Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 157–165

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Comparison of exhaust emissions of biodiesel–diesel fuel blends

produced from animal fats
Rasim Behçet a,n, Hasan Oktay b, Abdulvahap Çakmak c, Hüseyin Aydin b
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Inonu University, Malatya 44280, Turkey
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Batman University, Batman 72060, Turkey
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon 61100, Turkey

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The present paper examines two biodiesels named as fish oil methyl ester (FOME) and chicken oil methyl
Received 18 April 2013 ester (CFME) produced from low-cost waste fish and chicken oils using the transesterification method, and
Received in revised form their fuel properties were compared to EN 14214 and ASTM D6751 biodiesel standards. Then, each methyl
14 August 2014
esters were blended with the commercial diesel fuel (D2) with a ratio of 20% on volume basis, respectively
Accepted 7 February 2015
and two fuel samples named as FOB20 (20% Fish Oil Methyl Ester and 80% D2 fuel) and CFB20 (20% chicken
Available online 13 March 2015
oil methyl ester and 80% D2 fuel) were obtained. An experimental study for investigating the effects of the
Keywords: blended fuels on engine performance and its exhaust emissions was performed by using a single cylinder,
Animal waste oils four stroke, direct injection and air-cooled diesel engine at different speeds under full load. According to the
Biodiesel
test results, it was observed that the brake power, torque values and the carbon monoxide (CO), unburnt
Diesel engine
hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations of blended fuels decreased while the NOx
Exhaust emissions
Environmental pollution concentration and brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) values increased compared to diesel fuel.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
2. Materials and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
2.1. Potential of waste anchovy fish oil (WAFO) and waste chicken fat (WCF) in Turkey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
2.2. Analysis of fish and chicken fatty acid methyl ester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
2.3. Production of waste oil methyl esters and their blends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
2.4. Experimental procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3. Results and discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.1. Performance results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.2. Emission results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.2.1. Carbon monoxide (CO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.2.2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.2.3. Hydrocarbon (HC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.2.4. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.2.5. Smoke opacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

1. Introduction
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 90 488 2173664; fax: þ 90 488 2157201.
Considerable increase in the amount of fossil fuels usage in
E-mail addresses: rbehcet23@gmail.com (R. Behçet),
hasan.oktay@batman.edu.tr (H. Oktay), vahapcakmak61@gmail.com (A. Çakmak), internal combustion engines and the negative effects of exhaust
huseyyinaydin@gmail.com (H. Aydin). emissions resulting from the burning of these fuels on the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.02.015
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
158 R. Behçet et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 157–165
environment have led to increasing interest in alternative energy
resources. Biodiesel is one of the alternative fuel sources for diesel
engines. Biodiesel can be produced from many different types of
raw oil materials like vegetable, animal and waste oils. When
environmental cleanliness and cost is considered, most appropri-
ate solution seems to be use of waste oil as raw material for
biodiesel production. Use of waste oils in biodiesel production is
very important because this process provides recycling the wastes
which cause hazards to human health and the environment and
providing recycling of them. Evaluating vegetable, animal and
industrial waste oils and converting them into biodiesel is an
important way to obtain alternative energy for transportation
sector. Over recent past, animal fat wastes have drawn significant
attention for the production of biodiesel all around the globe [1].
In Turkey, every year millions of tons of different types of waste oil
are composed, but only a small percentage of oil is collected and
used for re-evaluating (the production of soaps, cosmetics indus-
try, leather industry, etc.). The vast majority of the remaining oil
released to the environment in different ways [2,3].
An alternative to diesel fuels, studies [4–6] about producing
biodiesel from different kinds of waste oils (plant, animal) is
increasing day by day. Cattle, fish and chicken waste oils are
low-cost animal fats. It is economically important to evaluate
these oils properly. Use of low-price animal fats for biodiesel
production can reduce the cost of biodiesel raw materials by half.
Studies of Hogue et al. [7] are related with producing of methyl
esters from three different kinds of waste oils by transesterifica-
tion method.
In order to investigate exhaust emission characteristics of bio-
diesel produced from waste oil, Utlu et al. [8] used the waste frying
oil to obtain frying oil methyl ester (WFOME). After determining the
physical and chemical properties of WFOME, it is tested in turbo-
charged four-cylinder direct-injection diesel engine. diesel fuel (D2)
compared with biodiesel by means of exhaust emissions (CO, CO2,
NOx and smoke) and they found that they are lower than that of
diesel fuel. Yilmaz et al. studied performance and emission char-
acteristics of two CI engines of different compression ratios. In their
study, waste vegetable oil-derived biofuel is used, and engine is
fueled with D2, B20 and B100 mixtures. The results indicated that
use of biodiesel certainly affects unburned HC emissions regardless
of engine specifications and/or operating conditions. Exhaust gas
temperature and emissions may not be affected by biodiesel
addition or fuel type. In fact, those parameters may change as
functions of engine type, engine specifications and operating
conditions [9]. Lapuerta et al. obtained methyl and ethyl esters
from two different alcohols (methyl and ethyl alcohol) of waste
cooking oil. Each of methyl and ethyl esters were blended by 30%
and 70% with D2 fuel, respectively then fuel mixture was formed.
Later, methyl and ethyl esters both in pure and mixture form were
tested by a four-cylinder, four-stroke, turbocharged, intercooled
direct-injection diesel engine. Then it was compared with D2 test
results, and the effect of types of alcohol on exhaust emissions were
examined [10].
Many studies are carried out for fish oil as fuel for diesel
engines [11–17] Lin and Li [18] have also produced the fish oil
using mixed species of marine fish wastes (skin, tail, bones, etc.)
and then the oil is converted into biodiesel by transesterification
method. In order to determine the emission values of fuels,
produced biofuels are used as a fuel in diesel engine, and the
effects of these fuels on exhaust emissions are investigated.
Andersen and Weinbach [19] investigated waste animal fat and
fish oil for biodiesel production and tested in diesel engine and
they proposed that a significant reduction would have occurred in
amount of emissions in comparison to petroleum-based diesel
fuel. Gürü et al. [20] investigated biodiesel obtained from chicken
fat as a fuel in direct injection diesel engine, and they exami-
ned the effects of this fuel on exhaust emissions and engine per-
formance.
There are many other studies [21–26] related to animal fat/oil
biodiesel fuel and usage of these in internal combustion engines,
in order to evaluate the different types of animal wastes and
reduce the negative effects of waste animal fat on the environ-
ment. In these studies, it is generally stated that fish oil methyl
ester exhaust emissions are lower than diesel fuel and can be used
as an alternative diesel fuel.
The crude fish oil extracted from the discarded parts of marine
is reported to may provide an abundant, cheap, and stable source
of raw oil to allow maritime countries to produce biodiesel and
thus help to reduce pollutant emissions [27]. It is also stated that
fish oil can indeed become the appropriate source for biodiesel,
with environmental benefits [28].
A major obstacle in the industrial biodiesel production is its
high manufacturing cost. Generally, the significant factors that
affect the cost of biodiesel production are feedstock cost, applied
technology and plant capacity as well as value of the glycerol by
product. The comparison of economic assessment for biodiesel
production using various feedstock and different processes is
given in [29] and references therein. Besides is stated that waste
animal fats or oils are promising feedstocks to make biodiesel
more competitive, mainly in regions with intensive livestock [29].
In this study, the emission characteristics of waste chicken fat
and marine fish oil biodiesels (CO, O2, NOx, smoke, exhaust gas
temperature, specific fuel consumption, etc.) were compared with
standard diesel fuel. The purpose of this study is to produce clean,
renewable and environmentally-friendly fuels from animal fats
and low-cost raw materials (chicken waste, anchovy fish oil and
waste oil) for the requirements of Turkey and to test these fuels in
a diesel engine.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Potential of waste anchovy fish oil (WAFO) and waste chicken fat
(WCF) in Turkey
In this study, 99.5% purity of methyl alcohol and NaOH (sodium
hydroxide) are used as catalyst, waste anchovy fish oil and chicken
fat are used as raw material for production of biodiesel. Anchovy
fish oil is supplied from Sürsan fish meal and oil factories which
have been established in order to produce fish meal used in the
production of animal feeding in the Black Sea region of Turkey.
3086,244 t of anchovy were caught in Turkey between 2000 and
2010 and approximately 1/3 of (1073,497 t) this amount was
processed in fish meal factories and 113,003 m3 fish oil was
obtained by volume [3]. Waste chicken fat used in the production
of CFME is provided by Banvit poultry that serves with an annual
capacity of 75 million broiler chicken cuts in Balıkesir (Bandırma)
province in Turkey. This oil is obtained from chicken residues
(such as blood, hair, internal organs, head, meat particles) in
rendering plants by processing and handling of specific operations.
According to the data of Turkey Statistical Institute (TUIK), in
December of 2010, 74 million pieces of chicken were cut in Turkey
and in contrast, 130,652 t of chicken meat were produced. In 2010,
the total amount of produced chicken meat was 1444,059 t. If it is
accepted that a broiler chicken is 2.5 kg in average and 25% of it
enters the rendering, as much as 40% of this is obtained as chicken
meal and 30% of this contains chicken fat [30], when 1444,059 t of
chicken meat were produced in 2010 only 481,353 t of chicken
waste may occur. Considering that this waste is evaluated to
produce chicken fat, in 2010, Turkey’s chicken fat capacity can be
calculated as approximately 57,760 t. Therefore, produced chicken
fats are seen to have great potential as a source of raw materials
 R. Behçet et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 157–165 159

for biodiesel production. The oils/fats used in this study are
anchovy fish oil and chicken fat. Anchovy fish oil is produced as
by-product at Sürsan fish meal factories which are located in the
Black Sea Region of Turkey. Anchovy fish and fish oil production in
Turkey between the years 2000 and 2010 is shown in Table 1.
2.2. Analysis of fish and chicken fatty acid methyl ester
When chemical structures of FOME and CFME are examined it
could be clearly seen that they contained 31.11, 27.74 wt% saturated
free fatty acids, 53.76, 70.68 wt% unsaturated free fatty, respec-
tively, as listed in Table 2. Oleic acid (C18:1), palmitic acid (C16:0)
and docosahexa-enoic acid (C22:6) were the three major compo-
nents of FOME and CFME. Because oleic acid oils are good for
oxidation resistance, these oils have caused rise to the fore as an
alternative fuel for diesel engines. Oils that contain fatty acids
having single, double bonds are alternative oils for diesel engines;
however, cetane number will be adversely affected with increasing
unsaturation degree of fatty acid [32]. The high saturated fatty
acids result in biodiesel with a high cetane number. The higher
cetane number of biodiesel have many advantages, such as shorter
ignition delay, lower NOx emissions, good combustion character-
istics, and lesser occurrence of knocking phenomena in combus-
tion process. As shown in Table 3, the cetane number of FOME and
CFME is higher than D2 fuel that shows FOB20 and CFB20 blend
fuels should be used as an alternative fuel in diesel engines
compared to D2 fuel.
2.3. Production of waste oil methyl esters and their blends
Using waste oils in biodiesel production is extremely important
because it provides recycling and eliminating waste that it
threatens environment and human health. Biodiesel is a fuel that
has biodegradable and renewable degradationable structure. It is
not toxic, carcinogen, and allergic. It provides very good lubrica-
tion. It can be used in all kinds of diesel-powered vehicles and also
used for heating purposes.
Biodiesel fuel has better properties than petrodiesel fuel; it is
renewable, biodegradable, non-toxic, and essentially free of sulfur
and aromatics. Biodiesel seems to be a realistic fuel for future; it
has become more attractive recently because of its environmental
benefits. Biodiesel is an environmentally friendly fuel that can be
used in any diesel engine without modification [33].
It is only possible to use waste oils or fats as fuels in internal
combustion engines either by improving fuel properties or making
changes in engine structure. Any changes in engine are provided
by changing the injection pressure and time. It is recommended
that improvement of fuel properties can be achieved by reduction
of oil/fat viscosity [18]. In order to reduce the viscosity of the oil/
fat, fish oil and chicken fat methyl esters are produced by using a
chemical method which is called as transesterification method.
In a study [34], it is specified that the optimum operating
parameters for biodiesel conversion process are provided by
reducing the FFA of chicken fat. Hence, before it is subjected to
basic catalyst in transesterification process FFA is reduced with
pre-improvement process by an H2SO4 catalyst.
The production process of oil methyl esters is carried out in
stages as indicated in a schematic way in Fig. 1. The concentration

Table 1
Anchovy fish and chicken fat production, total processed and amount of oil derived in Turkey between years 2000 and 2010 [3,31].

Years The amount of produced The amount of processed The amount of obtained The amount of The estimate of amount of The estimate of amount
anchovy fish (t) anchovy fish (Tons) anchovy fish (m3) produced chicken (t) chicken waste (t) of chicken fat (m3)

2000 280.000 71.000 7.810 662.096 223.523 30.611

2001 320.000 62.755 6.344 592.567 200.050 27.396
2002 373.000 156.000 15.038 620.581 209.508 28.692
2003 295.000 120.000 10.800 768.012 259.280 35.506
2004 340.000 105.000 11.550 940.889 317.644 43.500
2005 138.569 30.000 3.300 978.400 330.307 45.234
2006 270.000 60.000 6.600 945.779 319.295 43.726
2007 385.000 170.000 18.700 1,012.000 341.651 46.787
2008 251.675 95.742 10.531 1,170.000 394.992 54.092
2009 204.000 90.000 9.900 1,250.000 422.000 57.791
2010 229.000 113.000 12.430 1,444.059 487.514 66.762
Total 3086.244 1073.497 113.003 10,384.383 3,505.764 480.097

Table 2
Fatty acid composition in some waste animal oils (wt%).

Fatty acid Chemical structure Fish oil methyl esters Chicken fat methyl esters

FOME (this study) FOME [16] FOME [23] CFME (this study) CFME [22] CFME [34]

Myristic C14:0 6.71 3.16 3.76 0.74 – 0.70

Palmitic C16:0 20.20 19.61 28.31 21.33 19.82 25.20
Stearic C18:0 4.2 5.24 7.75 5.67 6.09 7.80
Palmitoleic acid C16:1 6.59 5.16 0.78 3.25 3.06 5.90
Oleic C18:1 19.71 20.94 40.35 37.02 37.62 40.50
Linoleic C18:2 2.63 2.69 13.64 28.91 31.59 18.40
Linolenic C 18:3 1.64 0.9 0.96 1.5 1.45 0.70
Arachidic C20:0 0.79 4.75 0.32 – – –
Docosa-oic acid C22:1,4,5,6 22.4 0.98 0.68 – – –
Saturated fatty acids C14,16,18 31.11 28.01 39.82 27.74 25.91 33.70
Unsaturated fatty acids C16:1 53.76 51.18 56.83 70.68 73.72 65.5
C18:1,2.3
C20–C22
160 R. Behçet et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 157–165
Table 3
Fuel properties of biodiesels and diesel fuel.
Properties ASTM D-6751 (limits) EN 14214 (limits)
Density (g/cm 3) – 0.86–0.90
Viscosity (mm2/s) (40 1C) 1.9–6.0 3.50–5.00
Heating value (kJ/kg) 46,160 – 40,546
Flash point (1C) 130 120
Cetane number 47 51
Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio – –
Fig. 1. Biodiesel production stages.
of H2SO4 was 2% volumetrically for CFME production in order to
reduce FFA content of chicken fat below 1%. Waste anchovy fish oil
and waste chicken fat biodiesel production steps have been out-
lined as follows: (1) Presence of water in waste oil causes sapo-
nification, depletion of the catalyst and reduction in catalyst effi-
ciency. Therefore, waste oil is put in an open mouth beaker at
different times and is heated up to 110 1C in order to evaporate
the water in the oil, and it is to be cooled to 60 1C in room
temperature. (2) The mixture of both fish oil and chicken oils are
stirred in magnetic stirrer for 2 h at temperature of 60 1C. To
prevent loss of alcohol during reaction, a wet cloth is kept on top
of reaction vessel. (3) At the end of the reaction phase of the
separation of ester and glycerol, the mixture is stored at room
temperature for 8 h. At the end of this period, Glycerol and ester
phases are separated from each other and glycerin is taken into
separation hopper. Obtained biodiesel is filtered through cloth
filters and washing process is taken up. (4) For the possibility of
water in the biodiesel in separation funnel, the water is heated
above the boiling point of 100 1C and to make it evaporate. As a
result, lower viscosity methyl esters (FOME and CFME) are
obtained. Some properties of fuels obtained from the mixtures
are given in Table 1 in which they are listed with the specifications
of ASTM D6751 and EN 14214. Some properties of fuels used in the
experiments have been determined by fuel analysis laboratory of
Chemistry Department of Faculty of Arts and Sciences at Dicle
University and at Batman TUPRAS fuel analysis laboratory.
2.4. Experimental procedure
Engine performance and emissions have been tested in Diesel
Engine Workshop of Batman University Department of Mechanical
Fish oil methyl ester (FOME) Chicken fat methyl ester (CFME) C19.14H31.65O2 Diesel fuel
C19.07H33.87O2 [37]
0.881 0.876 0.843
4.45 4.35 3.66
39,934 43,356
155 177 60
52.4 54.8 52
12.43 12.65 14.58
Education and Faculty of Technical Education. A trademark RAIN-
BOW-LA186, single-cylinder, four-stroke, with speed variation, air-
cooled and direct-injection diesel engine is used for tests. Sche-
matic view of experimental test apparatus is shown in Fig. 2.
Hydraulic dynamometer with technical specifications is used in
the experiments as can be seen in Table 4, and the technical
characteristics of the engine are given in Table 5. Ranyger ST-4
brand laser thermometer is used for the measurement of exhaust
gas temperature. After the engine is started, the engine tempera-
ture reaches the regime temperature using diesel fuel (D2) where
the experiments are based on 1000 and 2500 rpm in the range of
500 rpm intervals. Then, instead of diesel fuel, a mixture of fuels is
sent to the engine separately, and experiments are repeated.
Exhaust emissions tests were conducted in accordance with the
European Union regulation numbered as 72/306/EEC (ECE R24).
Gas analyzer of CAPELEC CAP-3200 is used to measure emissions
exhausted from the test engine. The analyzer measures carbon
monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon (HC), carbon dioxide (CO2) and
nitrogen dioxide (NOx). After the engine has reached the operation
temperature, the probe of the device is placed in the exhaust pipe.
Then, the emissions values are measured by the device were
printed out through a printer on the device. Technical specifica-
tions of emissions test device are presented in Table 6.
3. Results and discussion
It is necessary to examine and analyze performance and exh-
aust emission test results after using of FOB20 and CFB20 fuel samples
in a diesel engine. Therefore, two main tests, which are engine
performance and exhaust emissions tests, are conducted in the
present study to see whether the fuel samples can be used efficiently
in a diesel engine or not. In this section, measurements and experi-
mental set up are presented for analyzing performance and exhaust
emission parameters. These procedures are separately explained in the
following section.
3.1. Performance results
Curves belonging to engine performance of D2 and blend fuels
(FOB20 and CFB20) are given in Figs. 3–6. In Fig. 3, the change of
brake torque depends on the engine speed, and the change of
brake power is shown in Fig. 4. When Figs. 3 and 4 are examined it
will be found that there is an average 3.2% and 4.33% decrease in
the values of brake torque and power of FOB20 in comparison to
D2, respectively. It is also clear that there is an average 1.9% and
2.4% decrease in the values of brake torque and power of CFB20
in comparison to D2, respectively. When number of revolut-
ion increases engine power of test fuels also increases and maxi-
mum power occurs at 2500 rpm using diesel fuel. Because of
high revolution, low gas velocity and lack of turbulence necessary
for good combustion affect combustion. Increasing air movement
 R. Behçet et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 157–165 161

Fig. 2. Schematic view of experimental apparatus.

Table 4
37
Test engine specifications.
36

Engine torque (Nm)

Brand DIESEL RANBOW-LA186
35

Cooling system Air-cooled 34

Spraying system Direct injection
Number of cylinders 1 33
Cylinder diameter 86 mm D2
Stroke 70 mm 32 FOB20
Compression ratio 18/1 CFB20
Max. power 15 HP 31
Course volume 0.406 cm3
Spray pressure 19.6 70.49 MPa 30
1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500
Engine speed (rpm)
Table 5
Technical features of hydraulic dynamometer. Fig. 3. The engine torque changes in test fuels according to engine speed changes.

Model CT-140

8
Max. braking power 50 kW
Max. Transfer and Max. moment (torque) 7500 rpm–250 N m 7
Load cell capacity and the weight system 1000 N— metric-electronic load cell
Engine power (Kw)

Max. water consumption for power Vmax. 0.75 m3/h 6

Anti-water pressure 1–2 kg/cm2
5
Electricity needs 220/380 V 50 Hz
Direction of rotation Right turn 4

3 D2
2 FOB20
Table 6
Technical properties of the gas analyzing device. CFB20
1
Parameter Measuring range Precision 0
1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500
HC 0–20,000 ppm 1 ppm
CO2 0–20% 0.1%
Engine speed (rpm)
CO 0–15% 0.001%
Fig. 4. The engine power changes of the test fuels according to engine speed
O2 0–21.7% 0.01%
changes.
NOx 0–5000 ppm 1 ppm
Smoke opacity 0–100% 1%

increases the engine speed, as well as, good combustion increases
power and torque.
The fact that diesel fuel has a high heating value with respect to
biodiesel fuels, higher power is obtained from mixed fuels using
diesel stems. However, it is observed that the value of engine
power is less than D2 fuel when using biodiesel fuels. The reason
for this decrease is that blend fuels have lower heating values than
D2 fuel, and also their densities are higher than D2. Fuel is injected
into the engine cylinder by volume. When using high density fuels,
more fuel will take part in combustion and thus as more engine
power will be delivered [35,36].
Fig. 5 shows the variation of exhaust gas temperature with
engine speed for the tested fuels. The exhaust gas temperature
increases with increase in engine speed for all test fuels and the
values are lower for D2 in comparison to FOB20 and CFB20 fuels.
162 R. Behçet et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 157–165

350 2.4
Exghaust Temperature ( C)
300 2

250
1.6
200

CO (%)
1.2
150
D2
0.8 D2
100 FOB20
CFB20 FOB20
50 0.4
CFB20
0 0
1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500
Engine speed (rpm) Engine speed (rpm)
Fig. 5. Variation of exhaust gas temperature of test fuels with engine speed.
Fig. 7. CO emissions of the test fuels changes according to engine speed changes.

450 3.2.1. Carbon monoxide (CO)

The main reason of the presence of CO in the combustion
400
D2 products is insufficient oxygen. Emissions from internal combustion
350 engines affect fuel type and characteristics, rate of atomization,
bsfc (gr/kwh)

FOB20
CFB20
300
250
200
150
100
1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
Engine speed(rpm)
Fig. 6. Specific fuel consumption of the test fuels according to engine speed
changes.
The lowest exhaust gas temperature values are obtained for D2
and the highest ones are observed for FOB20 fuel. The reason is
considered to be that the biodiesel contains constituents of poor
volatility, which burn only during the late combustion phase.
Therefore the higher exhaust gas temperature values of biodiesel
can be mainly due to delayed combustion.
In Fig. 6, specific fuel consumptions of diesel fuel and blend
fuels are given depend on engine speed. When figure is examined,
specific fuel consumption increases with using of mixed fuels, and
all the number of average revolution increases by 6.7% (accounting
for 8.3% and 5.2% of FOB20 and CFB20, respectively) with respect
to D2 fuel. Hence, increasing is based on the high density of blend
fuels. Blend fuels, which have lower heating value, can be
compensated with more fuel consumption to produce equal power
with diesel fuel.
3.2. Emission results
In this section, effects of the FOB20 and CFB20 (blends of fuels
derived from fish oil and waste chicken fat methyl ester and
petroleum-based diesel fuel) fuels on the concentration in the
exhaust emissions, such as carbon monoxide (CO), unburned
hydrocarbon (HC), nitrogen oxide (NOx) are given. Experimental
data for these parameters measured by exhaust gas analyzer are
presented in graphical forms and discussed here. It is appreciated
that when compared to biodiesel fuels which are produced from
different raw materials and used as fuel in diesel engines with
petroleum-based diesel fuels, derived emissions from these fuels
such as CO, HC, CO2 and smoke intensity decrease, but NOx
emissions increase[35,36].
combustion chamber shape, engine speed, air–fuel ratio and the
other engine operating parameters [38]. CO stemming from diesel
engines, unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and NOx and smoke density
pollutants are basic parameters of emission standards. CO and
unburned hydrocarbon emission express the unused chemical ene-
rgy losses in engine, and increase in emissions that adversely affect
engine performance [20]. In Fig. 7, changes of CO emissions of the
2250 2500
test fuels are shown according to full load and different number of
revolutions. Using blend fuels as fuel causes lower CO emission than
diesel fuel at all engine speeds. Although CO emission values of
blend fuels are close to diesel fuel emissions at low revolutions such
as lower than 1500 rpm, further decrease in emissions occurs at
high revolution such as over 1500 rpm. The main reason for the
formation of CO is incomplete combustion. Average, CO emissions
of blend fuels are lower by amounts of 24.4% and 19.8% for FOB20
and CFB20, respectively, than that of conventional diesel fuel. CO2
emissions of blend fuels are lower than the emissions of diesel fuel
because CO emissions in blend fuels are converted into CO2 emi-
ssions and also, blend fuels have lower CO emissions due to the
biodiesel fuels oxygen content [38–40].
3.2.2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
One of the main factors of global warming, and the most
important environmental problem of the world is CO2 which
causes greenhouse effect in the atmosphere. One way to reduce
CO2 emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels is to use
alternative fuels instead of fossil fuels. According to researches,
approximately 28 percent of CO2 emissions are due to vehicles and
the road vehicles shares 84% of these emissions. Some researchers
have studied biodiesel in diesel engines [1,8,19,36,41,42], and they
stated the reduction in CO2 emissions during the complete
combustion because of low carbon and hydrogen in biodiesel. In
engines, air fuel ratio significantly affects the production of CO and
the amount of CO2 changes by the end of this interaction. Existing
maximum level of carbon monoxide causes reduction in the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. As long as the rate
of air–fuel ratio is kept under control, rate of CO reduces and the
rate of CO2 increases accordingly. Some researchers think that CO2
emissions released into the atmosphere by using biodiesel com-
bine with photosynthesis cycle [2,23,42]. When the engine speed
increases, in Fig. 8, it has been thought that oxygen in biodiesel
significantly contributes to oxygen-fuel reactions in engine cylin-
der. The CO2 emissions in diesel engine fuelled with the FOB20,
CFB20 and diesel fuels are shown in Fig. 7. CO2 emissions resulting
 R. Behçet et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 157–165 163

4 450

3.5
375
3 D2
300 FOB20
2.5

HC (ppm)
CO2 (%)

CFB20
2 225

1.5 D2 150
1 FOB20
CFB20 75
0.5

0 0
1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500
Engine speed (rpm) Engine speed (rpm)
Fig. 8. CO2 emissions of the test fuels according to engine speed. Fig. 9. Hydrocarbon emissions according to the change in engine speed of the
test fuels.

from biodiesel fuels are lower than that of D2 fuel. However, the
differences are not considerably high. The average CO2 decrease 250
for biodiesel fuels (FOME and CFME; 7.76% and 7.97%, respectively)
is 7.87% at all engine speeds. 200

3.2.3. Hydrocarbon (HC)
HC emissions occur in regions consisting of non-complete
combustion. HC emissions are not directly related to the engine
load and speed. It more depends on the geometry of the injection
system and combustion chamber. When revolution increases air
movements also increase (turbulence), hence unburned HC emis-
sions will be reduced [1]. Hydrocarbons also contain a wide variety
of organic chemical substances, and they do not have the toxic
effect in the normal atmospheric conditions. However, because of
playing a role between the reactions of other pollutants in the air,
they are considered as pollutants. There are significant increases in
the amounts of hydrocarbons in areas with high motor vehicle
traffic volumes. [13,42] In Fig. 9, the exhaust emissions of
unburned HC are shown with respect to a different number of
revolutions at full load. As shown in the figure, unburned HC
emissions of blend fuels (FOB20 and CFB20) are lower than D2
fuel. When compared with D2 fuels, the amount of decrease in
hydrocarbon emissions is found to be 12.89%. This amount is very
important in the point of thermal performance of the engine. The
higher HC is exhausted in emissions, the lower engine perfor-
mance is obtained from an engine.
3.2.4. Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
Two important parameters that influence the formation of NOx are
combustion chamber temperature and air–fuel ratio. When the
combustion chamber temperature increases above 1800 K, nitrogen
and oxygen are chemically combined in the air and becomes nitrogen
oxides which are harmful for human health and environment.
Nitrogen oxides combine with moisture in the lungs by forming
nitric acid and lead to a respiratory disease. As a result, diluting the
mixture with exhaust gases in the combustion chamber causes to
reduce both the combustion temperatures and the amount of NOx
produced. In a direct injection diesel engine, exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR) is one of the best ways to reduce emissions of NOx without
worsening the fuel economy [43]. Nitrogen oxides are among the
gasses in greenhouse gases that threaten human health. Therefore,
nitrogen oxides are requested to be as little as possible in the air.
Nitrogen oxide formation in diesel engines depends on injected fuel
quantity, injection time, the amount of air taken into the cylinder and
temperature [36,44].
As seen in Fig. 10, in the blend fuels, NOx emissions are higher
than diesel fuel. Around 2000 rpm, NOx formation reach the
maximum level and tends to decrease after this value. When all
NOx (ppm)
150
100
D2
FOB20
50
CFB20
0
1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500
Engine speed (rpm)
Fig. 10. NOx emissions of the test fuels according to engine speed changes.
average numbers of revolutions are taken, it can be observed that
NOx emissions have increased by 13.77% compared to the D2 fuel.
Many researchers [1,15,18] have specified that NOx emissions
increase when compared diesel fuel with biodiesel–diesel blends.
There are several reasons for high NOx formation in exhaust gas.
The main reason for NOx increase is the increased cetane numbers
of biodiesel which leads to advanced combustion by shortening
ignition delay which promotes NOx formation reaction. Another
argument is the oxygen content of biodiesel which improves
combustion thus increases the temperature and resulting NOx
production reaction which occurs after 1800 1K.
3.2.5. Smoke opacity
The amount of smoke present in the exhaust gas gives the
measurement of particulate matter present in the exhaust gas [45].
Use of petroleum based diesel fuel in diesel engines result in the
black smoke. The darkness of smoke is an important parameter for
oxygen content of the molecular structure of crude vegetable oils.
The main reason for this can be specified as aromatic compounds
in the fuel. The oxygen content in molecular structure biodiesel
based fuels is the main factor that has effects on the smoke
opacity. The oxygen inherently contained in the biodiesel blends
which remove any possible local oxygen deficiency is considered
to have helped in decreasing smoke level. General tendency in the
literature is that oxygenated fuels reduce soot and particulate
emissions [46]. Fig. 11. shows smoke opacity levels of all test fuels
(FOB20, CFB20 and D2) in the engine for different engine speeds. It
is seen that the smoke opacity for blend fuels are lower than that
of the diesel fuel. The highest smoke opacity levels have been
obtained from diesel fuel while the lowest values were obtained
by using FOB20. Smoke opacity is decreased consistently with the
164 R. Behçet et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 157–165
Fig. 11. Variation of smoke opacity the test fuels according to engine speed.
decrease in aromatic compounds and the increase in oxygen content
in the blend fuels (FOB20, CFB20). It can be attributed to the
increased air jets, swirl and turbulence movements, which increase
more homogeneous charge and thus result in more complete
combustion. The average smoke emission values for biodiesel based
blend fuels were lower than those of diesel by amounts of 15.95%,
and 10.02%, for FOB20 and CFB20 fuels, respectively.
4. Conclusion
In this experimental study, effects of the FOB20 and CFB20
blend fuels obtained from FOME and CFME methyl esters which
are produced from fish and chicken oil/fat on engine performance
and exhaust emissions are investigated so as to develop alternative
fuels for the diesel engines. Characteristics such as density,
viscosity, flash point, and heating value of the fuels are measured
to carry out the investigation. Engine performance and exhaust
emissions tests are performed by an exhaust gas analysis device.
The main conclusions of this study can be summarized as follows:
(1) Thanks to low viscosity and low density of FOB20 and CFB20
blend fuels produced from different animal fats; good atomi-
zation, more appropriate mixture of combustion air, and more
regular combustion engine can be achieved.
(2) The most important advantage of FOB20 and CFB20 blend
fuels which are renewable and are obtained from low-cost raw
materials for the environment is that they have the potential
of cheap and sustainable energy.
(3) Fish oil and chicken fat can be used as alternative raw material
in producing biodiesel. The separation of the fat can be carried
out by using heating and transesterification technique. The
characteristics of FOB20 and CFB20 blend fuels are similar to
those of the standard biodiesel.
(4) Since FOME and CFME fuels are produced from waste animal
fats, the amount of waste occurred in the environment will
reduce. Because of the energy recovered from the feedback of
waste, the production of biodiesel can be seen as an envir-
onmentally friendly process.
(5) Because emissions of biodiesels produced from animal fats are
chemically different from standard diesel fuel, lower CO, HC,
CO2, and smoke emissions are obtained. The values of these
emissions are found as 17.34%, 12.89%, 7.87%, and 12.99%,
respectively.
As a result, it is appropriate to use blend fuels derived from
waste oils/fats in diesel engines as an alternative to D2 fuels
because both of them clear waste oil from the environment and
their exhaust emissions have positive effects on the environment.
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