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Discipline Course-I
Semester -I
Paper: Oscllations and Waves
Lesson: Oscillations
Lesson Developer: V.S. Bhasin (Retd.), Amit Kumar
College/Department: Deptt. Of Physics & Astrophysics,
University of Delhi
Fig.1.1
Frestoring = - k x (1.1)
The negative sign in the equation above indicates that the restoring force opposes the
displacement. The quantity k is called the force constant or spring constant of the spring.
It is numerically equal to the magnitude of restoring force per unit displacement. Its S.I.
unit is Nm-1. The value of k is a measure of the stiffness of the spring. Stiff springs have
larger k values and weak springs have smaller k values.
Q.1 If the spring in Fig. 1.1 is stretched by 4 cm, on applying a force of 2N, what is the
spring constant? How much will the spring be compressed by a force of 2.5N?
Q.2 When the block in Fig 1.1 is displaced to the right of equilibrium position i.e. the
displacement is positive.
(a) What are the corresponding directions of the restoring force and the acceleration?
(b) At the equilibrium position, the displacement equals zero. What are the acceleration and
the restoring force at this position?
(c) If the acceleration is zero at x = 0, what can one say about the velocity?
Ans. (a) Both the acceleration and the restoring force are negative.
(b) Both the acceleration and the restoring force are zero.
dn
(c) Acceleration means = 0 . This implies that ν can be maximum.
dt
We now try to understand the basic cause of the oscillations of a spring mass
system. We observe that as we pull the object, the spring gets stretched. The restoring
force tends to bring the object back towards the equilibrium position. In this process, it
acquires kinetic energy, which makes the object to overshoot the equilibrium position. This
is because of the inertia of the body coming into play. Now, as the object overshoots, and
moves to the other side, the spring gets compressed. The object is now again acted upon by
the restoring force but in the opposite direction. It will now tend to repeat the process from
the other end. Thus the oscillatory motion sets in, and if no other (damping) force is acting,
the spring mass system can, in principle, oscillate forever (indefinitely). Clearly, the
oscillatory motion results from two intrinsic properties of the system; (i) elasticity and (ii)
inertia.
We summarize the above discussion as follows: When a body is under the effect of a
linear restoring force, the body follows a special type of oscillatory motion called simple
harmonic motion. A system, undergoing simple harmonic motion, is called a simple
harmonic oscillator.
when the two quarks are close together, there is hardly any force. But at relatively large
distances when there is some stretching, a restoring force comes into play. This becomes
more and more as the relative distance between them increases. It is because of this
reason that quarks are always confined and cannot exist as free entities.
Step 2: green quark is coming closer to red quark and the spring is squeezed
Step 3: blue quark goes away from both red and green quark and the spring is being
stretched.
Animation steps: Show the random motion of three balls within big ball and thus the
stretching and squeezing of springs. Also show that after certain stretch it rebounces back
due to spring stretch limit.
Body:
How does inertia of the body come into play in simple harmonic motion?
Ans. Near the equilibrium position, restoring force is maximum and kinetic energy is also
maximum. Therefore, due to inertia, the body remains in its state of motion and overshoots
the equilibrium position when the restoring force again sets in.
Heading: MCQ
When the block, at the end of a spring, is pulled to a position x=a and released, what is
the total distance it would cover in one full cycle of its motion?
A. a
B. 2a
C. 4a
D. 8a
Ans. C
Fs = ma = - k x (1.2)
dn d 2x
We know that acceleration a = = . We can express eqn. (1.2) as
dt dt 2
d 2x d 2x k
m = - k x or = - x (1.3)
dt 2 dt 2 m
Note that the quantity k/m has units of Nm-1 kg-1 = (kgms-2) kg-1 m-1 = s-2.
This enables us to replace k/m by wo2 where wo is called the angular frequency.
Equation (1.3) takes the form
d2x
= - wo x
2
2 (1.4)
dt
We now require a mathematical solution to eqn. (1.4) – that is a function x(t) that satisfies
this second order differential equation. Note that this differential equation is a second order
linear homogeneous equation – it is linear because it involves the first power of the variable
x and its derivatives, and it is homogeneous because it does not have any term independent
of the variable. A general solution of such an equation will involve two arbitrary constants
which can be determined from the given initial conditions.
A close look at eqn. (1.4) shows that x (t ) should be a function such that its
second derivative, with respect to time, is the negative of the function itself. From
elementary calculus we know that sine and cosine functions have this property.
A general solution can thus be expressed as:
where C1, C2 and are constants to be determined from the initial conditions subject to
their being consistent with the form of the eqn. (1.4). We set
When we differentiate this equation twice with respect to t, we obtain a = ± w o. Clearly the
negative sign is not physically admissible, as it would imply a negative frequency. Thus
eqn. (1.6) becomes
The two constants, C and f , are now determined, using the initial conditions on
displacement x and velocity d x /dt. When the mass is held at some distance a from the
equilibrium position and then released at t=0, the relevant initial conditions are :
dx
(i) at t = 0, x = a , and (ii) at t = 0 , 0.
dt
Using these conditions, we get, from eqn. (1.7),
x (at t = o) = C cos f= a
dx
and CO sin 0
dt t 0
The second choice can be rejected because the first condition requires cos f to be positive.
Thus, with these initial conditions, eqn. (1.7) takes the simple form:
x(t) = a cosw ot (1.8)
Note that, the value of sine and cosine functions lie between + 1 and 1. In other words,
when cos (w o t + f ) = +1 or 1, the displacement has the maximum value, viz, x = +a or a.
The quantity a is called the amplitude of oscillation.
The graphical representation of eqn. 1.9 i.e. the position versus time graph is shown in Fig.
1.2.
Fig.1.2
Amplitude /3
Frequency 2s
Period ½ Hz
Phase 5m
Answer:
Step2: the ball has changed its position and moving towards center.
Step 3: ball has reached extreme right and then it reverses back towards left
Step4: ball has changed its position and moving towards center.
Do mention when the ball is at the center of table and write “mean position”
In other words
wot + f + 2 p = wot + woT + f
m
Recall that w o 2 = k /m so that T = 2p (1.12)
k
The number of vibrations executed by the oscillator per second is called frequency. The
frequency of motion is the inverse of the time period, T. Thus
1 1 k
no = = (1.13)
T 2p m
The unit of frequency is hertz (Hz). From eqn. (1.13) the frequency is larger for a stiffer
(large values of k) and decreases with increasing mass.
Step1:
Step2:
Step3:
Step4:
Step5:
Step6:
Then reverse the action from Step6 to Step1 and so on.
Write on top of ball “periodic motion” and on top of spring “simple harmonic motion”
Answer: The physics of simple harmonic motion is the key to our understanding of
various diverse phenomena observed in nature, such as production of mechanical waves,
sound waves and light waves and the behaviour of molecules in solids etc. The concept of
simple harmonic motion is quite akin to alternating currents which show a sinusoidal
variation in time and admit a simple harmonic behaviour in nature. The study of simple
harmonic motion thus forms the basis of detailed analysis in A.C circuit networks.
We have already seen that the displacement of a mass, executing simple harmonic
motion, is given by (cf eqn. 1.9)
x = a cos (wot + f)
Therefore, the velocity at any instant of time, which is the first time derivative of
displacement, is obtained as
dx
o asin ( o t ), (1.14)
dt
o acos ( o t ) (1.14a)
2
This can be expressed as
n = - w o [ a2 - a2 cos2 (w ot + f )]
1
2
= - w o (a2 - x 2 ) 2 -a £ ´£ a
1
(1.15)
Similarly, acceleration is the first time derivative of velocity. From Eq.(1.14), we get
dn
= - w o a cos (w o t + f )
2
(1.16)
dt
= wo a cos (p + w ot + f)
2
(1.16a)
In terms of displacement,
dn
= - wo x
2
(1.16b)
dt
On comparing Eqs. (1.9), (1.14a) and (1.16a), it is easy to note that (i) w o a is the velocity
amplitude and w o2a is the acceleration amplitude and (ii) velocity is ahead of displacement
by p /2.
Body:
A graph comparing the time variation of displacement, velocity and acceleration of a body
executing simple harmonic motion where equation is x = a cos (w o t + f). (Take the
value of the phase = 0).
Solution:
2
For a=5; where T 10 s
T
Solution: We have:
dx
(5.00 m.s 1 ) sin ( t 3) )
dt
d 2x
a 2
(5.00 2 ms 2 ) cos( t 3)
dt
are
5.00 5.00
xi m and vi ms 1
2 2
Find the values of the amplitude and the phase constant; hence the expression for x (t ) .
Solution: Using initial conditions
5.00 5.00
xi acos m and i o asin ms 1
2 2
and dividing the second by the first, we have o tan
Since w o = p \ tan f = 1, giving f = p / 4 and a = 5.00 m
x(t ) 5.00mcos( t / 4)
Considering the spring-mass system as shown in Fig. 1.1, we note that when the
mass is pulled, the spring is elongated. It is, of course, being assumed here that the mass,
attached to the spring, slides on a frictionless surface. The amount of energy, required to
stretch the spring through a distance dx, is the work done, dW. If Fo is the force applied
(say, by hand), dW = Fo dx . This force is balanced by the restoring force acting on the
mass due to the elongated spring. Its magnitude is the same as that of Fs i.e. | Fs | Fo .
Using Eqn. (1.1) for Fo , dW = k x d x.
Therefore the energy, required to elongate the spring through a distance x , is
x2
W = ò o dW = k ò
x x
o xd x =k
2 (1.17)
k = m wo .
2
since
In terms of the displacement x,
a k [1- cos2 (w o t + f )]
1 2
K.E. =
2
1 1
= k a2 - k x2
2 2
1
= k (a 2 - x 2 ) ` (1.20)
2
From eqn. (1.20) it is clear that at equilibrium (i.e x = o) , K.E. is maximum and equal to
1
k a 2 . By adding the potential and kinetic energies, i.e. expressions (1.18) and (1.19), we
2
get the total energy E at any instant of time. Thus
Clearly, in such an ideal spring mass system, the total energy remains constant,
independent of time, during one complete cycle of the oscillating mass. As a matter of fact,
the mass and the spring exchange energy as the mass oscillates. Suppose, for simplicity,
we consider the initial phase f = 0 . Therefore, the potential energy stored in the spring
t= 0
æ 1 2ö T 1 2p
at t = 0 is maximum ç= ka ÷ and K.E. ,of the mass ,is zero. At t = = the potential
è 2 ø 4 4 wo
energy is zero since cos 0 cf eqn.1.18 and K.E. is maximum since
2
sin 1 (cf .,eqn.(1.19)) . As the mass oscillates, energy appears to oscillate from K.E. to
2
potential energy and vice versa. At any instant of time, the total energy remains constant –
there is no dissipation of energy in such an ideal spring mass system.
Fig.1.3(a)
Fig.1.3(b)
Fig. 1.3(a) and Fig. 1.3(b) show the plot of potential and kinetic energy, U and K.E., for a
simple harmonic oscillator with initial phase f = 0. In Fig.(1.3(a)) the plot of K.E. and U
versus time has been shown; in Fig. 1.3 (b), the same plots are versus displacement. Note
that in both the plots the sum of potential energy and K.E. remains constant.
the two are opposite in sign. This means that over one complete cycle the algebraic sum of
these areas is zero, showing thereby that the average values of displacement, velocity and
acceleration over one complete cycle are zero. However, if you plot x 2 or v 2 versus t, the
curve would lie in the upper half plane only so that the total area will be positive during the
complete cycle. Since kinetic energy and potential energy are related to the square of
velocity and displacement respectively (cf., Eqns (1.18) and (1.19)), this suggests that we
can talk about average values of kinetic and potential energies.
The time average of kinetic energy over one complete cycle is defined as
K .E dt
K .E 0
. (1.22a)
T
On substituting for K.E from Eq. (1.19), we get
T
ka2
K .E
2T 0 sin 2 ( 0 t ) dt . (1.22b)
The integral in Eq. (1.22b) can be easily solved, which is found to give the value T/2. Thus
the expression for average kinetic energy reduces to
ka 2
K .E (1.23)
4
Similarly, using the expression (Eq. (1.1 8 )) for the potential energy, the average value of
potential energy over one complete cycle can be found as
ka 2
U (1.24)
4
showing thereby that the average K.E and the average potential energy over one complete
cycle are equal. Thus the total average energy, which is the sum of the average energies of
K.E and potential energy, can be written as
ka2
E K .E U (1.25)
2
Solution:
1 1
E = k a 2 = ´ 20 N ´ (3 ´10 -2 m) 2
2 2 m
-3
= 9 ´ 10 J
1
U = 0, = m n max
2
At x=0; Therefore E
2
1
= m n max = 9 ´10 -3 J
2
2
12
é 2 ´ 9 ´ 10 -3 ù
n max = ± ê ú 3 10 1 ms 1 0.3 ms 1
ë 0.2 û
± signs indicate that the mass can move to either side of the equilibrium
position.
At the position of 2 cm
k 2
( a x 2 )1 / 2
m
20 N
0.2
m (3 10 2
m) 2 (2 10 2 m) 2
1/ 2
= ± 100 (5 ´ 10 -4 ) =± (5 ´ 10 -2 ) = 0.22 m s -1
1 1
K .E m 2 0.2 kg 5 10 2
2 2
= 5 ´ 10 -3 J
1 1
U= k x 2 = ´ (20.0 N ) (2 ´10-2 m) 2
2 2 m
-3
= 4 ´ 10 J
Note that sum (K.E + U) equals the total mechanical energy E obtained in part (a)
x-axis, the location x(t) of P satisfies the same equation (1.9), viz
x (t) = a cos (wot + f)
0
P
0t+
aa
P0
O X
x(t) P/
Fig.1.4.
The projection of the reference particle P, moving in uniform circular motion, on the x-axis
(assumed to be the particle P ) executes a simple harmonic motion along the diameter
X X of the circle. In a similar way, the projection of the reference particle P on the y-axis
(say, another particle P ) will execute a simple harmonic motion along the diameter Y Y .
a cos 2 t a cos 0
T 2 2 for t 0
a cos
2 2 where
2
2 t . The projection has reached its maximum displacement
T
known as the amplitude.
Source: http://www.physics.uoguelph.ca/tutorials/shm/phase0.html
Activity:
(a) Set a small block of wood on a record player turntable. As the turntable goes
around, try to look at it from the side using only one eye so as to get rid of your depth
perception. You will observe the apparent motion (i.e., motion projected perpendicular to
your line of sight) is harmonic, that is of the form x a cos(0 t ) ( we assume that the initial
phase is zero here).
(b) Make a simple pendulum by suspending a small pebble from a string suspended
from the top of the table. Adjust the length of the string to make your pendulum to swing in
synchronization with the projected motion of the block on the turntable when the record
player is set rotating at 45 rpm. This would be a nice demonstration of the fact that the
projection of a uniform circular motion is a harmonic oscillation. You can also make use of it
to measure g.
Body:
Galileo, in 1610, discovered that there are four principal moons of the planet Jupiter. He
observed that each moon of the planet Jupiter was moving back and forth relative to it, in a
manner characteristic of simple harmonic motion. The disc of the planet Jupiter formed the
midpoint of the motion. Based on his observations the data points showing the position of
the moon Callisto in terms of its angle (measured in minutes of the arc) relative to Jupiter
are plotted in the figure (1.5) given below. In this figure, solid circles represent Galileo’s
data points and curve fitting is undertaken to get the best fit to the data. The curve is found
to obey Eq. (1.9), which denotes the displacement function of SHM, giving a period of
oscillation of 16.8 days for the moon Callisto.
FIG. 1.5
distance.
Summary
In this chapter, the reader:
(i) learns the basic characteristics of simple harmonic motion of a system;
(ii) studies to develop and solve the differential equation for a system executing simple
harmonic motion ;
(iii) learns to define the terms like amplitude, phase and time period of a simple
harmonic oscillator;
(iv)learns to deduce the expressions for kinetic and potential energies of a simple
harmonic oscillator,
(v) studies a reference circle, rotating vector and representation of SHM.
Problems:
1. Consider a spring of negligible mass suspended vertically from a rigid support with
mass m attached to its free end. Show that gravity has no effect on the frequency of
oscillations of the mass hanging vertically.
Solution :
Let us choose X-axis along the length of the spring and take the free end of the
spring as reference point X =0 (origin), when no mass is attached (See figure p1). As the
mass is suspended, let the reference point move down to X 0 . At equilibrium, the weight mg
balances the spring force kX 0 , i.e
mg= k X 0 .
FIG. p1
Now, if the mass is pulled downwards, the reference point would shift to X 1 . In that case,
the restoring force acting upward would be k X 1 . The net downward force will therefore be
mg - kX 1 = k ( X 0 - X 1 ) = - kx , where x = X 1 - X 0 .
The resulting restoring force on the mass m is F= - k x, where x is the displacement from
the equilibrium position X 0 . The result is the same as our Eq.1.1. It, therefore, follows that
gravity has no effect on the frequency of oscillations of the spring mass system. It only
affects the reference point.
(b) parallel to each other,( both the ends attached to the support while the free ends to the
common mass m ), as given in the figure.
Deduce the expressions for the time periods in the two cases.
Solution:
(a).
Here the two springs are in series. When the mass is displaced by x, the same restoring
force will act on both the springs. Due to different force constants, the two springs will have
different extensions, say, x1 and x2 . Thus
F F
F k1 x1 k2 x2 and x x1 x2
k1 k2
1 1
or x ( )F
k1 k2
1
This gives F x
1 1
( )
k1 k2
m
Therefore, the period , is T 2
1 1
( )
k1 k 2
(b) In the parallel arrangement, the two springs will have the same extension and the total
restoring force will be the sum of the restoring forces in the two springs.
m
Hence F k1 x k 2 x (k1 k 2 ) x, This gives the expression T 2
k1 k 2
Solution:
Suppose, at any instant, the length of the spring is increased by x. Then the spring
will exert an inward restoring force k x on each mass. Take the outward direction as the
positive one. If x1 and x2 are the displacements, of m1 and m2 , from their mean
positions, the equations of motion of m1 and m2 would be given by
d 2 x1 d 2 x2
m1 = -k x and m2 = -k x
d t2 dt 2
d 2 x1 k d 2 x2 k
=- x and =- x.
dt 2
m1 dt 2
m2
d 2 x d 2 x1 d 2 x2 k k
Now = + = -( + )x
dt 2
dt 2
dt 2
m1 m2
)k x = -(m1 + m2
1 1
= -( + )k x
m1 m2 m1 m2
Fig. p4(a) radius a, Period 5 s, Initial position of P /4 rotating in counter clockwise sense.
Fig. p4(b) radius b, Period 10 s, Initial position of P=/3 rotating in clockwise sense.
Solution:
(a) Initially, at time, t=0, particle P makes an angle of 45 / 4 rad with the x-axis in the
0
2
positive direction. After an interval of time t it covers an angle t in the anticlockwise
T
2
direction and therefore the angle it makes with the x-axis= t . The projection of OP,
T 4
at time t, on the x-axis is given by
2
x(t ) a cos( t ),
T 4
which is SHM of amplitude a ( radius of the circle) and period T.
(b) In this case, the particle P at time t=0makes an angle of rad with the x-
3
axis. However, OP is rotating in the clockwise direction. Therefore at an instant
2
t when it covers a distance of t in the clockwise direction, it would make an
T
2
angle of t . with the x-axis. The projection of OP in this case, on the x-
T 3
axis is
2
x(t ) b cos( t ) ,
T 3
which is again a SHM of amplitude b ( radius of the circle) with period T.
1/ 2
x2 x2
T 2 2 1
u 2 u 2
1 2
Solution: We have seen above that the kinetic energy of the particle at the position x
from the equilibrium position is given by
1 2 1
mv K (a 2 x 2 )
2 2
k
Therefore v 2 (a 2 x 2 )
m
2 (a 2 x 2 )
0
or v 0 (a 2 x 2 )1 / 2
It, therefore, follows that the velocity at the distance from the mean position is given by
u1 0 a 2 x12 .
Similarly, u 2 0 a 2 x22 .
u12 u 22
u12 u 22 02 ( x22 x12 ), or 0 x 2 x 2
2 1
x22 x12
2
Hence, time period T 2
0 u12 u 22
Calculate their time periods and find the ratio of the amplitudes of the two motions.
2
a1 10; 1 3 ; T1 2 / 1 s.
3
From the sec ond equation x2 5 sin 3 t 5 3 cos 3 t.
Let us put a 2 cos 5 and a 2 sin 5 3.
We rewrite the sec ond equation
x2 a 2 cos sin 3t a 2 sin cos 3t a 2 sin (3 t ),
where a 2 5 2 (5 3 ) 2 100 or a 2 10
2
a
T2 2 / 2 2 / 3 2 / 3 s and 1 1.
a2
Body:The animations in the link given below are divided into four
categories: