Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction 1
me
al
➜
ysi
pe c
x
1
2 Chapter-1
1 Heinz P. Bloch, Practical Machinery Management for Process Plants, Vol. 1 to 4 (Houston, TX:
Gulf Publishing Company, 1982-1989).
4 Chapter-1
MACHINERY CATEGORIES
It is organizationally advantageous to divide process machinery into three
categories. Typically, these individual machinery categories are administered
under a singular condition monitoring program since they share a common tech-
nology. However, the allocation of resources among the three segments varies in
direct proportion to the process criticality of the mechanical equipment.
The first segment covers the large machinery within an operating plant.
These main equipment trains are generally critical to the process. In most
instances the plant cannot function without these machines. For example, the
charge gas compressor in an ethylene plant, or a syngas compressor in an ammo-
nia plant fall into this category. This equipment typically ranges between 5,000
and 50,000 horsepower. Operating speeds vary from 200 to 60,000 RPM, and
fluid film bearings are normally employed. Most of the machinery problems pre-
sented within this text reside within this critical category.
Machines of this class are typically equipped with permanently installed
proximity probe transducer systems for vibration and position measurements,
plus bearing temperature pickups, and specialized transducers such as torque
sensors. Historically, the field transducers are hard wired to continuous monitor-
ing systems that incorporate automated trip features for machinery protection.
These monitoring systems are also connected to process and/or dedicated com-
puter systems for acquisition of static and dynamic data at predetermined sam-
ple rates. These data acquisition computer systems provide detailed information
concerning the mechanical condition of the machinery.
The second major group of machines are categorized as essential units.
They are physically smaller than the critical units, they normally have lower
horsepower ratings, and they are usually installed with full backup or spare
units. Machines within this category include trains such as product pumps,
boiler feed water pumps, cooling water pumps, etc. Individual units in this cate-
gory may not be critical to the process — but it is often necessary to keep one out
of two, or perhaps two out of three units running at all times. It should be recog-
nized that a particular service may be considered as essential equipment when a
fully functional main and spare unit are in place. However, if one unit fails, plant
operation then depends upon the reliability of the remaining train. In this man-
ner, an essential train may be rapidly upgraded to the status of a critical unit.
These essential machinery trains are usually instrumented in a manner
similar to the critical units previously discussed. Shaft sensing proximity probe
systems, and thermocouples are hard wired to monitoring systems. These moni-
toring systems may be integrated with computerized trending systems. Due to
the similarity of construction and installation of the critical and the essential
machines, the text contained herein is directly applicable to essential units.
The third group of machines are referred to as general purpose equip-
ment. These units are physically smaller, and they generally contain rolling ele-
ment bearings. These machines are often installed with full backups, or they are
single units that are non-critical to the process. Machines within this category
have minimal vibration or temperature measuring instrumentation perma-
Chapter Descriptions 5
nently installed. This equipment is often monitored with portable data loggers,
and the information tracked with dedicated personal computer systems. In many
instances, small machines are not subjected to detailed analytical or diagnostic
procedures. An in-depth analysis might cost more than the original purchase
price of the equipment. Although there are not many direct references to small
machinery within this book, the techniques and physical principles discussed for
large machines are fully appropriate for these smaller units.
The technology necessary to understand the behavior of process machinery
has been evolving for many years. For example, dedicated machinery monitoring
systems are being replaced by direct interfaces into Distributed Control Systems
(DCS) for trending of general information. Detailed dynamic data is simulta-
neously acquired in a separate diagnostic computer system. This improvement in
data trending and resolution allows a better assessment of machinery malfunc-
tions. In addition, numerous developments in the areas of rotor dynamics, aero-
dynamics, blade design, cascade mechanics, metallurgy, fabrication, testing, plus
optimizing bearing and support designs have all combined to provide a wealth of
knowledge. Understanding these individual topics and the interrelationship
between design parameters, mechanical construction, vibratory behavior, posi-
tion between elements, and the array of electronic measurements and data pro-
cessing can be an intimidating endeavor.
In support of this complex requirement for knowledge plus experience, this
book has been prepared. To provide continuity through the chapters, various fac-
ets of several basic types of industrial machines are examined. It is understood
that one text cannot fully cover all of the material requested by all of the readers.
However, it is anticipated that the information presented within this text will
provide a strong foundation of technical information, plus a source for future ref-
erence. The specific topics covered in this book are summarized as follows.
CHAPTER DESCRIPTIONS
The following chapter 2 on dynamic motion begins with a general classifi-
cation of machinery vibration problems. A review of the fundamental concepts
provides a foundation that extends into a description of a simple undamped
mechanical system. The addition of damping, plus the influence of forced vibra-
tion are discussed. Although the majority of the emphasis is placed upon lateral
motion, the parallel environment of torsional vibration is introduced. Finally, the
theoretical concepts are correlated with actual measured machinery vibratory
characteristics for lateral and torsional behavior.
Rotor mode shapes are discussed in chapter 3. This topic begins with a
review of static deflection, followed by the influence of rotor mass, and the distri-
bution of mass and supports. Various aspects of inertia of mechanical systems
are discussed, and critical distinctions are identified. Next, system damping, and
effective support stiffness are discussed, and their influence upon the deflected
mode shapes are demonstrated. The physical transition of a rotor across a criti-
cal speed, or balance resonance region is thoroughly explained. These basic con-
6 Chapter-1
cepts are then extended into measured and calculated rotor mode shapes. In
addition, the construction of interference maps are introduced, and a variety of
illustrations are used to assist in a visualization of these important concepts.
Chapter 4 addresses machinery bearings and supports in rotating sys-
tems. This includes an introduction to oil film bearing characteristics, and some
computational techniques. This is followed by proven techniques for determina-
tion of radial fluid film bearing clearances, plus the measurement of bearing
housing coefficients. Fluid film thrust bearings are also discussed, and the char-
acteristics of rolling element bearings are reviewed. Appropriate case histories
are included within this chapter to assist in explanation of the main concepts.
Analytical rotor modeling is introduced in chapter 5. This is a continua-
tion of the machinery behavior concepts initiated in the previous chapters. These
concepts are applied to the development of an undamped critical speed analysis
for lateral and torsional behavior. This is followed by the inclusion of damping to
yield the damped response, plus a stability analysis of the rotating system. Fur-
ther refinement of the machinery model allows the addition of dimensional forc-
ing functions to yield a synchronous response analysis. This step provides
quantification and evaluation of the transient and steady state vibration
response characteristics of the machinery. Finally, the validity and applicability
of these analytical techniques are demonstrated by six detailed case histories
distributed throughout the chapter.
Chapter 6 provides a discussion of transducer characteristics for the
common measurement probes. A traditional industrial suite of displacement,
velocity, acceleration, and pressure pulsation probes are reviewed. The construc-
tion, calibration, and operating characteristics of each transducer type are sub-
jected to a comprehensive discussion. In addition, the specific advantages and
disadvantages of each standard transducer are summarized. Specialized trans-
ducers are also identified, and their general applications are briefly discussed.
Finally, the topic of vibration severity and the establishment of realistic vibra-
tion limits is discussed.
Dynamic signal characteristics are presented in chapter 7. This section
addresses the manipulation and examination of dynamic vibration signals with a
full range of electronic filters. In addition, an explanation of combining time
domain signals into orbits, and the interrelationship between the time and fre-
quency domain characteristics are examined. Finally, common signal combina-
tions such as signal summation, amplitude modulation, and frequency
modulation are discussed. In all cases, appropriate examples are presented.
Chapter 8 covers data acquisition and processing in terms of the
instrumentation systems required for accurate field data acquisition, plus the
processing of the data into useful hard copy formats. Sample forms are included
to facilitate documentation of field measurements. In addition, the functions and
necessary compatibility issues between instruments and transducers are dis-
cussed, and operational guidelines are offered. This chapter concludes with an
overview of the most useful machinery data presentation formats.
Based upon the concepts discussed in the previous sections, chapter 9 dis-
cusses the origin of many of the common malfunctions experienced by process
Chapter Descriptions 7
trated with machinery problems detected during normal operation. The second
part of this chapter reviews the turnaround checks and calibrations that should
be performed on the machinery control and protection systems. The third portion
of this chapter covers the application of condition monitoring during a post-over-
haul startup of a machinery train. Again, case studies are used to illustrate the
main points of the transient vibratory characteristics.
Chapter 14 address a machinery diagnostic methodology that may be
used for diagnosis of complex mechanical problems. This chapter was based upon
a paper prepared by the senior author for an annual meeting of the Vibration
Institute in New Orleans, Louisiana. This topic discusses the fundamental tools,
successful techniques, and the seven-step process used for evaluation of machin-
ery problems. Again, specific field case histories are included to illustrate some of
the germane points of this topic.
The final chapter 15 is entitled closing thoughts and comments, and it
addresses some of the other obstacles encountered when attempting to solve
machinery problems. This includes candid observations concerning the problems
of dealing with multiple corporate entities, plus the politics encountered within
most operating plants. In many instances, an acceptable solution is fully depen-
dent upon a proper presentation of results that combine economic feasibility
with engineering credibility.
The appendix begins with a machinery diagnostic glossary for the spe-
cialized language and terminology associated with this business. For reference
purposes, a list of the physical properties of common metals and fluids, plus a
table of conversion factors are included. The technical papers and books cited
within this text are identified with footnotes, and summarized in a bibliography
at the end of each chapter. In addition, a detailed index is provided in the last
appendix section that includes technical topics, corporate references, and specific
authors referenced throughout this book.
It is the authors’ hope that the material included within this book will be
beneficial to the machinery diagnostician, and that this text will serve as an
ongoing technical reference. To paraphrase the words of Donald E. Bently (circa
1968), founder and owner of Bently Nevada Corporation …we just want to make
the machinery run better… To this objective, we have dedicated our professional
careers and this manuscript.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bloch, Heinz P., Practical Machinery Management for Process Plants, Vol. 1 to 4,
Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company, 1982-1989.