Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The Industrial Training (I.T) program enables students to go out and gain more
practical knowledge of what they have been taught in course (Bachelor of Technology)
Site work for the period of training was undertaken at the Celio building Thane Mumbai.
The project consists of office, residential, utility building, and shopping mall works, as well
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Contents
Certificate .......................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgement ............................................................................................ iv
Abstract ............................................................................................................. v
Dedication ........................................................................................................ vi
1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1
Bibliography .................................................................................................... 51
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Content for Tables
Table 2-1 Floor Configuration of Tower. ........................................................................ 4
Table 2-2 Floor Configuration of Residential building ............................................... 6
Table 3-1 Structure system................................................................................................. 10
Table 3-2 Various IS Codes ................................................................................................ 10
Table 3-3 Unit weight of material .................................................................................... 11
Table 3-4 Imposed loads...................................................................................................... 12
Table 3-5 Primary Loads .................................................................................................... 13
Table 4-1 Grade of concrete............................................................................................... 21
Table 4-2 Mix design being used at site.......................................................................... 21
Table 4-3 Classes of bricks with their properties........................................................ 27
Table 6-1 Sizes of timber members.................................................................................. 41
Table 6-2Period of removal of formwork ...................................................................... 42
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Content for Figures
Figure 2-1 Top view of site ................................................................................................... 4
Figure 2-2 Office building layout ....................................................................................... 5
Figure 2-3 Basement layout plan........................................................................................ 5
Figure 3-1 Sub structural work .......................................................................................... 7
Figure 3-2 Superstructure .................................................................................................... 9
Figure 4-1 Strength comparison between OPC, PPC and Rapid hardening cement ........... 17
Figure 4-2 Slab concreting.................................................................................................. 22
Figure 4-3 Method of compaction .................................................................................... 23
Figure 4-4Slab reinforcement and PT tendons............................................................ 24
Figure 4-5 Overlapping of Bars ........................................................................................ 25
Figure 4-6 Rebaring work .................................................................................................. 26
Figure 4-7 Block Work of 200mm thickness ................................................................ 28
Figure 4-8 Bitumen membrane for water proofing is being covered with Screte of 25
mm thickness .......................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 5-1 Retaining wall of thickness 400mm ............................................................ 32
Figure 5-3 One way slab with beams .............................................................................. 35
Figure 5-4 Two way slab with beams .............................................................................. 35
Figure 5-5 Flat slabs ............................................................................................................. 36
Figure 6-1Formwork for slab and beam........................................................................ 37
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Introduction
The industrial training (I.T) program is designed to acquaint students with the practical or
hands-on knowledge of the past, present and the future. By the past, it affords the student an
opportunity to witness practically what they have read in books i.e. the reality of the 100%
assumption of the theories. It also affords students the current knowledge of what the field
works is all about, getting familiar with new advancement in technology. The future refers to
foreknowledge of what should be expected when he/she begins to practice the profession.
opportunities.
This report entails some of the experience I was able to acquire in my short
period of attachment.
building which provides a strong identity as an organization providing safety and security for
its citizen. Design also should be in harmony of its natural surroundings and achieve a green
building rating like GRIHA or equivalent. The project includes a residential block, shopping
mall for Mumbai citizen. Building lower floors with proper designed landscape.
2.1 Objectives
To create a modern iconic structure for Mumbai people which is
harmonious to its architectural surrounding of
Mumbai To design a building which provide safety environment for
2.2.1.1 Roads
The plot is bounded on three sides by 16 mt. wide main roads namely
Meadows Road Thane.
Figure 2-1 SLAB CONCRETING
4
Figure 2-2 Office building layout
Basement It is for parking and approx 2-% area is to be used for services
required, like STP, rainwater harvesting tank, fan rooms, electrical panel
and underground storage tank for domestic and fire.
5
Ground Floor (GF) entrance lobby and parking. There is a parking for car .
1st to 12 floor Both tower comprises of office and residential flat
2.4.1.2 Residential Building (G + 12 floor)
Ground floor height 4.5 m
Floor height 2.9 m
Total FAR 2200 sqft
Built up area 3000sqft
Table 2-2 Floor Configuration of Residential building
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3 Introduction to Structural Design
The structure of a building is the part which is responsible for maintaining the shape of
the building under the influence of the forces to which it is subjected. A building must be
designed to safely withstand the most severe combination of forces or loads likely to be
applied during its lifetime. Building consists of many structural components. Generally,
Sub Structure
Super Structure
The structure below ground level is called sub structure. Sub structure can also be
divided into two parts- a) Foundation and b) Plinth
3.1.1.1 Foundation
The most lower part of the building. The main function of the foundation is to transfer
load to sub soil. It is the most important part of structure. Most of the failure of a structure
may happen due to foundation failure. Foundations are generally considered either shallow
or deep. Foundation should be strong enough to meet the following requirements-
It should be strong enough to distribute the load to sub soil. 7
It is capable to support structure.
Shallow foundations, often called footings, are usually embedded about a meter or so into
soil. One common type is the spread footing which consists of strips or pads of concrete (or
other materials) which extend below the frost line and transfer the weight from walls and
columns to the soil or bedrock.
Deep foundation is used to transfer the load of a structure down through the upper weak
layer of topsoil to the stronger layer of subsoil below. There are different types of deep
footings including impact driven piles, drilled shafts, caissons, helical piles, geo-piers and
earth stabilized columns.
According to final soil investigation report available for the site, strata of moderate
safe bearing capacity is available at depth of 12.35m below Ground level (NGL).
Therefore raft foundation was provided. Gross bearing capacity is 48.5 T/sqm.
Plinth
The part between surrounding ground level and ground floor of the building is called
plinth. The purposes of the plinth are-
Transfer the incoming load from super structure to the foundation.
Provide damp proof to the building
Support the back filling as a retaining wall.
Plinth also increases the esthetical look of the building.
3.2 Superstructure
The part above plinth level is called super structure. Super structure contains many
other structural components. Such as-
Wall
Floor/Slab
Lintel and sunshade
Roof
Wall is used to separate the usable area of floor for different purpose. Such as
bedroom, bathroom, kitchen, living etc. Other prime purpose of wall is to provide
privacy and security.
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Figure 3-2 Superstructure
Floor, the main purpose of floor is to provide better living space and support of
occupants, furniture and other equipment of a building. The purpose of making different
floor in different level of a building is to create more accommodation within limited space.
Floor should be strong, durable, damp prove and heat protected. Lintel and Sunshade,
Lintel is provided for the purpose of supporting wall above door or window opening.
Sunshade is generally combined with lintel above window opening to protect rain and sun.
Step and Stair, Stair is made for easy communication among various floors of a
building. Stair consists of steps. Steps height should be comfortable enough for
vertical movement.
Roof, the top most part of a building is the roof. Roof is build for the purpose of
enclosing and protects the living area/floor area from weather effect. Roof should be
stable, durable and weather resistant.
Two tower and bridge require column free space, more flooring to ceiling height. Also
ease and speed of construction are the important parameter while making a choice for
particular system of superstructure.
Type of System Beam slab system Flat slab with drop Flat slab without
System drop system
Clear height Less More Maximum
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Ease of construction Less More Maximum
According to above table Flat slab with drop system is considered more suitable and is
being provided at site according to design.
A building has to perform many functions satisfactorily. Amongst these functions are the
utility of the building for the intended use and occupancy. Structural safety, fire safety
and compliance with hygienic, sanitation, ventilation and daylight standards. The design
of the building is dependent upon the minimum requirements prescribed for each of the
buildings are being covered in this code by way of laying down minimum design loads
which have to be assumed for dead loads, imposed loads, snow loads and other external
loads, the structure would be required to bear. Strict conformity to loading standards
only ensure the structural safety of the buildings which are being designed and 10
constructed in the country and thereby reduce the hazards to life and property caused
by unsafe structures, but also eliminate the wastage caused by assuming unnecessarily
heavy loadings. (IS:1857-1987 )
Various types of loads on structure are
Dead load
Imposed load
Wind load
Snow loads
Special loads and loads combination
Seismic loads
Thickness kn kg per
PCC 23m
RCC 24
Brick Masonry 20
230 mm 5.1
115mm 2.8
Concrete block 20
200mm 4.6
Table 3-3 Unit weight of material
Wind is air in motion relative to the surface of the earth. The primary cause of wind is
traced to earth’s rotation and differences in terrestrial radiation. The radiation effects are
primarily responsible for convection either upwards or downwards. The wind generally
blows horizontal to the ground at high wind speeds. Since vertical components of
atmospheric motion are relatively small, the term ‘wind’ denotes almost exclusively the
horizontal wind, vertical winds are always identified as such. The wind speeds are assessed
with the aid of anemometers or anemographs which are installed at meteorological
observatories at heights generally varying from 10 to 30 meters above ground. Winds loads
are considered on basis of (IS : 875 ( Part 3 ) - 1987).
Basic wind speed for Delhi (Vb) is 47m/s.
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As per IS: 875 (part5) and IRC:6-2010, for expansion and contraction due to change in the
temperature of the material of the structure due to daily or seasonal fluctuations in the
temperature.
For Delhi as per IRC: 6-2010
Maximum air shed Temperature = 47°C
Minimum air shed Temperature = -1.5°C
Mean Temperature = 22.75°C
Temperature at which the structure is effectively restrained = mean + 10
= 22.75+10
= 32.75°C
Variation in temperature
Maximum = 47-32.75 = 32.75°
Designing and detailing shall be in accordance with IS: 1893 (part1):2002 and
IS:13920-1993.
Type of load Abbreviation
Dead load DL
Live load LL
All structure will design for two hours fire rating. The requirement for fire resistance is
met by adopting the minimum structural dimensions and clear cover to reinforcement.
Minimum dimension of structural member and nominal cover to reinforcement is
being provided as given in (IS:456-2000).
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3.10 Environmental exposure
The site is situated in Delhi which receive moderate rainfall also it is away from sea coast.
Soil investigation also indicates that sulphate and chloride content are well within
permissible limits; hence the building is designed for moderate exposure. Minimum
nominal cover to the structural members like Retaining wall which are in contact with soil
is not less than 45mm and for UG tank and STP which are in contact with water and
footing shall be minimum 50mm. for all structure in superstructure the minimum cover to
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4 Building Materials
Building material is any material which is used for construction purposes. Many naturally
occurring substances, such as clay, rocks, sand, and wood are used to construct buildings.
Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in use, some
more and some less synthetic. The manufacture of building materials is an established
industry in many countries and the use of these materials is typically segmented into
specific specialty trades, such as carpentry, insulation, plumbing, and roofing work. The
quality and effectiveness of building materials used in the construction and their storage
are as important as the other phases of building activity like planning, designing and
Historically choice of building materials was determined by what was locally available,
different initiatives have been taken in the areas of research and development,
the recent trends indicates that the growth in the area of building materials covers
emerging trends and latest developments in the use of wastes, mineral admixtures in
recycling of wastes, at the same time ensuring desired response of materials to fire, long
term performance and durability. In addition to these developments, the future decade
may witness development of specific materials which may be structured and designed to
meet needs to specially developed construction technologies, such as, for disaster prone
4.1 Cement
Cement is a binder, a substance used in construction that sets, hardens and adheres to
other materials, binding them together. Cement is seldom used solely, but is used to bind
sand and gravel (aggregate) together. Cement is used with fine aggregate to produce
mortar for masonry, or with sand and gravel aggregates to produce concrete.
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4.1.1.1 Types of Cement
Ordinary Portland cement
1987, there was only one grade of OPC which was governed by IS 269-1976. After 1987
higher grade cements were introduced in India. The OPC was classified into three grades,
namely 33 grade, 43 grade and 53 grade depending upon the strength of the cement at 28
days when tested as per IS 4031- 1988. If the 28 days strength is not less than 33N/mm2, it
is called 33 grade cement, if the strength is not less than 43N/mm2, it is called 43 grade
cement, and if the strength is not less then 53 N/mm2, it is called 53 grade cement. But the
actual strength obtained by these cements at the factory is much higher than the BIS
with 10 to 25 per cent of pozzolanic material (as per the latest amendment, it is 15 to
in itself possessing no cementitious properties, which will, in finely divided form and in
the presence of water, react with calcium hydroxide, liberated in the hydration process, at
pozzolanic materials generally used for manufacture of PPC are calcined clay or fly ash.
Fly ash is a waste material, generated in the thermal power station, when powdered coal
is used as a fuel.
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Portland pozzolana cement produces less heat of hydration and offers greater resistance
appreciate that the addition of pozzolana does not contribute to the strength at early ages.
Strengths similar to those of ordinary Portland cement can be expected in general only at
later ages provided the concrete is cured under moist conditions for a sufficient period.
Technically PPC has considerable advantages over OPC when made by using optimum
Figure 4-1 Strength comparison between OPC, PPC and Rapid hardening cement
Grading of PPC
In many countries, PPC is graded like OPC depending upon their compressive strength
at 28 days. In India, so far PPC is considered equivalent to 33 grade OPC, strength wise,
although some brand of PPC is as good as even 53 grade OPC. Many cement
manufacturers have requested BIS for grading of PPC just like grading of OPC. They
have also requested for upper limits of fly ash content from 25% to 35%. Recently BIS
has increased the fly ash content in PPC from 10–25% to 15–35%. Application
Portland pozzolana cement can be used in all situations where OPC is used except where
high early strength is of special requirement. As PPC needs enough moisture for sustained
pozzolanic activity, a little longer curing is desirable. Use of PPC would be particularly
suitable for the following situations:
For hydraulic structures.
For mass concrete structures like dam, bridge piers and thick foundation.
For marine structures.
For sewers and sewage disposal works etc.
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4.2 Aggregate
Aggregates are the important constituents in concrete. It is a broad category of coarse
particulate material used in construction like sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag etc. They
give body to the concrete, reduce shrinkage and effect economy. The mere fact that the
aggregates occupy 70–80 per cent of the volume of concrete, their impact on various
The nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate should be as large as possible within the
limits specified but in no case greater than one-fourth of the minimum thickness of the
member, provided that the concrete can be placed without difficulty so as to surround all
reinforcement thoroughly and fill the comers of the form. For most work, 20 mm aggregate
is suitable. Where there is no restriction to the flow of concrete into sections, 40 mm or
larger size may be permitted. In concrete elements with thin sections, closely spaced
reinforcement or small cover, consideration should be given to the use of 10 mm nominal
maximum size. Coarse and fine aggregate shall be batched separately.
4.3 Water
acids, alkalis, salts, sugar, organic materials or other substances that may be deleterious
In this project source of water is a bore well which is closely spaced to the building.
The quality of water is good and can be used for drinking purpose also.
4.4 Admixtures
A material other than water, aggregates, and hydraulic cement and additives like
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and added to the batch immediately before or during its mixing to modify one or more of
the properties of concrete in the plastic or hardened state. The different types of
admixtures:
Chemical admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the
concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. In
normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement and are added to the
concrete at the time of batching/mixing the common types of admixtures are as follows:
Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete accelerating
admixtures are especially useful for modifying the properties of concrete in cold
weather.
Retarders slow the hydration of concrete and are used in large or difficult pours
where partial setting before the pour is complete is undesirable..
Air entraining agents add and entrain tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which reduces
damage during freeze-thaw cycles, increasing durability.
Plasticizers increase the workability of plastic or "fresh" concrete, allowing it be placed
more easily, with less consolidating effort. Plasticizers can be used to reduce the water
content of a concrete while maintaining workability and are sometimes called water-
reducers due to this use. Such treatment improves its strength and durability
characteristics.
Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics.
Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel bars in
concrete.
4.4.1.1 Mineral Admixtures and Blended Cements Inorganic materials that have
pozzolanic or latent hydraulic properties, these
very fine-grained materials are added to the concrete mix to improve the properties of
cements). Products which incorporate limestone, fly ash, blast furnace slag, and other
useful materials with pozzolanic properties into the mix, are being tested and used. This
development is due to cement production being one of the largest producers (at about 5 to
10%) of global greenhouse gas emissions, as well as lowering costs, improving concrete
properties, and recycling wastes. Mineral admixtures are Fly ash Ground granulated,
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Admixtures should not impair durability of concrete nor combine with the constituent to
form harmful compounds nor increase the risk of corrosion of reinforcement. The
workability, compressive strength and the slump loss of concrete with and without the use
of admixtures shall be established during the trial mixes before use of admixtures.
4.5 Concrete
aggregate, cement, and any additives—to produce concrete. Concrete production is time-
sensitive. Once the ingredients are mixed, workers must put the concrete in place before it
hardens. In modern usage, most concrete production takes place in a large type of
In general usage, concrete plants come in two main types, ready mix plants and central
mix plants. A ready mix plant mixes all the ingredients except water, while a central mix
plant mixes all the ingredients including water. A central mix plant offers more accurate
control of the concrete quality through better measurements of the amount of water
added, but must be placed closer to the work site where the concrete will be used, since
hydration begins at the plant.
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Grade Designation Specified characteristic Compressive Strength of 150
mm cube at 28 days in N/
M10 1O
Ordinary M15 15
Concrete M20 20
M25 25
M30 30
M35 35
Standard M40 40
Concrete M45 45
M50 50
M55 55
M60 60
M65 65
High Strength
Concrete M70 70
M75 75
M80 80
Table 4-1 Grade of concrete
In the designation of concrete mix M refer to the mix and the number to the specified
compressive strength of 150 mm size cube at 28 days, expressed in N/ 2.
At site M10 is being used for PCC, M35 is being used for slab, M45 is being used for
vertical members like shear walls, columns and as well as for drop panel of slab.
4.5.1.2 RCC
Its full name is reinforced cement concrete. RCC is concrete that contains steel bars, called
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very strong in compression, easy to produce at site, and inexpensive and steel is very
strong in tension.
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4.5.1.4 Compaction of concrete
Concrete is compacted during placing by immersion vibrators. An immersion vibrator is
operated in a near vertical position, and it penetrates the full length of the layer of concrete
placed and just into the layer below to stitch in between. Vibration will be applied
continuously until the expulsion of air has practically ceased. The vibrators will be
withdrawn slowly to avoid the formation of voids. During the compaction care should be
employed for durability and aesthetic reasons, by providing enough localized resistance
to limit cracking and resist stresses caused by effects such as temperature changes and
shrinkage.
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Rebar may also be used to hold other steel bars in the correct position to
accommodate their loads.
Masonry structures and the mortar holding them together have similar properties to concrete and
also have a limited ability to carry tensile loads. Some standard masonry units like blocks and
bricks are made with voids to accommodate rebar, which is then secured in place with grout.
At the site the high strength steel bars of 500D and T.M.T. (Thermo Mechanically Treated)
bars of diameter 8 mm, 10 mm, 12mm 16 mm, 20mm, 25mm & 32 mm as per requirement of
design is being used.
Bars shall be cut and bent to shape and dimension as shown in bar bending schedule
based on Good For Construction (GFC) drawings.
Reinforcement shall be tied as per the latest GFC drawing.
Unusable cut rods and scrap reinforcement shall be properly placed at yard.
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Bar bending schedule shall clearly specify the following:
a. Bar diameter,
b. Numbers,
c. Spacing
d. Cut-lengths,
e. Shapes.
Bar bending schedule shall take into account the following field/ design
requirement.
a. Desirable lap locations and staggering of laps.
b. Lap lengths.
c. Development length/ Anchorage length.
4.6.1.4 REBARING
Rebaring is the method of insertion of steel bars when:-
There is change in design or there is some extension of present structure.
When steel rod as per has been not installed and to install the same rebaring. Mostly
HILTI chemical are used for rebaring at site.
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Figure 4-6 Rebaring work
Steps involved:-
Drilling in the existing structure as per drawing
Cleaning of holes by ELE blower
Filling of chemical in well cleaned holes Then
4.7 Brick
A brick is building material used to make walls, pavements and other elements in masonry
construction. Traditionally, the term brick referred to a unit composed of clay, but it is now
used to denote any rectangular units laid in mortar. A brick can be composed of clay-bearing
soil, sand, and lime, or concrete materials. Bricks are produced in numerous classes, types,
materials, and sizes which vary with region and time period, and are produced in bulk
quantities. Two basic categories of bricks are fired and non-fired bricks. The unburnt or sun-
dried bricks are those bricks which are dried with the help of heat that is received from sun after
the process of moulding. The unburnt bricks can only be used in the construction of simple
temporary and cheap structures. Unburnt bricks should not be used at places exposed to heavy
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4.7.1.1 Classes of Bricks
Class of brick Strength in kg/ Water absorption after 24 hours in
Water
First class bricks 105 ≤20%
At site first class traditional bricks are being used for brick masonry is being used for drainage
at basement and brick work below DPC layer. Block work is being used for partition walls of
thickness 200mm and 100mm.
up the course, place that unit made of standard unit at least one block away from the
concrete column, quoins of the wall or service openings including doors and
windows.
After finishing the course, carry out jointing with the steel trowel to strike off joints
slightly lower than the block face in case plastering or rendering are not required at a
later stage. However, only where plastering is required, take out joints to a depth of
between 10mm to 15mm as the works proceeds, to give an adequate key to plastering.
Repeat sequence for the next course.
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Figure 4-7 Block Work of 200mm thickness
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Water proofing materials are butyl rubber, hot bitumen, plastic sheets, bituminous sheet, sheet
of lead, copper, mastic asphalt and Mortar with waterproofing compounds.
At site water proofing compounds, hot bitumen and bitumen sheets are being used as a water
proofing material. Screte of 25mm is being provided above the bitumen membrane in water
proofing of slab.
Figure 4-8 Bitumen membrane for water proofing is being covered with Screte of 25 mm thickness
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5 Structural Elements
Those members that are interconnected in such a way so as to constitute a structure
are called structural elements.
5.1 Column
Column is a vertical member which takes complete load of the beam, slabs and the entire
structure and the floor and other area of the building. A column is a vertical member which
effectively takes load by compression. Basically column is a compression member as load
acts along its longitudinal axis. Bending moment may occur due to wind earthquake or
accidental loads.
Column transfers the load of the structure of slabs beams above to below, and finally load is
transferred to the soil. Position of the columns should be so that there are no tensile stresses
developed at the cross section of the columns. Columns location should be such that it hides in
the walls partially or fully.
Generally, floor height is approximately 3 m or 10 feet, L/B ratio will be less than 12, so in
maximum cases short column is placed. In case where height of floor is more than 3 m or 10
feet, we need to check L/B ratio so result may be long or short column. Generally, on long
column there are more forces generated so should be designed carefully.
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Column formwork
Pouring of concrete
Layout of Columns
Column layouts are done by laying rope in the grid lines and mark the location of columns
Column Reinforcement
Column reinforcement works needs following checklist on site:
Check the numbers and diameter of vertical bars
Spacing between vertical bars
Check Development length which depends on diameter of bar
Lapping in alternate bars should come at same height.
Lapping should not come inside beam or slab.
Lapping should be at l/3 or 2l/3 of column as per structural notes
Spacing between stirrups is as per the drawing
Hook should be bend properly at right angles.
Check the stirrups corner. Vertical bar should come at right angle edge of stirrup
properly bound with binding wire.
Concreting of an RCC column can be done manually or with the help of machine
or pump
Following points to be followed during and after concreting:
For less quantity machine mix concrete is done and for larger quantity ready mix
concrete (RMC) is ordered.
Approval of placing concrete whether by pump or manually has to be taken from
client.
Concrete should be poured up to slab bottom; the remaining column gets
concreted during pouring of slab & beam.
Mechanical vibrator to be compulsorily used in the column but excess vibration can
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5.2 Retaining wall
A retaining wall is a structure designed and constructed to resist the lateral pressure of soil, when
there is a desired change in ground elevation that exceeds the angle of repose of the soil.
A retaining wall is a structure that retains (holds back) any material (usually earth) and
prevents it from sliding or eroding away. It is designed so that to resist the material pressure
of the material that it is holding back.
Concrete Cantilever retaining wall
At site cantilever retaining wall is constructed. This consists of a wall which is connected to
foundation. A cantilever wall holds back a significant amount of soil, so it must be well
engineered. They are the most common type used as retaining walls. Cantilever wall rest on a
slab foundation. This slab foundation is also loaded by back-fill and thus the weight of the back-
fill and surcharge also stabilizes the wall against overturning and sliding.
floors, and roofs to the ground foundation in a direction parallel to their planes. Examples are the
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caused by wind, earthquake, and uneven settlement loads, in addition to the weight of structure
and occupants; create powerful twisting (torsional) forces. These forces can literally tear (shear)
a building apart. Reinforcing a frame by attaching or placing a rigid wall inside it maintains the
shape of the frame and prevents rotation at the joints. Shear walls are especially important in
high-rise buildings subject to lateral wind and seismic forces.
5.4 Beam
A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the beam's axis. Its
mode of deflection is primarily by bending. The loads applied to the beam result in reaction
forces at the beam's support points. The total effect of all the forces acting on the beam is to
produce shear forces and bending moments within the beam, that in turn induce internal
stresses, strains and deflections of the beam. Beams are characterized by their manner of
support, profile (shape of cross-section), length, and their material.
building floors, roofs, bridges, and other types of structures. The slab may be supported
by walls, by reinforced concrete beams usually cast monolithically with the slab, by
structural steel beams, by columns, or by the ground. The depth of a slab is usually
very small compared to its span. Slabs whose thickness ranges from 100 to 500 mm
are most often used for the construction of floors and ceilings. Thin concrete slabs are
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Figure 5-4 Flat slabs
At site one way, two way and flat slab with drop panel is being provided. Having thickness
of 210mm, 350mm and 450mm according to design.
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6 Formwork
Formwork is the term given to either temporary or permanent molds into which concrete or
similar materials are poured. In the context of concrete construction, the false work supports
the shuttering molds.
the size, shape, position, and finish of the cast concrete are attained within the
required tolerances. The quality of the formwork itself has a direct impact on safety,
accidents, and failures. Correctly designed formwork will ensure that the concrete
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maintains the desired size and shape by having the proper dimensions and being rigid
enough to hold its shape under the stresses of the concrete.
Safety: Formwork operations are risky, and workers are typically exposed to unsafe
working conditions. Partial or total failure of concrete formwork is a major contributor to
deaths, injuries, and property damages within the construction industry. Forms must be
built with sufficient strength and factors of safety so they are capable of supporting all
dead and live loads without collapse or danger to workers and to the concrete structure.
Speed and Time: Speed of construction is defined as the rate in which concrete
building is raised and can be expressed in terms of number of floors erected per week
or months. Speed of construction can be also measured in terms of inches or
millimeters of concrete poured per hour. Formwork operations can control the pace of
construction projects.
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6. Provide bracing at proper places as per formwork scheme to take care of lateral
loads.
7. Apply mould oil/other coatings as release agents before reinforcement steel is placed.
8. Check all the shutters are properly aligned and fixed firmly with required lateral
supports and ties.
9. Check all the spanning members have proper bearing at the supports.
10. Wedges or jacks shall be secured in position after the final check of alignment.
11. Forms shall be thoroughly cleaned of all dirt, mortar and other matters such as metals,
blocks, saw dust and foreign materials before concreting.
12. Check all the gaps/openings are properly closed to avoid leakages.
13. Check all the inserts/embedment and openings are exactly placed as per the
drawings.
14. In case of leakages, bulging and sagging immediate actions shall be taken by
tightening wedges or adjusting by jacks which must be done before the concrete takes
its initial set.
sheathing for decking. Sheathing is supported by horizontal members called joists or runners.
Joists are supported by another set of horizontal members perpendicular to the joists, called
stringers (bearer or secondary beams). The stringers are supported by vertical members called
shores (PROP). Vertical timber shores can be replaced by the scaffold type, which has been
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of its high number of reuses and its height, which means that no splicing is typically required.
Formwork for Concrete Beams
Formwork for beams consists of a bottom and two sides (open through section) in addition to
their supporting elements. The bottom is typically made of ply wood or lumber sheathing. The
bottom is supported by and fastened to horizontal joists. Beam sides are also made of plywood
or lumber sheathing.
Beam forms must be designed and constructed to safely support the vertically applied dead
loads and live loads as described above.
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materials suitable for formwork should be based on the price, safety during
construction, and the quality required in the finished product.
It should be
well seasoned
light in weight
easily workable with nails without splitting free
from loose knots
Timber used for shuttering for exposed concrete work should have smooth and even surface
on all faces which come in contact with concrete.
removed first as they bear no load but only retain the concrete.
Rapid hardening cement, warm weather and light loading conditions allow early removal of
formwork. The formwork should under no circumstances be allowed to be removed until all the
concrete reaches strength of at least twice the stresses to which the concrete may be subjected at
the time of removal of formwork. All formworks should be eased gradually and carefully in
order to prevent the load being suddenly transferred to concrete.
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7 Tests for quality check
7.1 Test on Cement
7.1.1.1 Consistency
AIM
To determine the quantity of water required to produce a cement paste of standard consistency as
per IS: 4031 (Part 4) - 1988.
PRINCIPLE
The standard consistency of a cement paste is defined as that consistency which will permit the
Vicat plunger to penetrate to a point 5 to 7mm from the bottom of the Vicat mould.
APPARATUS
Vicat apparatus conforming to IS: 5513 - 1976 Balance, whose permissible variation
at a load of 1000g should be +1.0g Gauging trowel conforming to IS: 10086 - 1982
PROCEDURE
i. Weigh approximately 400g of cement and mix it with a weighed quantity of water.
ii. The time of gauging should be between 3 to 5 minutes.
iii. Fill the Vicat mould with paste and level it with a trowel.
iv. Lower the plunger gently till it touches the cement surface.
v. Release the plunger allowing it to sink into the paste.
vi. Note the reading on the gauge.
vii. Repeat the above procedure taking fresh samples of cement and different quantities of
water until the reading on the gauge is 5 to 7mm.
REPORTING OF RESULTS
Express the amount of water as a percentage of the weight of dry cement to the first place of
decimal.
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7.1.1.2 Initial and Final Setting Time
AIM
To determine the initial and the final setting time of cement as per IS: 4031 (Part 5) -
1988.
APPARATUS
Vicat apparatus conforming to IS: 5513 - 1976 Balance, whose permissible variation
at a load of 1000g should be +1.0g Gauging trowel conforming to IS: 10086 - 1982
PROCEDURE
i) Prepare a cement paste by gauging the cement with 0.85 times the water
required to give a paste of standard consistency.
ii) Start a stop-watch, the moment water is added to the cement.
iii) Fill the Vicat mould completely with the cement paste gauged as above, the
mould resting on a non-porous plate and smooth off the surface of the paste
making it level with the top of the mould. The cement block thus prepared in the
mould is the test block.
INITIAL SETTING TIME
Place the test block under the rod bearing the needle. Lower the needle gently in order to
make contact with the surface of the cement paste and release quickly, allowing it to
penetrate the test block. Repeat the procedure till the needle fails to pierce the test block to a
point 5.0 ± 0.5mm measured from the bottom of the mould . The time period elapsing
between the time, water is added to the cement and the time, the needle fails to pierce the
test block by 5.0 ± 0.5mm measured from the bottom of the mould, is the initial setting time.
FINAL SETTING TIME
Replace the above needle by the one with an annular attachment.
The cement should be considered as finally set when, upon applying the needle gently to the
surface of the test block, the needle makes an impression therein, while the attachment fails to do
so. The period elapsing between the time, water is added to the cement and the time, the needle
makes an impression on the surface of the test block, while the attachment fails to do so, is the
final setting time.
REPORTING OF RESULTS
The results of the initial and the final setting time should be reported to the nearest
five minutes.
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7.2 Tests on Aggregate
i) The test sample is dried to a constant weight at a temperature of 110 + 5oC and weighed.
ii) The sample is sieved by using a set of IS Sieves.
iii) On completion of sieving, the material on each sieve is weighed.
iv) Cumulative weight passing through each sieve is calculated as a percentage of the total
sample weight.
v) Fineness modulus is obtained by adding cumulative percentage of aggregates retained on
each sieve and dividing the sum by 100.
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7.2.1.2 Water Absorption
AIM
To determine the water absorption of coarse aggregates as per IS: 2386 (Part III) -
1963.
APPARATUS
i) Wire basket - perforated, electroplated or plastic .
ii) Water-tight container for suspending the basket
iii) Dry soft absorbent cloth - 75cm x 45cm (2 nos.)
iv) Shallow tray of minimum 650 sq.cm area
v) Air-tight container of a capacity similar to the basket
vi) Oven
i) The sample should be thoroughly washed to remove finer particles and dust,
ii) drained and then placed in the wire basket and immersed in distilled water at a
minutes, after which the aggregates should be gently emptied from the basket on to one of the
dry clothes and gently surface-dried with the cloth, transferring it to a second dry cloth when
the first would remove no further moisture. The aggregates should be spread on the second
cloth and exposed to the atmosphere away from direct sunlight till it appears to be completely
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7.3 Tests on Concrete
APPARATUS
Slump cone, tamping rod
PROCEDURE
i) The internal surface of the mould is thoroughly cleaned and applied with a light coat of
oil.
ii) The mould is placed on a smooth, horizontal, rigid and non- absorbent surface.
iii) The mould is then filled in four layers with freshly mixed concrete, each approximately
to one-fourth of the height of the mould.
iv) Each layer is tamped 25 times by the rounded end of the tamping rod (strokes are
distributed evenly over the cross- section).
v) After the top layer is taped, the concrete is struck off the level with a trowel.
vi) The mould is removed from the concrete immediately by raising it slowly in the vertical
direction.
vii) The difference in level between the height of the mould and that of the highest point of
the subsided concrete is measured.
This difference in height in mm is the slump of the concrete.
REPORTING OF RESULTS
The slump measured should be recorded in mm of subsidence of the specimen during the test. Any
slump specimen, which collapses or shears off laterally gives incorrect result and if this occurs, the
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Sample of concrete for the test specimen shall be taken at the mixer or in the case of ready mixed
concrete from the transportation vehicle discharge or as directed by Engineer-in-charge.
SAMPLING
CURING
The tests specimens are then stored in moist air for 24 hours and after this the
specimens are marked and removed from the molds and kept submerge in clear fresh
water until taken out prior to test.
TESTING PROCEDURE
i) Remove the specimens from the water after specified time and wipe out excess water
from the surface
ii) Take the dimension of the specimen to the nearest 0.2m
iii) Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine Fig: cube testing
iv) Place the specimen in the machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to the
opposite side of the cube cast.
v) Rotate the movable portion gently by hand so that it touches the top surface of the
specimen
vi) Apply the load gradually without shock and continue till the specimen fail
vii) Record the maximum load and note any unusual features in the type of failure.
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7.4 IN-SITU DRY DENSITY
PROCEDURE
i) The internal volume (V) of the core cutter in cc should be calculated from its
ii) Dimensions which should be measured to the nearest 0.25mm.
iii) The core cutter should be weighed to the nearest gram (W1).
iv) A small area, approximately 30cm square of the soil layer to be tested should be exposed
and leveled. The steel dolly should be placed on top of the cutter and the latter should be
rammed down vertically into the soil layer until only about 15mm of the dolly protrudes
above the surface, care being taken not to rock the cutter. The cutter should then be dug
out of the surrounding soil, care being taken to allow some soil to project from the lower
end of the cutter. The ends of the soil core should then be trimmed flat in level with the
ends of the cutter by means of the straightedge.
v) The cutter containing the soil core should be weighed to the nearest gram (W2).
vi) The soil core should be removed from the cutter and a representative sample should be
REPORTING OF RESULTS
Bulk density of the soil γ = (W2 −W1)/V g /cc
Dry density of the soil γd = [100γ/100+w] g c
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8 Conclusion
In conclusion, there were many things that I have experienced and learned during the four
month of my Industrial Training at Nelson India. The whole training period was very
interesting, instructive and challenging.
Through this training I was able to gain new insights and more comprehensive understanding
about the real industry working condition and practice. The four month of duration also has
provided me the opportunities to develop and improve my functional skills. All of these valuable
experiences and knowledge that I have gained were not only acquired through the direct
involvement in task given but also through other aspect of the training such as work observation,
interaction with colleagues, superior, and other people related to the field.
From what I have undergone, I am very sure that the industrial training program has achieved
its entire primary objectives. It is also the best way to prepare students to face the real working
life. As a result of the program now I am more confident to build my future career.
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Bibliography
damp proof. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damp_proofing
IS : 875 ( Part 1 ) - 1987 . Dead load.
IS : 875 ( Part 2 ) - 1987. Imposed Load.
IS : 875 ( Part 3 ) - 1987. Wind Load.
IS:1857-1987 . Design Loads.
IS:456-2000. Code for desing of concrete and RCC structure.
STANDARDS, B. O. (2005). NATIONAL BUILDING CODE OF INDIA 2005 .
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