Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CHAPTER I
Introduction
C2SH and CSH are di- and mono-calcium silicate gels respectively, and CH is Ca(OH)2
There are hypotheses trying to explain as to how these gels impart strength to concrete.
The first hypothesis says it is due to force of adsorption. According to this hypothesis these
gels are about 1/1000 of the size of portland cement grains (≈10μm) and have enormous
surface area (about 3*106cm2/g) which results in immense attractive forces between
particles as atoms on each surface are attempting to complete their unsaturated bonds by
adsorption. These forces cause particles of the gel to adhere to each other and to every
other particle in the cement paste. The second hypothesis says that the gel attracts one
another and everything around them due to adhesive Vander Waals forces.
Whichever way, tobermorite gels form the heart of hardened concrete in that it cements
everything together. The finished product, plain concrete has a high compressive strength
and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one-tenth of its
compressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement has to be provided to
resist tension to compensate for the weak tension regions in reinforced concrete.
It is this deviation in the composition of a reinforced concrete section from the homogeneity
of steel or wood that requires a modified approach of structural design, as will be explained
in subsequent chapters. The two component of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete
section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the two
materials involved.
Design of concrete sections involves determining the cross sectional dimensions of concrete
structural members and the required quantity of reinforcement. A large number of
parameters have to be dealt with in design of concrete sections such as geometrical width,
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depth, area of reinforcement, steel strain, concrete strain and steel stress. Consequently,
trial and adjustment are necessary in the choice of concrete sections, with assumptions
based on conditions at site, availability of the constituent materials, particular demands of
the owners, architectural and headroom requirements, applicable codes and environmental
conditions.
Concrete has high compressive strength which makes it suitable for members primarily
subjected to compression such as columns and arches. However its tensile strength is very
small compared with its compressive strength (10-15%). This prevents its economical use in
members subjected to tension either entirely (such as in tie rods) or over part of their cross
sections (such as beams or other flexural members).
To offset this limitation, it was found possible to use steel with its high tensile strength to
reinforce concrete, chiefly in those places where its low tensile strength would limit the
carrying capacity of the member. Such a member, where steel bars are embedded in the
concrete in such a way that the tension forces needed for moment equilibrium after the
concrete cracks can be developed in the bars is called a reinforced concrete member.
The resulting combination, known as reinforced concrete, combines many of the advantages
of each material:
Relatively low cost, Good weather and fire resistance, Good compressive
strength, Excellent formability of concrete
High tensile strength, much greater ductility and toughness of steel
It is this combination that allows the almost unlimited range of uses and possibilities of
reinforced concrete in the construction of buildings, bridges, dams, tanks, reservoirs and a
host of other structures. Reinforced concrete is a dominant structural material throughout
the world because of the wide availability of constitutions of concrete and reinforcing steel
bars, the relatively simple skills required for its construction and the economy of reinforced
concrete compared to other forms of construction.
The following advantages are observed in using RC member compared with other existing
structural member made form steel or timber:
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1. Reinforced concrete is mouldable into any desired shape ,and this variability allows
the shape of the structures to be adapted to its function in an economical manner
and furnishes the architect with a wide range of possibilities or aesthetically
satisfying structural solutio0ns,
2. Unlike others i.e. steel or timber, RC does not deteriorate with time,
3. It is fire, weather and corrosion resistant,
4. It is monolithic, i.e. can be assumed that it is made from one piece.
5. Most of the constituent materials, with the exception of cement and additives, are
usually available at low cost locally or at small distance from construction sites.
6. Concrete has high compressive strength.
7. Low maintenance
1.3.1. Concrete
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Portland cement is produced from a mixture of ground clay (contains Si0 2 and Al2O3) and
lime (CaO) and other minor ingredients such as MgO and Fe2O3 by heating to the point of
incipient fusion (clinkering temperature). The clinker is then ground to different degrees of
fineness to get cement.
Table 1.3.1.1-1 shows the main chemicals in Portland cement and the relative contribution
of each component towards the rate of gain in strength. The early strength of Portland
cement is higher with higher percentages of C2S. If moist curing is continuous, later strength
levels will be greater, with higher percentages of C2S. C3A contributes to the strength
developed during the first day after placing the concrete because it is the earliest to
hydrate.
When portland cement combines with water during setting and hardening, lime is liberated
from some of the compounds. The amount of lime liberated is approximately 20% by weight
of the cement. Under unfavorable conditions, this might cause disintegration of a structure
owning to leaching of the lime from the cement. Such a situation should be prevented by
adding a siliceous mineral such as pozzolan to the cement. The added mineral reacts with
the lime in the presence of moisture to produce strong calcium silicate.
The size of the cement particles strongly influences the rate of reaction of cement with
water. For a given weight of finely ground cement, the surface area of the particles is
greater than that of the coarsely ground cement. This results in a greater rate of reaction
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with water and a more rapid hardening process for larger surface areas. This is one reason
for the high early strength type-III cement.
Type of cement affects durability of concrete also. Disintegration of concrete due to cycles
of wetting, freezing, thawing, and drying and propagation of resulting cracks is a matter of
great importance. The presence of minute air voids throughout the cement paste increases
the resistance of concrete to disintegration. This can be achieved by the addition of air-
entraining admixtures to the concrete while mixing.
Disintegration due to chemicals in contact with the structure, such as in the case of port
structure and sub-structure can also be slowed down or prevented. Since the concrete in
such cases is exposed to chlorides and sometimes sulphates of magnesium and sodium, it is
sometimes necessary to specify sulphate-resisting cement. Usually, type II cement will be
adequate for use in seawater structures.
Since the different types of cement generate different degrees of heat at different rates, the
type of structure governs the type of cement to be used. The bulkier and heavier in cross
section the structure is the less the generation of heat of hydration that is desired. In
massive structures such as dams, piers, and caissons, type IV cement are advantageous to
use. From this discussion it is seen that the type of structures, the weather, and other
conditions under which it is built and will be used are the governing factors in the choice of
the type of cement that should be used.
Water
Excessive water leaves uneven honeycombed skeleton in the finished product after
hydration has taken place while too little water prevents complete chemical reaction with
the cement. The product in both cases is a concrete that is weaker than and inferior to
normal concrete.
Entrained Air
With the gradual evaporation of excess water from the mix, pores are produced in the
hardened concrete. If evenly distributed, these could give improved characteristics to the
product. Very even distribution of pores by artificial introduction of finely divided uniformly
distributed air bubbles throughout the product is possible by adding air-entraining agents
such as vinsol resin. Air entrainment increases workability, decreases density, increases
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durability, reduces bleeding and segregation, and reduces the required sand content in the
mix. For these reasons, the percentage of entrained air should be kept at the required
optimum value for the desired quality of the concrete. The optimum air content is 9% of the
mortar fraction of the concrete. Air entraining in excess of 5-6% of the total mix
proportionally reduces the concrete strength.
c) Aggregates
Aggregates are those parts of the concrete that constitute the bulk of the finished product.
They comprise 60 to 80% of the volume of the concrete and have to be so graded that the
whole mass of concrete acts as a relatively solid homogeneous, dense combination, with the
smaller sizes acting as an inert filler of the voids that exist between the larger particles.
Since the aggregates constitute the major part of the mixture, the more aggregate is used in
the mix the cheaper is the cost of the concrete, provided that the mixture is of reasonable
workability for the specific job for which it is used.
Aggregates are of two types: coarse aggregates and fine aggregates. Coarse aggregates are
usually manufactured by crushing stone and fine aggregates are natural sand obtained by
the natural disintegration of rock or artificial sand obtained by artificially crushing stones.
Coarse Aggregate
Properties of the coarse aggregates affect the strength of hardened concrete and its
resistance to disintegration, weathering, and other destructive effect. The coarse aggregate
must be clean of organic impurities and must bond well with the cement gel. Table 1.3.1.1-3
gives grading or particles size distribution requirements of coarse aggregates by Ethiopian
Standard for Concrete and Concrete Products, ES C.D3.201.
Nominal size of
Percentage passing through test sieves having square openings
graded aggregate
75mm 63mm 37.5mm 19mm 13.2mm 9.5mm 4.75mm
38-5 100 - 95 - 100 30 – 70 - 10 - 35 0-5
19-5 - - 100 95 – 100 2.8 25 - 55 0 - 10
13-5 - - 12 100 90 - 100 40 - 85 0 - 10
Table 1.3.1.1-3 Grading requirements for coarse aggregates [ES C.D3.201]
Coarse aggregate shall be free of injurious amounts of organic impurities. The amount of
deleterious substance in coarse aggregate shall not exceed the limits specified in Table
1.3.1.1-4.
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Table 1.3.1.1-4 Permissible limits for deleterious substances in coarse aggregates [ES C.D3.201]
Fine Aggregates
Fine aggregate is smaller filler made of sand. It ranges in size from No.4 to No. 100(4.75 mm
to 150μm). A good fine aggregate should always be free of organic impurities, clay, or any
deleterious material or excessive filler of size smaller than No. 100 sieve. It should
preferably have a well-graded combination. The following requirements are given by
Ethiopian Standards [ES D3.201].
The grading requirement of fine aggregate shall be within the limit specified in table1.3.1.1-
5
The fine aggregate shall not also have more than 45 percent retained between any two
consecutive sieves. The fineness modulus shall not be less than 2.0 or more than 3.5 with a
tolerance of ± 0.2.
Fine aggregates, when subjected to five cycles of soundness test, shall not show loss in
mass exceeding 10 percent when sodium sulphate solution is used or 15 percent
magnesium sulphate solution is used.
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Characteristics of the finished product, concrete can be varied considerably by varying the
proportion of its ingredients. Thus, for a specific structure it is economical to use concrete
with the desired characteristics though it may be weak in others. For example, concrete for
building should have high compressive strength whereas for water tanks, water tightness is
of prime importance.
Performance of concrete in service depends on properties both in the plastic and hardened
states.
b) Temperature - Care should be taken to minimize the temperature due to evolving heat
of hydration if cement is greater than or equal to400kg/m3 and the least dimension of
concrete to be placed at a single time is 600mm or more.
The main measure of the structural quality of concrete is its compression strength. Tests for
this property are made on cylindrical specimen of height equal to twice the diameter
(usually 6x12 inches, i.e. 150x300mm) originally as specified by American society for Testing
and materials (ASTM). According, the cylinder specimens are moist cured at about 70±50F,
generally for 28 days and then tested in the laboratory at a specified rate of loading usually
to reach the maximum stress in 2 to 3 minutes. The compression strength obtained from
such test is known as the cylinder strength fc or fck and this is the main property specified for
design purpose.
Depending up on the mix (especially the water cement ratio) and the time and quality of
curing, compressive strength of concrete can be obtained up to 100 MPa . For most practical
and ordinary use(fck) available ranges between 20 to 50 MPa.
The compressive strength is calculated from failure load divided by cross-sectional area
resisting the load and reported in units of force per square area. In EBCS 2-1995, concrete is
graded based on tests of 150 mm cubes at the age of 28 days which may be considered as
the characteristic cube compression strength in MPa and graded as C5, C15, C20, C30, C40,
C50 and C60 the numbers being characteristic compressive strength in MPa.This may be
converted to equivalent cylinder compressive strength fck as
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The 28 day compressive strength may be obtained from 7 days compressive strength using
experimentally developed empirical relations. One formal is
√
S7 and S28 are7 and 28 day strengths in psi (W.A. Slater)
A and B are empirical constants that depend on age, curing condition, type of cement
properties of aggregates and testing method. W/C is water cement ratio.
b) Tensile strength – It is used to design for shear, torsion and crack width. This is much
lower than compressive strength and generally falls between 8 and 15 percent of
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compressive strength. It is difficult to determine from tension test due to problem
with gripping and is indirectly determined from split-cylinder test or flexure test
(modulus of rupture) or from empirical formulae.
In a split-cylinder test, a 150mm*300mm compression test cylinder is placed on its side
and loaded in compression along the diameter as shown in figure 1.3.1.3-3. The splitting
tensile strength, fct is determined as,
( )
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c) Creep
It is strain that occurs under constant sustained compressive load. It is also defined as
deformation of a member under sustained load. It results in stress redistribution and
additional deformation and should be considered. For example, in the design of RC
beams for allowable stress, the effects of creep are taken into account by reducing the
modulus of elasticity of concrete usually by 50%.
Creep is
Proportional to stress
Increases with increase in W/C ratio
Decrease with relative humidity of atmosphere
d) Volume change
Shrinkage is the shortening of concrete during hardening and drying under constant
temperature. The prime cause of shrinkage is due to loss of a layer of adsorbed water from
the surface of the gel particles. It depends on relative humidity (but recoverable on wetting
and of composition of the concrete.
Essentially, Shrinkage occurs as the moister diffuses out of the concrete which result the
exterior to shrink more rapidly than the interior. This leads to tensile stresses in the outer
skin of the concrete and compression stresses in the interior. The effect of shrinkage can be
reduced by using less cement and by adequate moist curing.
e) Density
Increase in density results in increase in strength. Density can be increased by using
denser aggregate, graded aggregates, vibrating and reducing w/c ratio.
f) Durability
Concrete durability has been defined by the American Concrete Institute as its resistance
to weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion and other degradation processes.
Concrete should be capable of withstanding
Weathering such as corrosion and mainly freezing and thawing. This can be
improved by increasing water tightness.
Chemical reaction
Wear
The selection of the relative proportion of cement, water and aggregate is called mix design.
The important requirements in mix design are the following, which can sum up as
workability, strength, durability and economy.
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a) The fresh concrete must be workable or placeable
b) The hardened concrete must be strong enough to carry the loads for which it has
been designed
c) The hardened concrete must be able to withstand the condition to which it will be
exposed to in service life
d) It must be capable of being produced economically.
A start is made with selection of W/C ratio, then largest size of aggregate (dictated by
sectional dimension of structural members and spacing of reinforcements). Then several
trial batches are made with varying ratio of aggregates to obtain the desired workability
with the least cement. Test should be made to evaluate compressive strength and other
desired characteristics. Observations should be made of the slump and appearance of
concrete. After a mix has been selected, some changes may have to be made after some
field experience with it.
If this is expensive or not justified the mix proportions which are appropriate for grades C5
to C30 may be taken from EBCS 2-1995 “Structural use of concrete” page 90.
Minimum mixing time measured from the time the ingredients are put together is given in
table 1.3.1.4-1. Over mixing can remove entrained air and increase fines requiring more
water for workability. The maximum mixing time may be taken 3 times the minimum mixing
time as a guide.
After mixing the concrete, the chemical reaction of cement and water in the mix is relatively
slow and requires time and favorable temperature for its completion. This setting time is
divided in to three distinct phases as:
1. First phase: time of initial set, requires from 30 to 60 minutes for completion, at
which the mixed concrete decreases its plasticity and develops pronounced
resistance to follow,
2. Second phase: time of final set requires from 5 to 6 hours after mixing operation,
where the concrete appears to be relatively soft solid without surface hardening,
3. Third phase: time of progressive hardening, may take about one month after mixing
where the concrete almost attains the major portions of its potential hardness and
strength.
When RC elements are used, sufficient bond between the two materials must be developed
to ensure that there is no relative movement between the steel bars and the surrounding
concrete. This bond may be developed by,
chemical adhesion
natural roughness
closely spaced rib-shaped surface deformation of reinforcement bars as shown in
figure
Reinforcing bars varying 6 to 35 mm in size are available in which all are surface deformed
except φ6.
Some bar size and areas for design purpose available in Ethiopia are given in table
Diameter φ
6 8 10 12 14 16 20 24….
(mm)
Area (mm2) 28 50 78.5 113 154 200 314 450
Weight (Kg/m) 0.222 0.395 0.619 0.888 1.210 1.570 2.470 3.500
Table 1.3.2-1Reinforcement bar properties that are available in Ethiopia
Characteristic properties of reinforcing bars are expressed using its yield strength, fy (fyk) and
modulus of elasticity Es. Fy ranges between 220 to 500MPa, with 300MPa common in our
country. Es ranges between 200 to 210GPa.
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For consolidation of structural concrete, immersion vibration are recommended. Oscillation
should be at least 7000 vibration per minute when the vibrator head is immersed in
concrete. Each yd3 (0.765m3) of concrete should be vibrated at least 1 minute.
Formwork retains concrete until it has set and produced the desired shape and sometimes
the desired surface finish. Formwork must be supported on false work of adequate strength
and rigidity. Forms must also be tight, yet they must be of low cost and often easily
demountable to permit reuse.
Early striking forms is generally desirable to permit quick reuse, start curing as soon as
possible and allow repairs and surface treatment while the concrete is still green and
condition are favorable for good bond.
The time between casting of concrete and removal of the formwork depends mainly on the
strength development of the concrete and on the function of the formwork. Provided the
concrete strength is confirmed by test on cubes stored under the same condition, formwork
can be removed when the cube strength is 50% of the nominal strength or twice the stress
to which it will then be subjected whichever is greater, provided such earlier removal will
not result in unacceptable deflection such as due to shrinkage and creep [EBCS 2-1995].
In the absences of more accurate data the following minimum periods are recommended by
EBCS 2-1995.
1. For non-load bearing parts of formwork like vertical forms for beams, columns and
walls …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 18 hours
2. For soffit formwork to slabs ……………………………..……………………………………………. 7 days
3. For props to slabs …………………………………………..…………………………………………….. 14 days
4. For soffits formwork to beams ……………..………………………………………………………. 14 days
5. For props to beams ………………………………..…………………………………………………….. 21 days
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1.5.1. Concrete
a) Uniaxial Stress Behavior
Under practical conditions concrete is seldom stressed in one condition only (Uniaxial
stress). Nevertheless an assumed uniaxial stress conditions can be justified in many cases.
Figure1.5.1-1 presents typical stress-strain curves obtained from concrete cylinders loaded
in uniaxial compression.
The curves are almost linear up to about half of the compressive strength. The peak of the
curve for high strength concrete is relatively sharp but for low strength concrete the curve
has a flat top. The strain at maximum stress is approximately 0.002. At higher strains, after
the maximum stress is reached, stress can still be carried even though cracks parallel to the
directions of loading become visible in the concrete. Tests by Rusch have indicated that the
shape of stress-strain curve before maximum stress depends on the strength of the
concrete with more curvature for weaker concrete. A widely used approximation for the
shape of stress-strain curve before maximum stress is reached is a second-degree parabola.
The extent of falling branch behavior adopted depends on the limit of concrete strain
assumed useful (0.0035 for LSD and 0.003 for USD).
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Tangent and Secant Moduli of Elasticity
Three ways of defining the modulus of elasticity are illustrated in figure 1.5.1-2. The slope of
the line that is tangent to a point on the stress-strain curve, such as A, is called the tangent
modulus of elasticity, ET, at the stress corresponding to point A. The slope of the stress-
strain curve at the origin is initial tangent modulus of elasticity. The secant modulus of
elasticity at a given stress is the slope of the line through the origin and through the point on
the curve representing that stress for example point B. Frequently, the secant modulus is
defined by using the point corresponding to 0.4 - 0.5 of the compressive strength (fck),
representing the service-load stress. Whenever Ecm is used it usually means the secant
modulus in MPa.
In the absence of more accurate data, in case accuracy is not required, an estimate of the
mean secant modulus Ecm can be obtained from table 1.5.1-1 for given concrete grades as
given by EBCS 2-1995.
The following empirical formula is also given by EBCS 2-1995, in which Ecm is in GPa and fck is
in MPa.
The stress-strain curve in figure 1.5.1-3 is simplified for design to a parabolic rectangular
stress block as given by EBSC 2-1995.
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When the load is applied at a fast strain rate, both the strength and modulus of elasticity of
concrete increase, for example it is reported that for a strain rate of 0.01/sec the concrete
strength may increase by as much as 17%.
Rusch, conducting long term loading tests on confined concrete found that the sustained
load compressive strength is 0.8 of in short-term strength, where short term strength is
determined from an identically old and identically cast specimen that is loaded to failure
over a 10-minute period when the specimen under sustained load has collapsed. In practice
concrete strength considered in design of structures is short-term strength at 28 days. The
strength reduction due to long term will be partly offset by higher strength attained by
concrete at greater ages.
Creep strains due to long-term loading cause modification in the shape of the stress-strain
curve. Some curves obtained by Rusch for various rates of loading are given in figure 1.5.1-4.
It can be seen that for various rates of loading, the maximum stress reached gradually
decreases but the descending branch falls less quickly, the strain at which maximum stress is
reached increases with a decreasing rate of loading (strain).
Figure 1.5.1-4 Stress-strain curves for concrete with various rates of axial compressive loadings
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It is difficult to get tensile strength of concrete from direct tension test due to difficulties of
holding specimens to achieve axial tension and the uncertainties of secondary stresses
induced by the grips of testing devices. Therefore, it is indirectly determined from split-
cylinder test or from flexure test on plain concrete beams of 150mm square cross-section.
( )
The split-cylinder strength ranges from 0.5 to 0.75 of the modulus of rupture. The difference
is mainly due to non-linear stress distribution near failure in flexural members when failure
is imminent.
Because of the low tensile strength of concrete, tensile strength of concrete is usually
ignored for flexure in strength calculations of reinforced concrete members. When it is
taken in to account like for shear or torsion the stress-strain curve in tension may be
idealized as a straight line up to the tensile strength. Within this range the modulus of
elasticity in tension may be assumed to be the same as in compression.
Poison's Ratio
Poison’s ratio for concrete is usually in the range 0.15 to 0.2; however values between 0.1
and 0.3 have been determined. Poisons ratio is generally lower for high strength concrete.
At high compressive stresses the transverse strains increase rapidly owing to internal
cracking parallel to the direction of loading.
In spite of extensive research, no reliable theory has been developed for determining the
failure strength of concrete under a general three dimensional state of stress.
For equal biaxial compressive stresses, the strength increase is approximately 16%. The
strength in biaxial tension is approximately equal to the uniaxial tensile strength.
On other planes than the principal, normal and shear stresses act. Mohr's failure theory is
used to obtain strength for this combined case. Figure 1.5.1-5 shows how a family of Mohr's
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circle for failures in tension, compression and other combinations is enclosed in an envelope
curve.
A failure curve for elements with direct (normal) stress in one direction combined with
shear stress shown in figure1.5.1-6.
Figure 1.5.1-6 Combinations of normal stress and shear stress causing failure of concrete
The curve shows that the compressive strength of concrete is reduced in the presence of
shear stress.
c) Creep
Figure 1.5.1-7 shows that the stress-strain relationship of concrete is a function of time. The
final creep strain may be several times as large as the initial elastic strain. Generally creep
has little effect on the strength of a structure but it results in increase in service load
deflections.
The creep deformation due to constant axial compressive stress is shown in figure 1.5.1-7.
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Figure 1.5.1-7 Typical creep curve for concrete with constant axial compressive stress
The creep proceeds at a decreasing rate with time. The magnitude of creep strain depends
on the composition of the concrete (aggregate type and proportions, cement type and
content and W/C ratio), the environment and the stress-time history.
d) Shrinkage in Concrete
When concrete loses moisture by evaporation, it shrinks. Shrinkage strains are independent
of the stress in the concrete. If restrained, shrinkage strains can cause cracking of concrete
and generally results in increase in deflection of structural members with time.
A curve showing the increase in shrinkage strain with time appears in figure1.5.1-8. The
shrinkage occurs at a decreasing rate with time. The final shrinkage strains vary greatly
being generally in the range 0.0002 to 0.0006 but sometimes as much as 0.0010.
Deformed steel bars are produced in sizes ranging from 8mm to 35mm in Ethiopia. Ø6mm is
plain bar and is used for stirrups.
The slope of the linear elastic portion gives modulus of elasticity, which ranges from 200 to
210 GPa.
The yield strength fy is a very important property of reinforcement steel and is used as
design stress in ultimate strength design (USD) and design stress obtained from σy in limit
state design (LSD).
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σy can easily be read for ductile steel. It is taken as stress at 0.2% offset for steel without
well-defined yield plateau.
The minimum strain in the steel at fracture is essential for the safety of the structure that
the steel be ductile enough to undergo large deformation before fracture. This should
usually be 4.5 to 12%.
Generally the stress-strain curves for steel in tension and compression are assumed to be
identical. Tests have shown that this is a reasonable assumption.
The effect of fast rate of loading is to increase the yield strength of steel. For example, it has
been reported that for strain rate of 0.01/sec the lower yield strength may be increased by
14%.
In design it is necessary to idealize the shape of the stress-strain curve. Generally the curve
is simplified idealizing it as two straight lines. EBCS 2 gives the simplified stress-strain curve
shown in figure 1.5.2-3 for LSD.
Figure 1.5.2-3 Idealized and design stress-strain diagram for reinforcing steel
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Figure 1.5.2-4a) Bauschinger effect for steel under reversed loading, b)Elastic-perfectly plastic
idealization for steel under reversed loading
“Structural design can be defined as a mixture of art and science, combining the engineer’s
feeling for the behavior of a structure with a sound knowledge of the principles of statics,
dynamics, mechanics of materials, and structural analysis, to produce a safe economical
structure that will serve its intended purpose” (Salmon and Johnson 1990). It is the process
of determining the dimensions and layout of the load resisting (structural) components of a
structure to satisfy the purpose of use, to possess safety and durability, and to be
economical. In civil works, buildings, bridges, dams, retaining walls, highway pavements,
aircraft landing strips are typical with individual specialized design procedure.
Structural Analysis is the assessment of the performance of a given structure under given
loads and other effects, such as support movements or temperature change.
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This course provides the first encounter on the analysis and design of the individual
structural elements of reinforced concrete structures, with emphasis on:
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Once the form and structural arrangement have been finalized the structural design
procedure consists of the following:
Serviceability requires that deflections be adequately small; that cracks, if any, be kept to
tolerable limits; that vibrations be minimized; etc. Durability requirements are concerned
with the deterioration and decay of materials with age and environmental impact.
Safety requires that the strength of a structure, built as designed, could be predicted
accurately, safety could be ensured by providing a carrying capacity just barely in excess of
the known loads. However there are a number of sources of uncertainty in the analysis,
design and construction of RC structures. These sources of uncertainty, which require a
definite margin of safety, may be listed as follows:
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3. The assumptions and simplifications inherent in any analysis may result in calculated
load effects – moments, shears, etc. different from those that, in fact, act in the
structure.
4. The actual structural behavior may differ from that assumed, owing to imperfect
knowledge.
5. Actual member dimensions may differ from those specified.
6. Reinforcement may not be in its proper position.
7. Actual material strength may be different from that specified.
The purpose of structural design is to provide a structure with least possible construction
and maintenance costs, provision of necessary space and of all guaranteeing satisfactory
performance during the lifetime of the structure. Satisfactory performance in this context
implies that under all unfavorable action of load combination imposed on the structure:
Hence, design involves selection of structural forms, assessment of the dimension of the
various members for the selected structural forms to satisfy the stated performances,
maintaining a proper balance between safety and economy.
The internal bending moments and forces for a structure are calculated assuming linear
elastic behavior. Because of elastic stress distribution is assumed in design, it is not really
applicable to a semi-plastic (elasto-plastic) material such as concrete, nor is it suitable when
deformations are not proportional to the load, as in slender columns. It has also been found
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to be unsafe when dealing with the stability of structures subject to overturning forces. This
method was used from 1900-1950 for the design of reinforced concrete members.
In the ultimate strength method, sections are designed taking the actual inelastic strains
into account. The design stresses used are the ultimate strengths of materials and for safety
the loads are magnified or scaled up by load factors. Typical load factors used are 1.4 for
dead load and 1.7 for live load. Structural analysis is carried out either assuming linear
elastic behavior of the structure up to ultimate load or by taking some account of the
redistribution of actions due to the non-linear behavior at high loads.
As this method does not apply factors of safety to material stresses, it cannot directly take
account of variability of the materials, and also it cannot be used to calculate the deflections
or cracking at working loads.
USD method became accepted as an alternative design method in building codes of ACI in
1956 and of UK in 1957. This method was popular from 1950 up to 1960s.
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the stress are high. Thus, to ensure a satisfactory design, the deflections and crack widths
must be checked for service loads to make sure that they lie within reasonable limiting
values dictated by functional requirements of the structure. This check requires the use of
elastic theory. Therefore, in the LSD method structures will be designed for strength at
ultimate loads (ULS), and deflection and crack width checked at service loads (SLS).
This design philosophy is gaining acceptance in many countries throughout the world
including Ethiopia. EBCS2-1995 is based on the LSD method.
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Assignment I
1. Enumerate the advantages of concrete and major weaknesses of concrete and give ways
to overcome the weaknesses.
2. What factors make concrete a dominant structural material?
3. Discuss the different hypotheses on strength development of concrete and give your
position with your rationale.
4. Enumerate the factors that affect the strength and performance of concrete and
describe how these affect strength and performance of concrete.
5. How are characteristic strengths and moduli of elasticity of concrete and steel obtained
for design?
6. What are the two most important factors affecting strength of concrete?
7. What requirements should form-work and false-work meet in order to produce quality
structural concrete?
8. Discuss the care that should be exercised in concrete placement and curing.
9. What is the importance and use of codes in reinforced concrete design?
10. What is the weakness of WSD method that led to the development of USD method?
Describe the weaknesses of USD that led to the development of the LSD method?
11. Compare and contrast structural concrete and structural steel. Give the advantages and
disadvantages of each.
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CHAPTER II
2.1. Introduction
The WSD method discussed in chapter I have some shortcomings that led to the
development of USD and LSD. The Limit State Design (LSD) method combines the best
features of WSD and USD and has gained acceptance in many countries throughout the
world including Ethiopia. Ethiopian Building Code Standards (EBCS) are based on the LSD
method.
The Limit State Design Method is based on the limit state design philosophy. This design
philosophy considers that any structure that has exceeded a limit state for which it was
designed is unfit for the intended function or use. The limit state may be reached because
the structure is in danger of collapse (ultimate limit state) or because excessive deflection
has resulted in the structure's being unable to carry out its design functions (serviceability
limit state). Other limit states may be reached due to vibration, cracking, durability, fire or
various other factors, which mean that the structure can no longer fulfill the purpose for
which it was designed. These limit states are classified into three as ultimate, serviceability
and special limit states.
A special feature of this philosophy is that it uses statistics to assess the variation in the
contributions of the factors influencing the limit states of a structure. These are material
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strength and loads, which affect resistance (capacity) of structural members and action
effects (internal actions) respectively.
The distributions of material strength and variation in structural loads follow normal or
Gaussian distribution. Section capacity and internal actions follow a similar distribution.
The number of specimens with extremely low strength or extremely high strength, though
small is never zero. It is, therefore, possible to have the situation in which two extremes are
reached simultaneously and if this is the extreme of high load together with low strength,
then a limit state of collapse may be reached. The probability of the collapse limit state
being reached will not be zero, but it will be kept sufficiently low by selecting suitable design
stresses and design loads that the probability may practically be taken as zero.
The use of statistical procedures has resulted in what are called characteristic strength and
characteristic loads as reference values. Characteristic strength of a material is that value
below which some percent of the test results fall (5% according to EBCS 2-1995 for concrete
and steel).
Where
fk = characteristics strength
fm = mean strength,
δ =standard deviation,
K1 = a factor that ensures the probability of the characteristics strength is not
being exceeded is small. (K1 =1.64)
Table 2.1-1 gives different grades of concrete and characteristic cylinder compressive
strength in MPa. These values are obtained for standard cubes and cylinders at a slow rate
of loading to reach maximum stresses with in 2 or 3 minutes.
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Where
fcu = characteristic standard cube strength (obtained from 150mm cubes),
fck= characteristic standard cylinder strength (for 150mm diameter and
300mm high cylinder).
The characteristic strength of reinforcement steel, f yk is defined as the fractile of the proof
stress fy or the 0.2% offset strength.
The same basic procedure as for strength may be used for the calculation of characteristic
loads but the practically insufficient statistical information reduce the effectiveness of the
approach for loads. Hence these are defined in and given by codes. Characteristic load is
that value of the load, which has an acceptable probability of not being exceeded during the
service life of the structure. EBCS 1-1995 gives values of characteristic permanent loads Gk
and characteristic imposed loads Qk and EBCS8-1995 gives characteristic seismic loads AEd.
The LSD method is a design method that involves identification of all possible modes of
failure and determining acceptable factors of safety against exceedence of each limit state.
These factors of safety are those which take care of material variability γm and load
variability γF.
γm allows for differences that may occur between the strength of the material as
determined from laboratory tests and that achieved in the structure. The difference may
occur due to a number of reasons including method of manufacture, duration of loading,
corrosion and other factors.
Table 2.1-2 gives partial safety factors of materials at ULS according to EBCS 2-1995
Persistent design situations refer to conditions of normal use. Transient design situations
refer to temporary conditions such as during construction or repair. Accidental design
situations refer to exceptional conditions such as during fire, explosion or impact.
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The difference in values for the two materials is indicative of the comparative lack of control
over the production of concrete the strength of which is affected by such factors as
water/cement ratio, degree of compaction, rate of drying, etc., which frequently cannot be
accurately controlled on site to conditions in factory.
Where
Fk = characteristics load,
Fm = mean load,
δ =standard deviation,
K2 = a factor that ensures the probability of the characteristics load being
exceeded is small. (K2 =1.64)
Suitable design loads are obtained from characteristic loads by applying partial safety factor
for loads or load factors γF.
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γF accounts for possible increase of loads above those considered in design, relative
accuracy in determining the loads, inaccuracy in the analysis and design stage, difference
between dimensions shown on structural drawings and as built due to inaccuracy,
construction and the importance of the limit state that is considered.
With the design loads for ULS on the structure, the structure is assumed to be on the verge
of collapse and ultimate moments and forces are determined by structural analysis. Analysis
can be carried out assuming linear elastic response (with or without plastic redistribution of
moments), non-linear response, or plastic response.
Finally serviceability requirements will be checked for the structure under service loads.
Elastic methods of analysis may be applied for analysis in the Serviceability Limit States.
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directly from the loads using the laws of statics and for a given span and combination of
loads w and P. The moment diagram is independent of the composition or size of the beam.
The bending moment is referred to as a load effect. Other load effects include shear force,
axial force, torque, deflection and vibration.
At any section within the beam, the internal resisting moment, M, shown in figure 2.1-3 c)is
necessary to equilibrate the bending moment. An internal resisting shear, V, is also required
as shown. The internal resisting moment, when the cross section fails, is referred to as the
moment capacity or moment resistance. The word "resistance" can also be used to describe
shear resistance or axial load resistance.
The beam shown in figure 2.1-3will safely support the loads if at every section the resistance
of the member exceeds the effects of the loads.
The internal resisting moment, M, results from an internal compressive force, C, and an
internal tensile force, T, separated by a lever arm, jd, as shown in figure 2.1-3 (d).
The conventional elastic beam theory results in the equation σ = My/I, which for an
uncracked, homogeneous rectangular beam without reinforcement gives the distribution of
stresses shown in figure 2.1-4.The stress diagram shown in figure 2.1-4 (c) and (d) may be
visualized as having a "volume," and hence one frequently refers to the compressive stress
block and the tensile stress block. This is equal to the volume of the compressive stress
block shown in figure 2.1-4 (d). In a similar manner one could compute the force T from the
tensile stress block. The forces, C and T, act through the centroids of the volumes of the
respective stress blocks. In the elastic case these forces act at h/3 above or below the
neutral axis, so that jd = 2h /3. From above equations we can write,
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To illustrate the stress-strain development for increased loading, consider the following,
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At low loads where tensile stress is less than or equal to the characteristics tensile
strength of concrete (fctk), the stress & strain relation shown in figure 2.1-7 (a)
results.
At increased loading, tensile stress larger than fctk in figure 2.1-7 (b) cause cracks
below neutral axis (NA) and the steel alone carry all tensile force. If the compressive
stress at extreme fiber is less than fc'/2, stresses and strains continue to be closely
proportional (linear stress distribution) otherwise non-linear.
For further increment of load, the stress distribution is no longer linear as shown in
figure 2.1-7 (c).
If the structure say the beam has reached its maximum carrying capacity one may conclude
the following on the cause of failure.
1. When the amount of steel is small at some value of the load the steel reaches its
yield point. In such circumstances:
The steel stretches a large amount.
Tension cracks in the concrete widen, visible and significant deflection of the
beam occurs.
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Compression zone of concrete increase resulting in crushing of concrete
(secondary compression failure).
Such failure is gradual and is preceded by visible sign, widening and lengthening of
cracks, marked increase in deflection.
Therefore it is a good practice to dimension sections in such a way that, should there be
overloading, failure would be initiated by yielding of the steel rather than crushing of
concrete.
Design of reinforced concrete sections may be carried out using equations or charts and
tables. You may have to design irregular compressed areas like a triangle, trapezium, or
composite areas. The bases for all these are strain compatibility and equilibrium equations.
Therefore, we have to begin with stress-strain diagrams to derive expressions for flexural
strength of reinforced concrete members.
Sections perpendicular to the axis of bending that are plane before bending remain
plane after bending.
The strain in the reinforcement is equal to the strain in the concrete at the same
level.
The stress in the concrete and reinforcement can be computed from the strains by
using stress-strain curves for concrete and steel.
The three assumptions already made are sufficient to allow calculation of the strength and
behavior of reinforced concrete elements. For design however, several additional
assumption are introduced to simplify the problem with little loss of accuracy.
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Concrete is assumed to fail when maximum compressive strain reaches a limiting
value of 0.0035 in bending and 0.002 in axial compression according to EBCS 2-1995.
The compressive stress-strain relationship for concrete may be based on stress-
strain curves or may be assumed to be rectangular, trapezoidal, parabolic or any
other shape as long as it is in agreement with comprehensive tests.
The maximum tensile strain in the reinforcements is taken to be 0.01 according to
EBCS 2-1995.
Stress-strain curve for steel is known.
The strain diagram shall be assumed to pass through one of the three points A, B or
C as shown in figure 2.2.1-1 as given by EBSC 2-1995.
1. Stress and strain compatibility. The stress at any point in a member must correspond
to the strain at that point.
2. Equilibrium. The internal forces must balance the external load effects.
Consider the stress and strain distribution at ULS for a rectangular cross section of singly
reinforced concrete beam subjected to bending as shown in the figure below.
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1. The triangular stress distribution applies when the stresses are very nearly
proportional to the strains, which generally occur at the loading level encountered
under working condition and it is, therefore, used at the serviceability limit state.
2. The rectangular-parabolic stress block represents the distribution at failure when the
compressive strains are within the plastic range and it is associated with the design
for the ultimate limit state.
3. The equivalent rectangular stress block us a simplified alternative to the rectangular-
parabolic distribution.
1. If one wants to use the idealized parabolic-rectangular stress block given in EBCS 2-
1995, as shown in figure 2.2.1-2
and
αc and βc are values calculated by integrating the stress-strain diagram for the different
location of the N.A. depth. i.e.
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∫
To understand the mechanics behind the derivation of the above equations, referring to
figure 2.2.2-2, the capacity of section when the εcm ≥ 0.002 and N.A. within the section,
( )( ( ))
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∫ ( )( ( ))
∫ ( )
∫ ( )( ( )) ( )
2. If one wants to use the rectangular stress block given in EBCS 2-1995,
One should note that, the rectangular stress block approximation is only valid if the
concrete stain is 0.0035 and that if the steel is below fracture stain (0.01). The justification
for reducing the depth of N.A by 80% is shown below.
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From similarity of triangle,
To find the compressive force for the parabolic rectangular stress block,
[ ] [ ]
To find the moment arm βc, taking moment about the top fiber,
[ ] [ ] )
( )
Thus to accommodate both αc and βc, the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block is
reduced by 80%.
Example
Calculate the moment capacity of a beam with b = 250mm, h = 500mm and cover to
reinforcement of 25mm. The beam is reinforced with 3ф20 bars with fyk = 400Mpa and fck =
30MPa. Use both parabolic-rectangular stress block and rectangular stress block. Comment
on the accuracy of rectangular stress block approximation.
a) Tension Failure
If the steel content As of the section is small, the steel will reach fyd before the concert
reaches its maximum strain εcu of 0.0035. With further increase in loading, the steel force
remains constant at fyd As, but results a large plastic deformation in the steel, wide cracking
in the concrete and large increase in compressive strain in the extreme fiber of concrete.
With this increase in strain the stress distribution in the concrete becomes distinctly non-
linear resulting in increase of the mean stress. Because equilibrium of internal forces should
be maintained, the depth of the N.A decreases, which results in the increment of the lever
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arm z. The flexural strength is reached when concrete strain reaches 0.0035. With further
increase in strain, crushing failure occurs. εs may also be so large as to exceed 0.01. This
phenomenon is shown in figure 2.2.3-1. This type of failure is preferable and is used for
design.
b) Compression Failure
If the steel content As is large, the concrete may reach its capacity before steel yields. In
such a case the N.A depth increases considerably causing an increase in compressive force.
Again the flexural strength of the section is reached when εc= 0.0035.The section fails
suddenly in a brittle fashion. This phenomenon is shown in figure 2.2.3-2.
c) Balanced Failure
At balanced failure the steel reaches fyd and the concrete reaches a strain of 0.0035
simultaneously. This phenomenon is shown in figure 3.2.3-3.
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Figure 2.2.3-4Strain Diagrams for tension (1), Balanced (2) and compression (3) failures
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2.2.4. Design equations for singly reinforced rectangular beams
Compression failures are dangerous because they are brittle and occur suddenly giving little
visible warning. Tension failures, however, are preceded by large deflections and wide
cracking and have a ductile character. To ensure that all beams have the desirable
characteristic of visible warning if failure is imminent, as well as reasonable ductility at
failure, it is recommended that the depth of the N.A be limited or the steel ratio be limited
to a fraction of ρb. In our code of practice, EBCS 2-1995 limits the depth of the N.A to,
Usually d is obtained from serviceability limit state. EBCS 2-1995 gives the following
minimum effective depth,
( )
Where,
fyk = characteristics strength of reinforcement (MPa)
Le = effective span
βa = constant from table
The design of singly reinforced section can be carried out using chart or tables found in
EBCS-2-1995 Part 2 and are summarized below.
Referring to figure 2.2.2-2, the force cared by the compression and tensile zone can be
calculated using,
and
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In the general design tables No 1a and No 1b in EBCS 2-1995 part 2, the design of the
section is formulated using empirical parameters Km and Ks.
√ ⁄
Moment capacity of the section in terms of the compression force C in the concrete is,
Steps to be followed
Minimum reinforcement
At Some sections of continuous beams, moment may be so small that require a small
amount of steel. If the moment is less than that which cracks the section and with any load
causing cracking moment, failure is sudden and brittle. To prevent this, it is recommended
that a minimum reinforcement, As,min required to resist Mcracking be provided. As,min is
obtained from the cracking moment. Empirical relations are given in codes and standards.
EBCS2-1995 gives for beams,
A rectangular slab panel is classified as one way slab if the ratio of the long span to that of
the short span is greater than two. If the long span/short span is less than 2, the slab is
classified as two-way slab; the load in this case is transmitted along two orthogonal
directions.
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One way slabs may be simply supported or continuous over a number of supports. The
bending moments, on which design is to be based, are calculated from elastic analysis in the
same way as for beams. Approximate analysis could also be used in the case of continuous
slabs as recommended in some code of practices.
The flexural design of one-wayslab sections are treated in the same manner as for singly
reinforced rectangular beam sections, considering the slab as strips of beams having a width
of 1m. The reinforcement bar obtained is distributed uniformly with spacing between bars
given as,
The effect of the compression on the design resistance capacity is very little. For normal
steel tension reinforcement ration (ρ ≤ 0.015), the increase in the moment is generally < 5%.
The notable difference between section with or without compression reinforcements is that
the NA depth of the section with compression reinforcement is less than the later, and the
effectiveness of compression steel decrease as it moves away the compression face.
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Creep of the concrete in the compression zone transfers load from the concrete to
the compression steel, reducing the stress in the concrete.
2. Increased ductility
The addition of the compression reinforcements causes reduction in the depth of the
compression block.
When ρ > ρb, beam fails in a brittle manner, through crushing of the compression
zone before the reinforcement yields.
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Figure 2.1-4 Moment curvature diagram for beams with or without compression reinforcement
4. Fabrication ease
When assembling the reinforcement cage for the beam, it is customary to provide
bars in the corners of stirrups to hold the stirrups in place in the form and also to
help anchor the stirrups. If developed properly, these bars in effect are compression
reinforcements, although they are generally disregarded in design.
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For analysis the beam is hypostatically divided into two beams. Beam 1 consisting of the
concrete web and sufficient steel at the bottom so that T s1 = Cc and having a maximum
capacity of a singly reinforced section. Beam 2 consisting of the compression reinforcement
at the top and the remaining tension reinforcement to carry additional moment.
Beam 1
Beam 2
In the derivation of the above formula, the stress in the compression reinforcement has
been shown as fs2.
In the case of analysis type of problem, the steel may not have yielded. The analysis of such
a section a best carried but by assuming first that all the steel has yielded, the calculation
can be modified later if it is found that some or all of the steel have not yielded.
The step to be followed is, calculate first αc assuming all steel yielded and reading values of
εs1 and εs2 from the chart and compare with εyd.
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For design problems the following procedures can be followed,
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2.2. ULS of T- and L- Sections
Reinforced concrete floors or roofs are monolithic and hence, a part of the slab will act with
the upper part of the beam to resist longitudinal compression. The resulting beam cross-
section is, then, T-shaped (inverted L), rather than rectangular with the slab forming the
beam flange where as part of the beam projecting below the slab forms the web or stem.
The T -sections provide a large concrete cross-sectional area of the flange to resist the
compressive force. Hence, T-sections are very advantageous in simply supported spans to
resist large positive bending moment, whereas the inverted T-sections have the added
advantage in cantilever beam to resist negative moment.
As the longitudinal compressive stress varies across the flange width of same level, it is
convenient in design to make use of an effective flange width (may be smaller than the
actual width) which is considered to be uniformly stressed.
The part of the slab that is acting together with the beam, called effective flange width b e is
provided in codes of practices. The EBCS recommends that the effective flange width for T-
sections and L- sections must not exceed:
{
⁄
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The neutral axis of a T-beam may be either in the flange or in the web, depending upon the
proportion of the cross-section, the amount of tensile steel and the strength of the
materials. If the calculated depth to the neutral axis is less or equal to the slabs thickness, h f
the beam can be analyzed as if it were a rectangular beam of width equal to b e. If the NA is
in the web x>hf, a method is developed which account for the actual T -shaped compression
zone. The compression block shall be divided into two parts; one is for the compression in
the flange (Beam F) and the other is for the compression in the web (Beam W). T-beams
with compression flanges rarely require compression reinforcement, but if this is
unavoidable, the same principles apply as for doubly reinforced sections for the
compression in the web.
When designing T- and L- sections, since the compression blocks are irregular in shape, it is
one of the special cases where the equivalent rectangular stress block approximation are
used instead of the parabolic rectangular one. Referring to figure 2.4-3,
Assume b = be,
Usually,
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Beam W
Beam F
Beam F
( ) or ( )
The force in the remaining steel area Asw is balanced by compression in the rectangular
portion of the beam. (i.e. Asw = As - Asf)
Beam W
or
ii. If 0.8x ≤ hf, then the beam is considered to be a “rectangular beam” for the
calculation purpose. The effect of small area of the web under compression is
insignificant.
Note:- In the derivation of the design resistance capacity of the section, it was assumed that
fs = fyd. This has to be verified by determining the NA and checking the strain profile.
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1. Determine the imposed (uniformly distributed) load and the tensile steel of the
supporting brick wall = 300 mm, width b = 300 mm, effective depth d = 550 mm,
total depth D = 600 mm, grade of concrete = C25 and characteristic strength of the
2. A singly reinforced beam has a width of 300mm and an effective depth of 600 mm.
a. the maximum design moment of resistance of the section and the required
reinforcement, if the maximum aggregate size is 20mm and the cover to the
depth 450mm and is reinforced with 2Φ20 and 2Φ16 bars. The concrete is C30 and
steel is????.
4. A singly reinforced beam constructed from C25 concrete has a width of 200mm and
of 420MPa, determine the maximum capacity of the section and the reinforcement.
5. A doubly reinforced beam constructed from C30 concrete has a width of 250mm and
300MPa, and the axis depth of the compression reinforcement, if required, is 50mm.
requirements.
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6. Determine the ultimate moment capacity of the doubly reinforced beam of b = 350
mm, d' = 60 mm, d = 600 mm, As = 2945 mm2, A’s = 1256 mm2, using C30 and S415.
web width of 250mm and an overall depth of 500mm. The concrete is C25 and the
steel 300MPa. The axis distance from the reinforcement to any face is 50mm. Design
b. 300kNm (hogging).
8. A beam with a flange width of 1500 mm, flange thickness 150 mm, effective depth
800mm and web width 350mm carries a moment of 2000kNm. If the concrete is C25
300mm, a total depth of 500mm and carries a positive moment of 400kN-m. Use C30
10. Determine the maximum permissible span (in meters) of a simply supported RC one-
way slab having a thickness of 15cm and reinforced with Φ10c/c100mm. The
working live-load on the slab is 5kPa; C25 concrete and steel fyk = 300MPa are used.
Consider both ultimate and serviceability limit states to select the appropriate value.
11. For the reinforced concrete cantilever beam shown in the figure below, design the
total depth (not be higher than 600mm), as well as the flexural reinforcements. Use
C30 concrete, fyk = 300Mpa, d’ = 60mm. (The given loads are factored loads.)
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12. Determine (a) the theoretical and (b)
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RCS – I Serviceability limit state Chapter V
CHAPTER III
3.1. Introduction
Beams resist loads primarily by means of internal moment M and shear V. In the design of
reinforced concrete members flexure is usually considered first, (i.e. sections are
proportioned and areas of longitudinal reinforcement determined for the moment M),
because flexural failure is ductile. The beams are then designed for shear. Because shear
failure is frequently sudden and brittle, the design for shear should ensure that shear
strength equals or exceeds the flexural strength at all points in the beam. Fig 3.1 shows
internal forces of a simple beam.
Figure 3.2-1 Normal, shear and principal stress in a homogenous un-cracked beam
For uncracked rectangular beam Fig. 3-2-1b gives the distribution of shear stresses on a
section. In regions where we have M and V we have biaxial states of stress and the principal
stresses are
√( )
√( )
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The principal stresses on the elements are shown in Fig. 3-2-1c. The surfaces on which
principal stresses act in an uncracked beam are plotted by curved lines as in Fig 3-2-1d and
are known as stress trajectories. Since concrete cracks when the principal stresses exceed
the tensile strength of the concrete, the initial cracking pattern resembles the family of
curves (stress trajectories) shown in Fig 3-2-1d.
Two types of cracks can be seen. The vertical cracks occurred first, due to flexural stresses.
These start at the bottom of the beam where the flexural stresses are the largest. The
inclined cracks at the ends of the beam are due to combined shear flexure. These are
commonly referred to as inclined cracks, shear cracks or diagonal tension cracks. Such
cracks must exist before a beam can fail in shear.
Although there is similarity between the planes of maximum principal tensile stress and the
cracking pattern, it is by no means perfect, because in RC flexural cracks generally occur
before the principal tensile stress at mid height become critical. Once the flexural cracks
have occurred, the tensile stress perpendicular to the cracks drops to zero. To maintain
equilibrium, a major redistribution is necessary. As a result, the onset of inclined cracking in
a beam cannot be predicted from the principal stresses unless shear cracks precedes
flexural cracking. This very rarely happens in RC, but it does occur in some pre-stressed
beams.
Shear transfer of reinforced concrete beams heavily relies on the tensile and compressive
stresses of the concrete. Most of the time the problem of concrete in shear design is not
shear stress exceeding the shear strength of the concrete; rather, it is the major principal
stress exceeding the tensile strength of concrete due to the low tensile strength. When the
tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength then cracks will form. With the formation of
cracks ensues a complex pattern of stresses.
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The concrete below the neutral axis in a cracked reinforced concrete beam is in a state of
pure shear because tensile stress is zero.
If the shaded portion of Fig 3-3-1b is isolated, the force ΔT must be transferred by horizontal
shear stress on the top of the element. The average value of these stresses below the top of
the crack is
The distribution of the average horizontal shear stress is shown in Fig 3-3-1d. Since the
vertical shear stresses on an element are equal to the horizontal shear stresses on the same
element, the vertical shear stress distribution will be as shown in Fig. 3-3-1d.
Fig 3.3-2 shows mechanism of shear resistance across an inclined crack in a beam without
shear reinforcement (stirrups). Observe that a typical vertical plane cuts (passes): the
compression zone, the crack and the flexural reinforcement, unlike the entire section of the
un-cracked homogenous beam. Shear resistance along A, B, C is provided by the sum of
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shear in the compression zone Vcz, the vertical component of force due to aggregate
interlock Vay and force due to dowel action of the longitudinal reinforcement V d.
Immediately after inclined cracking it is found that 40-60% of the shear is resisted by Vay and
Vd,
Considering portions D, E, F below the crack and summing up moments about E we see that
Va and Vd will have moment about E in the clockwise direction which should be balanced by
moment due to compression force C’1.
From horizontal force equilibrium on vertical face A, B, D, E we see that T1=C1+C’1 and finally
T1 and C1+C’1 must equilibrate the external moment at the section.
As the crack widens Va decreases and much of the resistance is provided by Vcz and Vd. As Vd
gets larger it leads to splitting crack in the concrete along the reinforcement. When this
crack occurs Vd drops to zero. When Va and Vd disappear so do V’cz and C’1 with the result
that all shearing is transmitted in the width AB above the crack. This may cause crushing of
concrete in region AB.
It is important to note also that, if C’1 =0, T2 = T1 and T2=C1. In other words, the inclined crack
has made the tensile force at C to be a function of the moment on the vertical section A, B,
D, E. This shift in tensile force must be considered when determining bar cutoff points and
when anchoring bars.
It has been found that the dowel action is generally the first to reach its capacity followed
by failure of the aggregate interlock, which is followed by shear failure of the concrete in
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compression (abruptly and explosively). However, the precise proportion is difficult to
establish and the shear strength is represented by a single expression accounting for all
mechanisms.
The shear resistance of the concrete depends on the tensile strength of concrete, shear
span to depth ratio, av/d, size of the member, aggregate interlock and the amount of
longitudinal reinforcement. Empirical relations are given in codes which may consider all of
these factors or only some.
EBCS 2 gives empirical relations as a function of the tensile strength of the concrete fctd, area
of longitudinal reinforcement, effective depth d, and breadth of web, bw.
As the area of tensile reinforcement anchored beyond the intersection of the steel and the
line of possible 450 cracking starting from the edge of the section.
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The most commonly used type is vertical stirrup. The use of bent bars has almost
disappeared. Inclined stirrups cannot be used for beams resisting shear reversal such as
building resisting seismic loads.
Stirrups restrain the cracks from opening wide and so not only maintain the shear resistance
due to aggregate interlock and dowel action but also contribute to shear resistance. The
shear resistance at section of the beam is categorized into two contributions as the part
resisted by concrete and as shear resisted by stirrups.
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The amount of shear reinforcement or the spacing S of the stirrups having cross sectional
area Av (of the two vertical bars) is obtained from a mathematical model called “Truss-
Analogy”. This model was proposed by Professor Mörsch in 1902 for the design of beam for
shear. The stirrups are modeled as vertical tension members, the longitudinal flexure
reinforcement as horizontal tension members the concrete diagonals between cracks as
diagonal compression members and the concrete in flexural compression as top horizontal
compression members as shown in fig 3.4-5.
The shear reinforcement spacing ‘S’ can be calculated as follows because it has to carry ‘V s’,
Therefore,
EBCS 2 gives
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Figure 3.4-6Forces in stirrups and compression diagonals
The shear V on B-B has been replaced by diagonal compression force D and axial tension
force Nv as shown in Fig 3.4-6c.
( )
V is the shear at which diagonal compression failure occurs. Internal shear induced by loads
should be less than V. If internal shear is greater than or equal to 0.5f cdbwZ then the section
has to be increased.
EBCS 2 gives even a smaller limit on Vsd to avoid diagonal compression failure,
Assuming uniform shear stress distribution in the concrete the resultant of V and D act at
mid height of the section as a result, Nv acts through mid-height which means that Nv/2 acts
in each of the top and bottom chord members.
In design the value of θ should be 25º ≤ θ ≤ 65º. The choice of small value of θ reduces the
number of stirrups required but increases the compression stress in the web and increases
Nv, and hence the shift of moment diagrams. The opposite is true for large angles.
Because the shear within a distance of D from face of support is resisted by the support for
a 450 crack, the maximum design shear force is taken as the one at a distance d from face of
support.
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The practical design procedure recommended by EBCS 2 is essentially empirical and may be
summarized as follows:
The first limit is given so that a 450 crack will be intercepted by at least one stirrup.
Commonly used stirrup bars have diameters ranging between 6 mm and 10 mm.
3.5.1. Bond
In reinforced concrete, the concrete carries compression and the steel carries tension. In the
tension zone there is no slip between the concrete and the steel transfers its tension to the
surrounding concrete by shear stresses at the bar-concrete interface. This interface shear
stress is called bond stress.
This bond when fully developed enables the two materials to form a composite structure. If
this bond could not be developed then the bars pull out of the concrete and the tension
drops to zero.
The bond strength varies along the length of the bar Fig 3.5.1-1e and usually average bond
stress is used.
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The mechanism by which smooth plane bars develop this bond is by adhesion between the
concrete and the bar surface and by a small amount of bar friction.
For a bar loaded in tension both of these will be lost quickly because of reduction in
diameter due to Poisson’s ratio and the bar pulls out. For this reason, smooth plane bars are
not used as reinforcement. For cases where smooth bars are embedded in concrete (anchor
bolts, stirrups made of small diameter bars, etc) mechanical anchorage in the form of hooks,
nuts and washers on the embedded end, or similar devices are used.
In deformed bars although adhesion and friction are present at first loading, this will be lost
quickly leaving the load to be transferred by bearing on the ribs (Fig 3.5.1-2). If these
bearing forces are too big, the radial component will cause splitting along the reinforcement
which propagate out to the surface along the shortest distance (fig 3.5.1-3)
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1. The minimum distance from the bar to the surface of the concrete or to the next bar.
The smaller this distance, the smaller the splitting load.
2. The tensile strength of the concrete
3. The average bond stress. As this increase the wedging force increase leading to a
splitting failure.
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Bond stresses arise from two situations; from anchorage of bars and from change of bar
force along the length of the bar such as due to change in bending moment (fig 3.5.1-4).
Alternatively
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The design bond strength fbd depends on the type of reinforcement, the concrete strength
and the position of the bar during concreting. The bond conditions are considered to be
good for:
For good bond conditions the design bond strength of may be obtained from
For other bond conditions the design bond strength may be taken as 0.7*the value for good
bond conditions. Local bond should be checked at sections where there are high shear
combined with rapid changes in bending moments such as: simply supported ends of a
member, points of contra flexure, supports of a cantilever, and points where tension bars
are terminated.
The required anchorage length lbnet depends on the type of anchorage and on the stress in
the reinforcement.
[ ]
[ ]
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3.5.3. Lapped splices
When the available standard length of bars (which is 12m) is less than the required length
we extend reinforcement bars by lap splices. In lapped splices, the force in one bar is
transferred to the surrounding concrete which in turn transfers the force to the adjacent
bars. Due to the stress influence of the two bars in the surrounding concrete a large
development length is required for lapped splices than for anchorage.
The requirement in lapped splices is to locate in regions of small bending moment and avoid
splicing in critical zones (large tension zones).
Where:
The flexure envelope tension diagram will be displaced horizontally by a1 as shown in Fig.
3.5.4-1 to take care of additional tension resulting from shear force.
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The displacement a1 depends on the spacing of potential shear cracks and may be taken as:
1. At least one-quarter of the positive moment reinforcement in simple beams and one-
half of the positive moment reinforcement in slabs shall be extended along the same
face of the member in to the support
2. The anchorage of this reinforcement shall be capable of developing the following tensile
force
3. The anchorage length is measured from
a) The face of the support for a direct support
4. A plane inside the support located at a distance of 1/3 the width of the support from the
face of the support for an indirect support
5. The anchorage length of the bottom reinforcement at intermediate supports shall be at
least 10Ф.
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CHAPTER IV
4.1. Introduction
In design of structures, the chief items of behavior of which are of practical significance are
1) The strength of the structure. i.e., the magnitude of loads which will cause
the structure to fail and
2) The deformations, such as deflections and extent of cracking, which the
structure will undergo when loaded under service conditions.
In the previous chapter we mainly deal with the strength design of RC beams. It is also
important that member performance in normal service be satisfactory, when loads are
those actually expected to act, (i.e. when load factor is 1.0), which is not guaranteed simply
by providing adequate strength. Serviceability studies are carried out based on elastic
theory, with stress in both concrete and steel assumed to be proportional to strain. The
concrete on the tension side of the neutral axis may be assumed un-cracked, partially
cracked, or fully cracked, depending on the loads and material strengths.
The concept of Serviceability limit states has been introduced in chapter 2 and for RC
structures these states are often satisfied by observing empirical rules which affect the
detailing only. In some circumstances, however, it may be desired to estimate the behavior
of a member under working conditions, and mathematical methods of estimating
deformations and cracking must be used.
The major SLS for reinforced concrete structures are: excessive crack widths, excessive
deflections, and undesirable vibrations.
Historically, deflections and crack widths have not been a problem for RC building
structures. With the advent high strength steel (fyk ≥ 400 MPa), the reinforcement stresses
at service loads have increased by about 50%. Since crack widths, deflections and fatigue
are all related to steel stress, each of these has become more critical.
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transformed section has been obtained, the beam is analyzed like an elastic homogeneous
beam.
At this stage, it is assumed that tension cracks have progressed all the way to the neutral
axis and that sections that are plane before bending remain plane in the bent member. This
situation of the section, strain and stress distribution is shown in the figure 4.2.2-1 below.
To determine the location of the NA (a), the moment of the tension area about the NA is set
equal to the moment of the compression area, which gives,
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Having obtained 'a' by solving this equation, the moment of inertia and other properties of
the transformed section can be determined as in the preceding case. Alternatively, one can
proceed from basic principle by accounting directly for the forces which act in the cross-
section as shown in figure 4.2.2-1.
Applying Hooke’s Law and using modular ration the above equation becomes,
Note that satisfies the stress -strain relation as well as the equilibrium of horizontal
forces and hence is a useful relation for analysis.
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4.3. Serviceability Limit States of Cracking
4.3.1. General
The occurrence of cracks in reinforced concrete is inevitable because of the low tensile
strength of concrete. Structures designed with low steel stresses at service load serve their
intended function with very limited cracking. Crack widths are of concern for three main
reasons: aesthetic appearance, leakage and corrosion.
Aesthetic appearance:- The limits on aesthetic acceptability are difficult to set because of
the variability of personal opinion. The maximum crack width that will neither impair a
structure’s appearance nor create public alarm is probably in the range of 0.25 to 0.38 mm.
Corrosion:- Concrete made from portland cement usually provide good protection for
reinforcement steel due its high alkalinity. Corrosion of the reinforcement happens when an
electrolytic cell is formed due to the carbonization of the concrete or chlorides penetrate
through the concrete reaches the bar surface. The time taken for this to occur will depend
on whether or not the concrete is cracked, the environment, the thickness of the cover, and
the permeability of the concrete. If the concrete is cracked, the time required for a
corrosion cell to be established is the function of the crack width.
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3. Plastic slumping cracks: plastic shrinkage and slumping of the concrete occurs as newly
placed concrete bleeds and surface dries, results in settlement cracks along the
reinforcement as shown in Fig 4.3.2-3a, or a random cracking pattern, referred to as
map cracking shown in Fig. 4.3.2-3b. These types of cracks can be avoided by proper mix
design and by preventing rapid drying of the surface during the first hour or so after
placing. Map cracking can also occur due to alkali-aggregate reaction.
4. Cracks caused by corrosion: rust occupies two to three times the volume of the metal
from which it is formed. As a result, if rusting occurs, a bursting force is generated at the
bar location which leads to splitting cracks and eventual loss of cover (4.3.2-3b). Such
cracking looks similar to bond cracking (4.3.2-1e) and may accompany bond cracking.
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4.3.3.1. Minimum Reinforcement Areas
(1) In assessing the minimum area of reinforcement required to ensure controlled cracking
in a member or part of a member which may be subjected to tensile stress due to the
restraint of imposed deformations, it is necessary to distinguish between two possible
mechanisms by which such stress may arise. The two mechanisms are:
(a) Restraint of intrinsic imposed deformations - where stresses are generated in
a member due to dimensional changes of the member considered being
restrained (for example stress induced in a member due to restraint to
shrinkage of the member).
(b) Restraint of extrinsic imposed deformations - where the stresses are
generated in the member considered by its resistance to externally applied
deformations (for example where a member is stressed due to settlement of
a support).
(2) It is also necessary to distinguish between two basic types of stress distribution within
the member at the onset of cracking. These are:
(a) Bending - where the tensile stress distribution within the section is
triangular (i.e. some part of the section remains in compression).
(b) Tension - where the whole of the sections subject to tensile stress.
(3) Unless more rigorous calculation shows a lesser area to be adequate, the required
minimum areas of reinforcement may be calculated from the relation given
As K e Kf ct .ef Act / s
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K= a coefficient which allows for the effect of non-uniform self-
equilibrating stresses
Values of K for various situations are given below:
a) tensile stresses due to restraint of intrinsic deformations generally
K = 0.8 for rectangular sections when h ≤ 300mm, K = 0.8
h ≥ 800mm, K =1.0
b) tensile stresses due to restraint of extrinsic deformations K = 1.0.
Parts of sections distant from the main tension reinforcement, such as outstanding parts of
a section or the webs of deep sections, may be considered to be subjected to imposed
deformations by the tension chord of the member. For such cases, a value in the range of
0.5 < K < 1.0 will be appropriate.
(4) The minimum reinforcement may be reduced or even be dispensed with altogether if
the imposed deformations sufficiently small that it is unlikely to cause cracking. In such
cases minimum reinforcement need only be provided to resist the tensions due to the
restraint.
(3) In addition to the above, minimum reinforcement in accordance with Chapter 7 shall be
provided for the control of cracking.
4.3.3.3.1. General
(1) Adequate protection against corrosion may be assumed provided that the minimum
concrete covers in section (EBCS-2, 1995 section 7.1.3) are complied with and
provided further that the characteristic crack widths wk do not exceed the limiting
values given in Table 4.3.3.3.1 1 appropriate to the different conditions of exposure.
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Dry Humid environment: Seawater and/ or aggressive
environment: Interior components chemical environment:
Interior of (e.g. laundries); exterior Components completely or
Type of buildings of components; partially submerged in
normal components in non- seawater; components in
Exposure
habitation or aggressive soil and/or saturated salt air; aggressive
offices water industrial atmospheres
Characteristic
crack width, wk 0.4 0.2 0.1
wk 0.4mm wk 0.2mm
s ( MPa ) (mm) s ( MPa ) (mm)
160 40 160 25
200 32 200 16
240 25 240 12
280 20 320 6
320 16 400 4
Table 4.3.3.3.2-1 Maximum Bar Diameter for which Checking Flexural Crack width may be omitted
In Table 4.3.3.3.2 1
wm = S m sm
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S m = the average distance between cracks
sm = the mean strain of the reinforcement considering the contribution of
concrete in tension.
Where: = diameter
k1 a coefficient which characterizes the bond properties of the bars
= 0.8 for deformed bars
= 1.6 for plain bars
k 2 a coefficient representing the influence of the form of the stress diagram.
= 0.50 for bending
= 1.00 for pure tension
= ( 1 2 ) / 2 1 for bending with tension
1 , 2 are the larger and the smaller concrete strains, respectively, below the
neutral axis of the cracked section given in Fig. 4.3.3.3.2-1
As
r (5.15)
Ac ,ef
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Where: s is the service stress in the steel and may be obtained by elastic theory
using modular ratio equal to 10.
s r is the steel stress at rupture of concrete section; i.e., stress for the
cracked section under the action of the theoretical moment M cr
1 is a coefficient which characterizes the bond properties of the bars and
is equal to
= 1.0 for high bond bars
= 0.5 for plain bars
2 is a coefficient representing the influence of the duration of the
application or repetition of the loads.
= 1.0 at the first loading
= 0.5 for sustained loads or for a large number of lead cycles
In 4.3.3.3.3-1,
(2) If more precise data are available, then the widths of the shear cracks in the webs of
beams can be calculated for sustained loads by means of Eq. wm = S m sm
together with the following equations:
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wk 1.7 k w wm
dx
s m 50 0.25k1 k 2
r sin
s 2
V
sm 1 c
0.4 s
E s Vsd Es
V Vc 1
s sd . 40 MPa
bw d w sin cos
4.4.1. General
In addition to limitation on cracking, described in the preceding sections, it is usually
necessary to impose certain controls on deflections of beams to ensure serviceability.
Excessive deflections can lead to cracking of supported walls and partitions, ill-fitting doors
and windows, poor roof drainage, misalignment of sensitive machinery and equipment, or
visually offensive sag. It is important, therefore, to maintain control of deflections, in one
way or another, so that members designed mainly for strength at prescribed overloads will
also perform well in normal service.
According to EBCS-2, 1995, the deflection of a structure or any part of the structure shall not
adversely affect the proper functioning or appearance of the structure. This may be ensured
either by keeping calculated deflections below the limiting values or compliance with the
requirements for minimum effective depth given in section 5.3.2.
Le
200
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Where Le is the effective span
Le
20 mm
350
In any calculation of deflections, the design properties of the materials and the design loads
shall be those appropriate for a serviceability limit states.
f yk Le
d 0.4 0.6
400 a
a is the appropriate constant from Table 5.6, and for slabs carrying
partition walls likely to crack, shall be taken as a 150 Lo
Lo is the distance in meters between points of zero moments; and for a
cantilever, twice the length to the face of the support.
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Initially the beam is uncracked and stiff (O-A). With further load, cracking occurs when the
moment at the ends exceed the cracking moment, Mcr. When a section cracks, its moment
of inertia decreases leading to a decrease in the stiffness of the beam (A-B). Cracking in the
mid-span region causes further reduction in stiffness (point B). Eventually, the
reinforcements would yield at the ends, or at mid-span, leading to increased deflection with
little change in load (points D and E). The service load is represented by point C. he beam is
essentially elastic at point C, the nonlinear load deflection being caused by a progressive
reduction of flexural stiffness due to increased cracking as the loads are increased.
With time, the service load deflection would increase from C to C’, due to creep and
shrinkage of concrete. The short-time, or instantaneous, deflection under service loads
(point C) and the long-time deflection under service loads (point C’) are both of interest in
design.
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M cr
i L2
E cm I i
M k M cr
ii L2
0.75 E s As z (d x)
Mk
max L2
E s As z (d x)
The presence of compression reinforcement can reduce the additional deflection due to
shrinkage and creep significantly. In addition to the content of the compression steel, the
extent of the long-term deflection depends on humidity, temperature, curing conditions and
age of concrete at the time of loading, ratio of stress to strength and many other factors.
For this reason, only estimates can be made for long-term deflections.
The effect of creep is to increase the strain in the concrete with time, as illustrated in the
figure below.
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Deflection calculations can allow for this increase in stress by reducing the value of the
elastic modulus for concrete, Ec to an effective elastic modulus, Ec,eff
According to EBCS-2, unless values are obtained by more comprehensive analysis, the
additional long-term deflection of flexural members shall be obtained by multiplying the
immediate deflection caused by sustained load considered, computed in accordance with
Section 4.4.5, by the factor
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Assignment set III
1. A floor system is supported by beams spaced at 3m on the center lines which are
simply supported at one end and fixed at the other. The beam are 8m in span with
web width 250mm, overall depth limited to 500mm and slab thickness 100mm. The
floor is subjected to a super imposed service load of 4KN/m2. Design the typical
interior beam for flexure and shear reinforcement. Use concrete C30, steel S300 and
Class I works.
2. The beam reinforced for shear and flexure as shown below is made of concrete C25,
steel S420 and Class I works. It is supporting a factored dead load of 6KN/m and a
factored live load of 50KN/m. Calculate bar-cut off and development length for the
critical sections.
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