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Unit-I
Lesson – 1
Matrix, Determinants and Inverse
Contents:
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In this lesson, we have discussed the representation of data using matrices and the
representation of expressions using determinant. Matrix inversion, a convenient way to
solve system of linear equations, is also discussed in this lesson.
1.1 Introduction
J. J. Sylvester coined the term “matrix” in 1848. A matrix is a rectangular table of
elements. Matrices are used to describe linear equations, keep track of the coefficients of
linear transformation and to record data that depend on multiple parameters. The
determinant notation is now employed in almost every branch of applied science.
Matrix inversion plays a significant role in computer graphics and to solve system of
linear equations.
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1.2 Matrices
The study of matrices is quite old. A 3-by-3 magic square appears in Chinese
literature dating from as early as 650 BC. Matrices have a long history of application in
solving linear equations. After the development of the theory of determinants by Seki
Kowa and Leibniz in the late 17th century, Cramer developed the theory further in the
18th century, presenting Cramer's rule in 1750. Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Jordan
developed Gauss-Jordan elimination in the 1800s. Cayley, Hamilton, Grassmann,
Frobenius and von Neumann are among the famous mathematicians who have worked on
matrix theory. Olga Taussky-Todd (1906-1995) used matrix theory to investigate an
aerodynamic phenomenon called fluttering or aeroelasticity during WWII.
Ø Encryption
Matrices can be used to encrypt numerical data. Multiplying the data
matrix with a key matrix does encryption. Simply multiplying the encrypted
matrix with the inverse of the key does decryption.
Ø Computer graphics
4×4 transformation matrices are commonly used in computer graphics.
The upper left 3×3 portion of a transformation matrix is composed of the new X,
Y, and Z-axes of the post-transformation coordinate space.
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A matrix that has only one row is a row matrix, and a matrix that has only one
column is a column matrix.
1) Diagonal Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be a diagonal matrix if aij= 0 when i ¹ j. In a
diagonal matrix all the entries except the entries along the main diagonal is
zero.
2) Triangular matrix
A square matrix in which all the entries above the main diagonal are zero
is called a lower triangular matrix. If all the entries below the main diagonal
are zero, it is called an upper triangular matrix.
3) Scalar Matrix
A scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix in which all the entries along the main
diagonal are equal.
6) Equality of matrices
The matrices A=[aij]mxn and B=[bij]pxq are equal if m = p, n = q and aij = bij
for every i and j.
1.3 Determinant
1.3.1 Definition
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(or)
The mathematical expression a1 b2 -a2 b1 can be expressed as
a1 b1
a 2 b2
The above form is called a determinant of the second order. Each of the numbers a1, b1 , a2,
b2 is called an element of the determinant.
Thus
2 5
= (2)(9) - (3)(5) = 18 - 15 = 3.
3 9
Thus
3 1 3
2 2 - 1 = 3(4 - 3) - 1(4 + 1) + 3(-6 - 2) = 3 - 5 - 24 = -26
1 -3 2
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Ø Changing the rows into columns or columns into rows does not affect the value
of a determinant.
Ø Interchanging a pair of rows (or columns) of matrix A, changes the sign of det(A).
Ø If the elements of one row (or column) of matrix A are multiples of the elements
of another row(or column), then det(A)=0.
Ø If each element of one row (or column) of matrix A is replaced by a new element
consisting of the original element plus a multiple of the corresponding element
from another row (or column), then the value of det(A) is unchanged.
Ø det(A)=det(AT )
Ø det(AB)=det(A) det(B)
Multiplying along the diagonals, we can calculate the determinant as the sum of the three
positive diagonals less the three negative diagonals. The complete expression is then
a13 a21 a32 + a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 – a33 a21 a12 – a31 a22 a13 – a32 a23 a11.
The above expression gives Leibniz formula for a (3 x 3) matrix.
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Example 1
æ1 2 2 ö
ç ÷
Calculate the determinant of the ç1 1 1 ÷ matrix by Matrix Enhancement
method. ç1 - 1 3 ÷
è ø
The enhanced matrix becomes
2 1 2 2 1
1 1 1
3 1 -1 3 1
and its determinant will be
= (2).(1).(-1) +(1).(1).(3)+ (2).(1).(1) - (3).(1).(2) - (1).(1).(2) – (-1).(1).(1)
= -2+3+2-6-2+1
= -4
Here the sum is computed over all permutations σ of the numbers {1,2,...,n} and sgn(σ)
denotes the signature of the permutation σ: +1 if σ is an even permutation and - 1 if it is
odd.
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Example 2
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Alternatively, we can use Laplace's formula to expand the determinant along a row or
column. It is best to choose a row or column with many zeros, so we will expand along
the second column:
æ-1 3 ö æ - 2 - 3ö
det(A ) = (-1)1+ 2 .2. det çç ÷÷ + (-1) 2+ 2 .1. det çç ÷÷
è 2 - 1ø è 2 - 1ø
= (-2) .((-1).(-1) - 2 . 3) + 1 . ((-2).(-1) - 2 . (-3))
= (-2) (-5) + 8 = 18.
In order to compute the determinant of a given matrix, we are using the Laplace’s
Formula.
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1.4.1 Cofactors
The cofactor of the element ai,j equals (-1)i+j det(B) where B is the matrix formed by
deleting row i and column j from A.
a1 b1 c1
Therefore the cofactor of an element of a 3 x 3 determinant a2 b2 c2 is the
a3 b3 c3
2 x 2 determinant obtained by deleting the row and column containing that element and
multiplying by +1 or –1 according to the pattern:
+ - +
- + -
+ - +
b2 c2 b1 c1
The cofactor of(a 1 ) = A1 = The cofactor of(a 3 ) = A 3 =
b3 c3 b2 c2
a2 c2
The cofactor of(b1 ) = B1 = - a1 c1
a3 c3 The cofactor of(b 3 ) = B3 = -
a2 c2
a2 b2 a1 b1
The cofactor of(c 1 ) = C1 = The cofactor of(c 3 ) = C 3 =
a3 b3 a2 b2
b1 c1
The cofactor of(a 2 ) = A2 = -
b3 c3
a 1 c1
The cofactor of(b 2 ) = B2 =
a 3 c3
a 1 b1
The cofactor of(c 2 ) = C 2 = -
a3 b3
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æ A1 A2 A3 ö
ç ÷
The adjoint of the matrix A is ç B 1 B2 B 3 ÷ where A1, A2,.., C3 are cofactors of A.
çC C2 C 3 ÷ø
è 1
The standard notation for ‘the adjoint of matrix A’ is adj(A). Notice that adj(A) is the
transpose of the matrix formed by replacing each element of A by its cofactor. The
product A adj(A) is always a diagonal matrix.
æD 0 0 ö
ç ÷
i.e. A adj( A) = ç 0 D 0 ÷ = D I
ç 0 0 D÷
è ø
where I is the 3 ´ 3 unit matrix.
AB = BA = In
where In denotes the n-by-n identity matrix and the multiplication used is ordinary matrix
multiplication. If this is the case, then the matrix B is uniquely determined by A and is
called the inverse of A, denoted by A-1 . It follows from the theory of matrices that if
AB = IAAN
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I .
Matrix inversion is the process of finding the matrix B that satisfies the prior equation for
a given invertible matrix A.
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Let A be a square n by n matrix over a field K (for example the field R of real
numbers).
Then the following statements are equivalent:
· A is invertible.
· A is row-equivalent to the n-by-n identity matrix In .
· A is column-equivalent to the n-by-n identity matrix In .
· A has n pivot positions.
· det A 0.
· rank A = n.
· The equation Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution x = 0 (i.e., Null A = {0})
· The equation Ax = b has exactly one solution for each b in Kn .
· The columns of A are linearly independent.
· The columns of A span Kn (i.e. Col A = Kn ).
· The columns of A form a basis of Kn .
· The linear transformation mapping x to Ax is a bijection from Kn to Kn .
· There is an n by n matrix B such that AB = In .
· The transpose AT is an invertible matrix.
· The matrix times its transpose, AT × A is an invertible matrix.
· The number 0 is not an eigenvalue of A.
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æa bö æ 2 2ö
1) Find the inverse of çç ÷÷ and çç ÷÷.
èc dø è 3 5ø
Solution :
æa bö
i) Let A = çç ÷÷
èc dø
\| A | = ad - cb
æa cö
A T = çç ÷÷
èb dø
æ d - bö
adj A = çç ÷÷
è- c a ø
1 æ d - bö 1
A -1 = ç ÷ Q A -1 = adj A
ad - bc çè - c a ÷ø |A|
æ 2 2ö
ii) Let A = çç ÷÷
è 3 5ø
\| A | = 10 - 6 = 4
æ 2 3ö
A T = çç ÷÷
è 2 5ø
æ 5 - 2ö
adj A = çç ÷÷
è- 3 2 ø
æ 5 1ö
1 æ 5 - 2ö ç 4 - ÷
A -1 = çç ÷=ç 2÷
4 è - 3 2 ÷ø ç - 3 1 ÷
ç ÷
è 4 2 ø
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æ1 0 -1ö
ç ÷
2) Find the inverse of ç 3 4 5 ÷.
ç0 - 6 - 7÷
è ø
Solution :
æ1 0 -1ö
ç ÷
i) Let A = ç 3 4 5 ÷
ç0 - 6 - 7÷
è ø
Based on the first row
| A | = 1(-28 + 30) - 0(-21 - 0) + (-1)(-18 - 0)
= 1(2) - 0 - 1(-18) = 2 + 18 = 20
Find the cofactor of the elements.
4 5
Cofactor of 1 = A 1 = = - 28 + 30 = 2
-6 -7
3 5
Cofactor of 0 = B1 = - = - (-21 - 0) = 21
0 -7
3 4
Cofactor of - 1 = C1 = + = -18 - 0 = -18
0 -6
0 -1
Cofactor of 3 = A 2 = - = - (0 - 6) = 6
-6 -7
1 -1
Cofactor of 4 = B 2 = + = - 7 + 0 = -7
0 -7
1 0
Cofactor of 5 = C 2 = - =-6+0 = 6
0 -6
0 -1
Cofactor of 0 = A 3 = + =0+4 = 4
4 5
1 -1
Cofactor of - 6 = B 3 = - = 5 + 3 = -8
3 5
1 0
Cofactor of - 7 = C 3 = + =4-0 = 4
3 4
æ A1 A2 A3 ö æ 2 6 4ö æ 2 6 4ö
ç ÷ ç ÷ -1 1 1 ç ÷
adj A = ç B1 B2 B 3 ÷ = ç 21 - 7 - 8 ÷ \ A = adj A = ç 21 - 7 - 8 ÷
çC |A| 20 ç
è 1 C2 C 3 ÷ø çè - 18 6 4 ÷ø è - 18 6 4 ø
÷
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æ 5 0 0ö
ç ÷
3) If 10 A - 50 I = 0 and A = ç 0 5 0 ÷ find A -1 .
ç 0 0 5÷
è ø
Solution :
Consider 10A - 5I = 0
Post multiplying by A -1
10 A A -1 - 50 I A -1 = 0
10 I - 50 A -1 = 0
50 A -1 = 10 I
1
A -1 = [10 I]
50
æ1 ö
ç 0 0÷
ç5 ÷
1 ç 1
-1
A = I= 0 0÷
5 ç 5 ÷
ç 1÷
ç0 0 ÷
è 5ø
æ 1 2 2ö
ç ÷
4) Show that A = ç 2 1 2 ÷ satisfies the equation A 2 - 4A - 5I = 0 where I is the identity matrix
ç 2 2 1÷
è ø
and "0" denotes the zero matrix and hence find the inverse of A.
Solution :
æ 1 2 2ö
ç ÷
Let A = ç 2 1 2 ÷
ç 2 2 1÷
è ø
æ 1 2 2 öæ 1 2 2 ö
2
ç ÷ç ÷
A = A.A = ç 2 1 2 ÷ç 2 1 2 ÷
ç 2 2 1 ÷ç 2 2 1 ÷
è øè ø
æ 1 + 4 + 4 2 + 2 + 4 2 + 4 + 2ö
ç ÷
= ç 2 + 2 + 4 4 + 1 + 4 4 + 2 + 2÷
ç 2 + 4 + 2 4 + 2 + 2 4 + 4 + 1÷
è ø
æ9 8 8ö
ç ÷
= ç8 9 8÷
ç8 8 9÷
è ø
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= A 2 - 4A - 5I
æ9 8 8ö æ1 2 2ö æ5 0 0ö
ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷
= ç8 9 8 ÷ - 4ç 2 1 2 ÷ - ç 0 5 0÷
ç8 8 9 ÷ø çè 2 2 1 ÷ø çè 0 0 5 ÷ø
è
æ9 8 8ö æ 4 8 8ö æ5 0 0ö
ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷
= ç8 9 8÷ - ç8 4 8÷ - ç0 5 0÷
ç8 8 9 ÷ø çè 8 8 4 ÷ø çè 0 0 5 ÷ø
è
æ5 0 0ö æ5 0 0ö
ç ÷ ç ÷
= ç0 5 0÷ - ç0 5 0÷
ç0 0 5 ÷ø çè 0 0 5 ÷ø
è
æ0 0 0ö
ç ÷
= ç0 0 0÷
ç0 0 0 ÷ø
è
Hence the given matrix satisfies the eq. A 2 - 4A - 5I = 0.
To find A -1
A 2 - 4A - 5I = 0
Post multiplying both sides by A -1 .
[A 2 - 4A - 5I]A -1 = 0.A -1
A 2 A -1 - 4AA -1 - 5IA -1 = 0
A - 4I - 5A -1 = 0
1
A -1 = [A - 4I]
5
éæ 1 2 2 ö æ 4 0 0 öù æ- 3 2 2 ö
1 êç ÷ ç ÷ú 1 ç ÷
= êç 2 1 2 ÷ - ç 0 4 0 ÷ú = ç 2 - 3 2 ÷
5 ç 5 ç
êëè 2 2 1 ÷ø çè 0 0 4 ÷øúû è 2 2 - 3ø
÷
æ-3 2 2 ö
ç ÷
ç 5 5 5 ÷ æ - 0.6 0.4 0.4 ö
-1 ç 2 -3 2 ÷ ç ÷
A = = ç 0.4 - 0.6 0.4 ÷
ç 5 5 5 ÷ ç
ç 2 2 - 3 ÷ è 0.4 0.4 - 0.6 ÷ø
ç ÷
è 5 5 5 ø
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Matrix
A matrix (plural matrices) is a rectangular table of elements (or entries).
A matrix that has only one row is a row matrix, and a matrix that has only one
column is a column matrix
Diagonal Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be a diagonal matrix if aij= 0 when i ¹ j. In a diagonal
matrix all the entries except the entries along the main diagonal is zero.
Triangular matrix
A square matrix in which all the entries above the main diagonal are zero is called
a lower triangular matrix. If all the entries below the main diagonal are zero, it is
called an upper triangular matrix.
Scalar Matrix
A scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix in which all the entries along the main
diagonal are equal.
Equality of matrices
The matrices A=[aij]mxn and B=[bij]pxq are equal if m = p, n = q and aij = bij for
every i and j.
Cofactor
The cofactor of the element ai,j equals (-1)i+j det(B) where B is the matrix formed
by deleting row i and column j from A.
Inverse of matrix
adj(A)
A -1 =
det(A)
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a h g
1) Find the value of h b f
g f c
5 33
2) Evaluate 2 6 - 3
8 -3 2
a b c 1 a2 a3
3) Without expanding, verify that a 2 b 2 c2 = 1 b2 b3
bc ca ab 1 c 2 c3
5 4 3
4) Find the cofactor of ' a' in the determinant 2 6 a
8 -7 2
5) Compute the adjoint of
æ1 2 3 ö æ 2 0 7ö
ç ÷ ç ÷
a) ç1 3 5 ÷ b) ç -1 4 5÷
ç1 5 12 ÷ ç 3 1 2÷
è ø è ø
6) Show that the adjoint of
æ -1 - 2 - 2ö
ç ÷
a= ç 2 1 - 2÷
ç 2 -2 1 ÷
è ø
æ - 4 - 3 - 3ö
ç ÷
is 3A and that the adjoint of A = ç 1 0 1 ÷ is A itself.
ç4 4 3÷
è ø
æ1 1 1ö
ç ÷
6) Find the inverse of A = ç1 1 - 1÷
ç1 - 2 3 ÷
è ø
7) Define the inverse of a matrix and prove that, if a matrix has an inverse, it has
only one inverse.
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1.8. References
1) Frank Ayres,Jr,”Matrices”.
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Unit-I
Lesson – 2
Rank of a Matrix
Contents:
In this lesson, we have discussed the rank of a matrix and its computation
methods. Elementary row operations in matrices are also discussed in this lesson.
2.1 Introduction
The maximum number of independent rows (and therefore columns) that can be
found in a matrix is called the rank of a matrix. One useful application of calculating the
rank of a matrix is the computation of the number of solutions of a system of linear
equations. The system is inconsistent or having at least one solution or unique solution
can be found using its rank.
In control theory, the rank of a matrix can be used to determine whether a linear system is
controllable, or observable.
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2.2.1 Rank-Definitions
Definition 1
If a matrix has more rows than columns it must necessarily have linear dependence in the
rows. Conversely, if it has more columns than rows there will be linear dependence in the
columns. We define the rank of a matrix, r(A), as the maximum number of
independent rows(and therefore columns) that can be found in the matrix. It is
formally, written as follows
Rule: A square matrix (A) of dimension n will have an inverse if and only if r(A)=n.
Definition 2
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2.2.2 Properties
æ 0 0ö æ 0 0ö
çç ÷÷ çç ÷÷
è1 0ø è0 1ø
Both factors have rank 1, but the product has rank 0.
· If B is an n-by-k matrix with rank n, then AB has the same rank as A.
· If C is an l-by-m matrix with rank m, then CA has the same rank as A.
· The rank of A is equal to r if and only if there exists an invertible m-by-m matrix
X and an invertible n-by-n matrix Y such that
æ 1 2 3ö
ç ÷
| A |= ç 2 3 1 ÷ r3 ¬ r3 + r2
ç - 2 - 3 - 1÷
è ø
=0
2 3
But there is at least one non-zero minor of order 2, namely which is = -7.
3 1
Hence r(A) =2.
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Other non- vanishing determinants of order 2 might be written but a single one is a
sufficient to establish that the rank is 2.
Example 2.
æ1 2 3ö
ç ÷
Let A = ç2 3 1÷
ç 3 1 2÷
è ø
|A| =1(6-1)-2(4-3)+3(2-9)
= 5 – 2 – 21 = -18 ¹ 0
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Example 3.
æ2 4 6 ö
ç ÷
Let A = ç4 2 3 ÷
ç 6 - 6 - 9÷
è ø
|A| = 0
Also each of the second order minor is also = 0.
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æ 1 2 3ö
ç ÷
1) Find the rank of ç 2 4 5 ÷
ç 3 5 6÷
è ø
Solution :
æ 1 2 3ö
ç ÷
Let A = ç 2 4 5 ÷
ç 3 5 6÷
è ø
1 2 3
| A |= 2 4 5
3 5 6
= 1(24 - 25) - 2(12 - 15) + 3(10 - 12)
= 1(-1) - 2(-3) + 3(-2)
= -1 + 6 - 6
= -1 ¹ 0
Hence the rank of the matrix is 3.
æ 3 2 - 1ö
ç ÷
2) Find the rank of ç 7 8 0 ÷
ç4 6 1 ÷
è ø
Solution :
æ 3 2 - 1ö
ç ÷
Let A = ç 7 8 0 ÷
ç4 6 1 ÷
è ø
3 2 -1
| A |= 7 8 0
4 6 1
= 3(8 ´ 1 - 0 ´ 6) - 2(7 ´ 1 - 0 ´ 4) + (-1)(7 ´ 6 - 8 ´ 4)
= 1(8) - 2(7) + 3(10)
= 24 - 14 - 10
=0
Therfore the rank of the matrix is not 3.
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æ 3 2ö
Consider the submatrix çç ÷÷
è7 8ø
3 2
= 24 - 14 = 10 ¹ 0.
7 8
\ the rank of the matrix, r(A), is 2.
æ - 2 1 3 4ö
ç ÷
3) Find the rank of ç 0 1 1 2 ÷
ç 1 3 4 7÷
è ø
Solution :
æ - 2 1 3 4ö
ç ÷
Let A = ç 0 1 1 2 ÷
ç 1 3 4 7÷
è ø
Four square submatrices of order 3 exist
æ1 3 4ö æ - 2 3 4ö æ - 2 1 4ö æ - 2 1 3ö
ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷
ç 1 1 2 ÷ , ç 0 1 2 ÷ , ç 0 1 2 ÷ and ç 0 1 1 ÷ by deleting first, second, third and
ç3 4 7÷ ç 1 4 7÷ ç 1 3 7÷ ç 1 3 4÷
è ø è ø è ø è ø
fourth column respectively.
Consider the first 3 ´ 3 matrix.
1 3 4
| A |= 1 1 2
3 4 7
= 1(1 ´ 7 - 4 ´ 2) - 3(1 ´ 7 - 3 ´ 2) + 4(1 ´ 4 - 3 ´ 1)
= 1(8) - 2(7) + 3(10)
= 24 - 14 - 10
=0
Therfore the rank of the matrix is not 3.
Consider the second 3 ´ 3 matrix.
-2 3 4
| A |= 0 1 2
1 4 7
= (-2)(1 ´ 7 - 4 ´ 2) - 3(0 ´ 7 - 1 ´ 2) + 4(0 ´ 4 - 1 ´ 1)
= (-2)(-1) - 3(-2) + 4(-1) = 2 + 6 - 4 ¹ 0
Therfore the rank of the matrix, r(A), is 3.
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æ 1 2 3 ö
ç ÷
4) Find the rank of ç 2 4 6 ÷
ç - 3 - 6 - 9÷
è ø
Solution :
æ 1 2 3 ö
ç ÷
Let A = ç 2 4 6 ÷
ç - 3 - 6 - 9÷
è ø
1 2 3
| A |= 2 4 6
-3 -6 -9
= 1(4 ´ (-9) - (-6) ´ 6) - 2(2 ´ (-9) - (-3) ´ 6) + 3(2 ´ (-6) - (-3) ´ 4)
= 1(0) - 2(0) + 3(0) = 0
Therfore the rank of the matrix is not 3.
The submatrices of the given matrix are
æ 1 2ö æ 1 3ö æ 2 3ö
çç ÷÷ , çç ÷÷ , çç ÷÷ ,
è 2 4ø è 2 6ø è 4 6ø
æ 1 2 ö æ 1 3 ö æ 2 3 ö
çç ÷÷ , çç ÷÷ , çç ÷÷ ,
è - 3 - 6ø è - 3 - 9ø è - 6 - 9ø
æ 2 4 ö æ 2 6 ö æ 4 6 ö
çç ÷÷ , çç ÷÷ and çç ÷÷ .
è - 3 - 6ø è - 3 - 9ø è - 6 - 9ø
The determinant of all the above submatrices are all equal to 0(zero).
Since the determinant of all the second order mionors are zero, the rank is not 2.
But the matix A is non - zero, so its rank, r(A), is 1.
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æ1 2 -1 4 ö æ1 2 -1 4 ö
ç ÷ ç ÷
A. ç 0 1 0 3 ÷ B. ç0 1 0 3 ÷
ç0 0 1 - 2÷ ç0 0 1 - 2÷
è ø è ø
æ1 - 5 2 -1 3 ö æ1 0 0 - 1ö
ç ÷ ç ÷
ç0 0 1 3 - 2÷ ç0 1 0 2÷
C. ç D. ç
0 0 0 1 4÷ 0 0 1 3÷
ç ÷ ç ÷
ç0 0 0 0 1 ÷ø ç0 0 0 0 ÷ø
è è
The matrices on (B) and (D) also happen to be in reduced row - echelon form.
The following matrices are not in row - echelon form.
æ1 2 - 3 4 ö æ1 2 -1 2 ö
ç ÷ ç ÷
E. ç 0 2 1 - 1 ÷ F. ç0 0 0 0 ÷
ç 0 0 1 - 3÷ ç0 1 2 - 4÷
è ø è ø
Rank:
The number of non-zero rows in a Row- Echelon Form of a matrix after the
elementary row operations gives its rank.
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æ3 1 - 5 -1ö
ç ÷
2) Find the rank of the matrix ç 1 - 2 1 - 5 ÷
ç1 5 - 7 2 ÷
è ø
Solution :
æ3 1 - 5 -1ö
ç ÷
Let A = ç 1 - 2 1 - 5 ÷
ç1 5 - 7 2 ÷
è ø
æ1 - 2 1 - 5ö
ç ÷
~ ç3 1 - 5 -1÷ R1 « R 2
ç1 5 - 7 2 ÷
è ø
æ1 - 2 1 - 5 ö
ç ÷ R ¬ R 2 - 3R 1
~ ç 0 7 - 8 - 14 ÷ 2
ç 0 7 - 8 - 7 ÷ R 3 ¬ R 3 - R1
è ø
æ1 - 2 1 - 5 ö
ç ÷
~ ç 0 7 - 8 - 14 ÷ R 3 ¬ R 3 - R 2
ç0 0 0 - 7 ÷
è ø
The number of non - zero rows in the reduced matrix is 3. \ r(A) = 3.
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æ1 2 3 -1 ö
ç ÷
3) Find the rank of the matrix ç 2 4 6 - 2 ÷
ç3 6 9 - 3÷
è ø
Solution :
æ1 2 3 -1 ö
ç ÷
Let A = ç 2 4 6 - 2 ÷
ç3 6 9 - 3÷
è ø
æ 1 2 3 - 1ö
ç ÷ R ¬ R 2 - 2R 1
~ ç0 0 0 0 ÷ 2
ç 0 0 0 0 ÷ R 3 ¬ R 3 - 3R 1
è ø
The number of non - zero rows in the reduced matrix is 1. \ r(A) = 1.
In control theory, the rank of a matrix can be used to determine whether a linear
system is controllable, or observable.
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Rank of a matrix
(or)
(or)
The rank of a matrix is the largest order of any non-vanishing minor of the matrix.
Row-Echelon Form
1 All rows consisting entirely of zeros occur at the bottom of the matrix.
2 For each row that does not consist entirely of zeros, the first nonzero entry
is 1 (a leading 1).
3 For two successive (nonzero) rows, the leading 1 in the higher row is
farther to the left than the leading 1 in the lower row.
The number of non-zero rows in a Row- Echelon Form of a matrix after the
elementary row operations gives its rank.
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2.6 References
1. Frank Ayres,Jr,”Matrices”.
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Unit-I
Lesson – 3
Eigenvaules and Eigenvectors
Contents:
In this lesson, we have discussed about the Linear Transformation, Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors.
3.1 Introduction
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The above set of equations is said to form a linear transformation i.e. the
equations (1) transform the n variables x1 ,x2 ,x3 , …, xn into n variables y1 ,y2 ,…, yn .
The equation (2) is said to be a linear transformation of vector X into another vector Y; A
is called the matrix of transformation and |A| is called the modulus of the transformation.
If |A| = 0 the transformation is singular; otherwise non-singular.
· The characteristic polynomial of A n´n is of the form: ln -tr(A)* ln-1 + ... + -1n |A|.
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The eigenvalues of a matrix are the roots of its characteristic equation. They may
also be referred to by any of the fourteen other combinations of: [characteristic, eigen,
latent, proper, secular] + [number, root, value].
That is, the eigenvalues of matrix A are the roots of its characteristic equation: |A-lI| = 0.
The function eig(A) denotes a column vector containing all the eigenvalues of A with
appropriate multiplicities.
1 1 1
(i ) the inverse A -1 has the eigenvalues , ,...., .
λ1 λ 2 λn
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Solution
4-l 1
=0
3 2-l
(4 – l) (2 – l) – 3 = 0
l2 – 6l+5 = 0
(l – 1) (l – 5) =0
\l = 1 or 5.
X1 0
4-1 1
=
3 2-1 X2 0
3x1 + x2 = 0
3x1 + x2 = 0
(or) x2 = –3x1
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x1
When l= 5, the equation (A - lI) X = 0, where X = æç ö÷ , becomes
ç x2 ÷
è ø
æ4 - 5 1 ö æ x1 ö æ 0 ö
çç ÷ç ÷=ç ÷
è 3 2 - 5 ÷ø çè x 2 ÷ø çè 0 ÷ø
æ - 1 1 ö æ x1 ö æ 0 ö
çç ÷÷ çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷
è 3 - 3 ø è x 2 ø è0ø
i.e., -x1 + x2 = 0 Þ x1 = x2
3x1 – 3x2 = 0 Þ x1 = x2
Hence
æ 1 ö
When λ = 1 the eigenvector is çç ÷÷
è - 3ø
æ 1ö
When l = 1 the eigen vector is çç ÷÷
è 1ø
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2)
Find the e igenvalues and eige nvectors o f
æ 4 - 20 - 10 ö
ç ÷
ç - 2 10 4 ÷
ç 6 - 30 - 13 ÷
è ø
Solution :
Let A be the giv en matrix and | A - λI | = 0 be its charac teristic e quation .
æ 4 - 20 - 10 ö
ç ÷
A = ç - 2 10 4 ÷
ç 6 - 30 - 13 ÷ø
è
4 - λ - 20 - 10
i.e., - 2 10 - λ 4 =0
6 - 30 - 13 - λ
i.e., (4 - λ) [(10 - λ) (-13 - λ) + 120] + 20[26 + 2λ - 24] - 10[60 - 60 + 6l ] = 0
i.e., λ 3 - λ 2 - 2λ = 0
i.e., λ( λ 2 - λ - 2) = 0
i.e., λ = 0, (λ - 2)(λ + 1) = 0
i.e., λ = 0, λ = -1, λ = 2.
\ the eigenv alues are λ = 0, - 1, 2.
The equation (A - λ I) X = 0 gives the eigenvecto rs X for each eigenvaule s ( λ).
æ 4 - λ - 20 - 10 ö æ x1 ö æ 0 ö
ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷
i.e., ç - 2 10 - λ 4 ÷ ç x 2 ÷ = ç0÷
ç 6 - 30 - 13 - λ ÷ø ç x ÷ ç0÷
è è 3ø è ø
( 4 - λ)x 1 - 20 x 2 - 10 x 3 = 0
- 2x 1 + (10 - λ) x 2 + 4 x 3 = 0 - - - - - - - -- >
6x 1 - 30 x 2 - (13 + λ) x 3 = 0
For a given value of λ , the components x 1 , x 2 , x 3 of the eigenvecto r can be computed from
the above set of equatio ns.
Case (i) : When λ = 0, the above equation becomes
4 x 1 - 20 x 2 - 10 x 3 = 0
- 2x 1 + 10 x 2 + 4 x 3 = 0
6x 1 - 30 x 2 - 13 x 3 = 0
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æ 2 1 1ö
ç ÷
A = ç 1 2 1÷
ç 0 0 1÷
è ø
Sum of the eigen values = Sum of the leading diagonal elements
= 2+2+1=5
2 1 1
Product of the eigen values = 1 2 1 = 2(2) - 1(1) = 3
0 0 1
æ 3 10 5 ö
ç ÷
2) If 2 and 3 are the eigen values of A = ç - 2 - 3 - 4 ÷, find the eigen values of A -1 and A 3 .
ç3 5 7÷
è ø
2+3+l3 = 7
l3 = 2
1 1 1
\ the eigen values of A -1 are , , .
2 2 3
The eigen values of A are 2 3 ,2 3 ,33
3
æ -1 0 0ö
ç ÷
3) Given the matrix A = ç 2 - 3 0 ÷, find the eigen values of A 2 .
ç 1 4 2÷
è ø
[Property: The characteristic roots of a triangular matrix are the diagonal elements
of the matrix.]
Since the given matrix is a triangular matrix, the diagonal elements -1, -3, 2 of A will be
the eigen values of A.
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Linear transformation
Characteristic equation
Cayley-Hamilton theorem
Characteristic Matrix
Characteristic Polynomial
·
The characteristic polynomial of A n´n is of the form:
ln - tr(A)* ln-1 + ... + -1n |A|.
· The characteristic polynomial of A 2´2 is l2 - tr(A)* l + |A|
Eigenvalues
Properties of eigenvaules
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1 1 1
(i ) the inverse A -1 has the eigenvalues , ,...., .
λ1 λ 2 λn
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æ1 2 3 ö
ç ÷
1) Find the sum and product of the eigen values of A = ç 2 3 4 ÷ ( Use property).
ç 3 6 7÷
è ø
æ 3 1 4ö
ç ÷
2) Find the eigen values of the matrix A = ç 0 2 0 ÷ ( Use property).
ç0 0 5÷
è ø
3) Define characteristic equation, eigen values and eigen vectors of a square matrix A.
4) State Cayley - Hamilton theorem.
æ1 3ö
5) Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A = çç ÷÷
è0 2ø
6) Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the following matrices.
* Non - symmetric matrices with non - repeated eigen values.
æ - 15 4 3 ö æ 3 1 4ö
ç ÷ ç ÷ æ 2 - 1ö
a) ç 10 - 12 6 ÷ b) ç 0 2 6 ÷ c) çç ÷÷
ç 20 - 4 2 ÷ ç0 0 5÷ è- 8 4 ø
è ø è ø
* Non - symmetric matrices with repeated eigen values.
æ2 1 1ö æ 2 1 1ö æ 2 1 0ö
ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷
d) ç 2 3 2 ÷ e) ç 1 2 1÷ f) ç 0 2 1 ÷
ç 3 3 4÷ ç 0 0 1÷ ç 0 0 2÷
è ø è ø è ø
æ1 2 ö
7) Find A 8 , if A = çç ÷÷.
è 2 - 1ø
æ 2 -1 1 ö
ç ÷
8) Obtain the inverse by finding the characteristic equation of ç - 1 2 - 1÷ .
ç1 1 2÷
è ø
9) Find the characteristic equation of the following matrix and verify that it is satisfied by the matrix.
æ 3 1 - 1ö
æ1 2ö ç ÷
a) çç ÷÷ b) ç 1 3 1 ÷
è0 2ø ç -1 1 3 ÷
è ø
æ 7 2 - 2ö
ç ÷
10) Using Cayley - Hamilton theorem find the inverse of the matrix ç - 6 - 1 2 ÷.
ç 6 2 - 1 ÷ø
è
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3.7 References
1) Frank Ayres,Jr,”Matrices”.
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Unit II
Lesson – 4
Set Theory
Contents:
In this lesson, we have discussed about set theory and Venn-Euler Diagrams.
4.1 Introduction
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Examples:
Elements of a set:
The objects of a set are called its elements or members conventionally, capital
letters A, B, C, D, etc. are used to denote sets and lower case letters a, b, c, d, etc. are
used to denote its members.
Some sets occur very often in the text and so we use special symbols for them. They are
i) The set of Natural numbers i.e. N = { 1, 2, 3, 4, …}
ii) The set of Integers (or countable numbers) i.e. I = { …,-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
iii) The set of Positive Integers i.e. I+ = { 1, 2, 3, …}
iv) The set of rational numbers
p
i.e. Q = {x : x = , where p and q are integers and q ¹ 0 }
q
Remark
1) The quantitative attributes like honest persons, rich person, beautiful women,
etc do not form sets.
There are two different ways for describing a set. They are
1) Roster method and
2) Set Builder method.
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1) Roster Method
Sometimes we cannot list the elements of a set explicitly. In this method, the
set is defined by stating the properties which characterizing the members. For
example,
V = {x : x is a vowel in English alphabet}
B = {x : x is an even integer, x > 0 }
Finite set
Examples:
1) The set of months in a year.
2) The set of vowels in the English alphabet.
Infinite set
Examples:
Null set
A set with no elements is called the empty set or null set and is denoted by Æ
(read as phi) or {}.
Equality of sets
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For example,
i) If A = {4, 3, 2, 1} and B = {1, 3, 4, 2} then A=B, because both have same
and equal number of elements.
ii) If A = set of all integers whose square is 9,
B = set of all roots of the equation, x2 – 9 = 0 and
C = {-3, +3}
then A = B.
Equivalent Sets
Let A and B are two sets. The sets A and B are said to be equivalent sets if and
only if there exists a one-to-one correspondence between their elements. By one-to-
one correspondence we mean that for each element in A, there exists and match with
one element in B and vice versa.
Illustration
Subset
Theorem
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Power Set
If A is any set, then the family of all the subsets of A is called power set of A and
is denoted by P(A), i.e. P(A) = { B : BÌ A}. Obviously, Æ and A are both members of
P(A).
Illustrations
i) Let A = {b}, then P(A) = { Æ, {b}}
ii) Let A = Æ, then P(A) = {Æ}
iii) If A = {8, 9}, then P(A) = { Æ, {8}, {9},{8,9}}
Number of subsets
The number of subsets of a set with n elements is 2n -2 (leaving Ø and the full set)
Ø,A are called improper subsets of A.
Universal set
If the sets A and B are equal, then the same circle represents both A and B. If the
sets A and B are disjoint, i.e. they have no elements in common, then circles representing
A and B are drawn in such a way that they have no common area as shown in figure(a).
However if few elements are common both in A and B, then sets A and B are in general
represented as in figure(b).
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Set
A set is an unordered collection of distinct and distinguishable objects.
Roster Method
The set is defined by stating the properties which characterizing the members.
Finite set
Infinite set
Null set
A set with no elements is called the empty set or null set and is denoted by Æ.
Equality of sets
Equivalent Sets
The sets A and B are said to be equivalent sets if and only if there exists a one-
to-one correspondence between their elements.
Subset
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Power Set
If A is any set, then the family of all the subset of A is called power set of A
and is denoted by P(A), i.e. P(A) = { B : BÌ A}. Obviously, Æ and A are both
members of P(A).
Number of subsets
Universal set
The universe of discourse is called the universal set. The letter U is used for the
universal set.
Venn-Euler Diagrams
In these diagrams, the universal set is represented by a rectangle, and other sets of
interest within the universal set are depicted by oval regions, or sometimes by circles
or other shapes.
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4. Suppose that A = {2, 4, 6}, B = {2, 6}, C = {4, 6}, and D ={4, 6, 8}.
Determine which of these sets are subsets of which other of these sets.
5. For each of the following sets, determine whether 2 is an element of that set.
6. For each of the sets in Exercise 5, determine whether {2} is an element of that
set.
7. Use a Venn diagram to illustrate the relationship A Í B and B Í C.
8. Suppose that A, B, and C are sets such that A Í B and B Í C. Show that A Í C.
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13. Can you conclude that A = B if A and B are two sets with the same power set?
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4.8 References
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Unit II
Lesson – 5
Set operations and laws of set theory
Contents:
In this lesson, we have discussed about set operations, laws of set theory, algebra of
sets and duality.
5.1 Introduction
In this section we will discuss the various operators that are used to combine two
or more sets and how to work with sets using set algebra and duality.
.
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Two or more sets can be combined in many different ways. In this section we will
discuss the various operators that are used for this purpose.
Let A and B be sets. The union of A and B, denoted by A È B, is the set that
contains those elements that are either in A or in B, or in both.
An element x belongs to the union of the sets A and B if and only if x belongs to
A or x belongs to B. Symbolically,
A È B = { x : x Î A or x Î B }
Illustration
5.2.2 Intersection
Let A and B b e sets. The intersection of A and B, denoted by A Ç B, is the set that
containing those elements in both A and B.
5.2.3 Disjoint
Let A and B be sets. If intersection of the sets A and B is an empty set, then these
two sets are said to be disjoint. Symbolically,
AÇB=Æ
Example 1
An element x belongs to the difference of the sets A and B if and only if x belongs
to A and x does not belong to B. Symbolically,
A\B = A – B = { x : x Î A and x Ï B }
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1) A–A= Æ
2) A–Æ =A
3) A–BÍA
4) A – B, A Ç B and B-A are mutually disjoint
5) (A – B) Æ B = Æ Ç
6) (A – B) Ç A = A
Let U be the universal set and A be any set. The complement of A, denoted by A’,
is the complement of A with respect to U.
Example 2
2. U’ = Æ and Æ ’ = U
Properties
1. A È A’ = U
2. A Ç A’ = Æ
3. U’ = Æ
4. Æ’ = U
5. (A’)’ = A
6. (A – B) = A Ç B’
7. If A Í B, then A È (B – A) = B
8. (A È B)’ = A’ Ç B’
9. (A Ç B)’ = A’ È B’
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Sets under the operation of Union, Intersection, and Complement satisfy various
laws or identities. The table 5.1 lists the most important set identities. These identities can
be proved by different methods. We will prove some of these identities in this lesson and
the proof of the remaining identities will be left as exercises.
5.3.2 Duality
Note that the identities in table 5.1 are arranged in pairs. The principle behind this
arrangement is just the replacement of sets and operators. Suppose E is an equation of set
algebra. The dual E* of E is the equation obtained by replacing each occurrence of È, Ç,
U and Æ in E by Ç, È, Æ and U, respectively. For example, the dual of
(U Ç A) È (B Ç A) = A is (Æ È A) Ç (B È A) = A
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5.3.3 Proofs using set builder notation, membership tables and Venn diagrams
a) Prove the distributive laws using set builder notation and logical equivalence.
1) Prove A È (B Ç C) = (A È B) Ç (A È C)
Hence A È (B Ç C) = (A È B) Ç (A È C)
2) Prove A Ç (B È C) = (A Ç B) È (A Ç C)
Hence A Ç (B È C) = (A Ç B) È (A Ç C)
Set identities can also be proved using membership tables. To indicate that an
element in a set, a Y is used; to indicate that an element is not in a set, a N is used.
Table: 1
A membership table for the Distributive law A Ç (B È C) = (A Ç B) È (A Ç C)
A B C BÈC A Ç (B È C) AÇB AÇC (A Ç B ) È (A Ç C)
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Y Y N Y Y Y N Y
Y N Y Y Y N Y Y
Y N N N N N N N
N Y Y Y N N N N
N Y N Y N N N N
N N Y Y N N N N
N N N N N N N N
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Table: 2
A membership table for the Distributive law A È (B Ç C) = (A È B) Ç (A È C)
A B C BÇC A È (B Ç C) AÈB AÈC (A È B ) Ç (A È C)
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Y Y N N Y Y Y Y
Y N Y N Y Y Y Y
Y N N N Y Y Y Y
N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
N Y N N N Y N N
N N Y N N N Y N
N N N N N N N N
Solution:
A È (B Ç C) = (A È B) Ç (A È C)
Fig. 5.2
Here the figures 5.2 (b) and 5.2 (e) are same and hence proved.
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In order to analyze a bigger set easily, we can be split them into smaller, non-
overlapping and non-empty, subsets. For example, students in a class may be partitioned
into small groups on the basis of certain criteria so as to keep track of their progress and
regular internal assessment.
Figure Fig .5.3 is the Venn diagram showing partition of set A into five subset A1 , A2 , A3 ,
A4 and A5.
Example 3
5.5 Minsets
Let X = {B1 ,B2 ,B3 ,…,Bn } where the elements B1 ,B2 , etc are the subsets of a set A.
Then the set of the form C1 Ç C2 Ç C3 Ç … Ç Cn, where each Ci may be either Bi or its
complement i.e. Bi’ is called a minset or minterm, generated by Bi s (i = 1,2,...,n).
Example 4
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As shown in fig. 5.4, none of the sets C1 ,C2 ,C3 and C4 have elements in common, the set
generated by B1 and B2 is the partition of A.
Union
The union of the sets A and B, denoted by A È B, is the set that contains those
elements that are either in A or in B, or in both.
Intersection
The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by A Ç B, is the set that contains those
elements in both A and B.
Disjoint
If intersection of the sets A and B is an empty set, then these two sets are said to
be disjoint. Symbolically, A Ç B = Æ
Complement of a set
Let U be the universal set and A be any set. The complement of A, denoted by A’,
is the complement of A with respect to U.
Properties
· A È A’ = U
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· A Ç A’ = Æ
· U’ = Æ
· Æ’ = U
· (A’)’ = A
· (A – B) = A Ç B’
· If A Í B, then A È (B – A) = B
· (A È B)’ = A’ Ç B’
· (A Ç B)’ = A’ È B’
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Set Identities
Set Identities
Identity Name
AÈÆ=A Identity laws
AÇU=A
AÈU=U Domination laws
AÇÆ=Æ
AÈA=A Idempotent laws
AÇA=A
(A’)’ = A Complementation law
AÈB=BÈA Commutative laws
AÇB=BÇA
A È (B È C) = (A È B) È C Associative laws
A Ç (B Ç C) = (A Ç B) Ç C
A Ç (B È C) = (A Ç B) È (A Ç C) Distributive laws
A È (B Ç C) = (A È B) Ç (A È C)
(A È B)’ = A’ Ç B’ De Morgan’s laws
(A Ç B)’ = A’ È B’
A È (A Ç B) = A Absorption laws
A Ç (A È B) = A
A È A’ = U Complement laws
A Ç A’ = Æ
Duality
Partitions of sets
Let A be a non-empty set. The partition of A is any set of non-empty, non-
overlapping subsets A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 ,…, An such that
i) A = A1 È A2 È … È An
ii) The subsets Ai are mutually disjoint, i.e. Ai Ç Aj = Æ for i = j.
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a) A È Æ = A. b) A Ç Æ = Æ.
c) A È A = A. d) A Ç A = A.
e) A - Æ = A. f) AÈ U =U.
g) A ÇU = A. h) Æ - A = Æ.
a) A È B = B È A. b) A Ç B = B Ç A.
10. Draw the Venn diagrams for each of these combinations of the sets A, B, and C.
a) A Ç (B È C)
b) A’ Ç B’ Ç C’
c) (A – B) È (A –C) È (B – C)
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Unit II
Lesson – 6
The inclusion-Exclusion Principle
Contents:
6.1 Introduction
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Example 1
Results
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2) A TV survey shows that 60 per cent people see program A, 50 per cent see program B,
50 per cent see program C, 30 per cent see program A and B, 20 per cent see program B
and C, 30 per cent see program A and C, and 10 per cent do not see any program. Find
(a) What per cent see program A, Band C? .
(b) What per cent see exactly two programs?
(c) What per cent see program A only?
Solution Suppose X, Y and Z denote the set of people who see program A, Band C,
respectively. Then it is given that
n(X) = 60, n(Y) = 50, n(Z) = 50, n(X Ç Y) = 30, n(Y Ç Z) = 20, n(X Ç Z) = 30
n[(X È Y È Z)’] = 10 .
(b) Since the set of people who see program A and B but not C, i.e. X Ç Y Ç Z’ and the
set of people who see all the program A, Band C, i.e. X Ç Y Ç Z are disjoint sets,
therefore
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n( X Ç Y Ç Z’) + n( X Ç Y Ç Z) = n( X Ç Y )
n(X Ç Y Ç Z’) = n(X Ç Y) - n(X Ç Y Ç Z) = 30 - 10 = 20,
n(X Ç Y’ Ç Z) + n(X Ç Y Ç Z) = n(X n Z)
n(Z Ç Y’ Ç Z) = n(X Ç Z) - n(X Ç Y Ç Z) = 30 - 10 = 20,
n(XC n Y n Z) + n(X n.Y n Z) = n(Y n Z)
n(X’ ÇY Ç Z) = n(Y Ç Z) - n(X Ç Y Ç Z) = 20 - 10 = 10.
Thus, the percentage of people who see exactly two program = 20 + 20 + 10 = 50.
Solution: Suppose S, P and C denote the set of rivers polluted by sulphur compounds,
phosphates and crude oil, respectively. Then it is given that .
n(S) = 520, n(P) = 335, n(C) = 425, n(C Ç S) = 100,
n(S Ç P) = 180, n(P Ç C) = 150, n(S Ç P Ç C) = 28.
(a) Number of rivers polluted by at least One of the three impurities
n(S È P È C) = n(S)+n(P) + n(C)-n(S ÇP)-n(PÇC)-n(CÇS) + n(SÇPÇC)
= 520 + 335 + 425 - 100 - 180 - 150 + 28 = 878
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5) Out of 450 students in a school, 193 students read Science and 200 students read
Commerce, 80 students read neither. Find out how many read both.
Solution Suppose A and B denote the' set of students who read Science and Commerce,
respectively.
It is given that . . ;
n(A) = 193, n(B) = 200, n(U)= 450 and n(A’ Ç B’) = 80.
Now find the number of those students who read Science as well as Commerce, i.e.
n(A n B).
Since A’ Ç B’ = (A È B)’, therefore n(A È B)’ = 80. But
n(A u B)’ = n(U) - n(A È B)
80 = 450 - n(A u B) or n(A u B) = 450 - 80 = 370
Further, we know that n(A È B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A Ç B)
370 = 193 + 200 - n(A Ç B)
n(A Ç B) = 23
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6) In a survey concerning the smoking habits of consumers, it was found that 55 per cent
smoke cigarette A, 50 per cent smoke B, 42 per cent smoke C, 28 per cent smoke A and
B, 20 per cent smoke A and C, 12 per cent smoke Band C and 10 per cent smoke all the
three cigarettes.
(a) What percentage does not smoke?
(b) What percentage smokes exactly two brands of cigarettes?
Solution Let A, B, C be the sets of persons who smoke brand A, B, and C, respectively.
It is given that
n(A) = 55; n(B) = 50; n(C) = 42; n(A Ç B) = 28;
n(A Ç C) = 20; n(B Ç C) = 12; and n(A Ç B Ç C) = 10.
(a) Now (A È B È C) is the set of all person who smoke either A or B or C; or any two
brands or all the brands and (A u B u C)’ is the set of persons who do not smoke.
Therefore,
n(A È B È C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C)-n(A Ç B)- (B Ç C)- n(A Ç C)+n(A Ç B Ç C)
= 55 + 50 + 42 – 28 –12 –20 + 10 = 97
But, n(A È B È C)’= 100 - n(A È B È C) = 100 - 97 = 3
Hence, 3 per cent persons do not smoke.
(b) A Ç B Ç C’ is the set of persons who smoke A and B, but not C and (A n B n C) is
the set of persons who smoke all the 3 brands A, B, and C. Therefore
n(A Ç B) = n(A Ç B Ç C’) + n(A Ç B Ç C)
28 = n(A Ç B Ç C’) + 10 or n(A Ç B Ç C’) = 18.
Similarly, n(A Ç B’ Ç C) = 10 and n(A’ Ç B Ç C) = 2.
7) In a class of 25 students, 12 have taken economics, 8 have taken economics but not
political science. Find the number of students who have taken economics and political
science and those who have taken politics but not economics.
Solution Suppose A and B denote the set of students who take economics and political
science, respectively. It is given that
n(A) = 12, n(A u B) = 25, and n(A n BC) = 8.
Now we have to find the number of students who have taken economics and
political science, i.e. n(A Ç B) and the number of students who have taken political
science but not economics, i.e. n(B Ç A’). Now
n(A) = n(A Ç B’) + n(A Ç B)
or 12 = 8 + n(A Ç B) or n(A Ç B) = 12 – 8 = 4
Also n(A È B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A Ç B)
25 = 12 + n(B) – 4 or n(B) = 17.
Again, n(B) = n(A Ç B) + n(B Ç A’).
Therefore
17 = 4+ n(B Ç A’) or n(B Ç A’)= 17 – 4 = 13.
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Solution
(a) The cardinality of the set A is infinity because its elements, i.e., number of
positive integers which it contains are infinite.
(b) The cardinality of the set is also infinite because of the same reason as in (i).
(c) Since both A and B are infinite sets,. therefore the cardinality of their union is
also infinite.
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Theorems
Results
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6.5 References
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Unit – III
Lesson – 7
Mathematical Logic
Contents
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In this lesson, we have discussed the basis of propositional logic. With this logic,
students can found the truth and falsity of the statements.
7.1 Introduction
Logic, logical thinking, and correct reasoning have wide applications in many
fields, including law, psychology, rhetoric, science, and mathematics. While an
interesting study can be made of logic in human lives, we shall restrict our attention
mainly to logic as it is used in mathematics. This logic was first studied systematically by
Aristotle (384 B.C.-322 B.C.). Aristotle and his followers studied patterns of correct and
incorrect reasoning.
Logic is the tool for reasoning about the truth and falsity of statements. There are
two main directions in which logic develops.
• The first is the depth to which we explore the structure of statements. The study
of the basic level of structure is called propositional logic. First order predicate logic,
which is often called just predicate logic, studies structure on a deeper level.
• The second direction is the nature of truth. For example, one may talk about
statements that are usually true or true at certain times.
“True” and “false” could be replaced by T and F (or any other two symbols) in our
discussions. Using T and F relates logic to Boolean functions. In fact, propositional logic
is the study of Boolean functions, where T plays the role of “true” and F the role of
“false.”
Our study is restricted to propositional and predicate logic only.
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7.2.1 Propositions
A declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both, is called a
proposition.
The area of logic that deals with propositions is called the propositional calculus
or propositional logic.
A simple proposition is one in which the sentences cannot be further broken into simple
or atomic sentences. Two or more simple propositions connected by operators is known
as a compound proposition. The operators are known as logical connectives or simply
connectives. The logical connectives are shown in the table 3.1.
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Truth Table: It shows the relationship between the truth- value of a compound
proposition and the truth-values of its constituent simple propositions.
Conjunction
Let p and q be propositions. The proposition “p and q”, denoted by p Ù q, is true
when both p and q are true and is false otherwise. The statement p Ù q is called the
conjunction of p and q.
The truth table for the conjunctions of two propositions is given in the table 3.2.
Table 3.2
p q pÙ q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Illustration
a) Consider the following four compound statements
Only the first statement is true. Each of the other statements is false, since at least
one of its simple statements is false.
Disjunction
Table 3.3
p q pÚ q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
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Illustration
b) Consider the following four compound statements
Only the last statement is false. Each of the other statements is true, since at least one of
its simple statements is true.
Example 1
Let p : ABC Company earned 20% profit per share in 2005.
q : ABC Company paid 12% dividend per share in 2005.
p Ú q : ABC Company earned 20% profit per share in 2005 or ABC Company
paid 12% dividend per share in 2005 or both.
p Ú q : ABC Company earned 20% profit per share in 2005 or ABC Company
paid 12% dividend per share in 2005 but not both.
Negation
The negation of a true statement is false, and the negation of a false statement is
true. Its truth table is given in the table 3.4.
Table 3.4
p Øp
T F
F T
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NAND
For example, If p and q are two statements then NANDing of these two statements,
denoted by p - q, is false when both p and q are true, otherwise true. Its truth table is
given in the table 3.5.
Table 3.5
p q p-q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F T
NOR
For example, if p and q are two statements then ORing of these two statements, denoted
by p ¯ q, is true when both p and q are false, otherwise false. Its truth table is given in the
table 3.6.
Table 3.6
p q p¯q
T T F
T F F
F T F
F F T
XOR
If p and q are two statements then XORing of these two statements, denoted by p
Å q, is false when both p and q are same, otherwise true. Its truth table is given in the
table 3.7.
Table 3.7
p q pÅq
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F
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In the above statement, the component coming after the word if gives a condition (but not
necessarily the only condition) under which the statement coming after then will be true.
The conditional connective may not always be explicitly stated. That is, it may be
“hidden” in an everyday expression. For example, the statement
“It is difficult to study when you are distracted”
can be written
“It you are distracted then it is difficult to study”.
Table 3.8
p q p®q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
1) p ® q is false only when the antecedent is true and the consequent is false.
2) If the antecedent is false, then p ® q is automatically true.
3) If the consequent is true, then p ® q is automatically true.
Negation of p ® q
The negation of p ® q is p Ù Ø q.
Conditional as a disjunction
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(p ® q) Ù (q ® p )
so that, by definition,
p « q º (p ® q) Ù (q ® p ).
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Using this definition, the truth table for the biconditional p « q can be determined as
shown in table 3.9.
Table 3.9
p q p«q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Example 2
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Solution: The equivalence of two compound statements is shown in the truth Table 3.13.
Truth table: 3.13 (p - q) Å (p - q) and (p Ú q) Ù (p ¯ q)
p Q p-q (p - q) Å (p - q) (p Ú q) (p ¯ q) (p Ú q) Ù (p ¯ q)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
T T F F T F F
T F T F T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T F F T F
Since values in Columns (4) and (7) are same, therefore two statements are equivalent.
3) If p and q are two statements, then show that p Å q is equivalent to (p ÙØ q)Ú(Øp Ù g).
Solution: The equivalence of two compound statements is shown in truth Table 3.14.
Truth table 3.14 : p Å q and (p ÙØ q) Ú (Øp Ù g)
p q pÅq Øp Øq p ÙØ q Øp Ù g (p ÙØ q) Ú (Øp Ù g)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
T T F F F F F F
T F T T T T F T
F T T F F F T T
F F F T T F F F
Since values in Columns (3) and (8) are same, therefore two compound statements are
equivalent.
Solution: The equivalence of two compound statements is shown in truth Table 3.15.
Truth table: 3.15 (p Å q) Ú (p ¯ q) and p-q
p q (p Å q) (p ¯ q) (p Å q) Ú (p ¯ q) p-q
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
T T F F F F
T F T F T T
F T T F T T
F F F T T T
Since values in Columns (5) and (6) are same, therefore two compound statements are
equivalent.
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Types of
Connectives Symbols
Statements
and Ù Conjunction
or Ú Disjunction
not Ø Negation
if. . . then ® Conditional
if and only if « Biconditional
Truth Tables
p Øp
T F
F T
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Let p represent "it is broken" and let q represent "you can fix it." Write each of the fol-
lowing in symbols.
6. If it isn't broken, then you can fix it.
7. It is broken or you can't fix it.
8. You can't fix anything that is broken.
Using the same directions as for Exercises 6-8, write each of the following in words.
9. Øp Ù q 10. p « Øq
In each of the following, assume that p and q are true, with r false. Find the truth value of
each statement.
11. Øp Ù Ør 12. r Ú (pÙq)
Write a truth table for each of the following. Identify any tautologies.
17. p Ù (Øp Ú q) 18. Ø(pÙq)®(ØpÚØq)
Decide whether each statement is true or false.
19. All positive integers are whole numbers.
20. If x + 4 = 6, then x > 1.
Write each conditional statement in the form if. . . then.
21. All rational numbers are real numbers.
22. Being a rectangle is sufficient for a polygon to be a quadrilateral.
23. Being divisible by 2 is necessary for a number to be divisible by 6.
24. She cries only if she is hurt.
For each statement, write (a) the converse, (b) the inverse, and (c) the contrapositive.
25. If a picture paints a thousand words, the graph will help me understand it.
26. Øp®(qÙr) (Use one of De Morgan's laws as necessary.)
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Unit – III
Tautology, Contradiction and Arguments
Lesson 8
Contents
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Tautology
8.3 Contradiction
8.4 Arguments
8.8 References
The main aim and objective of this lesson is to know about the Tautology,
Contradiction and Arguments.
8.1 Introduction
In this lesson we are going to discuss about the certain compound propositions
that are always true or false irrespective of the truth values of its component propositions.
The statement that is always true is called a tautology. The statement that is always false
is called Contradiction. We also discussed the method of testing the validity of an
argument.
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8.2 Tautology
Table
p Øp pÚ Øp
T F T
F T T
8.3 Contradiction
Table
p Øp pÙ Øp
T F F
F T F
Note that the negation of a tautology is a contradiction since it is always false, and
the negation of a contradiction is a tautology since it is always true.
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8.4 Arguments
There are two types of reasoning: inductive and deductive. So far we have concentrated
on using inductive reasoning to observe patterns and solve problems. Now, in this section
and the next, we will study how deductive reasoning may be used to determine whether
logical arguments are valid or invalid. A logical argument is made up of premises
(assumptions, laws, rules, wide ideas, or observations) and a conclusion. Together, the
premises and the conclusion make up the argument. Also recall that deductive reasoning
involves drawing specific conclusions from given general premises. When reasoning
from the premises of an argument to obtain a conclusion, we want the argument to be
valid.
An argument is valid if the fact that all the premises are true forces the conclusion
to be true. An argument that is not valid is invalid, or a fallacy.
It is very important to note that "valid" and "true" are not the same - an argument can be
valid even though the conclusion is false (See Example below).
Definition
An argument is an assertion that a given set of propositions P1 , P2 , …, Pn called
premises, yields ( has a consequence) another proposition Q, called the conclusion. Such
an argument is denoted by
P1 , P2 , ¼, Pn
Q
Several techniques, like Euler diagrams (visual technique) and the method of truth
table, can be used to check whether an argument is valid. In this section the method of
truth tables is shown.
While Euler diagrams often work well for simple arguments, difficulties can
develop with more complex ones. These difficulties occur because Euler diagrams
require a sketch showing every possible case. In complex arguments it is hard to be sure
that all cases have been considered.
In deciding whether to use Euler diagrams to test the validity of an argument look
for quantifiers such as "all," "some," or "no." These words often indicate arguments best
tested by Euler diagrams. If these words are absent, it may be better to use truth tables to
test the validity of an argument.
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- - - - -
premise and premise implies conclusion
Since the final column, indicates that the conditional statement that represents the
argument is true for all possible truth values of p and q, the statement is a tautology.
Thus, the argument is valid.
The pattern of the argument in the example 3 (floor- mopping),
p® q
p
--------
q
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In summary, to test the validity of an argument using truth tables, follow the steps in
the box that follows.
3. Form the symbolic statement of the entire argument by writing the conjunction of all
the premises as the antecedent of a conditional statement, and the conclusion of the
argument as the consequent.
4. Complete the truth table for the conditional statement formed in part 3 above. If it is a
tautology, then the argument is valid; otherwise, it is invalid.
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The last column contains only T. Therefore the given statement is a tautology.
p® q
q
--------
p
To test for validity, construct a truth table for the statement [(p ® q) Ù q] ® p.
The third row of the final column of the truth table shows F, and this is enough to
conclude that the argument is invalid.
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If p represents "a man could be two places at one time" and q represents "I'd be with
you," the argument becomes
p® q
Øq
--------
Øp
The symbolic statement of the entire argument is
[(p ® q) Ù Ø q] ® Ø p
The truth table for this argument, shown below, indicates a tautology, and the argument is
valid.
The pattern of reasoning of this example is called modus tollens, or the law of
contraposition, or indirect reasoning.
With reasoning similar to that used to name the fallacy of the converse, the
fallacy
p® q
Øp
--------
Øq
is often called the fallacy of the inverse. An example of such a fallacy is "If it rains, I get
wet. It doesn't rain. Therefore, I don't get wet."
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If p represents "I'll buy a car" and q represents "I'll take a vacation," the argument
becomes
pÚ q
Øp
--------
q
We must set up a truth table for
[(p Ú q) Ù Ø p] ® q
p Q pÚ q Øp (p Ú q) Ù(Ø p) [(p Ú q) Ù Ø q] ® q
T T T F F T
T F T F F T
F T T T T T
F F F T T T
The statement is a tautology and the argument is valid. Any argument of this form is
valid by the law of disjunctive syllogism.
Let p represent "it squeaks," let q represent "I use WD-40," and let r represent "I must go
to the hardware store." The argument takes on the general form
Make a truth table for the following statement:
p® q
q® r
--------
p® r
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This argument is valid since the final statement is a tautology. The pattern of argument
shown in this example is called reasoning by transitivity, or the law of hypothetical
syllogism. .
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Tautology
A statement is true for all truth values of the statement variables is called a
tautology.
Contradiction
A statement is false for all truth values of the statement variables is called a
contradiction.
Argument
P1 , P2 , ¼, Pn
Q
Valid and Invalid Arguments
An argument is valid if the fact that all the premises are true forces the conclusion
to be true. An argument that is not valid is invalid, or a fallacy.
A summary of the valid and invalid forms of argument presented in this lesson follows.
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Formulate the arguments of Exercises 11-15 symbolically and determine whether each is
valid. Let
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In Exercises 16-20, write the given argument in words and determine whether each
argument is valid. Let
p: 4 megabytes is better than no memory at all.
q: We will buy more memory,
r: We will buy a new computer.
16. p® r
p® q
----------------
\p ® ( rÙq)
17. p ® (rÚq)
r ® Øq
-------------
\p ® r
18. p®r
r®q
----------
\q
19. Ør ® Øp
r
-----------
\p
20. p®r
r®q
p
-----------
\q
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8.8 References
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Unit – III
Lesson – 9
Method of proof and Predicate Calculus
Contents
In this lesson, we have discussed method of proofs and predicate calculus. With
the proof methods, one can arrive at a conclusion from the given sequence of premises.
9.1 Introduction
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For all x1 ,x2 ,…,xn , if p(x1 ,x2 ,…,xn), then q((x1 ,x2 ,…,xn).
A direct proof assumes that p(x1 ,x2 ,…,xn) is true and then, using p(x1 ,x2 ,…,xn) as
well as other axioms, definitions and theorems, shows directly that q(x1 ,x2 ,…,xn) is true.
Example 1: We will give a direct proof of the following statement. For all real numbers
d,d1 ,d2 and x
if d = min{d1 ,d2 } and x <= d, then x <=d1 and x <=d2 .
Proof.
We assume that d,d1 ,d2 and x are arbitrary real numbers. The preceding discussion
shows that it suffices to assume that
d = min{d1 ,d2 } and x <= d
is true and then prove that
x <= d1 and x <=d2
is true.
From the definition of min, it follows that d <=d1 and d <=d2 . From x <= d and
d<=d1, we may derive x <= d1 from the theorem – for all real numbers x,y, and z if x <= y
and y <= z, then x <= z. From x <= d and d <= d2, we may derive x <= d2 from the same
previous theorem. Therefore, x <=d1 and x <=d2 .
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Since Ø r is true, then r is false. Also either r or Ø q is true. Thus, Ø q is true. Since p
® q, therefore, Ø q® Ø p is true and hence, the statement Ø p: I do not enjoy study, must
be true.
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The only difference between the assumptions in a direct proof and a proof by
contradiction is the negated conclusion. In a direct proof the negated conclusion is not
assumed, where as in a proof by contraciction the negated conclusion is assumed.
p q r p® q p Ù Øq r Ù Ør p Ù Øq ® r Ù Ør
T T T T F F T
T T F T F F T
T F T F T F F
T F F F T F F
F T T T F F T
F T F T F F T
F F T T F F T
F F F T F F T
Example 4:
We will give a proof by contradiction of the following statement:
For all real numbers x and y, if x+y ³ 2, then either x ³ 1 or y ³ 1.
Proof:
Suppose that the conclusion is false. Then x < 1 and y < 1.
Using a above mentioned theorem, we may add these inequalities to obtain
x+y < 1+1 =2.
At this point, we have derived the contradiction p Ù Øp, where p: x+y ³ 2.
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Since r and 5 are rational numbers, therefore, r - 5 is also a rational number. This
implies that Ö2 is a rational number, which is a contradiction because Ö2 is an irrational
number. Thus, the assumption that 5 + Ö2 must be false and hence, the given number is
irrational.
Example 7:
We have been studying statements that are either true or false. But, consider the
statement “x2 > 1.” In order to decide if this statement is true or false, we need to know
the numerical value of x. If x = 1.1, then “x2 > 1” is true. If x = 0.9, then “x2 > 1” is false.
The best way to think of this is to regard the statement “x2 > 1” as a function S(x) =
“x2>1”. If we take this point of view, we need to specify the domain of S. First suppose
the domain of S is R, the set of all real numbers. The codomain (or range) of S, by our
description just given, is a set of statements that are either true or false (e.g., S(0.9) =
“0.92 > 1”, S(2.3) = “2.32 > 1”). The function S is an example of a predicate.
Example 8:
Consider the statement "All men are mortal" and reword the statement like
The sentence "x is a man" is not a statement in propositional calculus, since it involve an
unknown thing x and we can't assign a truth value without knowing what x we're talking
about. This sentence can be broken down into its subject, x, and a predicate, "is a man."
We say that the sentence is a statement form, since it becomes a statement once we fill
in x. Here is how we shall write it symbolically: The subject is already represented by the
symbol x, called a term here, and we use the symbol P for the predicate "is a man." We
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" x [Px ®
Qx ].
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Definition (Predicate and truth set) A predicate is any function whose codomain is
statements that are either true or false. There are two things to be careful about:
The truth set of a predicate S with domain D is the set of those x Î D for which S(x) is
true. It is written
{x Î D | S(x) is true} or simply {x | S(x)}.
A statement of the form P(x1 ,x2 ,…,xn ) is the value of the propositional function P at
the n-tuble (x1 ,x2 ,…,xn ), and P is called a predicate.
9.4 Quantifiers
The words and phrases like for all, each and n o ( n e ) are called universal
quantifiers, while words and phrases like for some, there exists and (for) at least one are
called existential quantifiers. Quantifiers are used to indicate how many cases of a
particular situation exist.
The phrase “for all” the universal quantifier is written " (“A” rotated 180 ). If
S(x) is a predicate and the set D is contained in the domain of x, the statement “"x Î D,
S(x)” is read “for all x Î D, S(x) is true,” or just “for all x Î D, S(x).” The statement “"x
Î D, S(x)” is true if and only if S(x) is true for every x Î D; otherwise the statement “"x
Î D, S(x)” is false. If the value of D is clear, we may write simply "x S(x).
The phrase “for some” is called the existential quantifier and is written $ (“E”
rotated 180 ). If S(x) is a predicate and the set D is contained in the domain of x, the
statement “ $x Î D, S(x)” is read “for some x Î D, S(x) is true,” or just “for some x Î D,
S(x).” It is also read “there exists x Î D such that S(x).” The statement “ $x Î D, S(x)” is
true if and only if S(x) is true for at least one x Î D; otherwise the statement “ $x Î D,
S(x)” is false. If the value of D is clear, we may write simply $x S(x).
• “"x Î D, S(x)” is equivalent to saying that the truth set of S(x) contains the set D.
• “$x Î D, S(x)” is equivalent to saying that the truth set of S(x) contains at least one
element of the set D
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Negation
Let us go back for a moment to the statement "All men are mortal":
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" x [Px ®
Qx ].
Question
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Qx]
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, say?
Answer
Literally, it says: "It is not true that all men are mortal." More succinctly,
"Some men are immortal."
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" x [Px ®
Ø Qx ].
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Solution
"For all x, if x is a number and x is greater than 1, then x is greater than 0."
Let us write N for the predicate "is a number" and use the standard notation ">"
for "is greater than." Our statement is then:
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" x [(Nx
Ù (x >1)) ®
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(x >0)].
Notice that we put the phrases "x>1" and "x>0" in parentheses to make the meaning
clearer.
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Direct Proof
A direct proof of (p ® q) has the following form. First assume that p is true. Then
from this assumption draw one conclusion after another. Finally conclude that q is
true. Therefore (p ® q) must always be true.
Indirect Proof
Predicate
A statement of the form P(x1 ,x2 ,…,xn ) is the value of the propositional function P
at the n-tuble (x1 ,x2 ,…,xn ), and P is called a predicate.
Predicate calculus
The area of logic that deals with predicates and quantifiers is called the predicate
calculus.
Quantifiers
Ø The phrase “for some” is called the existential quantifier and is written $.
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9.7 References
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Unit – IV
Relations
Lesson 10
Contents
In this lesson, we have discussed about the Product of sets, Binary Relations and
Types of relations.
10.1 Introduction
In mathematics and computer science, there are many relations used to establish a
relation between pair of objects taken in a definite order. For example, “less than”, “is
parallel to”, “is a subset of”, and so on. A relation between two sets can be defined by
listing their elements as ordered pairs. In this lesson, we will discuss relations defined on
sets and the ways of representing finite relations along with their properties.
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Consider two non-empty finite sets A and B. The set of all ordered pairs (a, b)
where a Î A and bÎ B is called the product or Cartesian product of A and B. This
product is denoted by A ´ B (read as “A cross B”). By definition
A ´ B ={(a, b) : a Î A and bÎ B}
Example 1
If A = {1,2} and B = {a, b, c}, then
A ´ B = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c)}
B ´ A = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1), (c, 2)}
A2 = A ´ A = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)} and
n(A ´ B) = n(A) . n(B) =2 . 3 = 6
Product of n sets
The idea of a product of sets can be extended to any finite number of sets. Let A1 ,
A2 , … , An be n given sets. The set of all ordered n - tubles (a1 , a2 , … ,an ) where a1 ÎA1 ,
a2 Î A2 , …, an Î An is called the product of the sets A1 , A2 , … , An and is denoted by
n
A 1 ´ A 2 ´ ... ´ A n or Õ A i
i =1
Important results
1) Let A, B, and C are sets and A Í B. Then (A ´ C) = (B ´ C).
Proof. Let (a, c) be an arbitrary element of A ´ C. Then
(a, c)Î(A ´ C) Þ a Î A and c Î C
Þ a Î B and c Î C
Þ (a, c) Î B ´ C
Thus, (A ´ C) = (B ´ C).
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Definition: Let A and B be sets. A binary relation or, simply, relation R from A to
B is a subset of A ´ B.
In other words, a binary relation from A to B is a set R of ordered pairs where the
first element of each ordered pair comes from A and the second element comes from B.
Symbolically,
We use the notation a R b to denote that (a, b) Î R and a R b to denote that (a, b) Ï R.
Moreover, when (a, b) belongs to R, a is said to related to b by R.
The total number of relations from A to B are 2mn, where m and n are the Cardinal
number of the sets A and B respectively, including the empty relation and the relation A
´ B itself.
The domain of a relation R is the set of all first elements of the ordered pairs,
which belong to R, and the range of R is the set of second elements.
Illustrations
a) Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {x, y, z} and let R = {(1,y), (1,z), (3,y)}. Then R is a
relation from A to B, since R is a subset of A ´ B. With respect to this relation
1 R y, 1 R z, 3 R y but 1 R x, 2 R x, 2 R y, 2 R z, 3 R x, 3 R z.
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Since all relations are set of ordered pairs, the set operations can be carried on
such sets. Let R and S be two relations, then we can define the following relation:
Intersection of R and S: x (R Ç S) y = x R y
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Inverse relation
For example, the inverse of the relation R={(1, y), (1, z), (3, y)} from A={1, 2, 3} to
B={x, y, z} follows:
From the above, if R is any relation then (R-1 )-1 = R. Also, the domain of R-1 is equal to
the range of R; the range of R-1 is equal to domain of R. Moreover, if R is a relation on A,
then R-1 is also a relation on A.
Let A be any set. Then the relation R in a set A denoted by IA is said to be identity
relation if
IA={(a, a) : a Î A}.
Universal Relation
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1) Consider the table given below that shows which students are taking which
courses.
Student Course
Bala CompSci
Manohar Math
Chandra Art
Ravi History
Ragu CompSci
David Math
Since (Ravi, History) Î R, we may write Ravi R History. The domain (First
Column) of R is the set X and the range (Second Column) of R is the set Y.
We obtain
R={(2,4),(2,6),(3,3),(3,6),(4,4)}.
X Y
2 4
2 6
3 3
3 6
4 4
The domain of R is the set {2,3,4} and the range of R is the set {3,4,6}.
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Product of sets
Let A and B be two non-empty finite sets. The set of all ordered pairs (a, b) where
aÎA and bÎB is called the product or Cartesian product of A and B. This product is
denoted by A´B (read as “A cross B”). By definition
A ´ B ={(a, b) : a Î A and bÎ B}
Product of n sets
Let A1 , A2 , … , An be n given sets. The set of all ordered n - tubles (a1 , a2 , … ,an )
where a1 ÎA1 , a2 Î A2 , …, an Î An is called the product of the sets A1 , A2 , … , An
and is denoted by
n
A 1 ´ A 2 ´ ... ´ A n or Õ A i
i =1
Binary Relations
A binary relation or, simply, relation R from set A to set B is a subset of A ´ B.
Types of relations
Ø Inverse relation
Let R be a relation from a set A to set B. The inverse relation from B to A,
denoted by R-1 , is the set of ordered pair {(b, a) : a Î A, b Î B, (a, b) Î R}.
Ø Universal Relation
Let A be any set. Then A ´ A which is a subset of A ´ A is a relation on A
called the universal relation.
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10.7 References
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Unit – IV
Lesson 11
Properties of relation, Partial Order and Equivalence relation
Contents
In this lesson, we have discussed about the Properties of relations, Partial order
relations, Equivalence relation, and Composition of relations.
11.1 Introduction
In this lesson we covered some important properties of the relations like Reflexive
relation, Symmetric relation, Anti-symmetric relation and Transitive relation. Using the
above properties we can define an equivalence relation which is also discussed in this
lesson.
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This section discusses some important properties or types of relations that are
defined on a given set A.
Reflexive relation
Illustrations
Consider the following relations on set A={1, 2, 3, 4}.
1) R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3), (4, 4)}
2) R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
3) R3 = A ´ A , the universal relation
4) R4=Æ, the empty relation.
Determine which of the relations are reflexive.
Here the set A contain the four elements 1, 2, 3 and 4 then a relation on A is reflexive if it
contains the four pairs (1,1), (2,2), (3,3) and (4,4). Therefore, the relation R1 is not
reflexive since 2 Î A but (2, 2) Ï R1 and also R4 is not reflexive. Where as the relations
R2 and the universal relation R3 are reflexive.
Symmetric relation
A relation R on a set is symmetric if whenever aRb then bRa, that is, if whenever
(a, b)ÎR, then (b, a) Î R. The necessary and sufficient condition for a relation R to be
symmetric is R = R-1 .
Illustrations
1) Let A={1, 2, 3, 4} and R={(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)} then
R-1 ={(1, 1), (2, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}.
2) Let A ={1, 2, 3} and R={(1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 1), (3, 3)} then
R-1 ={(2, 1), (3, 2), (1, 2), (3, 3)}.
Here R ¹ R-1 since (2,3) Î R where as (3,2) Ï R-1 . Hence R is not symmetric.
Anti-symmetric relation
A relation R on a set A such that (a, b) Î R and (b, a) Î R only if a = b, for all
a,bÎ R, is called anti-symmetric.
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Transitive relation
A relation, R on a set A is called a partial order or partial ordering relation if and only if
following three conditions are satisfied
1) R is reflexive, i.e. a R a, for all a Î A.
2) R is anti-symmetric, i.e. a R b, b R a, if and only if a = b, for all a, b Î A.
3) R is transitive, i.e. a R b, b R c implies that a R c, for all a, b, c Î A.
The set A on which a partial order relation, R is defined is called a partially ordered
set or simply a poset, and it is denoted by (A, R).
The relation '=' (equal to) defined on a set A is said to be total order relation provided
for all a, b Î A, we have a = b. This implies that b = a. In other words, aRb and bRa, and
hence the relation '=' is also a symmetric relation.
An equivalence relation is a binary relation between two elements of a set which groups
them together as being "equivalent" in some way. That a is equivalent to b is denoted as
"a~b" or "a b". An equivalence relation is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive. In other
words, for all elements a, b, and c of the set X, the following must hold for "~" to be an
equivalence relation on X:
· Reflexive: a ~ a
· Symmetry: if a ~ b then b ~ a
· Transitivity: if a ~ b and b ~ c then a ~ c.
A ubiquitous equivalence relation is the equality ("=") relation between elements of any
set. Other examples include:
· "Has the same birthday as" on the set of all people, given navie set theory.
· "Is similar to" or "congruent to" on the set of all triangles.
· "Is congruent to modulo n" on the integers.
· "Has the same image under a function" on the elements of the domain of the
function.
· Logical equivalence of statements in logic.
· "Is isomorphic to" on models of a set of sentences.
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· The relation " " between real numbers is reflexive and transitive, but not
symmetric. For example, 7 5 does not imply that 5 7. It is, however, a partial
order.
· The relation "has a common factor greater than 1 with" between natural numbers
greater than 1, is reflexive and symmetric, but not transitive. (The natural
numbers 2 and 6 have a common factor greater than 1, and 6 and 3 have a
common factor greater than 1, but 2 and 3 do not have a common factor greater
than 1).
· The empty relation R on a non-empty set X (i.e. aRb is never true) is vacuously
symmetric and transitive, but not reflexive. (If X is also empty then R is
reflexive.)
· The relation "is approximately equal to" between real numbers or other things,
even if more precisely defined, is not an equivalence relation, because although
reflexive and symmetric, it is not transitive, since multiple small changes can
accumulate to become a big change.
· The relation "is a sibling of" on the set of all human beings is not an equivalence
relation. Although siblinghood is symmetric (if A is a sibling of B, then B is a
sibling of A) it is neither reflexive (no one is a sibling of himself), nor transitive
(since if A is a sibling of B, then B is a sibling of A, but A is not a sibling of A).
Instead of being transitive, siblinghood is "almost transitive", meaning that if A ~
B, and B ~ C, and A C, then A ~ C.
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Properties
If R and S are injective, then S o R is injective, which conversely implies only the
injectivity of R.
The binary relations on a set X (i.e. relations from X to X) form a monoid for
composition, with the identity map on X as neutral element.
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Properties of relations
Ø Reflexive relation
A relation R on a set A is called reflexive if (a,a) Î R for every a Î A.
Ø Symmetric relation
A relation R on a set A is called symmetric if for all a,b Î A, if (a,b) Î R,
then (b,a)ÎR.
Ø Antisymmetric relation
A relation R on a set A is called antisymmetric if for all a,b Î A, if (a,b) Î
R and a ¹ b, then (b,a) Ï R.
Ø Transitive relation
A relation R on a set A is called transitive if for all a,b,z Î A, if (a,b) and
(y,z) Î R, then (x,z) Î R.
Equivalence relation
Composition of relations
Let R1 be a relation from X to Y, and R2 be a relation from Y to Z. The
composition of R1 and R2 , denoted R2 o R1 , is the relation from X to Z defined by
R2 o R1 ={(x,z) : (x,y) Î R1 and (y,z) Î R2 for some y Î Y}
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11.7 References
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Unit – IV
Lesson 12
Functions
Contents
In this lesson, we have discussed about the Properties of relations, Partial order
relations, Equivalence relation, and Composition of relations.
12.1 Introduction
Many everyday phenomena involve two quantities that are related to each other
by some rule of correspondence. Such a rule of correspondence is called a function. The
concept of a function is extremely important in discrete mathematics. Functions are used
in the definition of such discrete structures as sequences and strings. Functions are also
used to represent how long it takes a computer to solve problems of a given size.
Recursive functions, which are functions defined in terms of themselves, are used
throughout computer science. This section reviews the basic concepts involving functions
needed in discrete mathematics. The terms such as mapping, transformation, etc., are also
used for functions to depict a relation between two discrete objects.
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Definition of a Function
The converse of the third statement is not true. That is, an element of A (the domain)
cannot be matched with two different elements of B.
In other words, the relation f can be described as the set of elements written as:
{(x, f(x)) : x Î A, f(x) Î B}.
Let A={a,b,c} and B={1,2,3,4,5}. Does the set of ordered pairs represent a function from
set A to set B?
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The relation R2 is not a function because R2(1) = {x, y}. But relation R1 is a function
with Domain = {l, 2} and Range = {x}.
4. Let I be the set of integers and A = {0, 1}. The relation between I and A defined as
f: I® A such that
ì 0 if x is even
f (x) = í
î 1 if x is odd
Illustration Let A={a, b, c, d}, B = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(a, 1), (b, 1), (c, 2), (d, 2)}. Then
R is a function from A to B. Clearly, R is also a relation from A to B. But, consider the
subset C of A x B given by
C = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (a; 3), (c, 1), (d, 2)}.
Here C is a relation from A to B. But C is not a function from A to B. The obvious reason
is that the element a Î A is associated to two different elements 1, 3 Î B.
Illustration If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 3, 4}, then the relation f defined by f(1) = 2, f(2)
= 3, f(3)= 4 is a function from set A to B. We may also write f = {(1, 2), (2,3), (3, 4)}.
Example If A = {I, 2, 3} and B = {2, 3, 4} are two sets, then show that {(I, 2), (1, 3), (3, 4)} is
not a function from A to B.
Solution The relation, f = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 4)} implies that f(1) = 2, f(1) = 3 and f(3) = 4.
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Identity function
Let A be any set. The function from A into A i.e. f : A ® A, which assigns to each
element that element itself is called the identity function on A and is usually denoted by IA
or simply I. In other words,
IA(a) = a
for every element a in A.
Equal functions Two functions f : A ® B and g : A ® B are said to be equal if and only
if
f (x) = g (x) for every x Î A and are written as f = g.
Constant function A function f : A® B is called a constant function, if some element
yÎB, is assigned to every element of A, i.e. f (x) = y for every x Î A. In other words,
f:A® B is a constant function if the range of f consists of only one element.
Into function The function f : A ® B is said to be an into function, if there is at least one
element in B which is not the f- image of any element in A. But every element of A has f-
image in B. In this case the range of f is proper subset of B, that is, f (A) Í B and f (A)#B.
(b) One-to-one (or injective) function, if different elements in the domain A have distinct
images. In other words, f is one-to-one if f(a) = f(a’) implies a=a’.
One-one onto (bijective) function The function f: A®B is said to be one-one onto
function if to each element of A there corresponds one and only one element of B and
every element of B have one and only image in A. One-one and onto function are also
called bijective as shown in Fig. 12.1.
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Illustrations Let A be the set of students sitting on chairs in a classroom and let B be the
set of chairs in the classroom. Let f b e the correspondence, which associates to each
student the chair on which he sits.
Since every student has some chair to sit and no student can sit on two or more than
two chairs, therefore for the function defined as f: A ® B, the following cases may arise:
1. If every student gets a separate chair and no chair is left vacant, then this is a case of a
one-one onto function.
2. If every student gets a separate chair and still some chairs are left vacant, it is a one-
one into function.
3. If every student does not sit on a separate chair, i.e. more than one student sit on a
chair, no chair is left vacant, it is a many-one onto function.
Invertible Functions
The domain and range of any function may be interchanged to form a new function. It is
obtained by
interchanging the position of elements in the ordered pair of original function.
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Illustrations
1. Let f : A ® B such that y or f(x) = x + 1, for all x Î A and y Î B be a function.
Since f is everywhere defined as well as one-one onto, therefore f is invertible. Thus f –1 is
also one-one onto function from set B to A.
2. Let f : R ® R such that y or f(x) =x2 , for all x Î A and y Î B be a function.
Since R is the set of real numbers, where f( -2 ) = f(2) = 4, therefore f is not one-one.
Hence f is not invertible.
3. Let j : A ® B be a function defined everywhere. Let A and B two finite sets containing
equal number of elements. In such a case
(a) If f is one-one, then f is onto.
(b) If f is into, then f is one-one.
Moreover, when A = B we need to prove only that a function is one-one onto to show
that it is bijection.
Remarks
1. A function which possesses an inverse is said to be invertible.
2. Only one-one and onto functions are invertible.
3. The inverse function of the given function f is unique.
4. Inverse function f -1 is onto if and only if f is everywhere defined.
Let g be a function from the set A to the set B and let f be a function from the set B
to the set C. The composition of the functions f and g, denoted by f o g, is defined by
(f o g)(a) = f(g(a)).
In other words, f o g is the function that assigns to the element a of A the element
assigned by f to g(a). Note that the composition f o g cannot be defined unless the range
of g is a subset of the domain of f.
Example: Let g be the function from the set {a, b, e} to itself such that g(a) = b, g(b) = c,
and g(c)=a. Let f be the function from the set {a, b, e} to the set {I, 2, 3} such that f(a) =
3, f(b) = 2, and f(c) = 1. What is the composition of f and g, and what is the composition
of g and f?
Note that g o f is not defined, because the range of f is not a subset of the domain of g.
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5. Define onto function. Give an example of an onto function, Explain how to use
an arrow diagram to determine whether a function is onto.
7. Define inverse function. Give an example of a function and its inverse. Given
the arrow diagram of a function, how can we find the arrow diagram of the
inverse function?
11) {(1,a),(2,a),(3,c),(4,b)}
12) {(1,c),(2,a),(3,b),(4,c),(2,d)}
13) {(1,c),(2,d),(3,a),(4,b)}
14) {(1,d),(2,d),(4,a)}
15) {(1,b),(2,b),(3,b),(4,b)}
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12.7 References
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Unit – V
Lesson – 13
Graph Theory
Contents:
There are various types of graphs, each with its own definition. Unfortunately,
some people apply the term “graph” rather loosely, so you can’t be sure what type of
graph they’re talking about unless you ask them. After you have finished this chapter, we
expect you to use the terminology carefully, not loosely.
13.1 Introduction
In mathematics and computer science, graph theory is the study of graphs;
mathematical structures used to model pairwise relations between objects from a certain
collection. The notion of a “graph” is deceptively simple: It is collection of ‘vertices’ (or
‘points’ or 'nodes') and a collection of ‘edges’ (or ‘lines’) that connect pairs of vertices. A
graph may be undirected, meaning that there is no distinction between the two vertices
associated with each edge, or its edges may be directed from one vertex to another. The
graphs studied in graph theory should not be confused with "graphs of functions" and
other kinds of graph.
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13.2 Graph
What is a Graph?
There are various types of graphs, each with its own definition. To motivate the
various definitions, we’ll begin with some examples.
Example 1 (A computer network) Computers are often linked with one another so that
they can interchange information. Given a collection of computers, we would like to
describe this linkage in fairly clean terms so that we can answer questions such as “How
can we send a message from computer A to computer B using the fewest possible
intermediate computers?”
We could do this by making a list that consists of pairs of computers that are connected.
Note that these pairs are unordered since, if computer C can communicate with computer
D, then the reverse is also true. (There are sometimes exceptions to this, but they are rare
and we will assume that our collection of computers does not have such an exception.)
Also, note that we have implicitly assumed that the computers are distinguished from
each other: It is insufficient to say that “A PC is connected to a Mac.” We must specify
which PC and which Mac. Thus, each computer has a unique identifying label of some
sort.
For people who like pictures rather than lists, we can put dots on a piece of paper, one for
each computer. We label each dot with a computer’s identifying label and draw a curve
connecting two dots if and only if the corresponding computers are connected. Note that
the shape of the curve does not matter (it could be a straight line or something more
complicated) because we are only interested in whether two computers are connected or
not. Below are two such pictures of the same graph. Each computer has been labeled by
the initials of its owner.
Fig. 13.1
Computers (vertices) are indicated by dots (•) with labels. The connections (edges) are
indicated by lines. When lines cross, they should be thought of as cables that lie on top of
each other — not as cables that are joined.
In our example, the vertices are the computers and a pair of computers is in E if and only
if they are connected.
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The notation Pk (V) stands for the set of all k-element subsets of the set V . Based on the
previous example, we have
Vertices u and v are said to be adjacent if there is an edge e={u, v}. In such a case,
u and v are called the end points of e and e is said to be connecting u and v.
Example 2 (Routes between cities) Imagine four cities named A, B, C and D. Between
these cities there are various routes of travel, denoted by a, b, c, d, e, f and g. Here is
picture of this situation:
Fig. 13.2
Looking at this picture, we see that there are three routes between cities B and C. These
routes are named d, e and f. Our picture is intended to give us only information about the
interconnections between cities. It leaves out many aspects of the situation that might be
of interest to a traveler. For example, the nature of these routes (rough road, freeway, rail,
etc.) is not portrayed. Furthermore, unlike a typical map, no claim is made that the picture
represents in any way the distances between the cities or their geographical placement
relative to each other. The object shown in this picture is called a graph.
Following our previous example 1, one is tempted to list the pairs of cities that are
connected; in other words, to extract a simple graph from the information. Unfortunately,
this does not describe the problem adequately because there can be more than one route
connecting a pair of cities; e.g., d, e and f connecting cities B and C in the figure 13.2.
How can we deal with this? Here is a precise definition of a graph of the type required to
handle this type of problem.
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V = {A,B,C,D}, E = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}
and
φ=
Definition 2 tells us that to specify a graph G it is necessary to specify the sets V and E
and the function φ. We have just specified V and φ in set theoretic terms. The picture of
the cities graph specifies the same V and φ in pictorial terms. The set V is represented
clearly by dots (•), each of which has a city name adjacent to it. Similarly, the set E is
also represented clearly. The function φ is determined from the picture by comparing the
name attached to a route with the two cities connected by that route. Thus, the route name
d is attached to the route with endpoints B and C. This means that φ(d) = {B,C}.
The function φ is sometimes called the incidence function of the graph. The two elements
of φ(x) = {u, v}, for any x Î E, are called the vertices of the edge x, and we say u and v
are joined by x. We also say that u and v are adjacent vertices and that u is adjacent to v
or , equivalently, v is adjacent to u. For any v ÎV, if v is a vertex of an edge x then we
say x is incident on v. Likewise, we say v is a member of x, v is on x, or v is in x. Of
course, v is a member of x actually means v is a member of φ(x).
Simple graphs are graphs: We can easily reconcile our two definitions by realizing that
a simple graph is a special case of a graph. Let G = (V,E) be a simple graph. Define
φ:E®E to be the identity map; i.e., φ (e) = e for all e Î E. The graph G’ = (V,E, φ) is
essentially the same as G. There is one subtle difference in the pictures: The edges of G
are unlabeled but each edge of G’ is labeled by a set consisting of the two vertices at its
ends.
Example 3 (Flow of commodities) Look again at Example 2. Imagine now that the
symbols a, b, c, d, e, f and g, instead of standing for route names, stand for commodities
(bread, computers, etc.) that are produced in one town and shipped to another town. In
order to get a picture of the flow of commodities, we need to know the directions in
which they are shipped. This information is provided by picture below:
In set-theoretic terms, the information needed to construct the picture 13.3 can be
specified by giving a pair D = (V,E, φ) where φ is a function. The domain of the function
φ is E = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g} and the codomain is V × V. Specifically,
φ=
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Fig. 13.3
The structure specified by this information is an example of a directed graph, which we
now define.
Just as with graphs, we can define a notion of a simple digraph. A simple digraph
is a pair D = (V,E), where V is a set, the vertex set, and E Í V × V is the edge set. Just as
with simple graphs and graphs, simple digraphs are a special case of digraphs in which φ
is the identity function on E; that is, φ(e) = e for all e Î E.
There is a correspondence between simple graphs and simple digraphs that is fairly
common in applications of graph theory.
Here is a picture (Fig. 13.4) of a simple graph and its corresponding digraph:
Fig. 13.4
Each, edge that is not a loop in the simple graph is replaced by two edges “in opposite
directions” in the corresponding simple digraph. A loop is replaced by a directed loop
(e.g.,{A} is replaced by (A,A)).
Indegree
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Outdegree
Degree of a vertex
The degree of a vertex in a graph is the number of edges that touch it and is
denoted as deg(v) where v is the vertex.
Isolated vertex
A basic method for studying graphs and digraphs is to study substructures of these
objects and their properties. One of the most important of these substructures is called
a path.
Definition 4 (Path, trail, walk and vertex sequence) Let G = (V,E, φ) be a graph.
If G = (V,E, φ) is a directed graph, then φ(ei) = {ai, ai+1} is replaced by φ(ei ) = (ai, ai+1) in
the above definition to obtain a directed path, trail, and walk respectively.
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Note that the definition of a path requires that it does not intersect itself (i.e., have
repeated vertices), while a trail may intersect itself. Although a trail may intersect itself, it
may not have repeated edges, but a walk may. If P = (e1 , e2 ,…, en-1 ) is a path in G = (V,E,
φ) with vertex sequence a1 , a2 , . . . , an then we say that P is a path from a1 to an . Similarly
for a trail or a walk.
In the graph of Example 2 (Fig. 13.2), the sequence c, d, g is a path with vertex
sequence A,C,B,D.If the graph is of the form G = (V,E) with E Í P2 (V ), then the vertex
sequence alone specifies the sequence of edges and hence the path. Thus, Example 1(Fig.
13.1), the vertex sequence MN, SM, SE, TM specifies the path {MN, SM}, {SM, SE},
{SE, TM}. Similarly for digraphs. Consider the graph of Example 3 (Fig. 13.3). The edge
sequence P = (g, e, c) is a directed path with vertex sequence (D,B,C,A). The edge
sequence P = (g, e, c, b, a) is a directed trail, but not a directed path. The edge sequence P
= (d, e, d) is a directed walk, but not a directed trail.
Note that every path is a trail and every trail is a walk, but not conversely. However,
we can show that, if there is a walk between two vertices, then there is a path. This rather
obvious result can be useful in proving theorems, so we state it as a theorem.
Theorem 2 (Walk implies path) Suppose u ¹v are vertices in the graph G = (V,E, φ).
Furthermore, given a walk from u to v, there is a path from u to v all of whose edges are
in the walk.
The length l of a walk is the number of edges that it uses. For an open walk, l = n–1,
where n is the number of vertices visited (a vertex is counted each time it is visited). For
a closed walk, l = n (the start/end vertex is listed twice, but is not counted twice).
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A walk is closed if its first and last vertices are the same, and open if they are
different.
Fig. 13.5
Eulerian path
A path which passes through every edge (once and only once). If the starting and
ending nodes are the same, it is an Euler cycle or an Euler circuit. If the starting and
ending nodes are different, it is an Euler trail.
Hamiltonian path
A path which passes through every node once and only once. If the starting and
ending nodes are adjacent, it is a Hamiltonian cycle.
Finite graph
A finite graph has a finite number of vertices and a finite number of edges.
Observe that a graph with a finite number of vertices must automatically have a finite
number of edges and so must be finite.
Trivial graph
A finite graph with one vertex and no edges, i.e., a single point, is called the
trivial graph.
If G(V,E) is finite then V(G) denotes the number of vertices in G and is called the
order of G.
If G(V,E) is finite then E(G) denotes the number of edges in G and is called the
size of G.
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Cycles or Loops
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Applications of graph theory are primarily, but not exclusively, concerned with labeled
graphs and various specializations of these.
Structures that can be represented as graphs are ubiquitous, and many problems of
practical interest can be represented by graphs. The link structure of a website could be
represented by a directed graph: the vertices are the web pages available at the website
and a directed edge from page A to page B exists if and only if A contains a link to B. A
similar approach can be taken to problems in travel, biology, computer chip design, and
many other fields. The development of algorithms to handle graphs is therefore of major
interest in computer science.
A graph structure can be extended by assigning a weight to each edge of the graph.
Graphs with weights, or weighted graph, are used to represent structures in which
pairwise connections have some numerical values. For example if a graph represents a
road network, the weights could represent the length of each road. A digraph with
weighted edges in the context of graph theory is called a network.
Networks have many uses in the practical side of graph theory, network analysis (for
example, to model and analyze traffic networks). Within network analysis, the definition
of the term "network" varies, and may often refer to a simple graph.
Many applications of graph theory exist in the form of network analysis. These split
broadly into two categories. Firstly, analysis to determine structural properties of a
network, such as the distribution of vertex degrees and the diameter of the graph. A vast
number of graph measures exist, and the production of useful ones for various domains
remains an active area of research. Secondly, analysis to find a measurable quantity
within the network, for example, for a transportation network, the level of vehicular flow
within any portion of it.
Graph theory is also used to study molecules in chemistry and physics. In condenced
matter physics, the three dimensional structure of complicated simulated atomic
structures can be studied quantitatively by gathering statistics on graph-theoretic
properties related to the topology of the atoms. For example, Franzblau's shortest-path
(SP) rings. In chemistry a graph makes a natural model for a molecule, where vertices
represent atoms and edges bonds. This approach is especially used in computer
processing of molecular structures, ranging from chemical editors to database searching.
Graph theory is also widely used in socialogy as a way, for example, to measure actor’s
prestige or to explore diffusion mechanisms, notably through the use of social network
analysis software.
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A graph in which every node is linked to every other node. For a complete digraph,
this means one link in either direction.
route
A sequence of edges and nodes from one node to another. Any given edge or node
might be used more than once.
path
A route that does not pass any edge more than once. If the path does not pass any
node more than once, it is a simple path.
connected
If some route exists from every node to every other, the graph is connected. Note that
some graphs are not connected. A diagram of an unconnected graph may look like
two or more unrelated diagrams, but all the nodes and edges shown are considered as
one graph.
loop, cycle
A path which ends at the node where it began.
tree
A connected graph with no loops.
Eulerian path
A path which passes through every edge (once and only once). If the starting and
ending nodes are the same, it is an Euler cycle or an Euler circuit. If the starting and
ending nodes are different, it is an Euler trail.
Hamiltonian path
A path which passes through every node once and only once. If the starting and
ending nodes are adjacent, it is a Hamiltonian cycle.
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Review Questions
1. What is a path?
2. What is a simple path?
3. Give an example of a path that is not a simple path.
4. What is a cycle?
5. What is a simple cycle?
6. Give an example of a cycle that is not a simple cycle.
7. Define connected graph.
8. Give an example of a connected graph.
9. Give an example of a graph that is not connected.
10. What is a component of a graph?
11. Give an example of a component of a graph.
12. It a graph is connected, how many components does it have?
13. Define degree of vertex v.
14. What is the relationship between the sum of the degrees of the vertices in a
graph and the number of edges in the graph.
15. In any graph, must the number of vertices of odd degree be even?
16. State a necessary and sufficient condition that a graph have a path with no
repeated edges from v to w (v ¹ w) containing all the edges and vertices.
17. If a graph G contains a cycle from v to v. must G contain a simple cycle from v
to v?
Exercises
In Exercises 1-9, tell whether the given path in the graph is
(a) A simple path (b) A cycle (c) A simple cycle
1) (b, b)
2) (e, d, c, b)
3) (a, d, c, d, e)
4) ( d. c. b. e, d)
5) (b, c, d, a, b, e, d, c, b)
6) (a, d, c, h, e)
7) (b, c, d, e, b, b)
8) (d)
9) (d, c, b)
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Unit – V
Lesson 14
Subgraphs, Types of Graphs and Graph Representations.
Contents
The main aim and objective of this chapter is know about the subgraphs, various
types of graphs and the different ways of representing the graphs in a computer.
14.1 Introduction
In this lesson, we first discuss about the subgraphs. A new graph can obtained by
selecting certain edges and vertices from a given graph with certain restrictions. The
graphs so obtained are called subgraphs. Next we discuss about the types of graphs. We
conclude the lesson by discussing the various methods available for representing a graph
in computers.
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14.2 Subgraphs
As we have noted, the fact that G' is itself a graph means that φ(x) Î P2 (V’ ) for each X Î
E' and, in fact, the codomain of φ' must be P2 (V’). If G is a graph with loops, the
codomain of φ' must be P2 (V') È P 1 (V'). This definition works equally well if G is a
digraph. In that case, the codomain of φ' must be V × V.
Example 1 (Subgraph — key information) For the graph G = (V,E,φ) below, let
G'=(V',E', φ') be defined by V' = {A,B,C}, E' = {a, b, c, f}, and by φ' being the restriction
of φ to E' with codomain P2 (V'). Notice that φ' is determined completely from knowing
V', E' and φ. Thus, to specify a subgraph G', the key information is V' and E'.
As another example from the same graph, we let V' = V and E' = {a, b, c, f}. In this case,
the vertex D is not a member of any edge of the subgraph. Such a vertex is called an
isolated vertex of G'.
One way of specifying a subgraph is to give a set of edges E' Í E and take V' to be
the set of all vertices on some edge of E'. In other words, V' is the union of the sets φ(x)
over all x. E'. Such a subgraph is called the subgraph induced by the edge set E' or the
edge induced subgraph of E'. The first subgraph of this example is the subgraph induced
by E' = {a, b, c, f}.
Fig. 14.1
Likewise, given a set V' Í V, we can take E' to be the set of all edges x Î E such that
φ(x) Í V'. The resulting subgraph is called the subgraph induced by V ' or the vertex
induced subgraph of V'. Referring to the picture again, the edges of the subgraph induced
by V' = {C,B}, are E' = {d, e, f}. Look again at the above graph. In particular, consider
the path c, a with vertex sequence C,A,B. Notice that the edge d has φ(d) = {C,B}. The
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subgraph G' = (V ',E', φ'), where V ' = {C,A,B} and E' = {c, a, d} is called a cycle of G.
In general, whenever there is a path in G, say e1 , . . . , en-1 with vertex sequence a1 , . . . ,
an , and an edge x with φ(x) = {a1 , an }, then the subgraph induced by the edges e1 , . . . , en-
1 , x is called a cycle of G. Parallel edges like a and b in the preceding figure induce a
cycle. A loop also induces a cycle.
Definition 2 (Circuit and Cycle) Let G = (V,E, φ) be a graph and let e1 , . . . , en be a trail
with vertex sequence a1 , . . . , an , a1 . (It returns to its starting point.) The subgraph G' of G
induced by the set of edges {e1, . . . , en} is called a circuit of G. The length of the circuit
is n.
• If the only repeated vertices on the trail are a1 (the start and end), then the
circuit is
called a simple circuit or cycle.
Null Graph
The simplest type of graph is a null graph. It consists of a non-empty finite set of
elements called vertices.
Complete Graph
A complete graph is a graph where every pair of distinct vertices are adjacent i.e., there is
an edge between every pair of distinct vertices. A complete graph on n vertices is denoted
by Kn (or sometimes by K(n) ). So, for example, figure 14.2 is the graph K5 .
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Regular Graph
A graph in which every vertex has the same degree is called a regular graph. If every
vertex has degree r then we say the graph is regular of degree r. All null graphs are
regular of degree zero.
Weighted Graph
A graph with numbers on the edges is called a weighted graph. If edge e is labeled
k, we say that the weight of edge e is k. In a weighted graph, the length of a path is the
sum of the weights of the edges in the path.
Bipartite Graph
Example
Fig. 14.3
Infinite Graph
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There are different ways to store graphs in a computer system. The data structure used
depends on both the graph structure and the algorithm used for manipulating the graph.
Theoretically one can distinguish between list and matrix structures but in concrete
applications the best structure is often a combination of both. List structures are often
preferred for sparse graphs as they have smaller memory requirements. Matrix structures
on the other hand provide faster access for some applications but can consume huge
amounts of memory.
Fig. 14.4
The graph pictured above (Fig. 14.4) has this adjacency list representation:
a adjacent to b,c
b adjacent to a,c
c adjacent to a,b
Adjacency matrix
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Here is a simple example of a labeled graph and its adjacency matrix. The convention
followed here is that an adjacent edge counts 1 in the matrix for an undirected graph.
The adjacency matrix of a complete graph is all 1's except for 0's on the diagonal.
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Subgraph
G . If G’
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is a subgraph of
G , then G
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is said to be a supergraph of
G’ .
Null Graph
Complete Graph
Regular Graph
A graph in which every vertex has the same degree is called a regular graph.
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Weighted Graph
A graph with numbers on the edges is called a weighted graph. In a weighted graph,
the length of a path is the sum of the weights of the edges in the path.
Bipartite Graph
Infinite Graph
A graph is infinite if it has infinitely many vertices or edges or both; otherwise the
graph is finite.
List structures
Ø Incidence List
The edges are represented by an array containing pairs (ordered if directed) of
vertices (that the edge connects) and possibly weight and other data.
Ø Adjacency List
Much like the incidence list, each vertex has a list of which vertices it is
adjacent to.
Matrix structures
Ø Incidence matrix
The graph is represented by a matrix of E (edges) by V (vertices), where [edge,
vertex] contains the edge's data (simplest case: 1 - connected, 0 - not connected).
Ø Adjacency matrix
There is an n by n matrix, where n is the number of vertices in the graph. If there is
an edge from some vertex ‘x’ to some vertex ‘y’, then the element Mx,y is 1,
otherwise it is 0. This makes it easier to find subgraphs, and to reverse graphs if
needed.
The adjacency matrix of a complete graph is all 1's except for 0's on the diagonal.
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Review Questions
1. What is a subgraph?
2. Give an example of a subgraph.
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17) Write the adjacency matrices of the components of the graphs given by the
adjacency matrices of Exercises 13-16.
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In Exercises 24 and 25, draw the graphs represented by the incidence matrices.
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14.7 References
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Unit V
Lesson – 15
Trees
Contents
The main aim and objective of this lesson is know about the trees, its properties,
binary trees, tree traversing and representation of trees in computer.
· Construct a tree.
· Perform inorder, preorder and postorder tree traversing
· Know about the ways of representing the trees in a computer memory.
15.1 Introduction
Trees play an important role in a variety of algorithms. Trees are widely used in
computer science data structures such as binary search trees, heaps, tries, etc. In this
section, we define trees precisely and look at some of their properties.
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15.2 Tree
In graph theory, a tree is a graph in which any two vertices are connected by exactly one
path. Alternatively, any connected graph with no cycles is a tree. A forest is a disjoint
union of trees.
Definition (Tree)
If G is a connected graph without any cycles then G is called a tree. (If |V| = 1, then G is
connected and hence is a tree.) A tree is also called a free tree.
The graph in fig. 15.1 is connected but is not a tree. It has many cycles, including ({A,
B, C}, {a, e, c}). The subgraph of this graph induced by the edges {a, e, g} is a tree. If
G is a tree, then φ is an injection since if e1 ¹ e2 and φ(e1 ) = φ(e2 ), then {e1 , e2 } induces a
cycle. In other words, any graph with parallel edges is not as tree. Likewise, a loop is a
cycle, so a tree has no loops. Thus, we can think of a tree as a simple graph when we are
not interested in names of the edges.
Since the notion of a tree is so important, it will be useful to have some equivalent
definitions of a tree. We state them as a theorem
(a) G is a tree.
(b) G has no cycles.
(c) For every pair of vertices u ¹ v in G, there is exactly one path from u to v.
(d) Removing any edge from G gives a graph which is not connected.
(e) The number of vertices of G is one more than the number of edges of G.
A directed tree is a directed graph which would be a tree if the directions on the edges
were ignored.
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Example 1:
The example tree shown in fig. 15.2 has 6 vertices and 6 - 1 = 5 edges. The unique
simple path connecting the vertices 2 and 6 is 2-4-5-6.
A tree is called a rooted tree if one vertex has been designated the root, in which case
the edges have a natural orientation, towards or away from the root.
· A directed edge refers to the link from the parent to the child (the arrows in the
picture of the tree).
· The root node of a tree is the node with no parents. There is at most one root node
in a rooted tree.
· The depth of a node n is the length of the path from the root to the node. The set
of all nodes at a given depth is sometimes called a level of the tree. The root node
is at depth zero.
· The height of a tree is the depth of its furthest leaf. A tree with only a root node
has a height of zero.
· If a path exists from node p to node q, where node p is closer to the root node than
q, then p is an ancestor of q and q is a descendant of p.
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Rooted trees, often with additional structure such as ordering of the neighbors at each
vertex, are a key data structure in computer science. In a context where trees are
supposed to have a root, a tree without any designated root is called a free tree.
A polytree has at most one undirected path between any two vertices. In other words, a
polytree is a directed acyclic graph (DAG) for which there is no undirected cycles either.
A labeled tree is a tree in which each vertex is given a unique label. The vertices of a
labeled tree on n vertices are typically given the labels 1, 2, …, n.
An ordered tree is a tree for which an ordering is specified for the children of each node.
The root of the tree has level 0, and the level of any other vertex in the tree is one
more than the level of its parent. In Fig.15.3, vertices v11 , v12 , v21 , v22 , v31 and v32 are at
level. The depth (or height) of a tree is the maximum level of any leaf in the tree. This
equals the length of the longest path from the root of any leaf. The tree in Fig.15.3 is of
height 2.
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Ø Facts
· Every tree is a bipartite graph. Every tree with only countably many vertices is a
planar graph.
· Every connected graph G admits a spanning tree, which is a tree that contains
every vertex of G and whose edges are edges of G. Every connected graph even
admits a normal spanning tree.
· Every non-null tree has at least one leaf, or vertex of degree 1 (If it has a vertex,
it has a leaf).
Ø Enumeration
Given n labeled vertices, there are nn- 2 different ways to connect them to make a
tree. This result is called Cayley’s formula. It can be proved by first showing that the
number of trees with n vertices of degree d1 ,d2 ,...,dn is the multinomial coefficient
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In computer science, a binary tree is a tree data structure in which each node has at most
two children. Typically the child nodes are called left and right. One common use of
binary trees is binary search tree; another is binary heaps.
· A rooted binary tree is a rooted tree in which every node has at most two
children.
· A full binary tree, or proper binary tree, is a tree in which every node has zero
or two children.
· A perfect binary tree (sometimes complete binary tree) is a full binary tree in
which all leaves are at the same depth.
· A complete binary tree is a tree with n levels, where for each level d <= n - 1,
the number of existing nodes at level d is equal to 2d. This means all possible
nodes exist at these levels. An additional requirement for a complete binary tree is
that for the nth level, while every node does not have to exist, the nodes that do
exist must fill from left to right. (This is ambiguous with perfect binary tree.)
· A balanced binary tree is where the depth of all the leaves differs by at most 1.
· An almost complete binary tree is a tree in which each node that has a right
child also has a left child. Having a left child does not require a node to have a
right child. Stated alternately, an almost complete binary tree is a tree where for a
right child, there is always a left child, but for a left child there may not be a right
child.
· A degenerate tree is a tree where for each parent node, there is only one
associated child node. This means that in a performance measurement, the tree
will behave like a linked list data structure.
· The number of nodes n in a complete binary tree can be found using this
formula: n = 2h + 1 - 1 where h is the height of the tree.
· The number of leaf nodes n in a complete binary tree can be found using this
formula: n = 2h where h is the height of the tree.
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In computer science, tree-traversal refers to the process of visiting each node in a tree
data structure, exactly once, in a systematic way. Such traversals are classified by the
order in which the nodes are visited. The following methods or algorithms are described
for a binary tree, but they may be generalized to other trees as well.
Compared to linear data structures like linked lists and one dimensional arrays, which
have only one logical means of traversal, tree structures can be traversed in many
different ways. Starting at the root of a binary tree, there are three main steps that can be
performed and the order in which they are performed define the traversal type. These
steps are: Performing an action on the current node(referred to as “visiting” the node); or
repeating the process with the subtrees rooted at our left and right children. Thus the
process is most easily described through recursion.
To traverse a non-empty binary tree T with root R in preorder, perform the following
operations:
To traverse a non-empty binary tree T with root R in inorder, perform the following
operations:
To traverse a non-empty binary tree T with root R in postorder, perform the following
operations:
Finally, trees can also be traversed in level-order, where we visit every node on a level
before going to a lower level. This is also called Breadth- first traversal.
Traversal where levels are visited successively, starting with level 0 (the root node), and nodes are visited
from left to right on each level.
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Example 2
· Note that the inorder traversal of a binary search tree yields an ordered list
preorder(node)
print node.value
if node.left null then preorder(node.left)
if node.right null then preorder(node.right)
inorder(node)
if node.left null then inorder(node.left)
print node.value
if node.right null then inorder(node.right)
postorder(node)
if node.left null then postorder(node.left)
if node.right null then postorder(node.right)
print node.value
All three sample implementations will require stack space proportional to the height of
the tree. In a poorly balanced tree, this can be quite considerable.
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(2) CHILD[K] contains the location of the first child of N. The condition
CHILD[K]=NULL indicates that N has no children.
(3) SIBL[K] contains the location of the next sibling of N. The condition
SIBL[K]=NULL indicates that N is last child of its parent.
Furthermore, ROOT will contain the location of the root R of T. Although this
representation may seem artificial, it has the important advantage that each node N of T,
regardless of the number of children of N, will contain exactly three fields.
Binary trees can also be stored as an implicit data structure in arrays, and if the
tree is a complete binary tree, this method wastes no space. In this compact arrangement,
if a node has an index i, its children are found at indices 2i + 1 and 2i + 2, while its parent
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A tree is a graph in which any two vertices are connected by exactly one path.
A tree is called a rooted tree if one vertex has been designated the root.
A directed edge refers to the link from the parent to the child (the arrows in the
picture of the tree).
The root node of a tree is the node with no parents. There is at most one root node
in a rooted tree.
The depth of a node n is the length of the path from the root to the node. The set of
all nodes at a given depth is sometimes called a level of the tree. The root node is at
depth zero.
The height of a tree is the depth of its furthest leaf. A tree with only a root node has
a height of zero.
If a path exists from node p to node q, where node p is closer to the root node than
q, then p is an ancestor of q and q is a descendant of p.
A labeled tree is a tree in which each vertex is given a unique label. The vertices of
a labeled tree on n vertices are typically given the labels 1, 2, …, n.
An ordered tree is a tree for which an ordering is specified for the children of each
node.
A binary tree is a tree data structure in which each node has at most two children.
Typically the child nodes are called left and right.
A tree-traversal refers to the process of visiting each node in a tree data structure,
exactly once, in a systematic way.
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Review Questions
Exercises
I) In Exercises 1-5, list the order in which the vertices are processed using preorder,
inorder, and postorder traversal.
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