Fonetica Fonologie Dima Gabriela

“Dunarea de Jos” University of Galati
Faculty of Letters
Contemporary English
Language.
Phonetics and Phonology
Course tutor:
Associate Professor Gabriela Dima

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 5
CHAPTER 1: ARTICULATORY PHONETICS 7

1.1. The Speech Mechanism. The Vocal Organs 7
1.1.1. Articulation and Articulators 8
1.2. Articulatory Classification of Speech Sounds 9
1.2.1. Contoid Sounds / Consonant - Type Sounds 9
1.2.2. Vocoid /Vowel-Type Sounds 11
1.2.2.1. Cardinal Vowels 12
CHAPTER 2: ACOUSTIC AND AUDITORY PHONETICS 13

2.1. Acoustic Phonetics 13
2.1.1. Acoustic Characteristics of Speech Sounds 13
2.1.2. Acoustic Classification of Speech Sounds 14
2.2. Auditory Phonetics 14
CHAPTER 3: THE ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM 16

3.1. The Phoneme Theory 16
3.1.1. Diachronic Apercu to the Theory of Phoneme 16
3.1.1.1. The Prague Phonological School 16
3.1.1.2. The London Phonological School 17
3.1.1.3. The American Phonological School 17
3.1.2. Present-Day Approach to the Theory of Phoneme 17
3.2. Total Inventory of English Phonemes 19
3.2.1. Vowel Phonemes 19
3.2.2. Diphthongs 20
3.2.3. Consonant Phonemes 21
3.2.4. Semi-Vowels /j,w/ 23
CHAPTER 4: SOUNDS IN CONNECTED SPEECH 25

4.1. Phoneme Changes in Connected Speech 25
4.1.1. Assimilation 25
4.1.2. Elision 26
4.2. Stress. The Nature of Stress 26
4.2.1. Stress Position 27
4.2.2. Stress in Connected Speech 28
4.3. The Syllable. Syllable Formation 28
CHAPTER 5: PRONOUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY 30

5.1. Pronunciation Standard of British English 30
Contemporary English Language. Phonetics and Phonology 3
5.2. Phonetic Transcription 30
5.3. Rules of Orthography. English Orthography 30
APPLICATIONS 32
1. Vowels 32
2. Diphthongs 39
3. Consonants 43
REFERENCES 50
4 Contemporary English Language. Phonetics and Phonology

Introduction
INTRODUCTION
Learning a foreign language is always in some measure repeating an old

experience, that of communicating through words ,and even if variety may be
enormous ,all languages are alike because people are alike in their capacity
of transmitting messages in a uniquely human way ; "Human language is a
system of vocal-auditory communication using conventional signs composed
of arbitrary patterned sound units and assembled according to set rules
,interacting with the experience of its users ", (Bolinger,1968:20). No matter
how conventionalized the language may be, it enables us to interact, to
construct meaningful messages .
An important word here is ‘construct’ because for communication to be
successful, messages need to have organisation and structure as does
language. In connection with that, linguists generally consider the existence
of three levels: sounds, words and syntax .In turn, each level manifests itself
in three ways. The first is simply the existence of units at each level,
elements or ‘particles’ that populate it. The second is the affinities that
particles show when speakers combine them or how they assort themselves
in strings, with limitation on how many can go together or which ones
precede and which ones follow .The third is the field relationships among the
particles, the way each fits into the grammatical system of particles at its own
level .
Since our main interest falls upon the level of sounds, the following
discussion aims at proving the rightfulness of the description above.
Thus, at the level of sound we find first the sound particles themselves, for
example /i, e, m/. Then, there are the strings -syllables and parts of syllables
-within which the particles combine in characteristic ways: one trait of the
particle /s/ is that it can join with a following /l/ but not with a following /r/ to
form the beginning of a syllable ,e.g. sleep ,slash ,slide ,etc . Last, there are
the contrastive field relationships among the particles as displayed, for
instance, by the vowel system. It follows that part of the description of
language must read as if the sounds that entered into the organization of
language were indispensable as the organization itself .Language is sound in
the same sense that a given house is wood .We can conceive of other
materials, but it is as if the only tools we had were woodworking ones .
Though no two languages are identical, this way of structuring the
level of sound is similar enough to generalize about it and such a
generalization is achieved by the science of phonetics.
The word phonetics is derived from the Greek phonema meaning sound
and it is nowadays used to define that branch of linguistics which studies the
sounds of speech. Phonetics is an essential part of language since it gives
language a definite form. The vocabulary and grammar of a language can
function only when the language has a phonetic form.
Being a branch of linguistics, it occupies a twofold peculiar position:
a) On the one hand, it is quite independent and develops according to its
own laws: phonemes and their distribution in words; their reciprocal
adaptation in words; stress; syllable formation; intonation; the relation
between oral and written speech, etc. The following examples will illustrate
this:
~Words are expressed in the phonetic form and can be analysed into
sounds. One word may differ from another in one sound only, e.g. big [b i g];

Introduction
bag [b æ g]; bog [ b‫ כ‬g ].
~ The three main forms of the so-called ‘irregular’ verbs in English, which are
the result of a long historical development of the English language, are also
expressed in phonetic form, and differ from one another because of vowel
alternations in the root:
e.g. rise - rose - risen

[ai] [ou] [i]
swim-swam-swum
[i] [æ] [Λ]
Remark:
One should avoid considering sounds in isolation without taking into account
the linguistic function they perform in view of their formal patterning and
arrangement.
b) On the other hand, phonetics is closely connected with a number of other
sciences, such as physics (or rather acoustics), biology, physiology and
others which help one understand the intricate process of producing speech
sounds according to universal laws.

Chapter 1: Articulatory Phonetics
CHAPTER 1: Articulatory Phonetics
For methodological purposes the science of phonetics proper has been

separated into three distinct areas:
a) Articulatory Phonetics which represents the study of the way in which
speech sounds are produced (articulated) by the vocal organs.
b) Ac oust jc Phonetics which represents the study of the physical
properties of speech sounds as transmitted between mouth and ear.
c) Auditory Phonetics which studies the perceptual response to speech
sounds, as mediated by ear, auditory nerve and brain.
These three areas are interdependent and condition each other.
Apart from the types of phonetic sciences mentioned above, there are
several other types of phonetics according to their specific field of
investigation (see Chitoran, 1978 Rogers, 2000).
The phonetician who works within the field of articulatory phonetics is
interested in the way in which the air is set in motion, in the movements of
the speech organs and the coordination of these movements in the
production of single sounds and chains of sounds.
1.1. The Speech Mechanism. The Vocal Organs
In terms of the mechanisms which produce the sounds of speech, we can

consider the action of speaking as produced in four principal phases:
-The lungs, activated by the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles of the
chest, send up the air into the passages above them.
-The vocal cords, two folds of ligament and elastic tissue opening from the
windpipe into the throat, may vibrate as they allow the air to pass.
-The velum, or soft palate, may open or close off the nasal cavity.
-The mouth, the most flexible of the resonance chambers of the system,
finally determines the quality of the emerging sound.
The four stages thus involve the lungs, the vocal cords, the velum and
the mouth. The lungs, in turn, are acted upon by powerful muscles of the
thorax and abdomen.
This is worth remembering: speech is far from being an activity of the
tongue or mouth, and much closer to being an activity of the whole body,
intimately bound up with breathing, upon which life itself depends. Our
speech, as many poets have perceived, is in a sense our breath. Speech
requires very considerable energy: it has been calculated that reciting for
one hour takes the same amount of energy as walking for the same time
along a road which climbs to over 300 feet.
A cross-section of the vocal organs will show:
(1) The trachea or windpipe;

(2) The larynx, a casing of cartilage and muscle protecting the
trachea;
(3) The vocal cords, two sheets of elastic tissue;
(4) The esophagus, or gullet, the food-passage;
(5) The epiglottis, a fold drawn over the windpipe when swallowing;
(6) The pharynx, the cavity between the back of the tongue and the backwall
of the throat;
(7) The tongue, which has no obvious sub-divisions, but for
convenience is treated as having four parts: the tip, the blade, the front and
the back;
(8) The uvula, the small appendage hanging at the back of the throat from
the soft palate;
(9) The velum or soft palate, the soft, fleshy area behind the palate;
(10) The hard palate, arched over the mouth;
(11) The alveolar ridge, between the upper teeth and the beginning of the
curve of the hard palate;
(12) The teeth;
(13) The lips.
Although a knowledge of the vocal organs is essential for the student, it is

probably pointless to try to memorize the diagram (see Gimson, 1970:8) out
of relation to what the various organs do. One should accordingly study the
vocal organs in position or in movement for particular sounds, and
particularly for related sequences, e.g. / p, t, k / or / m, n, /( Rogers, 2000:
44-50)
Since language depends on sound-contrasts, our main interest will be to
discover how the vocal organs establish the contrasts of speech:
(1) Contrasts of loudness or volume depending largely on the action of the
lungs and the muscles of the chest and diaphragm which control them.
These muscles provide the original power for nearly all the sounds of speech
besides controlling three important speech elements: breath-groups,
syllables and stresses.
(2) Contrasts of voiced and unvoiced sounds, and contrasts of pitch,

depending largely on the vocal cords.The contrast of voiced and unvoiced
sounds distinguishes /p/ and /b/ and a number of other pairs of English
consonantal sounds. Referring to /v/, for instance, there is a vibration of the
vocal cords which do not vibrate in the same way as for [f]. We thus call
/v/ a voiced and /f/ an unvoiced sound.The distinction between voiced and
unvoiced sounds is very important in English.
(3) Contrasts of the third type are those of nasal and oral sounds, controlled
by the velum or soft palate, which can be raised to close off the nasal cavity
from the mouth. The velum lowered, there is a closure in the mouth and the
airstream escapes through the nose only. This is the general position for
the three nasal consonants /m, n, ŋ /, the three consonantal sounds of
RPmorning. The velum raised, it represents the normal position for all
RPsounds except for the three nasal consonants specified.
(4) The sound-contrasts of the fourth and most complex set arise in the
mouth. These will be discussed in the chapter on vowels and consonants.
1.1.1. Articulation and Articulators
Generally, sounds are classified in terms of their place and manner of

articulation in the vocal apparatus.
Articulation is the general term used in phonetics for the physiological
movements involved in modifying an airflow to produce the various types of
speech sounds, using the vocal tract above the larynx. In other words,
articulation of sounds is the work of our organs of speech. During the
process of phonation, the speech organs are constantly moving and
changing their positions. Thus, any specific part of the vocal apparatus
involved in the production of a sound is called an articulator.
Two kinds of articulators are mentioned in the literature: active
articulators which are the movable parts of the vocal apparatus, such as the
lips, tongue, the lower jaw; passive articulators, those parts of the vocal tract
which cannot move, but which provide the active articulators with points of
reference, e.g. the roof of the mouth, the upper teeth, the hard palate. Some
authors consider the resonance chambers as articulators, too: the pharynx,
the mouth cavity and the nasal cavity.
1.2. Articulatory Classification of Speech Sounds
According to the majority of the works in the domain, speech sounds are
divided into vowels and consonants, a vowel being a voiced sound, while a c
o n s o n a nt being a sound that goes with another sound to form a syllable.
It is evident that articulatory criteria are mixed up with linguistic ones in order
to establish this distinction. The following definitions are usually provided in
order to distinguish between vowels and consonants.
Thus, vowels have been characterized as the speech sounds in the
production of which the air-stream pushed out from the lungs does not meet
any considerable obstacle, while consonants are sounds which do imply
such an obstacle in their production.
Certain sounds [l, r, m, n, ŋ, w, j ] will reveal characteristics which are
nearer to those of vowel sounds. This means that in their production the
airstream escapes quite freely since it does not encounter any major
obstacle on its way out from the lungs, (or if it does, there is always a
possibility of by passing it). Because of these difficulties it has been
suggested to confine the use of the terms vowel and consonant to
phonology, where such a distinction can be based on the linguistic function
of sounds, and to provide new terms such as vocoid - for the vowel - type
sounds and contoid for the consonant-type ones, for their articulatory
classification. The terms vocoid and contoid have been suggested by the
American linguist Pike, 1963.
Certain authors ( Gimson 1970, Chitoran 1978, O'Connor 1991)
underline the fact that the terms contoid and vocoid are used to refer mainly
to the phonetic division of sound types whereas the terms vowel and
consonant are used to denote linguistic categories. With reference to a strict
phonetic description contoids are better characterized in terms of articulation
since they involve easily observable movements and contact or strictures
between various organs of speech; vocoids are better described in terms of
auditory relationships which do not imply such contacts or strictures.
The assignment of the sounds of English to one of these phonetic
classes is performed according to certain criteria observing that their
linguistic categorization does not always correspond to the phonetic one.
1.2.1. Contoid Sounds / Consonant - Type Sounds
As most speech sounds are, English contoids are pulmonic egressive

sounds due to their production provided by the air-stream coming out directly
from the lungs, voiced or voiceless, with or without the vocal cords vibration.
Particularly, English contoid sounds are described and classified also
according to the following major criteria (selection from Gimson, 1970: 29-
30).
a) Place of Articulation:
~ bilabial, case in which the lips are the primary active articulators: [p, b, m]
~ labio-dental, case in which the sounds are articulated by the lower lip
against the upper teeth: [f, v]

~ dental, case in which the apex of the tongue articulates with the upper
teeth: [θ, ð]
~ alveolar, case in which the apex of the tongue articulates with the
alveolar ridge: [ t, d, s, z, n, l ]
~ post-alveolar, case in which the apex of the tongue articulates with the
back part of the alveolar ridge [r]
~ palato-alveolar, case in which the apex of the tongue is articulated against

the alveolar ridge with a simultaneous raising of the front of the tongue
against the hard palate: [ ∫, ʒ, t∫, dʒ ]
~ palatal, case in which the front part of the tongue articulates with the hard
palate: [j]
~ velar, case in which the back part of the tongue articulates with the soft
palate: [k, g, ŋ]
~glottal, case in which the sounds are produced in the region of the glottis,
either by a complete obstruction or by a narrowing of the passage between
the vocal cords: [h].
b) Manner of Articulation
According to the type of obstruction met by the air- stream in the

production of English contoids, the following sounds are distinguished
(selection from Gimson, 1970:30-31):
~ plosive, case in which a complete closure at some level within the vocal
tract is released suddenly, the sound being uttered with some kind
explosion: [p, b, t, d, k, g ]
~ affricate, case in which the complete closure is released very slowly by

separating the obstruction organs, thus leaving a narrow passage for the air-
∫
stream to escape: [t , dʒ ].
~ nasal, case in which the obstruction is kept close with the directing of the
air-stream out through the nasal cavity: [ m, n, ŋ ]
~ fricative, case in which only a narrow passage is left for the air-
stream to escape, thus causing friction:[f, v,,s,z, θ, ð, ∫,ʒ,h ]
~lateral, case in which a partial closure takes place within the mouth cavity,
allowing the air-stream to escape on one or both sides of the
cavity/contact: [l]
~ roll, case in which intermittent closures or taps occur when the tongue tip
touches repeatedly another speech organ, the palate: [r]
c) Force of Articulation
According to the volume of the air-stream and the tenseness of the

speech organs involved in their articulation, English contoids can be
classified into:
~ fortis, implying a larger volume of air and a firmer resistance at the place of
articulation: [ p, t, k, f, s, ∫, h]
~lenis, implying a smaller volume of air and a softer resistance at the place
of articulation: [ b, d, g, v, ʒ, ð, z]
Semi-vowels such as [w, j] are included among the consonant-type
sounds of English due to their marginal position in the syllable and therefore
to their lack of syllabic function; even if from the articulatory point of view they
arc vowel-like sounds since there is no major obstruction of the speech tract
in their production.
Figure 1 is a schematic representation of the classification of English
consonants.
Figure1. English Consonant-Type of Speech Sounds
Point of Classes according to mode of articulation

Articulation
Stops Fricatives Resonants
Plosives Affricates Nasals Laterals Semi Rolls
vowels
Bilabial p b m w
Labiodental f v
Dental θ, ð
Alveolar t d s z n l r
Palato-
alveolar t∫ d3 ∫ 3
Palatal j
Velar k g ŋ
Glottal h
1.2.2. Vocoid /Vowel-Type Sounds
Pulmonic egressive sounds, characterized by the free passage of the

air-stream on its way out from the lungs, vocoids in English can be classified
according to the following variables:
a ) The position of the tongue and its degree of raising in relation to the
palate:
~ front, case in which the front part of the tongue is raised against the
palate: [i:, i, e, æ]
~ back, case in which the back part of the tongue is raised against the
palate: [u:,√,‫כ‬:,o,α: ]
~ central, case in which the central part of the tongue is raised against
the palate: [ 3:, ə, Λ].
~ close, case in which the tongue is high in the mouth :[ i:, u: ].
~ open, case in which the tongue is low in the mouth: [æ, α:].
~ half-close and half-open, cases in which there take place intermediary
degrees of tongue raising against the palate (see Rogers 2000 :175-180, for
the graphic representation of vowels’ production)
b) The position of the lips

~ rounded, case in which the lips may be rounded to a greater or smaller
degree: [o,‫כ‬:, u:,√ ]
~ unrounded, case in which the lips are spread: [i:, i, e, æ, Λ, α:, 3:]
c) The degree of muscular tension

~ tense, case in which the muscles of the tongue and of the mouth are
tense:[i:,u:,α:, 3: ,‫כ‬:]
~ lax, case in which the muscles of the tongue and of the walls of the
mouth are lax: [ √, i, e, æ, ə, Λ]
d) Duration
~ long or short, the length of the sounds depends considerably on the

actual position a given vocoid /vowel-type occupies in a word or
utterance, length which is always associated with muscular tension.
1.2.2.1. Cardinal Vowels
The term cardinal vowel refers to the system devised by Daniel Jones
and entitled Cardinal Vowel Scale, system which provides a standard scale
for judging vowel quality. The eight cardinal vowels form a set of fixed vowel
sounds having known acoustic qualities and known tongue and lip positions"
(Jones,1965:52). Combining the two main articulatory features of vowels -
the relative position and the exact part of the tongue raised against the
palate, two opposite qualities are set up: one which is highest and front, the
resulting sound being cardinal vowel [i] and one which is lowest and back,
the resulting sound being cardinal vowel [a]. The lips are spread for both
sounds and the soft palate (velum) is raised in order to block the nasal
cavity.The usefulness of the cardinal vowel scale resides in the fact that each
of the cardinal vowels has an invariant value and may serve as standard in
relation to which vowel sounds in various languages can be described:
1. [i] French i in si; German ie in Biene;

2. [e] French é in thé ; Scottish ay in day;
3. [ ε ] French ê in même;
4. [a] French a in la;
5.[α] French a in pas;
6. [ ‫]כ‬ German o in Sonne;
7. [o] French o in rose
8. [u] German u in gut.

Chapter 2: Acoustic and Auditory Phonetics
CHAPTER 2: ACOUSTIC AND AUDITORY

PHONETICS
Any study on the nature of human speech sound-making cannot be
complete without integrating articulatory, acoustic and auditory
characteristics within a holistic approach, thus underlining the relationships
established between phonetics and such sciences as: anatomy, physiology,
psychology, physics, electronics, etc.
2.1. Acoustic Phonetics
2.1.1. Acoustic Characteristics of Speech Sounds
Acoustic Phonetics has been defined as that branch of general phonetics
which studies the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted
between mouth and ear. It is mostly the frequency and amplitude
characteristics of the sound waves which constitute the object of study for
both phonetics and physics.
In acoustic terms, the formation of any sound requires that a vibrating
medium should be set in motion by some kind of energy, the function of
vibrator is often fulfilled in the case of human speech mechanism by the
vocal cords, activated by the air pressure coming from the lungs.
Speech sounds, conveyed to our ears by means of waves of
compression and rarefaction of the air molecules, can have a "pure" nature
corresponding to regular patterns of vibrations and producing "tone" e.g. in a
vowel sound; or they can have an "impure" nature corresponding to irregular
patterns of vibrations and producing "noise" e.g. consonants ; both regular
and irregular vibrations present can produce a "combination" of tone and
noise as in [z ].
Generally, in the production of vowels, the vibrator is normally provided
by the vocal cords; in the case of the majority of consonants, a source of air
disturbance is provided by constriction at a certain point above the larynx
with or without accompanying the vibrations of the vocal cords.
As a matter of fact, the vocal cords vibrate in such a way as to produce,
in addition to a basic vibration over their whole length - fundamental
frequency - a number of overtones or harmonics, having frequencies which
are simple multiplies of the fundamental of first harmonic ( Rogers, 2000).
Using such experimental devices as the spectrograph, it has been proved
that the number and strength of the component frequencies of the glottal
tone will differ from one individual to another, thus accounting for the
differences of voice quality by which speakers can be recognized.
The complex range of frequencies of varying intensity which go to
make up the quality of a sound is known as the acoustic spectrum: those
bands of energy which are characteristics of a particular sound are known
as the sound's formants, e.g. formants of [α:] are said to occur in the region
of 800 and 1,100 c.p.s. (cycles per second).The higher the glottal
fundamental frequency, the higher our impression of pitch; pitch
judgements made on voiceless or whispered sounds, without the glottal
tone, are limited in comparison with those made on voiced sounds, and are
induced mainly by variations of intensity or by the dominance of certain
harmonics brought about by the dispositions of the resonating cavities
(Gimson, 1970: 22-23).
Apart from quality and pitch mention must be made of such acoustic
characteristics of sounds as loudness and length providing for the correlation
between the production, transmission and reception stages of speech.

Loudness may depend on some interdependent factors: the
intensity at the production stage which in turn is related to the size or
amplitude of the vibration and what we call the speaker's feeling for
stress, e.g. when a sound or syllable is stressed, it is being uttered with
more muscular effort, increased air pressure, and greater amplitude of
vibration.
Length. Since the sounds comprising any utterance will have varying
durations, we will have the impression that some syllables are longer than
others. The duration of sounds or syllables will, of course, depend upon
the speed of utterance. In the English sound system, however, there are only
two degrees of length which are linguistically significant, long or short
sounds, all other absolute durations will be interpreted in terms of this
relationship.
2.1.2. Acoustic Classification of Speech Sounds
According to the data obtained from their spectrograms, vowels and

consonants are roughly classified into the following opposite classes:
a) compact /v s/ diffuse
With compact vowels and consonants their main formants are grouped
near each other in the middle of the spectrum, e.g. the English vowels: [æ, o
]; the English consonants: [k, g]. With diffuse vowels and consonants their
main formants are situated far apart at each of the two extremities of the
spectrum, e.g. the English vowels: [i:, u:]; the English consonants: [t, d],
b) acute /v s/ grave
The classification corresponds to the degree of frequency of the second

formant. Thus, for acute vowels, e.g. [ i:, i, e, æ ], the second formant has a
high frequency (in the range of 1,800 - 2,300 c.p.s.); acute consonants such
as [t, d], also display a predominance of high frequency having a sharp
character. For grave vowels, e.g. [u:,√ ,‫כ‬:,o,α:], the second formant has a
much lower frequency (in the range of 800 - 1000 c.p.s.); grave consonants
such [ p, b], display a predominance of lower frequencies, too.
2.2. Auditory Phonetics
Auditory Phonetics deals with man's hearing mechanism, in other
words, it deals with the perception and interpretation of speech sounds as
common areas of study for both physiology and psychology on the one hand
and phonetics on the other hand.
The main types of activities involved in the act of hearing have a
dualistic nature:
1) Physiological, which refers to the actual perception of speech sounds and
their transmission to the brain by means of the hearing organs. The main
hearing organ which performs the audition proper is the ear which is put to
work by sound stimuli according to the following mechanism:the surrounding
air sets in motion the tympanum which in turn activates the chain of bones;
the movements of the bones convey the reinforced vibrations to the oval
window which consequently sets in motion the liquid in the inner ear with
the latter’s task of transmitting the vibrations to the hair cells in the
cochlea whence they are transmitted to the brain via the auditory nerve.
2) Psychological, which consists in the interpretation of the sounds in the
auditory sensation area of the brain according to the following pattern:
the incoming acoustic stimulus is turned into a nervous one which is
transmitted to the brain, where the processing of the incoming data takes
place on the basis of the acoustic properties of the sounds, frequency,
amplitude and duration, and in relation to the hearer's knowledge of his
own language.
Summarizing, the functions performed by the auditory apparatus in the
perception, transmission and interpretation of speech sounds are as follows:
- capturing of sound;
- transmission of sound;
- processing the incoming data by transforming the acoustic stimuli
into nervous ones;
- transmission to the brain;
- decoding of the information into the corresponding unit or units of the
respective language.
Concluding remark:
Articulatory, Acoustic and Auditory Phonetics are closely interrelated
since they are the stages of one and the same phenomenon, fact proved by
referring, for instance, to the activity of the vocal cords when they are in a
state of vibration -articulatory fact-, voice will be produced – acoustic fact -,
while the auditory impression will be that of a musical tone - auditory fact.

Chapter 3: The English Phonological System
CHAPTER 3: The English Phonological System
Phonology has been generally defined as that branch of linguistics which

studies the sound systems of languages. Its aim is to describe the range and
function of sounds in specific languages and to establish the rules according
to which the types of phonetic relationships relate and contrast words and
other linguistic units. We can thus speak of a dynamic treatment of speech
sounds within phonology as opposed to the static one within phonetics.
For methodological reasons in approaching the domain, there are usually
recognized two branches of phonology: segmental phonology which
analyses speech into discrete segments, such as phonemes; and
suprasegmental phonology which analyses those features which extend
over more than one segment.
We can also mention the distinction between diachronic and svnchronic
phonology, with the former studying patterns of sound change in the history
of language, and the latter studying sound patterns irrespective of the
historical change.
3.1. The Phoneme Theory
3.1.1. Diachronic Apercu to the Theory of Phoneme
The history of phonology is largely taken up with the development of

ideas concerning the phoneme. Thus, a great number of linguists belonging
to various linguistic trends have written on the subject of phonemes, their
studies having much contributed to the present-day status of the phoneme
within the general phonological theory.
3.1.1.1. The Prague Phonological School
The main representative of the Linguistic Society of Prague was N.S.

Trubetzkoy who propounded his phonological views in a number of works,
the principal of which is Grundzuee der Phonologie. The aspects largely dealt
with in this study are: the separation of phonology from phonetics, the theory
of phonological oppositions and the theory of the arch-phoneme. In what
concerns the separation of phonology from phonetics N.S. Trubetzkoy
developed de Saussure's principle of the separation of speech (parole) from
language (langue) by proclaiming a new science, phonology, as distinct from
phonetics: "The only aim of phonetics is to answer the question how this or
that is pronounced; phonology should investigate which sound features in a
given language are distinctive, what connection there is between these
distinctive elements, according to what rules they may be combined into
words or sentences"(Fischer-Jorgensen, 1975:50). Thus, a phonetician
should study sounds without taking into consideration the meaning of what is
said, while a phonologist should take into account only those sound features
which have a definite function in a language.
With reference to the theory of phonological oppositions, Trubetzkoy

further develops his system of oppositions by giving special prominence to
the most essential members:
a) the phoneme, which he defines as a unity of the phonological
relevant features of a sound.
b) the speech sound, which he defines as a unity of all the features,
both relevant and irrelevant of a sound representing the phoneme in
connected speech.
The linguist also emphasizes the fact that the inventory of the
phonemes of a language is practically a correlation of its system of
phonological oppositions.
Some oppositions may be neutralized, the phoneme in the position of
neutralization is the arch-phoneme, defined as a unity of relevant features
common to two phonemes.
3.1.1.2. The London Phonological School
Author of the most authoritative English Pronouncing Dictionary (1965),

Daniel Jones produced one of the most complex definitions of the phoneme
as "a family .of sounds in a given language winch are related in character
and are used in such a way that no one member ever occurs in a word in the
same phonetic context as any other member”(Jones,1965: 49); he also
emphasizes the fact that different members of the same phoneme -
allophones -are mutually exclusive; for instance, the [k] that is used in keep
cannot be used in call where we use a labialized [k], etc., underlining the
importance of the phonetic context. Practice prone, Daniel Jones gives the
phoneme a practical application, useful in teaching languages, in creating
phonetic transcription, etc.
3.1.1.3. The American Phonological School
The phoneme theory in America may also be characterized as

structuralist, through the synchronic and descriptive treatment of phonetics,
thus paying full tribute to de Saussure's principle according to which all
linguistic phenomena are to be analysed synchronically, without any
connection with history.
Frequently alluded to as one of the most representative descriptivists,
Leonard Bloomfield underlines the distinctive function of the phoneme in his
definition of the phoneme as "a minimum unit of distinctive sound - feature"
(Bloomfield,1965).
3.1.2. Present-Day Approach to the Theory of Phoneme
A phoneme can be described in a preliminary way as "the smallest
contrastive linguistic unit which may bring about a change of meaning"
(Gimson, 1970:44). What this description means is evident if we compare
ten and ken. Thus we can bring about a change of meaning for ken by
substituting /t/ for /k/, and [t] and /k/ are the smallest units which we can
exchange in order to make this alteration. We could even make a rather long
list of the phonemes of English by collecting sets of contrasts like that of ken
and ten; adding words of the same pattern to the original pair, we arrive at
the following possible list: bed, den, fen,gen, hen, ken, men, pen, wren, ten,
when, yielding eleven contrasting sound-units.
The list ought not, of course, to be limited to sounds at the beginnings
of words or syllables but we should consider sounds in any position, such as
the middle elements of such pairs as bid and bad, or the final elements of
such pairs as bid and bit. This would yield to such lists as: bid, bit, bin, bill
,etc. varying the final element or bid, bead, bed, bad, bud, booed, board,
bard, bird, varying the middle element. Proceeding, let's compare the words
pin, tin, and kin. They are distinguished by the contrasts of the phonemes
/p/, /t/ and /k/, contrasts based on simple differences between three units
of sounds.The closure and the release are common to all three, but they
are distinguished by the point of closure: each , in other words, is formed in
a particular and distinctive way, but the three form a set with certain
elements in common.
The keyword of the above mentioned description is contrastive; our

ability to "hear" a language depends entirely on our ability to hear contrasts
between phonemes.
We are now in the position of extending the definition of the phoneme.
A phoneme is evidently not one particular sound so much as "a family
of sounds in a given language which are related in character" (Jones, 1965)
and which, in spite of minor differences, " sound the same to a native
speaker of the language"(O’Connor,1991). Such a family is the group of
sounds which in English includes aspirated and non-aspirated /p/. The
English variants of /t/ form a second family, and those of /k/ a third.
Each variant or class of the /p/, /t / or /k/ families may be said to constitute
an allophone of the phonemes /p/, /t/ or /k/; for instance, people
asking Where's the car? will differ in their individual renderings
of /k/, though they will all produce a /k/ appropriate to the back vowel of
car.
The types of /k/ thus produced are said to be in complementary
distribution, which means that each "occurs in a fixed set of contexts in
which none of the others occur " ( Gimson, 1970). It is important to realize
that the complementary distribution of allophones ensures that they are non-
distinctive. A distinctive feature is one for which we have a choice. Given the
framework:
Where's the /k-/?
we have a limited choice of units completing it : /i:/ if our meaning is key, /з:/
for cur and / α:/ for car.
Allophones, generally speaking, are manifestations of a phoneme which
are either in free variation or in complementary distribution.
To understand the role of the phoneme in English, it may now be helpful
to summarize a number of points that have arisen in our discussion. While a
basic concept like that of the phoneme can probably never be completely
defined, it is always advisable to set up a bundle of characteristic features
connected to it, features which will give shape to it.
a) A phoneme is distinctive: any phonemic contrast in a given

language, such as that of /p/ and /b/ in English, signals (in the
given language) a contrast of meaning, e.g. that of pun and bun or pin
and bin. The words contrasted by the difference of a single phoneme
are called minimal pairs.
b) A phoneme is without meaning, though it is a unit for constructing

meaningful sequences of sounds.
c) The sounds which are the manifestations of a phoneme are variable

(e.g. clear and dark /l/,aspirated and non-aspirated / p /, etc.); the
phoneme is thus a class or family of sounds rather than a single
invariable sound-unit.
d) The variant forms or allophones of the same phoneme in a given

language are non-distinctive, e.g. no changes of meaning in English
are signaled by the contrast of aspirated and non-aspirated /p/.
Allophones are either in free variation or in complementary distribution.
e) A phoneme is a feature of a given language; although two
different languages may have phonemes which are relatively similar in
articulation, sound or distribution, there is no such thing as a phoneme
common to two or more languages.

3.2. Total Inventory of English Phonemes
It is possible to establish the phonemes of a language by means of a
process of commutation or the discovery of minimal pairs, i.e. pairs of words
which are different in respect of only one sound segment. The series of
words pin, bin, tin, din, kin , chin, gin, fin, thin, sin, shin, win supplies us
with twelve words which are distinguished simply by a change in the first
(consonantal) element of the sound sequence. We may symbolize these
elements of contrastive significance or phonemes, as / p, b, t, d, k, t∫, d3,
f, θ, s, ∫, w/. But other sound sequences will show other consonantal
oppositions, e.g.
(1) tame, dame, game, lame, main, name, adding /g, l, m, n / to our
inventory;
(2) pie, tie, buy, thigh, thy, vie, adding / θ, ð ,ν/;
(3) pot, tot, cot, lot, yacht, hot, rot, adding /j, h, r /;
(4) two, do, who, woo, zoo, adding /z/.
Such comparative procedures reveal twenty-two consonantal phonemes

capable of contrastive function initially in a word. It is not sufficient, however,
to consider merely one position in the word. Possibilities of phonemic
opposition have to be investigated in medial and final positions as well as in
the initial ones. Such an analysis of the consonantal phonemes of English
will give us a total of twenty- four phonemes, of which four (/ h, r, 3, ŋ/) are of
restricted occurrence, or six, if /w, j/ are not admitted finally.
Similar procedures may be used to establish the vowel phonemes of
English.
3.2.1. Vowel Phonemes
A. Presentation: / i:, i, e, æ, Λ,α:,o,‫כ‬:,√,u:, З:,ə/
B . Description
The twelve vowels which make up the inventory of English vowel

phonemes have been established by applying the commutation and
substitution methods. It is important to realize that (simple) English vowels
may contrast with one another in several different ways.The most relevant
contrastive factors are tongue-position, length and lip-rounding, but there
are a number of others, too.
a) Tongue - position
This is the primary mechanism for contrasting vowels. Vowels such as
/i:,u:,i, √ /, for which the tongue is high in the mouth, are called close in
contrast to open vowels such as /α:, æ, o, Λ /, for which the tongue is
relatively low in the mouth.
b) Length
Five of the twelve simple vowels are normally long : / i:, u:, α:,‫כ‬:, З: /
The colon after the symbol is a reminder that the vowel is long. The
remaining simple vowels are normally short: / i, e, æ, Λ, o, √, ə /
The actual length of the vowels classed as “long” varies considerably with
their environment. A “long” vowel is longer in a syllable ending with a voiced
consonant, such as /d/ or /z/, shorter in a syllable ending with an
unvoiced consonant, such as / t / or / s /.
c) Lip-rounding
Four of the five back vowels /u:, √,‫כ‬:,o / are spoken with somewhat rounded
lips. This rounding is most evident for / u:/, slighter for /√/ and /‫כ‬:/, /o/ may
have no rounding at all.
Remark:
The degree of lip-rounding decreases as we move down the series of the

back vowels: for the high back vowel /u:/ it is quite pronounced; for the low
back vowel / α: / the lips are "neutrally open".
C. Spelling: /i:/: free, be, dream, key, machine

/ i /: bit, symbol, village, build
/e/: bed, dead, any
/æ/: cat, glad, marry, plait
/Λ /: cut, son, young, blood
/ α:/: pass, part, heart, sergeant, calm
/o / : dog, was, cough
/‫כ‬:./: for, saw, ought, all, door
/√ /: put, woman, good, could
/u:/: food, do, soup, rude, chew
/ з:/: bird, her, turn, word
/ə/: about, mother, doctor, colour
D. Sample Analysis
For a shorthand description, it is sufficient to label a vowel as:
(i) High, mid or low;

(ii) Front, centre or back;
(iii) Short or long.
Thus: /æ/ is relatively low, front and short;

/u:/ is high, back and long;
/з: / is mid-central, long;
/ə / is mid-central, short.
3.2.2. Diphthongs
A. Presentation: /ai/, /ei/,/ ‫כ‬i/, /a√/, /ə√/, /iə/, /εə , /√ə/
B. Description
Diphthongs have been defined as sequences of two ( vocalic/consonantal)
sounds. In English diphthongs have been treated as being made up of a
vowel nucleus followed by one of the glides /i/,/√/,/ə/, as presented below:
a) Glides to / i / : / ai /; /ei /; /‫כ‬i/
~ for /ai/,the vowel of mine or lime, the glide is from a low front position to
a higher one, i.e. from the neighboring of cardinal [a] in the direction of /i/.
~ /ei/, the vowel of mailed, or lady or pay, is a much shorter glide, upwards,
towards /i/, from a midfront position.Cockney speakers usually substitute [ai],
as in the lyrics The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain, from My Fair Lady:
[laidi, spain], etc.
~ /‫כ‬i/, the vowel of toil or voice, is a glide forwards and somewhat

upwards from a low back position.
b) Glides to /√/: /a√ /, /ə√ /

~ /a√ /, the vowel of out or cloud, is an upward glide in the direction of / √
/, starting from a point about midway between the positions for cardinal [a],
with the lips slightly rounded.
~ / ə √ /, the vowel of bone or goal has a variable starting point: near schwa /
ə / or farther back at about the level of cardinal [o] .
c) Glides to / ə /: /i ə/; /ε ə /; / √ ə /
-/ i ə /, the vowel of deer or fear, is a glide to a mid-central position from a

higher front one: approximately from /i/ to / ə /.
~ /εə/ the vowel of pear or dare, is also a glide towards a mid-central

position, but this time from a starting point near cardinal [ε].
~ / √ ə /, the vowel of poor or tour, is a glide towards a mid-central

position from a fairly high back one.
3.2.3. Consonant Phonemes

A. Presentation : /p, t, k, b, d, g, tſ , dʒ, f, θ, s, ð, v, z, ∫, ʒ, h, m, n, ŋ, l, r, j, w/
The twenty-four consonants which make up the inventory of English
consonant phonemes have also been established by applying the
commutation and substitution methods. In order to get an overall view of the
whole range of consonantal sounds, we can arrange them in a number of
groups, each group having in common a certain mechanism of
articulation.Thus, it is assumed that as soon as you understand the formation
and the characteristics of particular groups, you will be in a position to begin
exploring the system as a whole.
B. Description. Types of Consonant Phonemes

a) Plosives: / p, b; t, d; k, g /
The complete articulation of an English plosive sound follows three
stages: closure, interrupting the airstream; hold, during which the air behind
the closure is compressed; release, the abrupt escape of air. Since the
compression of air behind an oral closure is a feature of all English plosives,
the velum is raised for all sounds in this group to prevent the escape of air
through the nasal cavity. The oral closure is made by the lips for /p, b/=
bilabial plosives; between the alveolar ridge and the tip and blade of the
tongue for /t, d/ = alveolar plosives; and between the back of the tongue and
the velum for /k, g/ = velar plosives.
The six English plosives are also distinguished from one another in a number
of different ways:
-by voice : /b, d, g / are normally voiced
: /p, t, k / are not voiced
- by energy : /p ,t ,k / are fortis (strong)
: /b ,d, g / are lenis (weak)
Spelling:
/p/: pun, spend, stop

/b/: boy, about, grab
/t/: time, attend, trend, act, stopped
/d/: dice, Adam, and, add
/k /: kite, can, act, tack
/g /: goose, eager, dog
Sample Analysis
For a shorthand description, it is sufficient to label a plosive as:
e.g. /b/: bilabial, voiced, lenis

/p/: bilabial, unvoiced, fortis
/k/: velar, unvoiced, fortis
/d/ :alveolar, voiced, lenis etc..
b) Fricatives: /f, v; θ, ð; s, z; ſ, ʒ ,h/
For all these sounds, the velum closes off the nasal cavity ,and the
airstream through the larynx and the mouth is narrowed at some point but not
stopped. The "audible friction" characteristic of the group (hence the term
"fricative" ) is set up by this narrowing of the airstream ,which takes place at
five different points :
- for /f/ and /v/ =labiodental fricatives ,the narrowing is between the lower lip
and the upper teeth ,which are pressed together so that the air has to force
its way between them ; /f/ is unvoiced and fortis,/v/ is voiced and lenis .
- for /θ/ and / ð,/ =dental fricatives ,the tip and the front of the tongue lightly
touch the inner surfaces of the upper teeth ;the escaping air is forced
between the tongue and the teeth ;/θ/ is unvoiced and fortis ,/ ð,/ is voiced
and lenis .
-for /s/ and /z/ =alveolar fricatives, the contact is between the tongue and the
alveolar ridge ;the tongue is hollowed to form a groove down the middle ,in
which air friction takes place ;/s/ is unvoiced and fortis ,/z/ is voiced and lenis
.
- / ſ / and /ʒ/ =palato-alveolar fricatives ,are formed in rather the same way as
are /s/ and /z/ ,but the contact between the tongue and the roof of the mouth
extends farther back ,and friction is set up over a wider area ;/ ſ / is unvoiced
and fortis; /ʒ/ is voiced and lenis .
- for /h/ =glottal fricative there may be a slight narrowing of the passage
between the vocal cords ,though the narrowing is as a rule too slight to result
in voice. Friction is set up throughout the vocal tract.
Spelling
/f/: fast, affair, leaf, Philip

/v/: van, ever, leave, nephew
/θ/: thin, thigh, ether, breath
/ ð /: then, thy, leather, breathe
/s/: sit, cease, escape, loss
/z!: zeal, rose, roses, buzz
/ſ/ : sheet, Asia, douche
/ʒ /: pleasure, confusion, rouge, vision
/h/: heat, ahead, perhaps
Sample Analysis
For a shorthand description it is sufficient to label a fricative as:
e.g. /v/ : labiodental, voiced ,lenis.
/θ/ : dental, unvoiced ,fortis.
/∫/: palato-alveolar ,unvoiced ,fortis .
c) Affricates / t∫,dʒ /
For both sounds / t∫,dʒ /, the velum blocks off the nasal cavity and
the tongue is raised to make a make closure at about the same position as
it makes the narrowing for / ∫/and /ʒ/ .The release is slower than it would be
for a plosive, resulting in a fricative sound : an affricate may be regarded as a
combination of a plosive and a fricative .
Spelling:
/ t∫/ : cheese, feature, nature, wretch
/ dʒ /: gin, fragile, adjacent, major
d) Nasals :/m, n, ŋ /
All three nasals are normally voiced, and for all three the velum is
lowered to allow the free escape of air through the nasal cavity. They
differ on the point of closure in the mouth:
-for /m/ the closure is bilabial.
- for /n/ the closure is alveolar.
-for /ŋ/ the closure is velar.
Spelling :
/m/ : may, remain, smite, seem
/n/ : no, and, sneeze, knife, moon
/ŋ/ : sing, singer, finger
e) Lateral: / I /
For / I /, the velum is raised to close off the nasal cavity while
the airstream escapes past the sides of the tongue ,or past one side only,
hence the term lateral .There are two principal variants or allophones / l
/ in English:
-clear [l] ,for which the main part of the tongue slopes steeply away
from the tip and is found before vowels as in love, blow or glad, and before
/ j / as in million or failure.
- dark [l ], for which the back of the tongue somewhat raised towards
the soft palate and found before consonants, as in help, salt, cold or at the
ends of words, as in feel, fill, little.
f) Post-alveolar frictionless continuant I r /
The phoneme / r /, as in rat, very, has a number of allophones:

frictionless continuant, fricative , alveolar tap, rolled.
For a detailed account of allophones of / r / consult Gimson (1970).
3.2.4. Semi-Vowels /j,w/

-/j/, the initial sound of year, is unrounded, palatal and voiced.
-/w/, the initial sound of will is labio-velar, rounded and voiced.
Sample Analysis to English Consonants

For a shorthand description it is sufficient to label/identify consonants
according to:
(i) Presence or absence of voice;
(ii) Nasal or oral quality;
(iii) Mode of articulation;
(iv) Point of articulation.
Thus :/p/ is unvoiced, oral , plosive, bilabial

/n/ is voiced, nasal, alveolar
A short description of this kind, will, of course ,reflect only the broad
contrastive features of the sound-unit.

Chapter 4: Sounds in Connected Speech
CHAPTER 4: SOUNDS IN CONNECTED SPEECH
The sounds of English, in fact of any language, are not usually uttered in
isolation, independently of each other. Speech thus becomes a stream of
continuous activity: the phoneme, so to speak, is only a recurring pattern in
the stream. For any phoneme, of course, there will be a recurrent set of
movements of the speech organs, not identical for all occasions, but broadly
similar. Thus for /f/ sounds we shall have certain common features: the
glottis wide open, the vocal cords not vibrating; the velum raised to close off
the nasal cavity, a narrow passage between the lower lip and the upper
teeth, and the air escaping with audible friction.
This combination, however, is an episode of movement rather than a
stationary "pose". It may be helpful to regard the pose or position as a kind
of "target" for the actual movements of speech: a target which may or may
not be "hit". In articulating, for instance "fish", the vocal organs need not wait
to hold the /f/ position before moving on to /i/ and in a detailed analysis of
their movements we might distinguish the three stages in the production of
any given sound:
a) an initial stage, the onset or the on-glide, during which the organs
involved in the production of the given sound take up the appropriate
position for the pronunciation of the respective sound, that is the vocal
organs are moving up to the target position.
b) a medial stage, the retention or hold during which the speech organs are
kept for a short time in the adequate position for the sound production, that
is the vocal organs are on the target.
c) a final stage, the release stage during which the speech organs move
away to a neutral position, that is the organs are moving towards the target
of the following sound.
When articulating sounds in sequences, the three phases (onset ,hold
, release) are not necessarily preserved; on the contrary, they frequently
merge into one another, the basic qualities of the respective sounds
undergoing important modifications. For example, the /k/ phoneme in the
English word actor has only the first and second phase ,while the following /t/
phoneme has only the second and the third phase .Thus ,the articulation of
this combination of two plosives has a closure ,a double long pause and an
explosion : the third phase of /k/ and the first phase of /t/ coalesce.
4.1. Phoneme Changes in Connected Speech
4.1.1. Assimilation
When phonemes are pronounced in sequences ,we observe the

phenomenon of assimilation, “the phonetic process by means of which two
(or more) phonemes ,when joined together within the word or at word
boundaries ,influence one another in an effort to achieve some degree of
similarity” (Chitoran,1978 :250) .In other words ,the speech organs adjust
themselves to make a more convenient transition from one articulation to
another ,displaying a certain “economy” of effort and a consequent ease of
pronunciation of the respective phonemes .
According to different criteria and taking into account the fact that the
term “assimilation” includes all changes in the characteristic features of
25
Contemporary English Language. Phonetics and Phonology
phonemes as a result of adjustment of articulations in sound-sequences , we
may distinguish the following types of assimilation :
a) regressive, in which the speech organs are prepared
beforehand for the articulation of a sound or sounds that follow.
b) progressive, in which the activity of one or some of the speech organs
is continued after the sound for which they were prepared has been
articulated.
c) partial or allophonic, when one or more features of the sounds in a
sequence are affected, e.g. the unvoicing of /w/ and the rounding of /s/ in
the word swan.
d) total or complete, when all the features of the sounds are adapted,
e.g. the change of /s/ to /ſ/ in the sequence this year / ði∫′j З: /
e) historical, which deals with phenomena of assimilation having taken
place at earlier stages in the evolution of the English language, e.g.
classical examples are to be found in words borrowed from Norman-French:
permission is now pronounced [pə′miſn].
f) synchronic or contextual, dealing with phenomena encountered in
present-day English:
- obligatory or established, which occurs in the speech of all persons
who speak a certain language, no matter what style of speech is used.
- non-obligatory or accidental, which appears in rapid, careless, speech,
e.g. did you [′didʒu: ] .
4.1.2. Elision
Elision represents the process of dropping (omitting) one or more

sounds in their pronunciation; it takes place especially when sounds occur in
clusters in unaccented syllables :due to redundancy features ,their omission
does not affect the intelligibility of the word to which they belong .
a) Elision of Vowels
The elision of vowels is restricted to unaccented syllables, particularly to / ə/
and /i/ situated in this position .Thus /ə / may be dropped in the following
cases :
- when it is preceded by a consonant and followed by a liquid /l/ or /r/ :e.g.
secretary / ′sekrətri/ ;novelist /′novəlist/; police /′plis/, etc.
- in front of other sounds too if the preceding one is a continuant consonant
: e.g. phonetically /fə′netikəli/; fashionably / ′fæſnəbli/ .
b) Elision of Consonants
The elision of consonants is restricted to certain sounds situated in
consonant clusters or it has been established as such :
- /t/ and /d/ are usually dropped when they are medial in a three consonant
cluster : handbag ,postman ,dustbin,etc.
- /θ/ ,/ð /, /f/ may also be lost when occurring in clusters difficult to pronounce
:twelfths ,clothes, etc..
- /l/ is lost in walk ,talk ,half, etc.
- final /b/ and /n/ when preceded by /m/ ,as in comb ,tomb ,autumn, etc.
- /k/ and /g/ are lost in initial position and preceded by /n/ : knee, gnaw
,knock, etc.
4.2. Stress. The Nature of Stress
The term stress is used to refer to the degree of force with which a
sound or syllable is uttered. A strong force of utterance means energetic
action of all the articulating organs; it involves a strong "push" from the
diaphragm and consequently strong force of exhalation, thus giving the
objective impression of loudness. Hence the "expiratory or dynamic stress
theory".
According to this theory, it is supposed that the strongest syllable in a
word, i.e. the stressed syllable , is made more prominent than the others by
means of a stronger current of air, by a stronger expiration, and also by a
more energetic articulation of the syllable. The influence of more energetic
expiration upon stress is of little importance in comparison with the role of
the dynamic principle.
Stressed syllables usually contain a vowel, and vowels do not require a
stronger current of air in order to be intensified. What they need is an
intensification of musical tone, which is achieved by more energetic
articulation: the vocal cords, the walls of the resonance chambers, and all
the speech organs become tenser.The same is observed when the
articulation of voiced consonants is intensified.
To conclude, let us quote the linguist O'Connor(1994), who specifies
that stress is the name given to the stronger muscular effort, both respiratory
and articulatory ,which we can feel in connection with some syllables as
opposed to others. For instance, in English, August [′`‫כ‬:gəst] has more effort
on the first than the second syllable: but august [‫כ‬: ′gΛst] has the greater
effort on the second syllable .Thus stress is a significant factor since it is an
essential part of word-shape, words easily becoming unrecognizable if
stress is wrongly placed .
4.2.1. Stress Position
From the viewpoint of phonology, the main function of stress is to

provide a means of distinguishing degrees of emphasis or contrast in
sentences, the term used being contrastive stress.Many pairs of words and
word sequences can also be distinguished using stress variation :e.g. ′object
/vs /ob′ject ,black′bird /vs / ′blackbird etc.
In order to account for all such contrasts ,the American structuralist tradition
considered four degrees of stress :
(1) primary /'/

(2) secondary /`/
(3) tertiary /^/
(4) weak /ˇ/
These contrasts are demonstrable, it seems ,only on words in isolation .

Word-stress in languages is based, as a rule, upon a number of principles:
dynamic stress(discussed above), musical stress, qualitative stress and
quantitative stress.
Musical stress belongs to the sphere of sentence-stress under the direct
influence of intonation.
In its pure form stress quantity manifests itself by a longer pronunciation
of vowels in stressed syllables; unstressed vowels are short. Thus stressed
syllables become more prominent.
Stress Quality is based on the fact that vowels of full formation are a
feature of stressed syllables only, and cannot occur in unstressed positions.
Vowels in unstressed syllables are weakened and reduced to a greater or
lesser degree.

4.2.2. Stress in Connected Speech
One of the most characteristic features of English word-stress is the

great number of words which have two strongly stressed syllables and also
of words with primary and secondary stress; there are even many
polysyllabic words with two primary and one secondary stress
(Chitoran&Petri, 1977; Chitoran&Parlog, 1989). Word-stress or accent in
English is free.
English accent discharges its distinctive function in two ways :
- by signaling differences in meaning , e.g. below [ bi′ lou ] vs [′ bilou] ;
- by signaling differences in grammatical function ;
a) when the words are accented on their first syllable they are nouns :
export[′ekspo:t]; incense(n) [′insens]
b) when the words are accented on their second syllable they are verbs:
export[eks′po:t]; incense(v)[in′sens]
Simple words.
In English polysyllabic words accent can fall on :
- the initial syllable : attitude [ ′ætitju:d]; carpet [′ka:pit]
- any of the middle syllable : important [im′po:tənt] ; satisfactory
[sætis′fæktəri]
- the final syllable : above; eighteen [ei′ ti:n]
Disyllabic words may fall into the following four accentual patterns:
1 → ● ♪ idea , unknown, cashier
2 → • ♪ alone, behind, reform
3 → ♪ ○ profile, female, invoice
4 → ♪ • under, valley, rhythm
Generally, two-syllable words of Germanic origin carry the accent on the
initial syllable , whereas those of non-Germanic origin carry the accent on the
last syllable( Crystal, 1995).
Three syllable words have got an unpredictable accent :
1. ● • ♪: magazine, understand [,mægə′zi:n]
2. ♪ • • : quantity [′ kwontiti]
3. ♪ • ○ : appetite [′ æpitait]
4. • ♪ • : important [im′po:tənt]
Four-syllable words
1. • ♪ • • remarkable [ri′ma:kəbl]
Derivatives
There is a possible correlation between accentuation and affixation in the
sense that affixes can or cannot influence the stress pattern
e.g. béautiful → béautifully
addréss → addre′ssee
emplóy → emplo′yee
All English prefixed words with the exception of Germanic prefixes such as a-
,be- for-, in words like around, ajar, begin, forget must have either primary
stress or some type of secondary accentuation on the prefix, while Romanian
prefixes remain unstressed ( Chitoran, Parlog, Augerot, 1985).
4.3. The Syllable. Syllable Formation
Phonemes usually occur in sequences. Sound sequences are
pronounced in such a way that not all the sounds are uttered with the same
degree of force, but the energy with which we articulate is alternately
increased and diminished. Even an unpracticed ear can perceive that the
sound sequences we pronounce are acoustically broken up into smaller units
* syllables. This phenomenon is clear when the same vowel phoneme is
repeated without a pause in adjoining syllables: “We even spoke to him […]”
.We hear a distinct rise and fall of prominence in pronouncing each of these
two [i:] phonemes ;the borderline between them is marked by a diminution of
force ,while a new increase in the force of articulation marks the second [i:] .
A syllable may consist of one phoneme or of a number of phonemes .In
pronouncing a syllable ,the energy of articulation increases until it reaches its
climax –peak of prominence. One or more phonemes pronounced with
diminishing force mark the boundary between two syllables –the valley of
prominence .Phonetically ,the syllable may therefore be defined as “a
segment of speech containing a peak of sonority ,or as that stretch of speech
between two valleys of sonority” .(Chitoran ,1978 :264) .It is assumed that
the peak of sonority constitutes its nucleus or centre ,its valleys of sonority
are represented by the onset and coda .Having the highest degree of
sonority ,English vowels usually constitute the nucleus of a syllable but there
are also consonants such as /l/ ,/m/ ,/n/ ,/ / which can acquire this function .
Phonologically ,the syllable has been defined as the lowest
phonological construction into which phonemes can be combined .In point of
structure it contains three segments :
-a central segment (the nucleus)
-an initial segment (the onset)
-a final segment (the coda)
The central segment is compulsory ,the initial and the final ones are
optional .The order of the phonemes in a syllable is a very important feature
of syllable construction in each language ,especially in teaching and learning
a foreign language.
The English syllable has got the canonical structure CVC ( consonant, vowel,
consonant). Variations are found under the structures: CV, VC, VVCC,
CCCVVCC, etc. For very good practice, consult Chitoran, Parlog, 1989.

Chapter 5: Pronunciation and Ortography
CHAPTER 5: PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY
5.1. Pronunciation Standard of British English
The pronunciation standard of British English (Received Pronunciation

(R.P.) developed on the basis of the London dialect of educated people
,because London expanded rapidly into an important centre of commerce
,industry and learning as early as the 14th century .Since the majority of
specialists consider this type of pronunciation to be generally accepted as a
result of social judgement rather than an official decision as to what is
“correct” or “wrong” ,R.P. has nowadays become the form of pronunciation
most commonly described in books on the phonetics of British English and
traditionally taught to foreigners (Roach, 2000, 2004).
Although one great advantage of R.P. is its uniformity ,this does not mean
that it is absolutely rigid and allows of no variations .Different individual
variants of the same phoneme are used by different speakers and, moreover
,there are variations in pronunciation of the same word. A language is never
static; it keeps on developing ,changing, some phenomena cease to exist,
new features are acquired.
5.2. Phonetic Transcription
Since conventional spelling cannot and does not represent the

phonetic form of words accurately, a special script is used for this purpose. It
is loosely called “phonetic transcription“ .
It is necessary to distinguish between two kinds of transcription ,used for two
different purposes :
a)phonemic transcription which is used to represent the phonemic system of
language ;it provides a separate letter (or a separate symbol) for each
phoneme.
b)phonetic transcription (in its narrow sense) is a type of transcription which
provides special marks to represent phonemic variants- combinative
,positional and individual. When it is necessary to represent some features
which are common to the variants of a number of phonemes ,diacritical
marks are used such as : [:] to indicate vowel phonemes ,[o] to indicate
labialization , [~] the sign of nasalization ,etc.
Attempts to create a phonetic script for teaching and research purposes
date as far back as the 16th and 17th centuries ;but it was only after the
International Phonetic Association was founded in 1887 that the International
Phonetic Alphabet was created .The International Phonetic Alphabet uses a
system of transcription which is based on the Latin alphabet and is supposed
to be universal .Its merit is that it is very simple and can be used for all
purposes (teaching and research ) .
5.3. Rules of Orthography. English Orthography
The rules of orthography are a set of rules which govern the spelling of
words .The spelling of concrete words is based upon one or another of the
graphical rules that exist in a language. In all European languages ,spelling
systems are based upon the use of the alphabet .In all languages ,especially

Chapter 5: Pronunciation and Ortography
if the orthography (spelling) of a language dates back for many centuries the
relation between sounds and letters is sometimes very complicated.
The same can be said about English orthography which is chiefly based on
the historical principle , the majority of words preserving their Old English or
Middle English spelling ,sometimes without modifications.
The phonetic principle (one letter for one sound ) is not expected to play
any role at all in the English spelling . No letter is used to represent one
sound only ; most letters are used to represent several sounds each ,and
many combinations of letters are sometimes used to denote the same
sounds .
The morphological principle can be traced in the following cases :
-the morpheme of the past tense is spelt ( e)d ,although its pronunciation
varies: [t], [d] ,[id] .
-the morpheme indicating the plural of nouns is spelt e(s) ,but it is
pronounced [s], [z] , [iz] ,in accordance with the final sound of the singular .
-the morpheme characterizing the IIIrd person singular ,Present Simple
Tense, has the same spelling and the same pronunciation as the plural
morpheme under the same circumstances ;
-the pronunciation of the definite article is different [ðə ]before consonants ;
[ði] before vowels ,but the spelling is the same in both cases.
-the indefinite article is always spelt a(n) ,although it is pronounced [ei] ,in
different cases.
-besides ,there are other cases in which the spelling does not change ,as in :
-er, -est ,morphemes of the comparative and the superlative degrees of
adjectives, etc.

Applications
APPLICATIONS
Vowels
The Vowel / i /
a) Words frequently used

Practice the following common words containing the vowel / i /, as in
pit :
pit give his big

it live been sing
is will think hit
him which women Mister
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their
corresponding phonetic transcription:
1.This is it.
2. Miss Mills thinks it’s big.
3. Which children did it?
4. Is it his?
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the
type of accent they carry on.
The Vowel / e /

Practice the following common words containing the vowel / e /, as in
pet :
pet when F September

get weather ten tell
let dead eleven then
them sell better friend
b) Sentences
1. Let’s get Ed a pen.

2. Many men said yes.
3. When did Susan send the letter?
4. The weather’s better in December.
The Vowel / æ /

Applications

Practice the following common words containing the vowel / æ /, as in pat:
pat back man can

at catch glad bad
has perhaps cab Saturday
have matter bag Dan
b) Sentences
1. Jack can’t understand Dan.
2. That man ran after the cat.
3. Has Dad had a nap?
4. Buy that hat!
Vowels / i, e, æ /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud and then repeat twice the first word from each of the
following three groups of words, noticing the presence of the contrastive
sounds / i, e, æ /:
pit pet pat → pat pet pit
sit set sat → sat set sit
nick neck knack → knack neck nick
knit net gnat → gnat net knit
b) Sentences with words in contrast

Practice the following sentences containing words with the contrastive
sounds / i, e, æ / and then provide your own examples:
1. Bill has seven children.
2. When did Dan tell him?
3. Has Ed been pretty busy?
4. The women met last Saturday.
The Vowel / o /

Practice the following common words containing the vowel / o /, as in
got :

Applications
pot doctor a lot

not hot October
got dollar o’clock
box watch dot
b) Sentences
1. The clock stopped.
2. It’s not a lot.
3. Tom got a job.
4. October is not hot.
The Vowel / Λ /

Practice the following common words containing the vowel / Λ /, as in
nut :
nut cup sun double

cut some Sunday love
but none son brother
up does Mum won
b) Sentences
1. The sun comes up at seven.
2. Mother loves the summer months.
3. Does Sunday come before Monday?
4. Hasn’t Gus won enough money?
The Vowel / ə /

Practice the following common words containing the vowel / ə /, as in
sitter:
sitter ago a mother

mitre an about doctor
waiter the accept figure
but grocer among aloud
b) Sentences
Applications
1. Call the waiter here!
2. Mother is the second among the sisters.
3. I met her a year ago.
4. The bird flew away.
Vowels / o, Λ , ə, /
sounds / o, Λ, ə /
dog bull but → but dull dog
gone done among → among done gone
want month about → about month want
sorry Monday aloud → aloud Monday sorry

1. October is not hot.
2. It’s not a lot.
3. Mother loves the summer months.
4. I met her a year ago.
The Vowel / √ /

Practice the following common words containing the vowel /√ /, as in
put :
put could cook took

good should look full
would foot push stood
woman wool pull mood
b) Sentences
1. Would this be a good book?

2. He shouldn’t have stood on that foot.
3. She took the book and put it away.

Applications
4. Look at that pretty woman.
The Vowel /u: /

Practice the following common words containing the vowel / u: /, as in
too:
too soon prove shoe

two who choose through
afternoon food spoon soup
do move lose group
b) Sentences
1. Do you have a loose tooth?

2. Whose group do you belong to?
3. I’m moving to another room this afternoon.
4. Ruth had some fruit juice in her room.
The Vowel / ‫כ‬: /

Practice the following common words containing the vowel / ‫כ‬: /, as in
call :
call because Paul brought

fall applause pause thought
small caught awful daughter
straw bought all corn
b) Sentences
1. I thought I saw Paul.

2. We ought to walk and talk together.
3. Has Mr. Hall taught law?
4. They brought all the corn.
Vowels / √, u:,‫כ‬:/

Applications
sounds /√, u:,‫כ‬: /:
put soon call → call soon put
good who corn → corn who good
book food fall → fall food book
woman move small → small move woman

1. She took the book and put it away.

2. Ruth had some fruit juice in her room.
3. Look at that pretty woman.
4. We ought to walk and talk together.
The Vowel /i: /

Practice the following common words containing the vowel / i: /, as in
see :
see he week evening

three mean meet keep
bee believe please need
me seen leave complete
b) Sentences
1. He sees me three evenings a week.

2. These people seem to believe me.
3. Keep these letters for me, please.
4. She needed complete rest, you see.
The Vowel / α: /

Applications
Practice the following common words containing the vowel / α: /, as
in cart :
cart aunt laugh card

bath half palm march
car after branch heart
clerk dance calm bar
b) Sentences
1. Park the car in the back yard.

2. Karl and Charles are pretty far apart.
3. She dances in a bar.
4. All the yards are barred.
The Vowel / З: /

Practice the following common words containing the vowel / З: /, as in
girl :
girl first skirt learn

were early shirt nervous
sir work earth person
burn world worst perform
b) Sentences
1. Were the little girls with her, sir?

2. Learn the first verbs well.
3. Don’t burn the skirt.
4. Nervous persons are worst.
Vowels / i:, α:, З: /
sounds / i: α: З: /:
see card girl → girl card see

Applications
three march were → were march three
bee dance sir → sir dance bee
me bar burn → me bar burn

1. Keep these letters for me, please.

2. Park the car in the back yard.
3. All the yards are barred.
4. Nervous persons are worst.
Diphthongs
The Glide / ai /:

Practice the following common words containing the diphthong / ai / as
in sigh:
sigh like write nice

I nine eye buy
hi time fine why
my might by July
b) Sentences
1. I’d like to buy a nylon tie.

2. My child likes ice cream.
3. Why arrive at five to nine.
4. I’ll try to find time for Friday.
The Glide / ei /:

Practice the following common words containing the diphthong / ei /
as in stay:
stay they place same

wait April weight name
say way maybe lane
take may rain pay

Applications
b) Sentences
1. The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain.

2. Eight days in April , and eight in May.
3. They say it is O.K.
4. Maybe it’s late.
The Glide / oi /:

Practice the following common words containing the diphthong / oi / as
in boy:
boy Freud noise coin

joy choice avoid join
boil toy oyster poison
enjoy annoy oil Roy
b) Sentences
1. Roy’s enjoying his toys.

2. The boys are rather noisy.
3. Avoid annoying the boy.
4. This oil is not poison.
Diphthongs: / ai, ei, oi /
sounds / ai, ei, oi/:
sigh say soy → soy say sigh
try tray Troy → Troy tray try
by bay boy → boy bay by
tile stale groin → groin stale tile

sounds / ai, ei, oi / and then provide your own examples:
1. Bill is my baby boy.

2. I like boiled rice and soy sauce.
3. What kind of a noise annoys the oyster.

Applications
4. We eat steak each day.
The Glide / aυ /:

Practice the following common words containing the diphthong / aυ /
as in cow:
cow towel mouth house

now sound around mouse
doubt ground hour cloudy
town proud how power
b) Sentences
1. I doubt that he’s downtown.

2. How much is the pound?
3. I’m proud of my house.
4. He wrote about one hour.
The Glide / əυ /:

Practice the following common words containing the diphthong / əυ /
as in go:
go home show nose

so told no moment
old both coat those
over whole hold telephone
b) Sentences
1. Rose and Joan don’t know yet..

2.Oh, did Joe go home?
3. Both those cars are pretty old.
4. A moment later he was at the show.
Glides to /υ /: / aυ, əυ/
sounds / aυ, əυ/ :
cow nose → nose cow

Applications
proud coat → coat proud
town both → both town
how home → home how

sounds / aυ, əυ/
and then provide your own examples:
1. Now’s the time to show us how.

2. Please, drive downtown slowly.
3. I doubt that you know the rules.
4. Do you know how to get a boat?
The Glide / iə /:

Practice the following common words containing the diphthong / iə /
as in ear:
ear here merely Shakespeare

hear deer rear superior
near tear interfere cheerful
fear year beer weary
b) Sentences
1. Shakespeare’s King Lear showed here last year.

2. Keep the ear-phones nearer, dear.
3. Never fear, I’m here.
4. Dear, don’t interfere!
The Glide / εə /:

Practice the following common words containing the diphthong / εə /
as in air:
air their fare Clare

hair where Mary various
care there chair stare
stairs wear spare pear
b) Sentences
1. Where are the stairs?

Applications
2. Careful with the hare!
3. Don’t tear it on that chair.
4. Mary and Clare paid the fare.
The Glide / υə /:
Practice the following common words containing the diphthong / υə /
as in moor:
moor tour secure tourist

poor assure truer Boers
cure fewer jury endure
sure lure sewer Moore
b) Sentences
1. Tourists should be sure to drink pure water.

2. Be sure to check your life insurance.
3. She helps the poor.
4. There were fewer Boers.
Glides to / iə/, / εə /, / υə/
sounds:/ iə/, / εə /, / υə/:
ear air moor → moor air ear
here hair poor → poor hair here
dear care cure → cure care dear
near wear sure → sure wear near

sounds / iə/, /εə /, / υə/ and then provide your own examples:
1. Never fear, I’m here.

2. Here’s where we were working.
3. Where are the stairs?
4. Is it thirty years since we were there?
Consonants
Plosives : / p,b /

Applications
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between
/p/ and /b/:
pay bay maple Mabel
nip nib napped nabbed
pin bin pack back
pound bound cup cub
Read aloud the following sentences with words containing the

contrastive sounds /p/ and /b/:
1. Pears and bananas are both fruits.

2. Paul, you’d better buy this paper.
3. The programme will probably begin at seven.
Plosives : / t,d /
/t / and /d /:
tin din tie die
tip dip tee D
tell dell late laid
bet bed latter ladder

contrastive sounds /t/ and /d/:
1. Tell Dotty to do it.

2. Ted said he couldn’t stay for dessert.
3. Don’t you know the word rod?
Plosives : / k, g /

Applications
/k/ and /g /:
cull gull muck mug
kay gay duck dug
could good curl girl
Kate gate backing lagging

contrastive sounds /k/ and /g/:
1. Did they get Lucky Strike cigarettes?

2. I’ve got to go to the bank to cash a check.
3. Call me again some time.
Fricatives : / f,v /
/f/ and /v /:
fine vine raffle ravel
belief believe few view
life live shuffle shovel
fat vat foil voile

contrastive sounds /f/ and /v/:
1. During the first fall days, the leaves turn lovely colours.
2. I live very near Avery Avenue.
3. They went to the cafeteria for some coffee.
Fricatives : / θ,ð /

Applications
/ θ/ and / ð /:
mouth mouthe thin this
thigh thy sooth soothe
wreath wreathe lath leather
wrath rather zither dither

contrastive sounds / θ / and / ð /:
1. This is the third toothbrush I’ve lost this month.

2. They have to think this thing through.
3. The baby’s teething, so her mouth is rather sore.
Fricatives : / s,z /
/ s / and / z /:
sue zoo sip zip
bus buzz ice eyes
dice dies loose lose
cease sees price prize

contrastive sounds / s / and / s /:
1. Sara’s your sister, isn’t she?

2. His suit is the same as this one.
3. What size dress does Susie wear?

Applications
Fricatives : / ∫, ʒ /
/ ∫ / and /ʒ /:
ruche rouge Aleutian allusion
Asher azure Confucion confusion
fission vision glaciar glazier
mesher measure dilution delusion

contrastive sounds / ∫ / and / ʒ /:
1. It’s a pleasure to see you, Mr. Shaw.

2. She wore a beige suit and red shoes.
3. Shall we wash our clothes, or brush them ?
Fricatives : / h /
Read aloud the following pairs of words which differ in having, or not
having, the sound /h/:
ill hill am ham
eat heat air hair
add had eye hi
all hall art heart
Read aloud the following sentences with words having, or not having,
the sound /h/ :
1. Is it his hat?
2. We hear with our ears.
3. I hate ham, but I ate it anyway.
4. Hello, Ellen.
Affricates : / t∫, dʒ/

Applications
/t ∫ / and / dʒ /:
chin gin cheep jeep
larch large chat jet
match Madge chest jest
chew Jew choke joke

contrastive sounds /t ∫ / and / dʒ /:
1. George bought that chair last July.

2. Which subject does Mr. Jackson teach?
3. Did Charles and Joe enjoy the lecture?
Nasals : / m, n, ŋ /
Read aloud the following groups of words containing the contrastive
sounds / m, n, ŋ /:
Kim kin king dime dine dining
rum run rung sum sun sung
ram ran rang

contrastive sounds / m, n, ŋ / :
1. Mr. Emerson sings tenor.

2. Kim is the name of a novel by Kipling.
3.I’m drinking ginger ale, not orange juice.

Applications
Consonants /l, r /
/l / and /r /:
lid rid reach leach
load road rot lot
loom room rag lag
loyal royal rain lain

contrastive sounds /l/ and / r /:
1. Remember to read lesson eleven.

2. I like rare steak.
3. Roy likes rain.
Semi-vowels : /w, j /
/w/ and /j /:
work York ward yard
wear year was use
warm yam wale Yale
well yell one you

contrastive sounds /w/ and / j /:
1. We always walk to York

2. Yale is a famous university in the United States.
3. Last year they used to work here.

References
REFERENCES
1. Bloomfield , M. N. A., 1965, A Linguistic Introduction to the History of
English, New York
2. Bolinger, D., 1968, Aspects of Language, Harcourt, New York
3. Chitoran, D., 1978, English Phonetics and Phonology, EDP, Bucuresti
4. Chitoran, D. , L. Petri, 1977, Workbook in English Phonetics and
Phonology, EDP, Bucuresti
5. Chitoran, D., H. Parlog, 1989, Ghid de pronuntie a limbii engleze,
ESE, Bucuresti
6. Chitoran, D., H. Parlog, J. Augerot,1985, The Sounds of English and
Romanian, Bucuresti
7. O’Connor, J.D., 1991, Phonetics, Penguin Books
8. Crystal, D., 1995, A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, Blackwell
9. Fischer, J., 1975, Trends in Phonological Theory, Copenhagen
10. Gimson, A.C., 1970, An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English,
London, Arnold Publication
11. Jones, D.,1965, English Pronouncing Dictionary, Everyman’s
Reference Library
12. Pike, K.L., 1963, Phonetics, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan
13. Roach, Peter (2000), English Phonetics and Phonology: a Practical
Course, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
14. Roach, Peter (2004), "British English: Received Pronunciation",
Journal of the International Phonetic Association 34 (2): 239–245
15. Rogers, H., 2000, The Sounds of Language. An Introduction to
Phonetics,
Longman, Pearson Education

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“Dunarea de Jos” University of Galati

Associate Professor Gabriela Dima

CHAPTER 1: ARTICULATORY PHONETICS 7

CHAPTER 2: ACOUSTIC AND AUDITORY PHONETICS 13

CHAPTER 3: THE ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM 16

CHAPTER 4: SOUNDS IN CONNECTED SPEECH 25

CHAPTER 5: PRONOUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY 30

4 Contemporary English Language. Phonetics and Phonology

Learning a foreign language is always in some measure repeating an old

Contemporary English Language. Phonetics and Phonology 5

e.g. rise - rose - risen

6 Contemporary English Language. Phonetics and Phonology

CHAPTER 1: Articulatory Phonetics

For methodological purposes the science of phonetics proper has been

1.1. The Speech Mechanism. The Vocal Organs

In terms of the mechanisms which produce the sounds of speech, we can

A cross-section of the vocal organs will show:

(1) The trachea or windpipe;

Although a knowledge of the vocal organs is essential for the student, it is

(2) Contrasts of voiced and unvoiced sounds, and contrasts of pitch,

1.1.1. Articulation and Articulators

Generally, sounds are classified in terms of their place and manner of

1.2. Articulatory Classification of Speech Sounds

1.2.1. Contoid Sounds / Consonant - Type Sounds

As most speech sounds are, English contoids are pulmonic egressive

Contemporary English Language. Phonetics and Phonology 9

~ palato-alveolar, case in which the apex of the tongue is articulated against

According to the type of obstruction met by the air- stream in the

~ affricate, case in which the complete closure is released very slowly by

According to the volume of the air-stream and the tenseness of the

Figure1. English Consonant-Type of Speech Sounds

Point of Classes according to mode of articulation

1.2.2. Vocoid /Vowel-Type Sounds

Pulmonic egressive sounds, characterized by the free passage of the

b) The position of the lips

c) The degree of muscular tension

~ long or short, the length of the sounds depends considerably on the

1.2.2.1. Cardinal Vowels

1. [i] French i in si; German ie in Biene;

12 Contemporary English Language. Phonetics and Phonology

CHAPTER 2: ACOUSTIC AND AUDITORY

Contemporary English Language. Phonetics and Phonology 13

2.1.2. Acoustic Classification of Speech Sounds

According to the data obtained from their spectrograms, vowels and

The classification corresponds to the degree of frequency of the second

Contemporary English Language. Phonetics and Phonology 15

CHAPTER 3: The English Phonological System

Phonology has been generally defined as that branch of linguistics which

The history of phonology is largely taken up with the development of

3.1.1.1. The Prague Phonological School

The main representative of the Linguistic Society of Prague was N.S.

With reference to the theory of phonological oppositions, Trubetzkoy

3.1.1.2. The London Phonological School

Author of the most authoritative English Pronouncing Dictionary (1965),

3.1.1.3. The American Phonological School

The phoneme theory in America may also be characterized as

Contemporary English Language. Phonetics and Phonology 17

Where's the /k-/?

a) A phoneme is distinctive: any phonemic contrast in a given

b) A phoneme is without meaning, though it is a unit for constructing

c) The sounds which are the manifestations of a phoneme are variable

d) The variant forms or allophones of the same phoneme in a given

18 Contemporary English Language. Phonetics and Phonology

Such comparative procedures reveal twenty-two consonantal phonemes