrastructure, but
examples of grid-connection point voltages for large PV installations include 11 kV, 33 kV, 72 kV, and 133
kV.
Normally one transformer is needed for an inverter feed-in power of 100…500 kW. For higher power
injections, there will be a transformer for approximately every 500 kW of PV power.
Transformers are rated in kilovolt-amperes [kVA] (apparent power), and the typical ratings are 500 kVA up
to 2500 kVA, increasing in e.g. 250 kVA to 500 kVA increments.
Transformers have usually the same power rating as the inverters installed on that site or combination of
multiple inverter power ratings if multiple inverters feed into one transformer.
Site temperature is an important aspect – similar to inverters, transformers are sensitive to high
temperatures, which have a direct effect on their lifecycle. Transformers, therefore, require cooling
measures and often the construction of an enclosed building if installed outdoors. Even enclosed
transformers should be rated for outdoor use, especially if they are installed in harsh environmental
conditions.
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Transformers convert and transfer energy through inductive magnetic resonance. As depicted in the slide,
transformers feature primary and secondary coils wrapped around a magnetic core. When AC electricity
oscillates through the primary coil, it induces a magnetic field. This magnetic field creates a magnetic flux
in the core and oscillates along with the AC in the primary coil. The oscillations of the magnetic flux
through the core induce an oscillating voltage in the secondary coil. If the secondary coil is then connected
as an electrical circuit, this voltage will cause current to flow in this secondary circuit.
In an ideal transformer (lossless), the ratio of the AC voltage in the secondary coil vs. the primary coil is
equal to the ratio of the number of windings in the secondary coil vs. the number of windings in the
primary coil. Simply put, the relationship between the voltage levels on each side is related to the
relationship between the number of windings on each side. The proportion of windings (n2/n1) is < 1 for
step-down transformers (U2 < U1) and > 1 for step-up transformers (U2 > U1).
In the case of inverter connected to a transformer, the inverter sends the PV array-inverted AC current
through the transformer’s primary circuit to the primary coil at a voltage source of e.g. 380 V AC. The AC
power oscillates at the given frequency (in Europe 50 Hz) and thereby induces an adjusted voltage across
the secondary coil of e.g. 33 kV, which also oscillates at the AC frequency. If a load impedance, for example
a connection to the local electricity network, is connected to the transformer’s secondary circuit, then AC
power will flow that is equivalent to the incoming power from the inverter (less the losses in the
transformer transformation) at the newly transformed voltage level.
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A step-up transformer has more turns of wire on the secondary winding than in the primary winding, which
results in a larger induced voltage in the secondary coil. It is called a step-up transformer because the
output voltage is larger than the input voltage – it is “stepped up”. If the secondary coil has twice as many
turns of wire then the output voltage will be twice the input voltage (in an ideal transformer).
In the case of a PV system the primary coil is on the PV inverter side and the secondary coil, the high
voltage side, is connected to the public grid.
Conventional transformers are manufactured with common voltage combinations, e.g. 480 V AC
transformed to 13.8 kV AC. The inverter output may not match these common voltage combinations thus
inverter manufacturers that provide central inverters often also provide the matching transformer to meet
the grid voltage. In some cases, the transformers are actually built into the inverter housing directly.
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The graphic above shows the connection symbols of three-phase transformers according to DIN VDE 0532.
For PV systems the so-called delta-wye transformers are commonly used. Other configurations of three-
phase power transformers include delta-delta, wye-wye, and wye-delta.
For three-phase power connections, there are two basic configurations: delta and wye (also called star).
While a delta configuration requires only three wires for transmission, a wye configuration may utilise a
fourth wire. The delta-wye transformer, commonly used in PV systems, is a type of transformer design that
utilises wye (star)-connected windings on its primary coil (low voltage side) and delta-connected windings
on its secondary coil (high voltage grid-connected side). One of the primary advantages of this
configuration is a full galvanic isolation between primary and secondary coils (which prevents a ground
fault from flowing through the ground between the PV plant and transformers or generators on the
electrical grid network).
While the number of modules connected in series within one string will determine your sub-array voltage
characteristics, the number of strings connected in parallel will determine your sub-array current
characteristics. Once the number of modules that compose a string is determined, the number of strings
connected in parallel can be calculated with the help of the current temperature coefficient TIsc. Here again
the maximum short circuit current Iscmax with the maximum cell temperature expected Tmaxcell is calculated.
The highest temperature is used because current output slightly increases with increasing cell temperature.
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This maximum short circuit current of a module Iscmax is also the maximum short circuit current of each
string. With modules connected in series within a string, the current of the string remains the same
throughout. The number of strings connected in parallel can be calculated now by comparing the maximum
short circuit current of one string Iscmax with the maximum DC input current of the inverter. This maximum
short circuit current of a PV sub-array is the sum of the string current Iscmax of all strings connected in
parallel.
Strings can be added in parallel as long as the maximum current of the resulting larger sub-array Iscmax
remains lower than the rated input current of the inverter.
Note that this sizing for maximum current uses the Iscmax for calculation and not the lower IMPPmax, because
for this step we are concerned about the maximum possible current that the inverter can encounter (the
upper limit) and not the normal operating condition.
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The selected transformer should provide voltage and power output characteristics that meet the
requirements of the local grid operator. In addition, the transformer should be selected in cooperation
with the inverter manufacturer. They know how to find a suitable transformer and some of them also
provide step-up transformer to ensure the equipment matches.
As stated, transformers are rated in apparent power [kVA]. Apparent power is made up of real power [W]
and reactive power [var]. While real power is necessary to do any kind of work, reactive power is required
for the proper functioning of an AC network and must be properly balanced by the network operators.
In some countries, PV power producers are required by the Distributed Network Operator (DNO) to
guaranty a certain ratio of apparent power to real power that is produced by the PV system inverters and
transformers to be injected into their network. This ratio is equal to cos(φ), the cosine of the angle
between the current and the voltage waveforms. The ratio is referred to as “cosine phi” or “power factor”.
Transformers are inductive devices and will therefore naturally cause a delay between voltage and current.
Therefore, inverters and control devices must take into account the phase angle introduced by the
transformers that provide the feed-in point for the grid.
Inverters also have certain tolerances in their voltage output range and over/under-frequency response.
Grid-connected inverters will often disconnect the PV array and disconnect from the grid if the operating
conditions of the grid voltage fall outside of certain ranges. For example, inverters with active frequency
response have a particular frequency range within which the inverter will continue to operate. Since the
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transformer is an inductive element that causes a shift in the electrical power phase angle, it should be
confirmed that the inverter will work properly with the transformer.
Furthermore, pulse width modulation (PWM) utilised in the inverter power electronics rapidly adjusts an
internal time sampling signal in order to ensure that the voltage level at the inverter output is held within
the tolerance range. If the transformer is not appropriately matched to the inverter, there may be a
discrepancy between the voltage on the primary circuit of the transformer and the expected voltage output
of the inverter, thereby potentially causing a transformer output that does not meet the required
characteristics of the grid, or causing a feedback loop within the control system of the inverter that can
potentially cause the inverter to malfunction or even cause damage to the components.
The transformer should be matched to the inverter as closely as possible in order to ensure optimized
performance. It is therefore wise to work closely with the inverter manufacturer when selecting a
transformer. In fact, many inverter manufacturers will install or deliver a pre-selected transformer with
their inverter equipment. In this case, it should be verified that the transformer selected by the
manufacturer provides the power quality characteristics required by the appropriate DNO or electrical
authority.
3.6 Sizing DC and AC cables
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According to DIN IEC 60364-7-712 (corresponding to VDE 0100-712) the total wiring losses of the DC side
shall not exceed 1%.
The equation above shows how to calculate the string cable to the string inverter or to the array junction
box (AJB). Note that the losses in the cable depend directly on the amount of current flowing through the
cable [A], the length of the cable [m], the cross-sectional area of the cable [mm2], as well as the specific
electrical conductivity of the selected material of the cable [m/Ωmm2] (note: remember that specific
resistivity is the inverse of conductivity, so it can also be said that the losses depend on the specific
resistivity of the cable material).
Copper has a higher conductivity (lower resistivity) compared to aluminium, therefore copper cables will
have fewer losses (but they are also considerably more expensive). Note that higher current on the line
leads to higher losses, as can be seen in the (simplified) equation:
Ploss = I2*R
Therefore, a higher voltage on the line will lead to relatively lower loss, because the voltage is inversely
related to the current, as can be seen in the basic equation:
P=I*V
and therefore, I=P/V
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Sizing of the cable cross section depends directly on the length of the cable and the maximum current that
will flow through the cable. Ploss is the acceptable power loss in the cable, which is directly related to the
voltage drop – it should also be a maximum of 1% or 0.01 of the total power being transmitted on the line.
The fact that the percentage of the voltage loss is directly equal to the percentage of the power loss can be
seen in the following basic comparison, showing a 1% drop:
P = I*V
and therefore, (P*0.99) = I*(V * 0.99)
For protection, string fuses are sized 1.25 times ISC at STC, and the cable cross section should be calculated
in order to withstand a higher current than the fuse. Note that the purpose of a fuse is to protect the cable
from overheating and should therefore be sized according to (smaller than) the maximum carrying capacity
of the cable.
A long distance from the array to the central inverter can be a reason to consider installing an increased
number of combiner boxes at strategic locations within a large PV System. Combiner boxes collect cabling
from multiple strings and route them through a single cable pair to the inverters. String inverter concepts
can also utilize AC combiner boxes, in which AC cabling from string inverters is collected in a junction box
and then routed to a central transformer. In addition to the benefits of reducing cabling and providing a
location for string fuse protection, etc., combiner boxes also provide a convenient location to place
decentralized monitoring equipment to measure how well the individual PV arrays are performing.
Thin-film modules usually have a string current (ISC) < 3 A, therefore implying fewer losses in the cabling and
the ability to potentially save costs by avoiding the need for large cable cross sections. Balancing the
distance between arrays, junction boxes, and inverters is both a technical and economical optimization
process.
Values are calculated and then rounded up to next standard class. Typical values for string cross sections
are 2.5, 4 and 6 mm² from the string to the array junction box, and 16, 25, 35, 70 or 90 mm² from the array
junction box to a combiner box.
The cable section from the combiner box, also called generator junction box (GJB), to the inverter can be as
large as 300, 400, 500, 630 mm² or multiple combinations of these cables, e.g. 2 x 300 mm² depending on
the amount of current and the acceptable losses.
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The graphic above shows the maximum cable length that can be realised with a 6 mm² copper cable
depending on the string current and calculated for a range of different system voltages.
Note that this is an older table – nowadays crystalline modules have a short circuit current (ISC) > 8 A as cell
dimensions have been increasing since 2007. Isc is not only a function of cell quality, but also a function of
surface area exposed to the sunlight. In any case, in the chart it can still be seen that 150 to 200 m
represents a natural limit for low loss cabling. This should therefore be the distance to take into
consideration when planning combiner boxes in a crystalline PV system. In systems realised with thin-film
modules, this distance is larger since the string current is (ISC) < 3 A.
These graphs and tables can be found in different books and their use is very common but also free cabling
software (e.g. from the inverter manufacturer SMA) is recommended. Naturally, cable losses can still easily
be calculated, and a spreadsheet software can therefore be used as a manual method in the system design
process to ensure losses do not exceed the desired limits.
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The AC cabling should meet international standards such as IEC 60502 for cables between 1-36 kV, IEC
60364 for low voltage cabling, and IEC 60840 for cables between 30-150 kV.
The single- or multi-core AC (Copper or Aluminium depending on length and section) cables typically have a
2 years warranty. When used in an outdoor application they should always feature proven UV- and
mechanical resistance specifications. The operating temperature range should be at least 100 °C, ideally
125 °C or higher, depending on the expected ambient temperature of the site. Double insulation is
recommended for installations in harsh environments to prevent animals or other types of corrosion from
degrading insulation and exposing the metal conductors. Cabling must be rated for the maximum expected
voltage and current (operating and short circuit). Typically cable current carrying capacities are given at ca.
70% of the maximum capacity that a cable can handle. International norms should be followed when sizing
cables for normal operating conditions as well as the extremes that the cables may encounter. Any values
occurring beyond that should be managed by a proper cable protection scheme (note that the primary role
of a fuse is to protect the cabling from an overload state, which can lead to fire, melting and damage to
other equipment). Also on the AC cabling side, capital cost (initial investment largely based on the cross
section of the material) should be balanced with operational cost (technical losses in the cable mean that
less power is delivered and sold to the grid).
From a technical point of view, a max voltage drop of 2% is acceptable on the AC side, but sometimes cable
losses are subject to negotiation based on economic arguments. The equation above shows how to
calculate the cable cross section on the AC side as well as the losses that occur in the cable.
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3.7 Sizing of junction box and DC main switch
Generator Junction Boxes (GJB) or combiner boxes serve to connect multiple cables from smaller Array
Junction Boxes (AJB), collecting the current from the AJBs and consolidating it into one cable output, which
can then be further routed through the PV plant. In this way, cable cross sections, cable lengths, and the
complexity of cable trenches running across the solar park can be reduced.
Several DC cables from the AJBs are connected in parallel to the GJB, which is then connected to the
inverter as shown by the graphic above. Both the AJBs and the GJBs have a limited number of input cable
ports, and the corresponding output current of the AJB has to meet the GJB’s technical limits, and likewise
the output current of the GJB has to match the inverter input. Just as strings are connected in parallel at
the AJB level, AJB cabling is connected in parallel at the GJB level, thereby maintaining voltage amplitude
and adding current outputs together.
Usually the GJBs include circuit breakers but typically don’t include fuses, whereas AJBs will often include
string fuses.
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The sizing of array junction boxes depends on the number of strings per array or per table – typically 2 to 6
strings. It contains string fuses for positive and negative cables based on the maximum current ISC of any
one string. Circuit breakers are typically 40...80 A and selected depending on the maximum current
available from the multiple strings connected at the AJB.
The cable cross section is selected based on the calculated DC losses to the GJB or to the inverter,
depending on the designed layout. M32, M40 and M50 are example cable sizes for the AJB level.
Some AJBs have multi-contact connectors for the incoming strings, and some have an optional cascading
for thin-film modules. Thin-film modules typically have a string current (ISC) < 3A. Thus compared to
crystalline modules the number of strings connected in parallel to meet the inverter output can be three
times higher. Junction boxes with cascading allow connecting more strings in parallel with a certain ease of
handling.
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As mentioned before, generally if more than three strings are connected in parallel, string fuses play an
important role to prevent damage from potential reverse currents. The reverse current a module can
handle is generally rated twice the ISC, meaning a module is able to handle the current coming from two
other strings connected to it in parallel. The reverse current of the module is mentioned on the data sheet
and depends on the internal diodes. If a string fails, the current of the other strings may take the direction
of the failed string that is generating a weaker voltage.
String fuses are nominally sized to 125% the Inom. of the string.
The fuse has the role of protecting the string if the current should reach twice ISC (measured at STC),
therefore the release current of the fuse should be size appropriately. In other words: the release current
of the string fuse should be higher than the string current and lower that the reverse current of the
modules. However, the nominal rating of the fuse (at 1.25 times the Isc) helps to ensure that the string fuse
will not trigger unnecessarily.
On the other hand, the release current should be lower than the carrying capacity of the cable in order to
ultimately ensure that the cable does not fail because of being overloaded.
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3.8 Electrical safety devices
The DC-isolator switch is located at the DC input of the inverter. It disconnects the PV system from the
inverter and must therefore be able to switch the full PV load, including the total voltage of the array at Voc
measured at -10°C as well as a current of 1.25 times the Isc.
The DC disconnect must be rated for DC operation and be able to comfortably handle the highest DC
current produced by the entire array that is connected to the inverter. Note that switching of DC power
requires different technical demands compared to AC, as DC power has a tendency to arc when switched.
When properly located and used within their approved ratings, circuit breakers that can be manually set
and reset can serve as both disconnect and overcurrent devices. Importantly, the DC disconnects must be
double throw, meaning both the positive and negative polls should be switched at the same time.
Some inverter manufacturers integrate their own DC disconnect within the inverter or provide matching
equipment based on the allowable inputs of the inverter.
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Electrical safety components can be installed at any level of the modular PV system. Combiner and array
junction boxes serve not only to realize proper cable management but can also integrate DC safety
components such as disconnects, string fuses and overvoltage protection or even monitoring devices.
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String fuses and MCBs (miniature circuit breakers) are designed to protect the electrical wiring. They are
connected in series to the module strings in the junction box. Specially developed PV fuses are more
suitable than standard DC fuses. They should be rated for the highest open circuit voltage, namely V OC
string at -10°C (or other temperature depending on the lowest ambient temperature of the site). It is
advisable to monitor the status of the fuses remotely and to change the fuses every year. As they wear out
progressively, this could occasionally lead to hazardous situations. Fuse replacement is one of the most
common tasks carried out during maintenance of a solar PV plant. If fuses are triggering too often, it might
make sense to reconsider whether they are sized too small for the array, as every time a fuse melts, it
needs to be replaced before the effected string will be able to produce electricity again.Furthermore, fuses
have specific operating curves, which should be investigated when selecting components. Even at their
rated current levels, fuses will often have a long delay before they trigger. This is due to the physical
properties of the fuse (the metal filament heats up before it melts, and this heating occurs at different
rates based on the amount of current flowing through it) and serves to prevent the fuse from blowing
unnecessarily. At higher current rates, fuses will trigger much faster to prevent high currents from flowing
through the line.Finally, fuses also have a certain limit to how much current they are actually able to break.
It is possible that an extremely high current can overwhelm the insulating ability of the fuse and thereby
continue to conduct current even after the fuse should have triggered.Circuit breakers should have the
same grounding as the DC disconnect switch and the inverter in order to guarantee the same reference
potential.
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Proper earthing or grounding provides a consistent point of electrical continuity between all components in
the PV system so that hazardous electrical charge does not appear where it should not. When different
levels of charge are allowed to accumulate on various components, e.g. between a PV rack and a fence, a
voltage appears between them, and current can flow if they become electrically connected, potentially
leading to electric shock injury and/or damage to equipment.
Properly grounding the components together prevents the build up of such potential, and connecting this
grounding system to properly earthed cables and rods provides an outlet for excess current to flow in the
case of a current spike or fault from e.g. a lightning strike.
Grounding the PV system is compulsory on both the DC and AC sides. Earthing the frame of the array
protects the metal PV structure and modules from being charged during thunderstorms. If the whole
system is connected to the ground it is also protected against electromagnetic interference.
Lightning and surge protection also requires earthing.
The PV system can be connected to the ground at the module frame, at the rack mounting structure, at the
array junction box, at the DC disconnect, and at the inverter.
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With regard to the inverter selection, the recommendations of the inverter manufacturers concerning
installations of thin-film modules and rear-contacted c-Si based PV module technologies should be heeded
closely. Such systems have to be installed with an additional grounding kit integrated to the inverter. For
example, the negative pole for thin-film modules might have to be connected to the system ground vs. the
positive pole in the case of rear-contacted c-Si based PV module technologies.
Therefore, inverter manufacturer instructions should be followed carefully.
Grounding rods must be placed close to junction boxes, surge protection devices and inverters. Per local
regulation, the grounding rods are often times required to be evenly spaced throughout the site. If
mounting structures are rammed into the ground, then the evenly spaced supportive rods of the racks also
provide a point of entry to the earth ground. In any case, however, earthing regulations are strictly
regulated on a country by country basis and the local norms should be followed closely.
Often times a professional earthing survey will have to be conducted by a certified organization. Such a
survey includes soil conductivity (resistivity) tests and software simulations in the case of various faults or
events. In this way, the touch and step potentials can be evaluated and additional grounding measures can
be proposed.
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The term switchgear includes the combination of electrical disconnect switches, fuses or circuit breakers
used to control, protect and isolate electrical equipment. Switchgear protects against unintentional faults
travelling up or down stream in the system (e.g. when a circuit breaker is triggered and opens the circuit).
However, switchgear is also utilized to disconnect and de-energize the system deliberately in the case of
e.g. fire and maintenance (e.g. through a double-pole disconnect switch).
Fault current protection (e.g. also in the form of intelligent electronic devices such as digital relays) is often
installed at the output of the inverter or at the input of the switchgear. Switchgear can also be combined
with metering, control and protection equipment. Needless to say, the switchgear plays a vital role in the
ability to control the output of the system and perform necessary safety and maintenance tasks.
In substations, such as the point of connection between a large-scale PV system and an electrical grid
network, switchgear is located on both the high-voltage and low-voltage side of the power transformers.
This is for redundancy, but also so that the transformer itself can be isolated from both sides for
maintenance and replacement. Gas-insulated bus bars and vacuum or sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) breakers
are commonly applied for switchgears handling 33 kV lines or lower. Switchgears for higher voltages
typically utilize air-insulated bus bars.
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Just as with protection standards, national and international standards govern switchgear ratings, design,
specifications, and required protections. IEEE and ANSI standards are used in North America, and IEC
standards are common globally (IEC 61439 for low voltage, IEC 62271 for high voltage) sometimes with
local national codes providing specific modifications or variations to the international codes.
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Not only does properly earthing a PV system prevent the build up of hazardous charge in places where it
should not appear (i.e. in non-current-carrying metallic parts such as the module frames and mounting
structures), it also provides a connection to a theoretically endless sink where excess current can flow in
the event of a current spike due to e.g. a lightning strike.
In electricity supply and communications systems, an earthing or grounding system also provides a zero
reference voltage point for all other components in the system. In theory, the earth should be able to
absorb an unlimited amount of current without changing its potential. In reality this is not the case, but
earthing surveys also serve to predict how high the earth potential could rise in the case of an extreme
excess current event. If the earth potential rise is within acceptable range, then the risk of electrical shock
is kept to an acceptable minimum.
As a reference zero voltage, the conductor at the zero voltage reference should be connected to ground.
On the DC side, this is the negative conductor, on the AC side, this is the neutral conduct. Note that DC
bonds are typically located inside central inverters or in ground-fault protection devices. There is typically
only one conductor to the ground for the DC side and one conductor for AC side. The DC and AC sides may
be connected to the same grounding electrode system (ground rod). If separate grounding rods are used,
the rods must be bonded together. The picture in the slide shows a typical earthing electrode, consisting of
a conductive (typically copper) rod driven deep into the ground.
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Note that regulations for earthing systems vary considerably between different countries and should be
consulted closely during PV system planning. Most electrical codes specify that the insulation on protective
earthing conductors must be of a defined colour combination (e.g. yellow-green as can be seen in the
picture).
A very good guide to grounding and earthing issues is the book “Photovoltaic Power Systems and the 2005
National Electric Code: suggested practices” by John Wiles of the Southwest Technology Development
Institute at the New Mexico State University.
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3.9 Lightning and overvoltage protection
The graphic shows a simple lightning protection system.

Protection angles define the height of the lightning rods according to IEC 62305, which replaces the
European standard EN 62305. These standards contain tables showing the protection level of a building.
The protection level is higher for public buildings such as schools and city halls for example. The highest
protection level is defined for industries and other sites that represent a high danger such as radioactive
facilities. The protection level defines the protection angle and the height of the lightning rod.
The lightning rod as the highest metallic element of the site attracts the lightning and will lead the voltage
directly to earth since it is connected to an earth rod. This is also called the external lightning protection or
overvoltage protection.
The high voltage attracted by a lightning rod results in ground currents, which can induce a voltage in
buried conductors and sometimes in network lines. If that happens, a high voltage can enter the PV
installation via the public grid. Surge protection devices (SPD) can avoid damage to the installation by
shorting to ground any unwanted voltages above a safe threshold. Such SPDs connect the system to earth
ground via a variable resistance, which immediately drops its resistance to virtually zero (short-circuit) in
the case of a voltage spike. In this way, any current flow that follows the voltage spike will be conducted to
earth ground. This is also called the internal lightning protection or surge protection.
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A lightning protection system using lightning rods is designed to attract and catch a lightning strike in a
storm with the idea to 1) avoid that the strike hits the PV equipment directly and 2) to handle the voltage
and current surges once the strike has been attracted. Therefore, it is possible that such a system poses a
risk of voltage spikes in the surrounding network lines. Such voltage spikes can appear e.g. 2 km around the
initial lightning strike, and therefore internal lightning protection or surge protection measures are also a
good idea to prevent damage from high voltages induced on network lines.
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The separation distance is the distance of the protected zone to the lightning protection system, which
consists of the lightning rods and the electrical conductor that connects it to the earth rod. The separation
distance can be calculated with the equation above. It depends on the materials used, the length to the
ground rod and the symmetry of the protection system. Lightning protection providers are ready to share
their experience and to help with theses equations. A typical installation on a roof will have a separation
distance of 0.5 m for example.
If the separation distance cannot be respected, then a type 1 lightning protection device must also be
installed.
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The picture above shows examples of the different protection devices, the lightning arrester (type1) and
the surge arrester (type2).
There are three different cases to differentiate:
1. If there is no external lightning protection, a surge protector (type 2) is recommended but not
compulsory to be installed on the DC side to protect the inverter.
On the AC incoming feeder a surge protector (type 2) is installed if the building is in a zone with
high lightning impacts.
2. If there is an external lightning protection and the separation distance is respected, a surge
arrestors (type 2) is recommended but not compulsory to be installed on the DC side to protect the
inverter. The low-voltage power supply in the building should be protected by a multi-pole
combined lightning current and surge arrester (type 2).
3. If there is external lightning protection and the separation distance is not respected, a lightning
arrestor (type 1) is compulsory to be installed on the DC side to protect the inverter and the
conductive lines. On the AC incoming feeder multi-pole combined lightning current and surge
arrester (type 1) needs to be installed.
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For PV power plants it is recommended to arrange the lightning rods in a way that keep the separation
distance between the PV supporting frames and the lightning rods. The lightning rods should be placed at
the northern side of the PV-System with a sufficient height. Other lightning rods added should be sized and
placed avoiding all shadings. The choice of surge arrestors refers to the case of external lightning protection
and the separation distance kept.
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4 Commissioning of PV systems
4.1 System documentation
Just as due diligence is required on the financial side, performing due diligence on the technical side is just
as important to ensure that a PV installation is bankable and will perform as expected. System
documentation is vital to the process of technical due diligence. According to IEC 62446, the system
documentation includes all datasheets and certificates of the components and warranty conditions,
information with regard to the grid connection and grid codes, the system design, the site survey report
and the cable plan. The entire system documentation, including the testing report and the operation and
maintenance (O&M) contract, should be provided to the system owner.
The testing report not only contains the measured values of the installed components but also information
on specific topics relevant to the system, for example recommendations from the inverter manufacturer
concerning the connection of thin film modules, if applicable.
Sometimes pre-commissioning testing may be necessary for PV plants, because it represents an important
investment. Visual inspections, infrared imaging and electroluminescence can reveal damage to the
components caused by transportation and faulty packaging.
The production quality of the modules should already be completely documented at the point of delivery –
each and every module is tested by the module manufacturer, and the flash data in combination with the
corresponding serial numbers are included in the delivery. Nevertheless, measuring I-V curves of the PV
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strings can reveal quality issues that do not correspond to the certificates as well as quality issues that may
relate to the installation, such as excessive losses in the cabling or module mismatching.
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The quality of installation is as important as the quality of the system components.

Tests may be conducted at different levels of the installation in order to verify the installation quality.
Especially when various installation firms perform work on the same field, it is fundamental to have
commissioning documents such as completion certificates.
A mechanical completion certificate attests the realisation according to the construction planning, verifying
the correct number and dimensions of fundaments, the distances of the rows and specific components
installed, etc. While tests such as load bearing static calculations and soil analyses are conducted before
construction begins as part of the planning and approval process, it often happens that the approved plans
are changed slightly during construction to account for unforeseen circumstances or site conditions. If
there were any changes between the approved plans and the actual realisation, these changes should be
recorded in detail in “as built” documentation and drawings, in which the previously approved drawings are
updated with the plant details according to how they were actually built.
The electrical installation can be tested before and after the connection to the inverter according to IEC
62446, and the test report serves as the electrical completion certificate. The day the connection to the
grid is realized becomes the commercial operation date, and the monitoring phase begins at that moment.
At the same time, this date is also the start of the performance guarantee and warranties. During
operation, the monitored data is analysed and interpreted leading up to the end of the guarantee period
and the issuance of a final acceptance certificate.
Equity investors typically search for long-term relationships with project partners. These partnerships are
based on trust and win-win-arrangements. Well-documented reference projects with a final acceptance
certificate and certificates of technical expertise inspire confidence in investors and other project partners.
Furthermore, proper documentation is necessary to be able to communicate the project to potential
investors if, for example, the project is planned for re-sale. On-going partnerships based on trust can lead
to more regular deal flows and decreased transaction costs, e.g. for standardized contracting and technical
due diligence.
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4.2 Testing of the PV plant
Most of the technical documentation can and should be checked before commissioning.
Planning documentation completed before the construction phase such as the engineering drawings, static
calculations of the roof or the mounting structure, module and string connection, definition of a solar unit
and calculation or simulation of the energy yield expected can be filed with the system documentation.
DC- and AC- cable specification should fit with the appropriate electrical standards. The ratings of cables,
junction boxes and disconnects can be checked in comparison with the cable plan.
Concerning the number and specification of the installation components, purchasing and delivery lists, data
sheets and specifications for modules and inverters, as well as the serial numbers and flash data should
form a part of the technical documentation.
The warranty conditions of the different components such as modules, inverters and mounting system
have to be checked and the appropriate documented proof of coverage collected. The installation manual
of the module should fit with the mounting system installation conditions and the requirements of the
inverter manufacturer. Recommendations from manufacturers and suppliers complete the warranty
conditions. For example, some module manufacturers (e.g. First Solar) ask for registration of the serial
numbers in order to avail of the performance guarantee.
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The regulations, electrical standards and grid codes applied should be well documented. In addition, the
applied electrical protection scheme corresponding to the standards should be readily available to address
any questions that may arise. This is also a good opportunity to create the corresponding checklists for the
system commissioning procedure.
At this stage the operation and maintenance checklists can also be created, and the monitoring data
intervals can be defined as well.
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Performing measurements on the DC side before connection to the inverter is very important to ensure
proper installation. All cables must be clearly coded by colour and physical labels are preferred.
A phenomenon that rarely appears, but must be prevented anyway is reverse current. Reverse current can
only occur in multi-string configurations with central inverter: if one string has a lower open circuit voltage
than the other strings, current from the other strings flows through the faulty strings in reverse direction,
possibly damaging the faulty strings.
Shading does not significantly affect open circuit voltage and is thus not a cause of reverse current. The
major faults decreasing string voltage are short circuits in modules or cells and double ground faults.
If, for example, 6 strings delivering 8 Ampere each are connected in parallel, and voltage of one string is
decreased, a reverse current of (6-1) x 8 A = 40 A could flow through that string!
Maximum reverse current of c-Si module is between 15 and 20A.
Measures to prevent reverse current are string diodes (which cause constant losses) and string fuses (which
cause less loss than diodes).
Also, if the open circuit voltage of strings or the entire array exceeds the rated voltage of components, they
can also be damaged or destroyed.
Open circuit voltage Voc and short circuit current ISC of the strings and the array should also be measured is
an important piece of the technical documentation in order to compare with the measured values.
The fuses should be checked and breakers and main DC switch tested under load.
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Insulation resistance of the array and the DC cables can be tested with appropriate measurement devices.
There are isolation measurement devices specially developed for PV systems (e.g. PV1-1, Benning). The
isolation resistance between ground and plus or minus of the module should be > 1 MOhm.
Continuity and isolation resistance test of the DC wiring from the PV- array to the combiner box (generator
junction box) and to the inverter, will uncover any short circuits, faults to ground and faulty insulation.
DC polarity needs to be verified before energising, to avoid destroying the inverter. Damages due to wrong
polarity connection are not covered by the inverter warranty.
Load disconnect and/or main switch should be tested under load and the inverter should be switched on
and shut down by connecting and disconnecting the grid connection.
Taking proper precautions during this step is essential – even after the array has been disconnected from
the inverter by opening the DC isolator there can be a voltage at the input terminals, which can persist for
several minutes.
Never try to measure the current between the positive and negative terminal of the inverter when in
operation. The entrance capacitor of the inverter, together with the array current will overload and destroy
the measurement device.
Checking the Voc and Isc of the strings is the last opportunity to uncover any faults or incorrect numbers of
modules in the array or mistakes in configuring the modules.
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Note that the current depends strongly on the irradiation, under clear sky conditions this will be 80 – 95%
of Isc at STC and only about 10% of that in cloudy and overcast conditions.
Many faults that can occur can be revealed early and often solved with the help of a good system
documentation and pre-commissioning procedure. Faults such as those caused by broken cells (micro
cracks invisible to the human eye), which can lead to a reduced output of the module, can be revealed
during optical (if not visual) inspection, or during pre-commissioning testing.
Incorrect wiring can be uncovered by testing before energising the system. The flash data list, forming part
of the system documentation, can be summed together to check whether the total Wp delivered is equal to
the specific cost per power declared on the invoice of the manufacturer.
After energising, installation software problems on the inverter, if any, can quickly reveal themselves. Most
inverters display the instantaneous operating values of the PV system such as DC and AC voltage and
current as well as cumulative energy yield.
During operation, if the monitored data do not meet the expected energy yield according to well-
documented system planning and installation, then a third party (certified institute) can perform additional
measurements to verify installed power and performance, thereby double checking the system design,
installation, and commissioning. This is important because it might identify a warranty case. Common
optical tests include electroluminescence and infrared imaging, both of which can nowadays even been
realised on-site while the system is in operation. Some laboratories even have mobile module flashers and
can provide flash data at STC within certain tolerances to provide on-the-spot module checks.
Sometimes there are contractual formulations such as “If the installed power is less than 3% of the power
of the flash-lists, then the price of the investment will decrease by…”. To avail of such commitments, flash
data of an independent laboratory can be provided as proof.
There are several certified institutes and independent laboratories ready to provide such services, including
for example TÜV Rheinland, PI-Berlin, DGS, PV-Plan, Fraunhofer ISE, and others.
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There is some testing that can only be realised after energising such as the electrical testing of the
combiner boxes and the DC disconnects. For this reason, sometimes the testing of these components is
neglected. The DC disconnect needs to be able to disconnect the PV system from the inverter safely under
the full load. Therefore it can only be tested after energising. In a string inverter concept, the DC disconnect
is often integrated into the string inverters and its test then becomes a part of the inverter testing report.
Another strongly recommended test to conduct after energising is infrared imaging. Even during operation
and maintenance, infrared imaging of the system components can be used as an easy measurement
technique to uncover weak connections, failure in components and weakness of the soldering or other
reasons for higher resistance.
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Everyone involved in PV-installations, maintenance and operation should be aware of the specific safety
aspects to consider.
PV arrays always generate a voltage when exposed to light (photovoltage) and this voltage will continue to
appear at the output even when there is a fault or short circuit. The presence of this voltage potential will
cause a current to flow in the circuit when connected. Photovoltaic modules are unique in that they can be
short-circuited and open-circuited with-out being damaged. However, if current is flowing from the
system, opening the circuit should take into account specific aspects of DC power.
Since the system voltage of large-scale PV installations is often designed for a nominal 1000 V DC in order
to reduce losses, PV arrays are configured to produce relatively high and hazardous DC voltage. Opening or
separating contacts while a PV array is under load (i.e. delivering power to that load) can lead to arcing,
which does not self-extinguish. Oscillating AC power passes through zero voltage many times per second,
and is therefore likely to self-extinguish. DC power, on the other hand, does not.
PV modules are a limited current source – fuses and circuit breakers do not operate in the way they do in
utility AC distribution circuits.
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4.3 Commissioning procedure
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We already discussed the system documentation and the advantage of planning sheets, completion
certificates and test reports. In fact everything planned, calculated, checked and measured should be
documented. Checklists and test reports help a lot to ensure that thorough and sufficient information is
completed. Using different forms prepared for the system in question are strongly recommended.
When the Renewable Energy Act (EEG) began in Germany, the power authorities would send an engineer
to start the operation of the PV system. The engineer installed the feed-in meter and inspected the system
in order to ensure that it complied with relevant regulations and standards.
As more and more systems were installed, the employees of the power authorities were completely
overstrained. Since then they developed an acceptance protocol so that the responsible project electrician
can certify with his signature that the PV system complies with relevant regulations and standards.
The acceptance protocol according to German regulations confirms the date upon which the system is
brought into operation.
The acceptance protocol begins with a visual inspection of all components such as modules, inverter,
cables, mounting structure, generator junction boxes, cable ducts. Using a form prepared for the system in
question for the visual inspection can facilitate the comparison of the installation with the technical system
design.
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The accessibility of the relevant parts for the grid should be controlled and the equipotential bonding and
protective devices are inspected.
The feed-in meter should be inspected as well since its proper functioning is the base of compensations
such as the Feed-in Tariff (FIT).
The entire system documentation is completed with the final test report and the acceptance protocol.
Please note that the system should be brought into operation under daylight conditions so that the correct
functioning of the PV system (solar generator and inverter) can be verified. Furthermore, the system
should be switched on piece-by-piece to stagger the initial power flowing into the grid and provide ease of
troubleshooting if any problems occur.
A third party (certified institute) can also sign the acceptance protocol, perform the necessary
measurements, verify the installed power and carry out the inspection. There are several certified institutes
and independent laboratories ready to provide such services, such as TÜV Rheinland, PI-Berlin, DGS, PV-
Plan, Fraunhofer ISE or private companies primarily specialised in O&M services.
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The acceptance protocol contains the general information about the PV system such as the location and
the contact data of the system owner or the customer and the EPC Company (Engineering, Construction
and Procurement).
All components of the system are mentioned in the protocol as well as documentation of the visual
inspection. The testing results are recorded as well as the serial numbers of all modules and inverter.
Implementation of the PV installation and its components is confirmed by the acceptance protocol and a
plausibility check of the running PV system through inspection of the monitoring system data can be part of
the acceptance procedure.
Finally the acceptance protocol is signed by both parties, the system owner and the system provider.
For investors, banks, insurance agencies, and all other parties, it is advisable to have a standardized
acceptance test. They typically search project partners for long-term relationships that are based on trust
and arrangements leading to decreased costs, e.g. for contracting. The well-documented reference projects
with a final acceptance certificate inspire confidence. Oftentimes banks will hire a third party, such as a
consultancy, to verify the acceptance test. It is to the benefit of the system installer and project developer
to cooperate with the hired third party as much as possible to secure acceptance documentation that will
be approved by the investor or owner.
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5 Operation and maintenance (O&M) of PV systems

5.1 Monitoring
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There are many reasons why it is useful to monitor a PV system.

The energy yield can be checked regularly and simply from the feed-in meter. However, more detailed
information is required to analyse energy yield data from year to year or to assist with fault finding.
Extensive measurements must be taken to identify the cause of a fault, whether it be failure of an inverter,
cables, connections or fuses.
Permanent monitoring also allows the operating condition of modules and inverters to be tracked over the
long term. If irradiance and other meteorological parameters are also being monitored, then actual and
expected energy yields can be continuously compared.
Permanent monitoring can help to maximise the energy yield. This is an important quality aspect. For
example, the performance of different inverters can be compared and a drop in efficiency can be identified
quickly. By repairing or replacing the inverter, the efficiency of the whole system can be increased.
To ensure a high return on investment it is important that the photovoltaic system operates without
interruption. System monitoring helps in the detection of malfunctions at an early stage. This in turn helps
to minimise energy production losses. A condition of the maintenance contract should be a quick response
guarantee in case of PV system malfunction. Quick response to failures over the 20 year guarantee period,
and even more over the system lifetime, can result in a significant increase in overall energy yield.
Some PV monitoring systems include observation cameras or alarm systems to alert site staff to system
failure or to deter (or identify) thieves.
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PV system parameters such as current, voltage and power on DC and AC sides can be monitored directly by
the inverter. Additional devices such as irradiance sensors (often with integrated temperature sensors)39
allow environmental conditions to be monitored. These monitoring devices are mounted to the PV module.
Some of these devices also provide information about the module cell temperature.
Meteorological parameters such as outdoor temperature, wind speed and direction, and solar irradiance
(W/m²) can either be monitored on site using appropriate monitoring devices or can be purchased from
companies offering meteorological data provision services40. Such companies will provide meteorological
data specific to the location of the PV system using a combination of satellite and atmospheric data and
numerical weather models. Irradiance data from such a source can be broken into its direct, diffuse and
reflected components. Data is transferred either using web services, ftp downloads or email. Accurate data
may not be available for all locations in the world.
A cost-benefit analysis will help to decide which parameters to monitor and which monitoring method to
use. For example, it is uneconomic and unnecessary to employ extensive monitoring on a small roof-top PV
system: system faults can be detected simply by observing the status of the inverter display. On the other
hand, extensive monitoring of a large PV system has a high cost advantage since faults or under-
performance can be quickly identified and remedied.
39
See for example http://imtsolar.com/products/silicon-irradiance-sensor/
40
See for example http://geomodelsolar.eu/services/near-real-time-data-supply
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The inverter values on the display and on the feed-in meter can be checked on site. Real field monitoring is
possible with additional sensors for wind, irradiance and temperature. The sensor data as well as the
inverter data are stored in a data logger and are transmitted via email. Error messages can be sent via SMS.
Online monitoring also provides inverter parameters (P, V, I). The additionally monitored irradiance,
temperature and wind data allow advanced interpretation of the inverter parameters.
Inverter online monitoring systems provide continuous information about every string, weather
parameters and additionally connected energy meters.
Finally there is the grid control carried out by the grid authorities.
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Depending on which monitoring system is chosen there are different requirements and additional devices
to install.
Data must be transferred first from the sensors to the data logger, and then from the data logger to the
user (typically to a data base server with internet connection). The data transfer can be either via cable
(e.g. CAT 5 cable with DSL modem) or wireless (GSM).
The data transfer system to be employed will determine how much field wiring is required. Factors such as
distance, obstructions and interference (in the case of wireless transfer) must be considered.
Irradiance sensors and temperature sensors must be installed at the same angle and inclination as the
modules. They will usually be mounted on the module rack. All additional monitoring devices will require
additional data wiring. If additional wind sensors are desired, these need to be mounted at different
locations around the PV plant: in the middle and on the periphery.
The data logger or data base server with internet connection might be installed close to the inverter. The
relevant monitoring software must be installed and updated regularly.
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Small residential PV systems up to 20 kWp will have a basic data logger connected to the inverter and/or
the feed-in meter. This permits basic monitoring which can be visualised via the inverter manufacturer’s
web portal. This web portal can be accessed via a computer or smartphone. The data are transmitted by
integrated sim-cards or by an internet connection. Some inverters have integrated data logger and
communication ports.
The same basic monitoring web portal is sufficient for small commercial PV systems up to 50 kWp. It is
however recommended that some environmental data monitoring is carried out additionally. This can be
achieved via a basic meteorological station. The meteorological data can then be compared with the output
from a basic energy meter connected to the DC input of the inverter. A gateway can be set up to facilitate
the transmission of these larger amounts of data to the internet.
Large commercial PV systems up to 300 kWp make advanced energy yield recordings using a revenue grade
meter. This can help to reveal a fault the feed-in meter. A meteorological station provides detailed
environmental data that are compared in real time to the values from an energy meter connected to the
DC input of the inverter. A cellular modem working with a data plan is recommended since, for a
reasonable monitoring interval (of, say, 30 seconds), a large amount of data will need to be transmitted.
These data can be transferred to a monitoring web portal which displays detailed information on the
system.
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The monitoring equipment for utilities in the Megawatt class is much more sophisticated. Very often they
have their own advanced monitoring web portal, showing all system data for the complete run-time. The
data are collected with a high-accuracy meteorological station and high-accuracy revenue-grade meters.
These stations include a network switch and an Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS). They are usually
installed in an enclosure. The data is transmitted in real time by cellular modem or broadband router
working with a data plan.
Data stations for PV systems larger than 5 MW are installed in several large enclosures and include one or
two Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS). Fibre switches are recommended for every MWp. The huge data
amounts are transmitted by several advanced gateways.
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Different inverter manufacturers offer different monitoring systems. Most of them have a monitoring web
portal for their clients (e.g. www.sunnyportal.com). The inverter data and possible additional
environmental data are transmitted to central servers and visualised by web-based services.
Some of these monitoring software systems are connected to satellite-based irradiance measurements e.g.
SPYSE (www.spyce.ch) or other meteorological services in order to provide a real time comparison of PV
system data and weather data.
Large-scale PV plants are very often monitored with their own web-client for visualisation. They have their
own data storage server that might be using stand-alone software.
The image above shows an example of combined visualisation and monitoring of the total plant. It is
possible to supervise up to 500 inverters, even from different manufacturers, at the same time.
All relevant plant information, measurements and malfunctions are brought together and interpreted. This
system provides topological mapping of the plant with sub-plant and inverter groups. It provides
monitoring and data logging of the entire plant.
154
The image above shows an example of a visualisation of the monitoring system installed at the Goethe
institute in Seoul, South Korea. The 15.36 kWp PV system was installed in 2006 and consists of 96 modules
each with 160 Wp. They are connected to 4 Sunny Boy 3300 inverters with transformers. The average
performance of this PV system is 976 kWh/kWp.
This is an example of a very simple monitoring system consisting of a data logger connected to the internet.
The data from the four inverters are transmitted every 30 seconds.
Reports and charts summarising PV system performance with daily, monthly and, yearly output can be
created. The complete run-time data are stored on the inverter manufacturer’s server and can be analysed
with different summaries.
The energy yield from each inverter can be visualised separately and is automatically compared to the
energy yields from the other inverters. An automatic alert via email or SMS is sent if modules or inverters
fail.
The blue bars show the energy yield of the whole system every two hours for 3 days from the 5th April to
the 7th April 2010. The coloured lines represent the different inverters. The green line, corresponding to
Inverter G3, follows the form of the blue bars directly. The red line, corresponding to Inverter G1, has a
lower energy output than Inverter G3 but the shape of the energy yield curve corresponds to the energy
155
yield of the system. Inverter G3 could perhaps be showing a lower yield because it has fewer modules
connected to it.
On the third day in the morning, the blue line, corresponding to Inverter G2, shows a higher yield than
Inverter G2. This suggests that the modules connected to Inverter G2 are orientated more towards the
east. Data from irradiance sensors could be analysed alongside the inverter yields to understand why the
yields are different despite the inverters having the same nominal power. The yellow line, corresponding to
the Inverter G4, is completely covered by the red line of G1. This means that they are both generating the
same energy output.
156
5.2 Categories of malfunctions/ grid problems
There are many reasons why a system might be producing less than expected. Very often shading from
trees, other vegetation, other buildings, cables or antennae have not been identified during the site survey
and analysis. Trees and grass grow and may not have caused shading at the beginning of a project, but will
over its lifetime.
Incorrect inverter sizing can decrease power output due to inverter shutdown or inefficient partial load
behaviour. Modules with lower output than specified might not have been identified during
commissioning. To avoid this problem, the module flash data should be checked in advance to ensure that
the modules indeed have the required nominal power.
Transportation damage to modules in the form of micro cracks will not be apparent through visual
inspection. An inspection with an infrared camera can be performed if, during operation, the modules are
seen to generate a lower output than expected. These micro cracks might only cause deterioration in
performance after several years of operation. Their existence can ultimately only be proven by
electroluminescence.
Defective bypass diodes in the module junction box are another cause of module failure. A monitoring
system quickly identifies the faulty string and, by comparing the output of the modules connected to the
faulty string, the faulty module is quickly identified.
157
Other system components can also fail. A defective inverter can be a reason for a lower output. Wrongly
connected connectors or other faults in the DC wiring can cause lower than expected output.
Grid stability problems can cause an inverter to disconnect from the grid several times a day. Inverter
manufacturers have had a lot of experience with recurring grid problems. They know how to identify and
solve these problems in cooperation with the utility. Inverters with grid management functions can
contribute to grid stability.
158
When an inverter stops feeding electricity into the public grid it is mostly due to an unstable, fluctuating
grid voltage. This can be caused by other PV plants nearby or large inductive loads such as saws.
Water pumps can also cause grid voltage fluctuations, for example, every time the water tanks for nearby
cattle breeding are filled up. The inverter’s allowable voltage range can be adjusted but only with
permission from the grid company. The inverter manufacturer SMA, for example, has developed the “Grid
Guard” device in order to solve problems with the islanding protection ENS41. This development was made
as a result of problems such as that of an installation at the end of a line being disconnected several times a
day because of high voltage drops and grid disturbances caused by an electric saw.
The cause of this kind of problem can be identified by documenting the times of inverter disconnection and
comparing these to the grid voltage pattern. A comparison with the schedule of activated inductive loads
nearby will show which device or activity causes high voltage drops and grid disturbances. The Grid Guard
will ensure that the inverter remains connected to the grid if a voltage drop occurs which matches the
voltage pattern of the local grid. Nowadays it is an accepted alternative to the ENS.
Inverters can also be adjusted to deviations from nominal grid frequency caused, for example, by old wind
turbines or fluctuations in grid impedance.
Impedance (Z) is the apparent opposition to the flow of AC current, analogous to the electrical resistance in
DC circuits. Being the (complex) ratio of voltage and current, Z is affected by switching of loads (especially
inductive loads), transients or transformer outages. To avoid islanding in case of grid disturbances, the ENS
automatically disconnects the inverter in case the maximum set point of impedance is exceeded or in case
impedance changes too fast. However, as total impedance is the sum of grid impedance and the impedance
of the connection between inverter and grid, an impedance problem may also be of local origin, e.g. loose
terminals or undersized cables.
Changes in the inverter construction or programming have to be done in close cooperation with the grid
utility and the solution has to be documented and accepted by the grid utility.
41
Einrichtung zur Netzüberwachung mit zugeordneten Schaltorganen
159
Here we must distinguish between 3 cases to troubleshoot: there is no system output at all, the system
output is lower than expected, or the system output is lower than it used to be. If there is no system output
at all, the inverter and the feed-in meter must be checked. If there is no inverter output and thus no
injection into the grid, the input voltage from the array needs to be checked. If there is no DC voltage at the
inverter input, irradiance measurements can reveal that there is not enough sunlight for energy generation.
If sunlight is sufficient, then the components of the DC side have to be checked:
 The voltage at the DC disconnects reveals if the disconnect is defective - maybe it is just in the open
position.
 The array junction and combiner boxes are checked next – string fuses could be blown. This might be a
sign of a lightning strike or surge.
 The next step is therefore to check the surge arrestor. If the fuses are okay there might be an open or
short circuit in the array. A visual inspection can reveal damaged cables or modules. If there is a DC
voltage at the inverter input it might be less than the minimum DC input of the inverter due to low
irradiance. This can be checked with an irradiance measurement, the datasheet of the inverter and a
voltmeter.
 If the voltage at the inverter input is correct but there is no output and the inverter does not display
anything, this confirms an inverter defect and the manufacturer has to be contacted.
160
If the inverter shows a DC input voltage but there is no power feed-in to the public grid, this could be due
to a blackout or brownout of the grid. Switching on a light is a quick check. When the grid comes back on,
the inverter should work again.
If there is no blackout, the AC side between inverter and grid needs to be checked. Check also if any fuses
have blown, if any circuit breakers or ground fault interrupters have been activated. Check also the main
utility fuse.
If the AC side is fault free, the inverter input must be checked. The strings of the PV system have to be
measured individually in the PV array combiner box. To identify the faulty string, one string at a time can be
disconnected and the inverter re-energised. If the inverter stays on then the disconnected string is the
faulty one.
The inverter may have stopped operating due to a grid fault or due to the grid operating outside the
inverter’s programmed parameters. Inverter indicators such as flashing LEDs or an error message on the
display will draw attention to this kind of event. The inverter should automatically reconnect when the
problem is solved. If the problem recurs frequently, the grid operator should be contacted.
161
If the system output is lower than expected or lower than a comparable system in the same location the
system design must be checked as well as the components and the installation.
Visual inspection reveals these installation mistakes and possible shading. If the cause of shading cannot be
removed, the energy yield can be increased by installing a multi-string inverter or several string inverters.
The inverter does not work at the MPP if the modules are not uniformly aligned since different tilts or
orientations have an impact on the MPP of the modules.
The string cabling must be checked and compared with the string plan. Perhaps some strings are not
properly plugged into connectors or there are loose connections. If there is no voltage across the terminals
of the PV array combiner box of a particular string, then this identifies the faulty string and highlights the
probable issue of reverse current flow through that string.
Perhaps the inverter is not compatible with the system. It must be checked if it starts operating late in the
morning and stops early in the afternoon, or if it disconnects during midday and so is not operating at the
time of peak output. The DC circuit must be checked: high losses on the DC side can be uncovered by
extensive measurements but the cable calculation could also be faulty, meaning that cables with
insufficient diameter may have been installed.
162
The inverter can overheat and derate due to clogged vents or bad ventilation. The solution may be to
simply clean the inverter vent, improve the ventilation or relocate the inverter to a more ventilated space.
One reason for the system output being lower than expected could be that the module peak performance
is lower than that guaranteed by the manufacturer. Measuring IV curves can reveal module performance
that does not correspond to that stated on the certificates. Further to this, infrared imaging and
electroluminescence can reveal damage to the modules (e.g. micro cracks). If these measurements are
inconclusive, samples can be sent for testing at certified institutes and independent laboratories for
example the TÜV Rheinland, PI-Berlin, DGS, PV-Plan, Fraunhofer ISE, etc. These independent
measurements are helpful to prove a breach of warranty and to negotiate module replacement or
compensation from the manufacturer.
Grid stability problems can cause an inverter to disconnect from the grid several times a day. Inverter
manufacturers have had a lot of experience with recurring grid problems. They know how to identify and
solve these problems in cooperation with the utility.
163
If the system output is lower than it used to be, troubleshooting should start with a visual inspection: the
modules might be shaded or dirty. In this case the array current is lower than expected under conditions of
high solar radiation. Also the peak current and power output are lower than previously.
If the system has been properly installed and performs well, an event like a storm or lightning during
thunderstorms can be the cause of the lower output. The testing procedure is comparable to that
described previously (‘System output is lower than expected’):
The components of the DC side must be checked. A visual inspection can uncover damaged cables or
modules. String fuses can be blown which might be a sign of a lightning strike or surge. Next step therefore
is to check the surge arrestor. If the fuses are okay there might be an open or short circuit in the array.
The strings are measured separately in the PV array combiner box: the open circuit voltage VOC and the
short circuit current ISC have to be measured at constant solar irradiance. Disconnected terminals or loose
connectors can be eliminated by these measurements. The maximum power point current IMPP can be
measured easily with a clamp meter when the inverter is in operation.
The values can be compared with measurements made during commissioning.
Lightning and voltage surge can also cause defective bypass diodes in individual modules. Short circuited
diodes bridge over cell strings and reduce the module output. To identify faulty modules first all strings are
measured. Once the faulty string has been identified, each half of the string is measured. Once the faulty
half has been identified, half again is measured and so on, until the faulty module has been found.
164
A short circuit in the module junction box due to moisture can also be a reason for an array current being
lower than expected under conditions of high solar irradiance.
Damage to modules or cells caused by lightning may not be visible. Therefore the module output has to be
checked and modules may need to be replaced.
Comparing the measurements of strings and modules with the measurements made during commissioning
and with the data sheet and flash data can reveal module degradation. Since this might indicate a case of
breach of warranty, verification of the module peak power should be carried out by certified institutes and
independent laboratories such as the TÜV Rheinland, PI-Berlin, DGS, PV-Plan, Fraunhofer ISE, etc.
165
The inverter may overheat due to bad ventilation. Cleaning, relocation or improving ventilation may solve
this problem.
Data loggers are useful for uncovering problems originating from the grid. System data and any faults
registered over time are a good basis for solving the problem in cooperation with the inverter
manufacturer or with the grid utility.
166
5.3 Fault analysis and trouble shooting
Visual inspection and measurements with multimeter can reveal all possible PV module faults such as
shading or dirt, delamination, faulty bypass diodes, faulty contacts, humidity and hotspots. Only one fault is
not covered by these two methods: degradation. This fault can be revealed through the measurement of I-
V characteristics or peak power measurements. The size of the systems being maintained will determine if
it is worth purchasing a measurement device for this purpose. Since certified institutes are available to
provide this service it might be sufficient to contact them if these measurements are necessary.
On the other hand, peak power measurement also covers all faults that occur in the installation such as
blown fuses, faulty string diodes, short circuits, faulty surge protectors, defects in cabling (corrosion,
broken cables), and loose connectors. The only installation defect which cannot be revealed by peak power
measurement is increased ground resistance. This fault can be detected with a multimeter.
Most faults except inverter defects can be detected through a combination of visual inspection,
measurements with a multimeter and peak power measurements.
With regard to the inverter, the efficiency and the grid management can be checked by input and output
testing. Only harmonics, ripples and grid disturbances need to be checked by the service department of the
inverter manufacturer.
167
Monitoring software not only displays the energy yield but also analyses the system. Monitoring systems
based on inverter data provide information about every string, weather parameters and additional
connected energy meters moment by moment. Fault alerts as a result of discrepancies between irradiation
data and energy yield, or between two equal parts of the PV installation (e.g. between two strings) can be
sent by SMS or email.
The image above shows a comparison of the calculated energy yield and the actual energy yield of the PV
system on a daily base. The grey bars correspond to the calculated energy yield in kWh based on data from
an irradiance sensor. The red bars correspond to the real energy generation communicated by the inverter.
We can see that on many days the PV system is producing more or less the energy yield calculated. From
the 7th to the 26th the system energy yield is much higher than the prediction which even drops to zero on
the 8th and the 19th of that month even though the system energy yield shows a very high output on those
days. This can be due to a fault in the monitoring system, probably a faulty communication cable from the
irradiance sensor. This kind of monitoring fault will not occur if the software compares meteorological data
from an external service provider with the energy yield from the PV system in real time. Here, fault alerts
are more reliable.
168
The figures above show four different monitoring curves for the same inverter on different days. The
orange curve corresponds to the daily global irradiation and the green curve shows the energy yield of the
PV system. On the upper curves the energy production follows the global irradiation perfectly. After 10
a.m. when the cell temperatures are higher, the energy yield decreases slightly but the curve still has
exactly the same shape as the global irradiation curve. The peaks that can be observed in the upper right
figure for both the irradiation curve and the energy yield curve correspond to clouds passing over the
system, thereby occasionally shading the modules.
On the bottom left curve, energy production only starts at midday although the irradiation curve shows a
high irradiation in the morning. Possible explanations are shutdown or fault of the inverter (e.g. due to grid
disturbance) or a grid blackout. Furthermore, it is also that the inverter did not receive DC input (e.g. due to
a blown fuse or cable damage). However, this kind of fault would not be rectified without servicing the
system. Shading is improbable as there a similar behavior would occur on the other days.
The energy yield after midday again follows the irradiation curve and has exactly the same shape but the
amount of energy produced is only 70% of that produced in the upper two curves. Therefore very probably
a part of the system is not working but the inverter operation is okay. The bottom right curve helps to
interpret the fault: the energy yield is still lower than the irradiation curve. This would be a typical curve for
a derating inverter because is works with a high efficiency in the morning and with a lower efficiency during
the day when it is derating due to overheating.
169
However, there are also little peaks appearing at 9:00 a.m. and 6.00 p.m. There are no corresponding peaks
in the irradiation curve so there are probably no clouds passing by. In case of loose connections that
disconnect a part of the system, the peaks would be either deeper or shorter.
In this curve a peak has the width of approximately one hour, which could be explained by temporal
shading or inverter malfunction.
170
Most of the time, the fault alert specifies the occurring event. Sometimes the affected string is even
identified. If a fault alert is unspecific, first the connection to the grid should be checked by looking at the
feed-in meter. Next the inverter needs to be checked. If the inverter is operating then there might be a
fault with the data transmission. Sensors and data logger should be checked.
Sometimes error messages are transmitted. If the monitoring data repeatedly does not correspond to the
expected values, an inspection of the PV site can reveal a fault in the monitoring system.
A fault can be detected by comparing the transmitted data from the last 30 days with the reference values
of what the PV system should have produced.
Magnitude, duration and development of any differences, as well as correlation with irradiance,
temperature and time of day are taken into consideration in order to determine the type of fault.
Discrepancies are compared to typical error patterns caused by factors such as shading, degradation,
soiling, snow cover or failure of system components.
171
Experience gathered over the past 30 years shows that PV system components such as DC and AC switches,
generator junction boxes, cables and connections are very reliable. Mounting structures have also
improved over the years due to experience gathered with storm damage in earlier systems. Inverters were
often the cause of failure in early systems but the reliability of modern inverters has significantly increased.
Most fault alerts in PV systems can be traced back to issues with remote monitoring and monitoring
components.
Also, poor quality bypass or string diodes are often defective. There are huge quality differences available
on the market. Quality module manufacturers extremely rarely have issues with faulty diodes.
Most faults occurring in PV systems are due to faulty installation. Examples of typical installation faults are
using components that do not meet the design specifications, shading, wrong number of roof hooks and
unfixed module clamps (relating to roof-mounted systems). Most installation faults, however, are related
to cabling issues. The most frequent causes of PV system failure are hanging cables with damaged
insulation, loose connections and wrong crimping. One reason for these faults occurring is an incomplete or
missing test procedure at the end of installation.
172
No general rule for module degradation has been established: some studies show significant degradation
over time, others show very stable performance over time. Independent expert studies typically assume
0.25-0.5% reduction in system output per year for c-Si modules and 0.5-0.8% per year for thin film
modules. These are the values mostly used in payback time, or other financial, calculations. Module
suppliers assume a very conservative degradation estimate of 0.8% per year (80% after 25 years) because
they use the degradation rate for their performance guarantee.
Degradation may be caused by humidity entering the cells or chemical reactions in the encapsulant (EVA
Browning), as well as cell micro-cracks or hot spots. Therefore the level of degradation is directly correlated
to the production quality. The production quality automatically improves as the production volume
increases and production equipment improves. Established companies with a high production volume are
therefore also the leaders in quality.
173
5.4 O&M (Operation and maintenance)
A PV installation has a design life of more than 20 years. During this time, there are different O&M tasks:
Permanent monitoring facilitates the good operation of the PV system. This has a direct impact on the
energy yield of the system. Faults can be detected and remedied quickly before the energy yield decreases.
Some system components - mainly fuses and diodes – should be replaced every few years as the power loss
in these devices can lead to overheating and may cause them to become dysfunctional. Others are more
durable but will need to be replaced at least once during the system lifetime, for example the inverter.
Note that most inverter manufacturers offer to extend their guarantee to 20 years for the same price as the
inverter itself.
New regulatory requirements may come into force which require even existing systems to be modified.
One example is the 50.2 Hz problem in Germany: with an increasing number of PV systems, inverters could
not simply shut off any more at frequencies above 50.2 Hz, as too much generation capacity would be
instantly lost. Inverters were modified to avoid this scenario. Modifications may involve additional costs
that need to be taken into consideration.
An established and approved method exists to develop specific troubleshooting procedures, test plans and
maintenance procedures that include regular cleaning and visual inspections. This method can form the
basis of the maintenance contract.
174
Effective management of operation and maintenance supports a high energy yield by avoiding or
shortening the time a system may be disconnected from the grid.
Preventive maintenance involves mainly basic measures. A remote monitoring system facilitates fast
remedying of faults. Components can be replaced quickly if spare parts or even spare string inverters are
kept in stock. The speed at which spare parts are delivered depends on the service contract with the
component supplier.
In order to assign an external contractor to maintain the system, maintenance and troubleshooting
procedures must be defined.
If spare parts are stocked and reliable service partners are engaged, the energy yield of a PV plant is
ensured with a high security.
175
The image above gives an overview of the operation and maintenance activities during one year.
Plant monitoring and reporting along with regular visual inspections take place continuously throughout
the year. Solar field cleaning is optional and depends on environmental conditions. PV systems in dry
climates with high dust levels will require very regular cleaning. Wet and cold climates will have more of an
issue with keeping modules snow free during the winter. Therefore it is recommended to initially clean
every month and then adapt the routine based on the experience made on site.
Some measures, such as a general string check, might be necessary twice a year. The mounting structure or
tracking system might be checked at the same time. This kind of maintenance can be combined with
unscheduled maintenance services or other routine maintenance such as cutting grass. Other checks might
be necessary at the beginning and at the end of the winter or other seasons where there is a significant
change in environmental conditions. In northern Europe, electronic devices (such as are incorporated into
the low and medium voltage maintenance) are typically checked before and after winter. Inverters are
cleaned and checked at the same time.
Any moving mechanical parts are very sensitive to environmental conditions so the interval between
maintenance depends on the location.
176
177
PV installations are low maintenance. However, periodic inspection routines can avoid downtimes and
consequently improve the system yield.
The tables above give examples of maintenance frequencies for different issues. The targets are clearly and
precisely formulated. Experience will allow the maintenance interval to be shortened or lengthened. The
maintenance protocol should not only contain the measured value but also observations such as “insects
inside the combiner box”. A result of such observations is that a specific check might be integrated into the
visual inspection check list, for example, in seasons with a lot of insects.
All measurements performed during system commissioning must be checked again after 3 or 4 years as a
preventative measure in order to detect potential future problems. The monitoring system might show a
good energy yield without any failures but cable insulation, for example, might have already suffered under
the environmental conditions. Preventative maintenance including these measurements allows potential
future faults to be alleviated before they even occur. Central inverters will be checked by the inverter
supplier service staff in accordance with the service contract.
178
Fuses should be checked regularly and exchanged according to the manufacturer’s recommendations even
if they are not broken since a fuse cannot fulfil its function if it is not reliable. It is advisable to monitor the
fuse status remotely, and to change the fuses every year. Since they wear out progressively, this might
occasionally lead to hazardous situations in which the fuse is still conduction but cannot be blown any
more. Fuse replacement is one of the most common tasks carried out during maintenance of a solar PV
plant.
Fuses and fuse holders must be suitable for PV applications. The image above shows an example of a
combiner box used in a PV grid-connected system. The combiner box connects the PV modules to the DC
distribution cabinet or inverter. It is IP65 outdoor rated and contains PV-specific Surge Protective Devices
(SPD).
The DC disconnects and the fuses are supplied by established manufacturers. The combiner box has a wide
DC input voltage range and handles voltages of up to 1000V.
The combiner box might contain integrated remote monitoring devices. These monitoring devices might be
interesting for PV plants in the Megawatt class to allow comparison with the transmitted inverter data.
Most combiner box suppliers specify customised products. They assemble the combiner boxes according to
the PV system design.
179
Literature and further reading:
 The Electrical Engineering Handbook, Ed. Richard C. Dorf, Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
 Sinusoidal Pulse width modulation, A.M. Gole, 2010
 How Inverters Work, Christopher Freitas, HomePower, Issue #135, February / March 2010
 Thin-Film PV: A System Designers Guide, Rick Holz, SolarPro Issued 4.1, Dec/Jan 2011
 Technical information: Module technology (Duennschicht-TI-UEN114630 | Version 3.0), SMA
 Leitfaden Photovoltaische Anlagen, DGS
 Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering, A. Luque, S. Hegedus, Wiley
Nachtarbeit möglich, Photovoltaik 09/2014
180
Renewables Academy (RENAC) AG

Schönhauser Allee 10-11
10119
v Berlin (Germany)
Tel: +49 (0) 30-52 689 58 70
Fax: +49 (0) 30-52 689 58 99
E-Mail: info@renac.de
181 www.renac.de

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1 Cells and Modules........................................................................................................................... 3

1 Cells and Modules

The robustness of the connectors is tested as well.

Tolerances in maximum power output are related to the manufacturing process.

In PV applications, usually self-commutated voltage-type inverters are used.

The table lists the defined states:

2.2 Pulse width modulation (PWM)

The modulation index is the ratio of the amplitudes of both signals:

The amplitude index controls the amplitude of the output signal.

2.3 Inverter components

2.4 Inverter topologies

2.5 Inverters for thin modules

On the DC side, the negative pole of the circuit should be grounded.

2.6 Inverter efficiency

Consequently, the efficiency at rated power can be of limited informative value.

𝜼𝒆𝒖𝒓𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑 ∗ 𝜼𝟓% + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 ∗ 𝜼𝟏𝟎% + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑 ∗ 𝜼𝟐𝟎% + 𝟎. 𝟏 ∗ 𝜼𝟑𝟎% + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 ∗ 𝜼𝟓𝟎% + 𝟎. 𝟐 ∗ 𝜼𝟏𝟎𝟎%

𝜼𝒄𝒆𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 ∗ 𝜼𝟏𝟎% + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 ∗ 𝜼𝟐𝟎% + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 ∗ 𝜼𝟑𝟎% + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏 ∗ 𝜼𝟓𝟎% + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑 ∗ 𝜼𝟕𝟓% + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 ∗ 𝜼𝟏𝟎𝟎%

The decision on oversizing the PV array should be based on three factors:

2.7 Inverter data sheet

Data sheets also describe the protection devices of the inverter.

2.8 DC input voltage

Regarding high voltages, the lowest ambient temperature must be considered.

2.9 DC- Comparison of inverter topologies

2.10 Inverter concepts

As there is no redundancy, failures of central inverters result in complete energy loss.

2.11 Grid compliance

 The loading capacity of network equipment:

 Voltage changes in the undisturbed grid:

 Potential network disturbances caused by the PV plant:

2.12 Grid management functions of inverters

- Generating Plants Connected to the Medium-Voltage Network, BDEW, 2008

2.13 Possible network disturbances of inverters

 Sudden voltage changes

2.14 PV- plant certification for grid connection

- Generating Plants Connected to the Medium-Voltage Network, BDEW (2008)

There are three main construction types of PV substations:

3 Grid – tied PV system design

3.2 String sizing

At an absolute minimum, the following information is needed:

 Average daily Global Horizontal Irradiation (GHI) [kWh/m2/day]

 Average daily temperature [°C]

 Average daily minimums and maximums of Solar Insolation [kW/m2]

 Average daily minimums and maximums of temperature [°C]

 Maximum DC input voltage

 Maximum DC input current

3.4 Inverter sizing

3.5 Transformer sizing

3.6 Sizing DC and AC cables

3.7 Sizing of junction box and DC main switch

3.8 Electrical safety devices

Lightning and surge protection also requires earthing.

3.9 Lightning and overvoltage protection

The graphic shows a simple lightning protection system.

There are three different cases to differentiate:

The quality of installation is as important as the quality of the system components.

4.2 Testing of the PV plant

4.3 Commissioning procedure

5 Operation and maintenance (O&M) of PV systems

There are many reasons why it is useful to monitor a PV system.

5.2 Categories of malfunctions/ grid problems

If sunlight is sufficient, then the components of the DC side have to be checked:

5.3 Fault analysis and trouble shooting

5.4 O&M (Operation and maintenance)