Switchgear and Protection Unit 7

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Unit-VII
[Neutral Grounding]

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7.1 What is Grounding?
The term grounding is commonly used in the electrical industry to mean both
“equipment grounding” and “system grounding.” “Equipment grounding” means the
connection of a non-current carrying conductive materials such as conduit, cable trays,
junction boxes, enclosures and motor frames to earth ground. “System grounding”
means the connection of the neutral points of current carrying conductors such as the
neutral point of a circuit, a transformer, rotating machinery, or a system, either solidly or
with a current limiting device to earth ground. Figure 1 illustrates the two types of
grounding.
7.2 What is a Grounded System?
Grounded System – a system with at least one conductor or point (usually the
middle wire or neutral point of transformer or generator windings) is intentionally
grounded, either solidly or through impedance. IEEE Standard 142-1991 1.2
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7.3 What are the Different Types of System Grounding?
The types of system grounding normally used in industrial and commercial power
systems are:
1) Solid grounding
2) Low resistance grounding
3) High resistance grounding
4) Ungrounded IEEE Std 242-2001 8.2.1
7.4 What is the Purpose of System Grounding?
System grounding, or the intentional connection of a phase or neutral conductor

to earth, is for the purpose of controlling the voltage to earth, or ground, within
redictable limits. It also provides for a flow of current that will allow detection of an
unwanted connection between system conductors and ground [a ground fault].
7.5 What is a Ground Fault?
A Ground Fault is an unwanted connection between the system conductors and ground.
7.6 Why is Ground Faults a Concern?
Ground faults often go unnoticed and can cause problems with plant production
processes. They can also shut down power and damage equipment, which disrupts the
flow of production leading to hours or even days of lost productivity. Undetected ground
faults pose potential health and safety risks to personnel. Ground faults can lead to
safety hazards such as equipment malfunctions, fire and electric shock. Ground faults
cause serious damage to equipment and to your processes. This damage can seriously
affect your bottom line.
7.7 What is an Ungrounded System?
An ungrounded system is one in which there is no intentional connection

between the conductors and the earth ground. However, in any system, a capacitive
coupling exists between the system conductors and the adjacent grounded surfaces.
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Consequently, the “ungrounded system” is, in reality, a “capacitively grounded system”

by virtue of the distributed capacitance. This is shown in Figure 2.

Under normal operating conditions this distributed capacitance causes no

problems. In fact, it is beneficial because it establishes, in effect, a neutral point for the
system, as shown in Figure 3a. As a result, the phase conductors are stressed at only
line-to-neutral voltage above ground. However, problems can arise under ground fault
conditions. A ground fault on one line results in full line-to-line voltage appearing on the
other two phases. Thus, a voltage 1.73 times the normal voltage is present on all
insulation on the ungrounded phase, as shown in Figure 3b. This situation can often
cause failures in motors and transformers, due to insulation breakdown.

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7.8 What Does IEEE Say About Ungrounded Systems?
Ungrounded systems employ ground detectors to indicate a ground fault. These

detectors show the existence of a ground on the system and identify the faulted phase,
but do not locate the ground, which could be anywhere on the entire system. If this
ground fault is intermittent or allowed to continue, the system could be subjected to
possible severe over-voltages to ground, which can be as high as six or eight times
phase voltage. This can puncture insulation and result in additional ground faults. A
second ground fault occurring before the first fault is cleared will result in a phase-
toground- to-phase fault, usually arcing, with a current magnitude large enough to do
damage, but sometimes too small to activate over-current devices in time to prevent or
minimize damage.
Ungrounded systems offer no advantage over high-resistance grounded systems
in terms of continuity of service and have the disadvantages of transient over-voltages,
locating the first fault and burn downs from a second ground fault. IEEE 242-2001 8.2.5
7.9 Why Consider Grounding Your System?
If the ground fault is intermittent (arcing, restriking or vibrating), then severe

overvoltage’s can occur on an ungrounded system. The intermittent fault can cause the
system voltage to ground to rise to six or eight times the phase-to-phase voltage leading
to a breakdown of insulation on one of the unfaulted phases and the development of a
phase-to-ground-to-phase fault. Over-voltages caused by intermittent faults can be
eliminated by grounding the system neutral through an impedance, which is generally a
resistance, which limits the ground current to a value equal to or greater than the
capacitive charging current of the system.
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7.10 What is a Resistance Grounded System?
The intentional connection of the neutral points of transformers, generators and

rotating machinery to the earth ground network provides a reference point of zero volts.
This protective measure offers many advantages over an ungrounded system,
including:
• Reduced magnitude of transient over-voltages
• Simplified ground fault location
• Improved system and equipment fault protection
• Reduced maintenance time and expense
• Greater safety for personnel
• Improved lightning protection
• Reduction in frequency of faults
There are two broad categories of resistance grounding: low resistance and high
resistance. In both types of grounding, the resistor is connected between the neutral of
the transformer secondary or generator winding and the earth ground.
7.11 What is a Low Resistance Grounded System?
Low resistance grounding of the neutral limits the ground fault current to a high
level (typically 50 amps or more) in order to operate protective fault clearing relays and
current transformers. These devices are then able to quickly clear the fault, usually
within a few seconds. The importance of this fast response time is that it:
• Limits damage to equipment

• Prevents additional faults from occurring
• Provides safety for personnel
• Localizes the fault
The limited fault current and fast response time also prevent overheating and
mechanical stress on conductors. Please note that the circuit must be shut down after
the first ground fault. Low resistance grounding resistors are typically rated 400 amps
for 10 seconds, and are commonly found on medium and high voltage systems.
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7.12 What is a High Resistance Grounded System?
IEEE Standard 142-1991, Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial

and Commercial Power Systems (Green Book), defines a high resistance grounded
system as follows:
A grounded system with a purposely inserted resistance that limits ground-fault

current can flow for an extended period without exacerbating damage. This level of
current is commonly thought to be 10A or less. High-resistance grounded systems are
designed to meet the criteria Ro≤Xco to limit the transient over voltages due to arcing
ground faults. Ro is the per phase zero sequence resistance of the system and Xco is
the distributed per phase capacitive reactance-to-ground of the system.

7.13 Why Consider High Resistance Grounding?
High resistance grounding solves the problem of transient over-voltages, thereby

reducing equipment damage. Over-voltages caused by intermittent (arcing) faults can
be held to phase-to-phase voltage by grounding the system neutral through a resistance
which limits the ground current to a value equal to or greater than the capacitive
charging current of the system. Thus, the fault current can be limited in order to prevent
equipment damage and arc flash hazards. In addition, limiting fault currents to
predetermined maximum values permits the designer to selectively co-ordinate the
operation of protective devices, which minimizes system disruption and allows for quick
location of the fault.
7.14 Why Limit the Current Through Resistance Grounding?

The reason for limiting the current by resistance grounding may be one or more
of the following, as indicated in IEEE Std. 142-1991, IEEE Recommended Practice for
Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems :
1. To reduce burning and melting effects in faulted electric equipment, such as

switchgear, transformers, cables, and rotating machines.
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2. To reduce mechanical stresses in circuits and apparatus carrying fault currents.

3. To reduce electric-shock hazards to personnel caused by stray ground-fault currents
in the ground return path.
4. To reduce arc blast or flash hazard to personnel who may have accidentally caused
(or who happen to be in close proximity) to the ground fault.
5. To reduce the momentary line-voltage dip occasioned by the occurrence and clearing
of a ground fault.
6. To secure control of transient over-voltages while at the same time avoiding the
shutdown of a faulty circuit on the occurrence of the first ground fault.
7.15 What are the Requirements for Sizing the Resistor?
The line-to-ground capacitance associated with system components determines

the magnitudes of zero-sequence charging current. The resistor must be sized to
ensure that the ground fault current limit is greater than the system’s total capacitance-
to-ground charging current. If not, then transient over-voltages can occur. The charging
current of a system can be calculated by summing the zero-sequence capacitance or
determining capacitive reactance of all the cable and equipment connected to the
system.

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GOOD GROUNDING
PRACTICES
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A Brief Introduction to the Basics

of Electrical
Elect ical Grounding
G o nding fo
for Po
Power
e
Systems
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Int od ction to Grounding

Introduction G o nding
TABLE OF CONTENTS
10
1.0 Introduction to Grounding
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2.0 Standard Industrial Grounding Methods and Types of Grounding

3.0 Grounding System and Design Considerations
4.0 Open Question and Answer Session
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The pprimaryy goal
g of the grounding
g g system
y throughout
g anyy facilityy is
SAFETY. Secondary are effective lightning protection, diminishing
electromagnetic coupling (EMC), and the protection against
electromagnetic pulses (EMP).
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G
Grounding
di is i implemented
i l d to ensure rapid
id clearing
l i off faults
f l and d to
prevent hazardous voltage, which in turn reduce the risks of fires and
personnel injuries. Grounding serves the primary functions of referencing
the AC systems and providing a means to ensure fault clearing.
99.5% survival threshold –
116 mA for one (1) second.
367 mA for zero point one (0.1) second.
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A frequently
q y quoted
q criteria is the establishment of a one (1)
( ) ohm
resistance to earth. A large number of equipment manufacturers have
this in their installation guides. The NEC requires only twenty-
twenty-five (25)
ohms of resistance for made electrodes, while the ANSI/IEEE Standard
141 (Red Book) and ANSI/IEEE 142 (Green Book) specifies a ground
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resistance of one (1) to five (5) ohms.

External changes in the grounding system (environment) may effect
the ultimate functionality of the entire electrical system.
Frequency matters in very complex grounding systems. Leakage
currents of equipment do not return to the earth; high frequency
leakage currents return to the equipment which generated them, while
power frequency
f lleakage
k currents return to the
h dderivedd source.
The impedance of the system is viewed from the perspective of power
frequencies and immediate harmonics (i.e., 60Hz and its associated
harmonics)
harmonics).
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Generally accepted electrical wiring practices are not good ground
system wiring practices (i.e. no sharp bends or turns).
Grounding systems are not meant to last for ever. The best grounding
systems need to most attention paid to them as they will corrode the
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quickest.
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GROUNDING SYSTEMS
There are basically six (6) grounding systems in use. The six (6) systems
are the equipment grounds, static grounds, systems grounds,
maintenance
i t grounds,
d electronic
l t i grounds d and
d lilightning
ht i grounds.
d
Equipment grounds: An equipment ground is the physical connection to earth
of non-current carrying metal parts. This type grounding is done so that all
metal part of equipment that personnel can come into contact with are always
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at or near zero (0) volts with respect to ground. All metal parts must be
interconnected and grounded by a conductor in such away as to ensure a
path of lowest impedance for flow of ground fault current. Typical items
(
(equipment)
i t) tto b
be grounded
d d are; electrical
l t i l motort fframes, outlet
tl t b
boxes,
breaker panels, metal conduit, support structures, cable tray, to name a few.
Static grounds: A static ground is a connection made between a piece of
equipment
q p and the earth for the p
purpose
p of draining
g off static electricity
y
charges before a flash over potential is reached. This type grounding system
is utilized in dry materials handling, flammable liquid pumps and delivery
equipment, plastic piping, and explosive storage facilities.
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Standard Industrial System Grounding Methods
Methods of System Grounding

Characteristics Ungrounded Solid Low Resistance High Resistances
Ground Ground Ground
Susceptible to Transient overvoltages WORST GOOD GOOD BEST
Under fault conditions (line-
(line-to
to--ground) POOR BEST GOOD POOR
increase of voltage stress
Arc Fault Damage WORST POOR GOOD BEST
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Personnel Safety WORST POOR GOOD BEST

Reliability WORST GOOD BETTER BEST
Economics' (Maintenance costs) WORST POOR POOR BEST
Plant
l continues to operates under
d single
l FAIR POOR
OO POOR
OO BEST
S
line--to
line to--ground fault
Ease of locating ground faults (time) WORST GOOD BETTER BEST
System coordination NOT POSSIBLE GOOD BETTER BEST
Upgrade of ground system WORST GOOD BETTER BEST
Two voltage levels on same system NOT POSSIBLE POSSIBLE NOT POSSIBLE NOT POSSIBLE
Reduction in number of faults WORST BETTER GOOD BEST
Initial fault current Into g
ground system
y BEST WORST GOOD BETTER
Potential flashover to ground POOR WORST GOOD BEST
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TYPES OF GROUNDING SYSTEMS

Ungrounded System:
The ungrounded system is one that has no intentional connection
between the neutral or any phase and ground. Please note that an
ungrounded system is grounded through the concept of
capacitively coupling
coupling. The neutral potential of an ungrounded
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system, with balanced loading will be close to ground potential due

to the capacitance between each phase conductor and ground.
Low ground fault current.
Very high voltages to ground potential on unfaulted phases.
Sustained faults lead to system line
line--to
to--line voltages on unfaulted
line.
Insulation failure.
Failure due to restrike ground faults.
Continued operation
p of facility.
y
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Solidly Grounded System:
The solidly grounded system is one that has the neutral connected
to ground without an intentional impedance. In contrast to the
ungrounded system the solidly grounded system will result in a
large magnitude of current to flow (Aids in coordination), but
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h no increase
has i in
i voltage
lt on unfaulted
f lt d phases.
h
Low initial cost to install and implement, but stray currents then
become a possible consequence
consequence.
Common in low voltage distribution systems, such as overhead
lines.
typically feeds to transformer primary with high side fuse
protection.
Not the preferred grounding scheme for industrial or commercial
facilities due to high magnitude fault currents.
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Low Resistance Grounded System:
The low resistance grounded system is one that has the neutral
connected to ground through a small resistance that limits the
fault current. The size of the grounding resistor is selected to
detect and clear the faulted circuit..
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The resistor can limit ground currents to a desired level based on

coordination requirement or relay limitations.
Limits transient overvoltages during ground faults.
faults
Low resistance grounding is not recommended for low voltage
systems due to the limited ground fault current. This reduced fault
current can be insufficient to positively operate fuses and/or series
t i units.
trip it
Ground fault current typically in the 100 – 600 Amp range.
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High Resistance Grounded System:
The high resistance grounded system is one that has the neutral
connected to ground through a resistive impedance whose resistance is
selected to allow a ground fault current through the resistor equal to or
slightly more that the capacitive charging current of the system.
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The resistor can limit ground currents to a desired level based on

coordination requirement or relay limitations.
Limits transient overvoltages during ground faults.
Physically large resistor banks.
Very low ground fault current, typically under 10 Amps.
Special relaying methods utilized to detect and remove ground faults.
High resistance grounding is typically applied to situations where it is
essentiall to prevent unplanned
l d outages.
Recent trend has been to utilize high resistance grounding methods on 600
volt systems and lower.
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GROUNDING SYSTEMS
System grounds: A system ground refers to the point in an electrical
circuit that is connected to earth. This connection point is typically at the
electrical neutral. The sole purpose of the system ground is to protect
eq ipment This
equipment. Thi type
t pe ground
g o nd also
l o provides
p o ide a low
lo impedance
imped n e path
p th for
fo fault
f lt
currents improving ground fault coordination. This ensures longer
insulation life of motors, transformers and other system components.
Maintenance grounds: This type ground is utilized for safe work practices,
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and is a temporary ground.

Electronic and computer grounds: Grounding for electronic equipment is a
special case in which the equipment ground and the system ground are
combined and applied in unity. Electronic equipment grounding systems
must not only provide a means of stabilizing input voltage levels, but also
act as the zero (0) voltage reference point. Grounding systems for the
modern electronics installation must be able to provide effective grounding
and bonding functions well into the high frequency megahertz range.
Lightning protection: Lightning protection grounding requirements are
dependent upon the structure, equipment to be protected, and the level of
lightning protection required of desired.
EEED-BVRIT 12
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GROUNDING SYSTEMS
► Several factures should be considered in the initial design of the
grounding system.
The area available for installation of the ggroundingg system.
y This could lead
to the requirement and utilization of chemical rods, or wells.
Water table and seasonal changes to it.
Soil condition and resistivity, Please see chart of typical results. Also
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elevation above sea level and hard rocky soil are concerns that would need
to be addressed.
Available fault currents (i.e., three (3) phase, line-
line-to
to--ground, and line-
line-to
to--
line-to ground,
line- ground etc
etc.).
)
NEC and ANSI/IEEE requirements. Also include here the requirements of
the process equipment to be installed.
Consideration to the number of lightning strikes and thunder storm days
per year.
Utility ties and/or service entrance voltage levels.
Utilization of area were ground system is to be installed, (i.e., do not install
under paved parking lot).
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GROUNDING SYSTEMS
SOIL RESISTIVITIES
(Approximate Ohm-Meters)
Description1,2 Median Min. Max.
Topsoil's, loams 26 1 50
Inorganic clays of high plasticity 33 10 55
Fills-ashes, cinders, brine wastes 38 6 70
Silty or clayey fine sands with slight plasticity 55 30 80
Porous limestone, chalk 65 30 100
Clayey sands, poorly graded sand-clay mixtures 125 50 200
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Fine sandy or silty clays,

clays silty clays,
clays lean clays 140 80 200
Clay-sand-gravel mixtures 145 40 250
Marls3 155 10 300
Decomposed granites, gneisses4, etc. 300 100 500
Clayey gravel, poorly graded gravel 300 200 400
Silty
S ty sa
sands,
ds, poorly
poo y ggraded
aded sa
sand-silt
d s t mixtures
tu es 300 100
00 500
Sands, sandstone 510 20 1,000
Gravel, gravel-sand mixtures 800 600 1,000
Slates, schists5, gneiss, igneous rocks, shales, granites, basalts 1,500 1,000 2,000
Quartzite's, crystalline limestone, marble, crystalline rocks 5,500 1,000 10,000
N
Notes: 1
1. Low
L resistivity
i i i soils
il are highly
hi hl influenced
i fl d by
b the
h presence off moisture.
i
2. Low resistivity soils are more corrosive than high resistivity soils.
3. Crumbly soil composed mostly of clay with a high limestone content.
4. Metamorphic rock formed by recrystallization of granite, separated into bands.
5. Metamorphic rock much coarser than gneiss.
This chart compiled from data published in:
IEEE Standard 142-1991
142 1991, Recommended Grounding Practices
British Standard Code of Practice, CP-1013: 1965, Earthing
Megger: A Simple Guide to Earth Testing
Biddle: Getting Down to Earth EEED-BVRIT 14
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GROUNDING SYSTEMS
1. Parity sized grounding conductors.
2. Grounding symmetry in all parallel feeders.
3. Zones of equipment with localized transformers to
isolate the equipment and control leakage current.
current
4. Limiting the quantity of devices grounded by any
single conductor.
5. Utilizing specialty transformers to limit ground
interference.
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6.
6 Faraday cage design concepts.
concepts
7. Use different networks throughout the facility as
opposed to a single ended data network.
8. Reference grids in all computer, data processing
and information technology rooms.
9
9. Perimeter ground ring bonded to the service
entrance.
10. Intentional continuity of structural steel.
11. Bonding of all communication cables to structural
steel.
12 Architectural steel treatment for lightning
12.
protection.
13. Ufer ground treatment per NEC for all main
vertical steel footers.
14. Grounding grid below moisture barrier.
15. Bonding horizontal steel pans to structural steel.
EEED-BVRIT 15
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GROUNDING SYSTEMS
► Several factures can degrade initially good grounding systems. These
factors indicate the importance of continuous periodic testing (Typically
once per calendar
l d year unlessl problems
bl arise).
i ) A change
h (lower)
(l ) in
i the
th
water table across the USA would lead to a degrade in the grounding
system. Another consideration in the ground system would be in
facility growth and the addition of non-
non-metallic piping and conduit
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which do not provide low resistance ground connections. Along with

the these concerns are the increase load and associated increase in
available fault currents
currents. The better the ground system
system, the more
attention should be paid to corroded electrodes. All these could result
in the need for a decrease in the grounding resistance.
Testing: Periodic testing should be done to assure grounding system
effectiveness.
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GROUNDING SYSTEMS
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GROUNDING SYSTEMS
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GROUNDING SYSTEMS
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GROUNDING SYSTEMS
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7.1 What is Grounding?

7.2 What is a Grounded System?

7.3 What are the Different Types of System Grounding?

7.4 What is the Purpose of System Grounding?

System grounding, or the intentional connection of a phase or neutral conductor

7.5 What is a Ground Fault?

7.6 Why is Ground Faults a Concern?

7.7 What is an Ungrounded System?

An ungrounded system is one in which there is no intentional connection

Consequently, the “ungrounded system” is, in reality, a “capacitively grounded system”

Under normal operating conditions this distributed capacitance causes no

7.8 What Does IEEE Say About Ungrounded Systems?

Ungrounded systems employ ground detectors to indicate a ground fault. These

7.9 Why Consider Grounding Your System?

If the ground fault is intermittent (arcing, restriking or vibrating), then severe

7.10 What is a Resistance Grounded System?

The intentional connection of the neutral points of transformers, generators and

7.11 What is a Low Resistance Grounded System?

• Limits damage to equipment

7.12 What is a High Resistance Grounded System?

IEEE Standard 142-1991, Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial

A grounded system with a purposely inserted resistance that limits ground-fault

7.13 Why Consider High Resistance Grounding?

High resistance grounding solves the problem of transient over-voltages, thereby

7.14 Why Limit the Current Through Resistance Grounding?

1. To reduce burning and melting effects in faulted electric equipment, such as

2. To reduce mechanical stresses in circuits and apparatus carrying fault currents.

7.15 What are the Requirements for Sizing the Resistor?

The line-to-ground capacitance associated with system components determines

A Brief Introduction to the Basics

Int od ction to Grounding

2.0 Standard Industrial Grounding Methods and Types of Grounding

Int od ction to Grounding

Int od ction to Grounding

resistance of one (1) to five (5) ohms.

Int od ction to Grounding

Standard Industrial System Grounding Methods

Methods of System Grounding

Personnel Safety WORST POOR GOOD BEST

TYPES OF GROUNDING SYSTEMS

system, with balanced loading will be close to ground potential due

TYPES OF GROUNDING SYSTEMS

TYPES OF GROUNDING SYSTEMS

The resistor can limit ground currents to a desired level based on

TYPES OF GROUNDING SYSTEMS

The resistor can limit ground currents to a desired level based on

and is a temporary ground.

Fine sandy or silty clays,

which do not provide low resistance ground connections. Along with

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