International Journal of Fatigue 68 (2014) 10–23

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Fatigue

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijfatigue

Fatigue life prediction for some metallic materials under constant

amplitude multiaxial loading
Jing Li a,b,⇑, Chun-wang Li b, Yan-jiang Qiao c, Zhong-ping Zhang b
a
Harbin Air Force Flight Academy, Nan Tong Street, Harbin 150001, China
b
The Science Institute, Air Force Engineering University, East Chang Le Road, Xi’an 710051, China
c
Air Field Service Technology Research Center of Air Force, Min Hang Road, Beijing 100195, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Based on the critical plane approach, the Sun-Shang-Bao (SSB) model is analyzed and verified. It is
Received 26 March 2014 discovered that SSB model cannot take the non-proportional cyclic hardening into account and gives
Received in revised form 14 June 2014 non-conservative fatigue life predictions under the non-proportional loading. To solve this problem, a
Accepted 17 June 2014
stress-correlated factor is introduced to describe the degree of the non-proportional cyclic hardening
Available online 26 June 2014
as well as the effect of the non-zero mean stress. The accuracy of the proposed method is systematically
checked against the experimental data found in literature for 16 different materials under constant
Keywords:
amplitude multiaxial loading paths.
Multiaxial fatigue
Critical plane
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Life prediction
Non-proportional cyclic hardening
Effective Poisson’s ratio

1. Introduction (shear stress/strain amplitudes equal on all plane orientations)

Engineering components and structures in service, such as
axles, crankshafts, and turbine disks and blades, are generally sub-
jected to multiaxial fatigue loading, some proportional and others
non-proportional [1–3]. During recent decades, fatigue life predic-
tions for such components and structures under non-proportional
loading have become a growing research interest. However, the
conventional multiaxial fatigue criteria may lead to non-conserva-
tive results under non-proportional loading since they are usually
based on proportional fatigue tests. Therefore, accurate fatigue life
prediction for these components under non-proportional loading
should be further studied.
For non-proportional loading, fatigue behavior under 90° axial–
torsional loading is often investigated since it is considered to be a
critical example. Nishihara et al. [4] showed that the fatigue limits
of ductile materials are apparently higher for out-of-phase bending
and torsion loading than that for in-phase loading. However, Guo
[5] showed that for a given applied stress, the maximum shear
stress amplitude under out-of-phase loading is lower than that
under in-phase loading. Among all out-of-phase loading paths,
Garud [6] and McDiarmid [7] reported that the special loading case
⇑ Corresponding author at: The Science Institute, Air Force Engineering Univer-
sity, East Chang Le Road, Xi’an 710051, China. Tel.: +86 02984786693; fax: +86
02984786547.
E-mail address: lijing02010303@163.com (J. Li).
gives the worst fatigue performance. Kanazawa et al. [8] found that
out-of-phase loading results in a shorter fatigue life as compared
with in-phase loading after conducting a number of axial–torsional
low cycle fatigue (LCF) tests with various phase angles in 1%Cr–
Mo–V steel. Especially, the 90° out-of-phase loading gives the
shortest fatigue life [8]. Jordan et al. [9] found that the relative
phase angle between normal and shear strains on the maximum
shear plane did not affect the fatigue life. Hence, he suggested a life
correlating parameter using an integral root mean square of posi-
tive normal strain on the maximum shear plane to replace the nor-
mal strain amplitude [9]. However, Wang and Brown [10] found
that the above-mentioned phase angle did have influence on fati-
gue life and suggested to take it into account in a life correlating
parameter. Fatemi and Stephen [11] and Itoh et al. [12] also found
that out-of-phase loading is detrimental for LCF life in terms of
maximum shear strain amplitude. Socie [13] claimed that the
shorter fatigue life observed under non-proportional loading may
be ascribed to the additional hardening associated with complex
loading paths. In the proposed Fatemi–Socie damage parameter
[14], the normal stress was introduced to replace the normal strain
amplitude. For LCF life prediction, some improved models based on
the equivalent strain parameter were also proposed by considering
the additional hardening and correcting the strain parameter for
non-proportional loading path [12,15–19]. Jahed et al. [20–21] pro-
posed a fatigue damage parameter by the energy-based critical
plane fatigue damage analysis, which successfully correlated the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2014.06.009
0142-1123/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 J. Li et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 68 (2014) 10–23
Nomenclature
Amax circle area with radius of maximum shear strain dur-
ing one cycle
Aa,max swept area of ca–a polar coordinate space of each
cycle
ac orientation angle of the maximum shear strain range
plane
b fatigue strength exponent
c fatigue ductility exponent
E modulus of elasticity
Deapp applied axial strain range
em mean axial strain
en normal strain excursion
Deeq von-Mises equivalent strain range
D en normal strain range
e0f fatigue ductility coefficient
epro in-phase normal strain amplitude
n;a
Decr equivalent strain range
eq
Dcapp applied shear strain range
cm mean shear strain
Dcmax maximum shear strain range
H hardening factor
fatigue lives of metallic materials under various non-proportional
loading paths. The cyclic energy, for a given component knowing
material, geometry and cyclic loading, was calculated by perform-
ing elastic–plastic analysis using cyclic behavior of material [20–
21]. Shahrooi et al. [22] verified the Jahed’s model for a series of
non-proportional loading conditions on 1%Cr–Mo–V steel based
on the nonlinear kinematic hardening model of Chaboche [23]
and the multi-surface model of Garud [6]. It is found that a weight-
ing factor on shear plastic work should be introduced. So, a factor
of 0.5 was used by Shahrooi et al. [22] to reduce the life scatter
band. In fact, from the point of microscopic view the additional
cyclic hardening can be attributed to different dislocation struc-
tures between in-phase loading and out-of-phase loading. Doong
et al. [24] found that in planar slip materials, single slip occurs
under proportional loading, while multi-slip occurs under non-
proportional loading. As a result, ladder and planar structures are
found for proportional cycling, while structures such as cell and
labyrinths structures are observed for non-proportional cycling
[24]. Different materials show different amounts of non-
proportional cyclic hardening [24]. Materials such as the 300 series
stainless steels show a large amount of non-proportional cyclic
hardening, whereas aluminum alloys usually do not exhibit any
additional cyclic hardening. The different additional hardening
behaviors in different materials may also be related to the different
dislocation structures, which are the results of different slip
characters in different materials [5,24]. Therefore, fatigue life pre-
diction should be connected with both loading history and
material.
A significant amount of researches have been devoted over the
past few decades to gain a better understanding of the mechanisms
by which fatigue damage accumulates under multiaxial loading
and to develop damage parameters to model the observed behav-
ior [25–31]. The majority of these models can be broadly classified
into equivalent stress-based models, energy-based models, and
critical plane approaches [32]. The early development of the equiv-
alent-stress models are usually based on extensions of static yield
theories to fatigue under combined stresses. Constant amplitude
multiaxial stresses are transformed into equivalent uniaxial stress
amplitude by the von-Mises or Tresca yield criteria. This equivalent
quantity of stress is assumed to produce the same fatigue damage
11
k empirical constant contained in FS model
K0 cyclic strength coefficient
L non-proportional hardening coefficient
n0 cyclic strain hardening exponent
meff effective Poisson’s ratio
me elastic Poisson’s ratio
u phase shift
k strain ratio, Dcapp/Deapp
U factor of non-proportionality
Dreq von-Mises equivalent stress range
rnpro
eq;a non-proportional equivalent stress amplitude
rpro proportional equivalent stress amplitude
eq;a
rn,m normal mean stress
rn,max maximum normal stress
rpro
n;a in-phase normal stress amplitude
r0f fatigue strength coefficient
ry yield strength
n, g phase angle
Dc, De, rn shear strain range, normal strain range and normal
stress on the maximum damage plane, respectively
or life as the multiaxial cyclic stresses. However, the equivalent
stress criteria are usually limited to high cycle fatigue (HCF) regime
where stresses can be easily estimated by the elastic stress–strain
relations. The advantage of these models lies in their relative sim-
plicity of implementation. It is necessary to point out here that the
critical plane-based maximum shear stress and/or maximum nor-
mal stress criteria should not be classified as the equivalent stress
criterion, which can be used as the critical plane parameters. The
energy-based models, in general, utilize the scalar parameter as a
measure of fatigue damage. The plastic strain energy parameters
have been preferred because of their inherent capability to reflect
the stress–strain path dependence of the fatigue process. A short-
coming of the energy-based models is in their inability to portray
the physics of the damage process. Experimental evidence has
shown that cracks nucleate and grow along shear planes or other
crystallographic orientations in many polycrystalline metals [14].
However, a scalar parameter cannot distinguish among planes on
which cracks may form. Critical plane approaches are based on
the physical observations that cracks initiate and grow on specific
planes and that the crack growth is assisted by the stress and/or
strain normal to those planes [14,30–35]. According to this
approach, the fatigue evaluation is performed on one plane across
a critical location in the component. This plane is called the critical
plane, which is usually different for different fatigue models. In
using these parameters, damage is calculated in terms of cyclic
stresses or strains on each plane within the material to identify
the plane containing the greatest amount of damage or alterna-
tively on planes experiencing the maximum level of a predeter-
mined damage parameter, such as cyclic shear strain. In recent
years, criteria based on the critical plane approach for multiaxial
fatigue evaluation are becoming more popular because they gener-
ally give more accurate predictions of the fatigue damage, espe-
cially under non-proportional loading [26].
In the present study, the shortcoming of the Sun–Shang–Bao
(SSB) model is firstly analyzed, and then a modified multiaxial fati-
gue life prediction model for some metallic materials is proposed
by taking into account the degree of the non-proportional cyclic
hardening as well as the effect of the non-zero mean stress. In
order to verify the fatigue life prediction capability of the SSB
and the modified model, a comparison using the test results of
12 J. Li et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 68 (2014) 10–23

16 metallic materials (i.e. 1050N steel, 1050QT steel, 1050IH steel, (a) 1
1045HR steel, 16MnR steel, S45C steel, 45 steel, 6061-T6 alumi- Maximum shear strain on the critical plane
0.75 Normal strain on the critical plane
num alloy, Inconel 718, S460N steel, AISI 304 stainless steel,
A533B steel, 1Cr–18Ni–9Ti stainless steel, Pure Titanium, BT9 tita-
0.5
nium alloy, and AL6XN stainless steel) is carried out. The results
show that the predicted lives by SSB model are satisfactory under 0.25

Strain (%)
proportional loading, while it gives non-conservative fatigue life
predictions under non-proportional loading. In contrast to the 0
SSB model, fatigue life predictions obtained by the modified model
-0.25
are in good agreement with the considered test results under both
proportional and non-proportional loadings. -0.5

-0.75
2. Proposal of fatigue life prediction model and analysis
-1
0 2 4 6 8 10
Kanazawa et al. [8] and Ohkawa et al. [36] reported that, during
ωt (rad)
in-phase fatigue loading, crack initiation and early propagation
occur on a maximum shear plane, and the crack growth plane 1
becomes normal to the maximum principal stress or strain. Under (b) Maximum shear strain on the critical plane
out-of-phase loading, there are two sets of maximum shear planes, 0.75 Normal strain on the critical plane
one is submitted to a larger normal stress/strain than the other
(the same result can also be obtained from Fig. A4) [8,36]. As a con- 0.5
sequence, the cracking may occur on one set of maximum shear
0.25

Strain (%)
planes, on which the normal stress/strain is maximum. It has been
widely accepted that fatigue crack initiation involves localized 0
plastic deformation in persistent slip bands even in the HCF region
[14]. Meanwhile, it has been experimentally observed that the -0.25
directions of these persistent slip bands are very closely aligned
-0.5
with that of maximum shear strain direction [8,37] and fatigue
cracks have always been found to initiate on the maximum shear -0.75
strain plane under different loading conditions. Therefore, for shear
mode materials, it is reasonable to choose the maximum shear -1
0 2 4 6 8 10
strain range plane having the larger normal strain as the critical
plane. ωt (rad)
Using 1045HR steel as an example, Fig. 1a–c illustrate the vary-
ing relationships of cmax and en with respect to xt under in-phase (c) 1
Maximum shear strain on the critical plane
and out-of-phase loadings. It can be seen that the phase angle dif- Normal strain on the critical plane
0.75
ference between the normal strain, en, and the maximum shear
strain, cmax, equals to zero (Fig. 1a) under in-phase loading, while 0.5
during out-of-phase loading this phase angle difference is non-zero
(Fig. 1b and c). Fig. 2a–c shows that the maximum shear strain 0.25
Strain (%)

range, Dcmax, decreases with increasing phase shift, u, (Fig. 2a)

0
whereas the normal strain range, Den, and maximum normal
stress, rn,max, increase with increasing phase shift (Fig. 2b and c). -0.25
The gradual increasing tendency of the normal strain range and
the maximum normal stress are consistent with the phenomenon -0.5
of fatigue life reduction with increasing phase shift, u. How the
ratio of the normal strain range, Den, to the maximum shear strain -0.75
range, Dcmax, varies with phase shift, u, and strain ratio, k were
-1
shown in Fig. 3. This figure indicates that the effect of the normal 0 2 4 6 8 10
strain range on fatigue damage becomes more prominent for ωt (rad)
non-proportional loading, even the ratio between Den and Dcmax
can reach 0.666 for the most severe non-proportional loading, Fig. 1. Variation of maximum shear strain and normal strain on the critical plane
while in the case of proportional loading, this ratio is always less with Deeq = 0.8%, k = 2: (a) in-phase loading; (b) 45° out-of-phase loading; and (c)
than 0.167. The variations in en,a and ca for arbitrary directions 90° out-of-phase loading.

during one cycle are analyzed for a special case (the most severe
non-proportional loading condition): sinusoidal wave form, 90°
out-of-phase loading with k = 1 + meff, and their maximum values
in each direction are plotted in r–a polar coordinate in Fig. 4. Here,
meff is the effective Poisson’s ratio, a is the angle inclination to the
specimen axis, en,a and ca are normal strain amplitude and shear
strain amplitude on the a-plane, respectively. From this figure, it
can be seen that the maximum shear strain range is identical on
all planes of the specimens. Fig. 5 shows how the maximum shear
strain amplitude and normal strain amplitude vary on different
planes for this special loading case. It can be seen that there is only
one plane (a = 0°) corresponding to the greatest normal strain
amplitude. For this special case, Verreman and Guo [38] reported
that the cracks are scattered in a large range of orientations since
all planes have the same shear strain amplitude. However, a higher
peak is found at 0°, where the normal strain amplitude is maxi-
mum. Therefore, for shear mode materials, it is reasonable to use
the maximum shear strain, the normal strain and stress acting on
the Dcmax plane as the fatigue damage parameters.
In Ref. [39], Sun et al. combined the maximum shear strain
range, Dcmax, with the normal strain excursion, en , between
 J. Li et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 68 (2014) 10–23 13

(a) 0.7
1
ϕ = 0°
0.75 0.6 ϕ = 30°
ϕ = 45°
Maximum shear strain (%)

0.5
0.5 ϕ = 60°
0.25 ϕ = 90°

Δ εn/Δ γ max
0.4
0
0.3
-0.25

-0.5 0.2
ϕ = 0°
-0.75 ϕ = 45° 0.1
ϕ = 90°
-1
0 2 4 6 8 10 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
ωt (rad)
Strain ratio, λ

(b) 0.5 Fig. 3. Relation between the ratio Den/Dcmax and the strain ratio, k.

0.25
Normal strain (%)

-0.25
ϕ = 0°
ϕ = 45°
ϕ = 90°
-0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10
ωt (rad) Fig. 4. Normal and shear strain states in 90° out-of-phase loading with k = 1 + meff.

(c) 800 0.5

ϕ = 0°
maximum shear strain amplitude
700 ϕ = 45°
normal strain amplitude
600
ϕ = 90° 0.4
Normal stress (Mpa)

Strain range (%)

500
0.3
400

300
0.2
200

100 0.1

0 Critical Plane
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
ωt (rad) -90 -75 -60 -45 -30 -15 0 15 30 45 60 75 90

Fig. 2. Variation of damage parameters on the critical plane with Deeq = 0.8%, k = 2:
Angle, α
(a) cmax; (b) en; and (c) rn,max.
Fig. 5. Variations of strain amplitude in 90° out-of-phase loading with k = 1 + meff.

adjacent turning points of the maximum shear strain on the critical 1

plane as the basic damage parameters leading to the following en ¼ Den ½1 þ cosðn þ gÞ ð2Þ
2
equivalent damage parameter for the SSB model.
In Eq. (2), the phase angles n and g can be determined by Eqs.
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u (A11) and (A12), respectively.
De uv eff ð2  v eff Þ Dc 2
cr
¼t
eq max Sun et al. [39] and Shang et al. [35] considered that the normal
þ en2 ð1Þ
2 ð1 þ v eff Þ2 2 strain excursion en can be used to reflect the effect of non-
proportional cyclic hardening. However, it is not particular useful.
where the normal strain excursion en can be expressed by [39] Fig. 6 clearly shows the dependence of the normal strain excursion
14 J. Li et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 68 (2014) 10–23

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
0.5 Decr
eq Deapp ð3  v eff Þ  ð1 þ v eff Þ rn;max ð1  v eff Þ2
¼ þ pro  ð7Þ
Δε = 0.52% 2 2 4 rn;a 4
normal strain excursion (%)

0.4 Besides, for uniaxial loading without mean stress, the maxi-
λ=2 3 mum normal stress, rn,max, reduces to the in-phase normal stress
amplitude, rpro
n;a . Then Eq. (7) can be rewritten as
0.3 sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Decr
eq Deapp ð3  v eff Þ  ð1 þ v eff Þ ð1  v eff Þ2 Deapp
¼ þ ¼ ð8Þ
λ= 3 2 2 4 4 2
0.2
Combining Eq. (8) with the Manson-Coffin equation, the multi-
λ= 3 2 axial fatigue damage model may be given by
0.1 sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
   ffi
λ =3 3 2 Decr
eq 3  v eff Dcmax 2 rn;max Den 2
¼ þ pro
2 4ð1 þ v eff Þ 2 rn;a 2
0 r0f
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
¼ ð2Nf Þb þ e0f ð2Nf Þc ð9Þ
phase shift (deg) E
where r0f and b are the fatigue strength coefficient and fatigue
Fig. 6. Relation between the phase shift and the normal strain excursion en . strength exponent, respectively. e0f and c are the fatigue ductility
en on phase shift u for axial-torsion loading with constant equiva- coefficient and fatigue ductility exponent, respectively. The four
lent strain. It is seen that en varies little increasing, first, and then uniaxial fatigue constants (i.e. r0f , e0f , b and c) can be determined
decreasing slightly with increasing phase shift between axial p and by the uniaxial fatigue tests. In the absence of the uniaxial fatigue
ffiffiffi tests, r0f , e0f , b, c can be theoretically estimated by the formulas as
torsional loading. Furthermore, under high strain ratios (k > 3),
en is almost unchanging for any given value of phase shift, u, while
 follows
en is changes For steel [43]
pffiffiffilittle with increasing phase shift, u, under low strain
ratios (k > 3). Hence, the normal strain excursion en is not suit- r0f ¼ 4:25HB þ 225 ð10Þ
able as a damage parameter to account for non-proportional cyclic
hardening. It is widely accepted that the maximum normal stress b ¼ 0:09 ð11Þ
can reflect the phenomenon of non-proportional cyclic hardening
[1,14,31,34,40–42]. Therefore, the maximum normal stress is
0:32HB2  487HB þ 191000
introduced to take the non-proportional cyclic hardening into e0f ¼ ð12Þ
E
account in the SSB model, and the following damage parameter
is proposed c ¼ 0:56 ð13Þ
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
   ffi
Decr
eq 3  v eff Dcmax 2 rn;max Den 2 For aluminum alloy [44]
¼ þ pro ð3Þ
2 4ð1 þ v eff Þ 2 rn;a 2 0
r ¼ 3:66HB þ 370:8 ð14Þ
f

where the maximum shear strain range plane with the larger nor-
1
mal strain is taken as the critical plane. rn,max is the maximum nor- b¼ log½ð3:66HB þ 370:8Þ=ð1:632HB þ 7:047Þ ð15Þ
mal stress and rpro 6
n;a is the in-phase normal stress amplitude at the
same strain amplitude level from a plot of normal stress amplitude
e0f ¼ 0:281 ð16Þ
versus normal strain amplitude. Since in-phase multiaxial fatigue
behavior is usually similar to uniaxial fatigue behavior, the in-phase
c ¼ 0:664 ð17Þ
normal stress amplitude response, rpro n;a , can be related to the in-
phase normal strain amplitude, epro n;a , by the following Ramberg– For titanium alloy [45]
Osgood form equation
r0f ¼ rb þ 355 ð18Þ
pro  pro n0
1
r n;a r n;a  
epro
n;a ¼ þ 0 ð4Þ 1 rb þ 355
E K b¼ log ð19Þ
6 0:446rb
0 0
where K is the cyclic strength coefficient, n is the cyclic strain hard-
ening exponent, E is the modulus of elasticity. epro n;a can be deter- e0f ¼ ef ð20Þ
mined by Eq. (A15) under axial–torsional loading. For bending-
torsion loading, one of the plasticity models such as the Garud c ¼ 0:664 ð21Þ
model [6] should be applied to obtain the in-phase normal stress
amplitude, rpro
n;a .
Under uniaxial loading (k = 0), it can be derived from Eqs. (A17) 3. Validation of fatigue life prediction model
and (A18) that
Sixteen sets of experimental fatigue life data are selected from
Den 1  meff the technical literature [14,42,46–57] for comparison with the
¼ Deapp ð5Þ
2 4 modified SSB model in this section. All the experiments are con-
ducted on smooth specimens at room temperature under strain
Dcmax 1 þ meff
¼ Deapp ð6Þ controlled mode. The monotonic and fatigue properties of these
2 2 investigated materials are summarized in Table 1. It is noted that
Substituting Eqs. (5) and (6) into Eq. (3), then the following the purpose of these comparisons is to validate the model’s gener-
equation is obtained ality to different materials and conditions. The collected data cover
 J. Li et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 68 (2014) 10–23 15

Table 1
Summery of the investigated materials and their monotonic and fatigue properties.

Materials Ref E (GPa) ry (MPa) rb (MPa) me r0 f (MPa) e0 f b c K0 (MPa) n0 Failure mode

1050N [42] 206 421 709 0.3 1109 0.292 0.10 0.456 1480 0.223 Shear
1050QT [42] 203 1009 1164 0.3 1346 2.01 0.062 0.725 1558 0.123 Shear
1050IH [42] 198 2156 – 0.3 4974 0.529 0.152 0.91 3328 0.083 Shear
1045HR [14,43] 202 382 621 0.29 1027 0.322 0.107 0.487 1258 0.208 Shear
16MnR [44] 212.5 337.9 544.5 0.31 966.4 0.842 0.101 0.618 1106 0.186 Mixed
S45C [45] 186 496 770 0.28 923 0.359 0.099 0.519 1215 0.217 Shear
45 steel [46] 190 370 610 0.3 843 0.327 0.105 0.546 864.3 0.192 Shear
6061T6 [47] 71.5 300 330 0.33 373 0.104 0.0326 0.473 436 0.069 Shear
Inconel 718 [48] 209 1160 1445 0.3 1640 2.67 0.06 0.82 1530 0.07 Shear
S460 N [49] 208.5 500 643 0.3 969.6 0.281 0.086 0.493 1115 0.161 Tensile
AISI 304 [50] 183 325 650 0.3 1043 0.157 0.0876 0.419 1660 0.287 Tensile
A533B [51] 193 432 576 0.3 872.1 1.46 0.084 0.665 827 0.13 Shear
1Cr–18Ni–9Ti [52] 193 310 605 0.3 1124 0.807 0.0905 0.665 1115 0.13 Shear
Pure Ti [53] 112 475 558 0.4 647 0.548 0.033 0.646 668.8 0.0515 Shear
BT9 [53] 118 910 1080 0.37 1180 0.278 0.025 0.665 1232 0.0361 Shear
AL6XN [54] 195 390 – 0.3 760.8 0.565 0.0997 0.482 1104 0.2 Shear

a range of materials used in industries, for example, the automo- 4. Discussions

tive and aerospace. The comparison of the predicted and experi-
mental fatigue lives is summarized in Fig. 7.
All the fatigue tests were conducted under combined tension
and torsion loading except the A533B steel case. For the A533B
steel, the low-to-intermediate cycle fatigue behavior is investi-
gated using solid round bar specimens tested in combined bending
and torsion [54]. Both in-phase and 90° out-of-phase loading con-
ditions are applied to produce cases of proportional and non-pro-
portional biaxial fatigue [54]. It is necessary to point out here
that, for A533B steel, the damage parameters (Den, Dcmax, and
rn,max) are taken from Ref. [58]. The experimental data of Inconel
718 [51], S460N steel [52], and AISI 304 stainless steel [53] include
in-phase/out-of-phase axial–torsional data with non-zero mean
stress. For 1050 steel, constant amplitude in-phase and 90° out-
of-phase axial–torsional fatigue tests are conducted on tubular
specimens with three hardness levels obtained from normalizing
(1050N steel), quenching and tempering (1050QT steel) and induc-
tion hardening (1050IH steel). Since uniaxial strain-life fatigue
properties (r0 f, e0 f, b and c) are not available, equivalent fatigue
properties obtained from the in-phase tests are used to predict
the fatigue lives. Additionally, for 1050 steel [42], pure titanium
[56], and titanium alloy BT9 [56], the maximum normal stress,
rn,max, is taken from the original paper. For the other considered
materials, incremental plasticity theory with Garud’s hardening
rule [6,59–60] was used to compute the maximum normal stress,
rn,max. The reliability of the incremental plasticity model with Gar-
ud’s hardening rule was evaluated by using the experimental
results of 1045HR steel [46] during proportional and non-
proportional loadings. The loading paths were illustrated in
Fig. 8. The detailed data were listed in Table 2. In this table, Dr0x
and Ds0xy are the stress ranges calculated by the incremental plas-
ticity model. Drx and Dsxy are the experimental values of stress
range [46]. The relative deviations of the calculated principal
and shear stress ranges with the test ones are defined as
dDr0x ¼ ðDr0x  Drx Þ=Drx , dDs0xy ¼ ðDs0xy  Dsxy Þ=Dsxy , respectively.
It can be seen from Table 2 that the maximum error is 7.7% and
12.3% for the principal stress range and the shear stress range,
respectively. Most errors are within 10%. Experimental verification
shows that the incremental plasticity model with Garud’s hardening
rule is reliable to calculate the stress of the thin tubular specimen
under axial–torsional loading. It can be observed from Fig. 7a that
the predicted lifetime by the proposed model under uniaxial and
proportional loading is satisfactory. The data points fall mainly
within an error factor of 2. Under the non-proportional loading
(see Fig. 7b), the predicted lifetime is somewhat more scattered.
However, most of the data points fall within an error factor of 3.
The comparisons shown in Fig. 7 indicate that the proposed
model assesses fatigue lifetime well. Most of the predicted fatigue
lives for various materials are within a factor of ±3 when compared
with experimental fatigue lifetime data. These results illustrate
that the proposed method is promising.
Principal directions remain fixed for proportional multiaxial
loading, whereas non-proportional multiaxial loading results in
the rotation of principal axes in time [1–3]. The rotation of the
principal stress and strain axes during non-proportional loading
often causes additional cyclic hardening. This non-proportional
cyclic hardening usually reduces the fatigue lifetime of materials.
Socie [13] performed in-phase and 90° out-of-phase fatigue tests
with the same shear strain range on AISI 304 stainless steel. It
was found that cyclic stabilized stress–strain hysteresis loops in
the 90° out-of-phase tests had stress ranges twice as large as those
of the in-phase tests even though both loading histories had the
same shear strain range. Socie et al. [1] concluded that the higher
magnitude of stress ranges in the out-of-phase test is due to the
effect of an additional strain hardening in the material. In order
to describe this phenomenon, the hardening factor was defined as
rnpro
eq;a
H¼ 1 ð22Þ
rpro
eq;a
where rnpro
eq;a is non-proportional equivalent stress amplitude and
rpro
eq;a is proportional equivalent stress amplitude at the same strain
amplitude level.
In Ref. [12], Itoh et al. performed various strain paths using type
304 stainless steel hollow cylinder specimens at ambient temper-
ature to show the path dependence of the non-proportional cyclic
hardening. Experimentally measured stress–strain histories for
Path I through Path IV (see Fig. 9) have been tabulated in Ref. [1].
Each of the strain paths has the same maximum applied shear
and normal strain ranges, which equal to 1.39% and 0.8%, respec-
tively [1,12]. Path I is proportional, and Path II through Path IV
have increasing degrees of non-proportionality [1,12]. In more
details, the non-proportional factors of Path I through Path IV are
0, 0.1, 0.2, and 0.77, respectively [12]. The variation of maximum
normal stress with respect to the hardening factor, H, is shown
in Fig. 10. It can be seen from Fig. 10 that during non-proportional
straining the magnitude of the normal stress increases with
increasing the hardening factor, H. This tendency means that the
proposed parameter, via its normal stress term to account for the
effect of the additional hardening caused by out-of-phase tests, is
able to account for this effect.
16 J. Li et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 68 (2014) 10–23

0.4 0.5
A B
0.2 0.25

0 0

-0.2 -0.25

-0.4 -0.5
-0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 -0.5 -0.25 0 0.25 0.5

0.44 0.6
C D
0.22 0.3

0 0

-0.22 -0.3

-0.44 -0.6
-0.44 -0.22 0 0.22 0.44 -0.6 -0.3 0 0.3 0.6

Fig. 8. The loading paths for validation of Garud’s hardening rule.

Table 2
Comparison between the incremental plasticity model with Garud’s hardening rule
and the test results of stress for thin tubular specimen.

Paths Deapp (%) Dcapp (%) Dr0x ðMPaÞ jdDr0x j (%) Ds0xy ðMPaÞ jdDs0xy j (%)
Drx ðMPaÞ Dsxy ðMPaÞ

A 0.29 0.62 356/358 0.6 273.6/262 5.5

B 0.83 0.444 675.4/680 0.7 127.6/120 6.3
C 0.82 0.426 783.8/728 7.7 334.6/298 12.3
D 0.528 1.13 722.4/690 4.7 442.8/408 8.5

Fig. 7. The accuracy of proposed model in assessing the fatigue lives of the
considered materials [14,42,46–57]: (a) uniaxial and proportional loading; (b) non-
proportional loading; and (c) with non-zero mean stress.

As mentioned previously, Fatemi–Socie [14] proposed to utilize Fig. 9. Proportional and non-proportional loading histories [12].

the maximum normal stress, rn,max, to account for the effects of
additional cyclic hardening instead of the normal strain term in
Brown-Miller [33,61] parameter. The Fatemi–Socie parameter
(FS) can be expressed as [14]
 
Dcmax rn;max
1þk ¼ constant
2 ry
where ry is the yield strength, and k is a constant found by fitting
the uniaxial data against the pure torsion data. In more details,
the constant k is determined iteratively until the FS–Nf curves under
fully reversed tension–compression and cyclic torsion are con-
verged to a single curve [62]. However, for some materials such
as extruded AZ61A magnesium alloy, divergence can be found
between the experimental data under fully reversed tension–
compression and those under cyclic torsion if k sets as a constant
[62]. Subsequently, life predictions using FS model will be scattered
since predictions are sensitive to the value of k [42]. In Ref. [42], a
simplified expression for k was obtained using the von-Mises
ð23Þ criterion, G = E/2(1 + me), and me = 0.3, i.e.
0:31ry
k¼ ð24Þ
r0f ð2Nf Þb
From Eq. (24), Shamsaei et al. [42] obtained that k increases as
fatigue life increases, especially in the long-life regime and for
higher-hardness materials. This is may be one of the reasons why
 J. Li et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 68 (2014) 10–23 17

600 Therefore, the proposed uniform material law is mainly applicable

Path I to ductility materials such as the steel, aluminum, titanium, super
Path II alloy, and so on.
Maximum normal stress (MPa)

550
Path III Under multiaxial fatigue loading, mean stress has a substantial
Path IV effect on fatigue life. Mean stress effects are included in fatigue
500 damage parameters in different ways [1]. One approach, applied
earlier by Fatemi and Socie [14], incorporates mean stress using
450
(a) 8
λ= 0
400 7 λ = 1.0
λ = 2.0
6
λ = 3.0
350
5

σn,m/σn,apro
300
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 4

Hardening factor, H 3

Fig. 10. Relation between the maximum normal stress, rn,max, and the hardening
2
factor, H.

1
the FS model gives non-conservative life predictions (see Ref. [42])
0
in the long-life regime even by up to a factor of 10. Additionally, if
-1 -0.75 -0.5 -0.25 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
test data are not available, Shamsaei et al. [42] suggested that one
may consider k = 1 when using the axial form of the FS equation. R=εx,min/εx,max=γ xy,min/γ xy,max
In Ref. [33], Brown and Miller argue that the normal strain influ-
ences fatigue ductility which in turn is related to the fatigue (b) 9
strength and then conclude that the normal strain across the max- λ = 1.0
8
imum shear strain plane assists in crack propagation. That is to say, λ = 2.0
the normal strain term is still an important damage parameter in 7 λ = 3.0
multiaxial fatigue life prediction. In the FS model, only two damage
parameters (i.e. rn,max, and Dcmax) may be insufficient for certain 6
σn,m/σn,apro

materials and loading conditions. Take 30CrNiMo8HH steel for 5

example, Noban et al. [63] observed that the additional hardening
in 90° out-of-phase loading is not significant, while fatigue lives 4
were considerable shorter under this loading path, as compared
3
to in-phase loading. Therefore, the drop in fatigue life of 30CrNiM-
o8HH cannot be attributed to additional hardening, but rather 2
related to a path-dependent non-proportional sensitivity factor
[63]. Fortunately, the normal strain term can be used to describe 1
the non-proportionality of loading path [64]. In fact, from the point
0
of microscopic view, fatigue crack growth is a de-cohesion process -1 -0.75 -0.5 -0.25 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
along crack tip shear bands, both normal strain and stress on the
crack plane makes this de-cohesion behavior accelerate. Hence, R=εx,min/εx,max=γ xy,min/γ xy,max
the normal strain term should also be considered in the fatigue
(c) 8
damage parameter. As can be seen from Eq. (23), only the normal
λ = 1.0
stress term is considered as the secondary factor. This may be
the other reason why the FS model gives scattered life predictions
7 λ = 2.0
[42,62,65]. In contrast to the FS model, the basis experiments (i.e. λ = 3.0
6
the uniaxial and torsional tests) are unnecessary to determine
the material constant in the proposed model. Besides, both the nor- 5
σn,m/σn,apro

mal stress and strain terms are considered to describe the fatigue
damage. Hence, the proposed model may be more suitable to pre- 4
dict the fatigue lives of metallic materials.
The failure mode of all the materials considered in the present 3
study is listed in Table 1. It can be seen from this table, all the con-
sidered materials are failed with shear failure mode except AISI 2
304 stainless steel, S460N steel and 16MnR steel. AISI 304 stainless
1
steel and S460N steel display tensile failure mode, while 16MnR
steel displays mixed crack behavior. Based on the failure mode of
0
the considered materials, it can be obtained that the proposed -1 -0.75 -0.5 -0.25 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
model is intended for cracks in shear failure mode materials.
R=εx,min/εx,max=γ xy,min/γ xy,max
Besides, Sonsino [66] pointed out that, for low-ductility materials,
damage is activated by normal stresses or strains and, for Fig. 11. Sensitivity of rn;m =rpro
n;a to mean strain: (a) u = 0°; (b) u = 45°; and (c)
ductile materials, damage is activated by shear stresses or strains. u = 90°.
18 J. Li et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 68 (2014) 10–23

Fig. 12. Some specific load paths designed to challenge FS model [69].

0.45 7
(a) 10
Δ εeq /2= 0.85%, λ = 1.732 Uniaxial
6 Proportional
10
Effectvie Poisson’s Ratio

0.44 3 scatter band

Predicted life (cycles)

5
10

4
0.43 10

3
10
0.42
2
10

1
0.41 10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Phase Shift (deg) Experimental life (cycles)
Fig. 13. Correlation between the ratio effective Poisson’s ratio, meff, and phase 7
shift, u. (b) 10
the maximum normal stress to modify the damage parameter. 6
Similar to the Fatemi–Socie damage parameter, the proposed mul- 10
tiaxial fatigue damage parameter can easily account for mean
Predicted life (cycles)

5
stress effects through the normal stress term. This is justified on 10
the basis that only the mean tensile stresses normal to the crack
will contribute to damage and the mean stresses parallel to the 4
10
crack will have minimal influence on the fatigue crack growth rate
or closure [14,67]. Thus, in the presence of mean stresses, the nor-
3
mal stress term contained in Eq. (3) will be composed of the alter- 10
nating normal stress and the mean or static normal stress. So Eq. Non-proportional
(3) can be rewritten as 2
10 Non-zero mean stress
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
   
De cr
eq 3  v eff Dcmax 2 rn;a þ rn;m Den 2 3 scatter band
¼ þ ð25Þ 1
2 4ð1 þ v eff Þ 2 rpro
n;a 2 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
where rn,m is the normal mean stress on the critical plane. Experimental life (cycles)
In order to take into account the contribution of the mean stress
and strain to the overall fatigue damage, it is initially useful to Fig. 14. Fatigue life predictions of studied materials by SSB model: (a) uniaxial and
proportional loading; and (b) non-proportional loading and non-zero mean stress.
rewrite rn;max =rpro
n;a as
 J. Li et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 68 (2014) 10–23
rn;max rn;a rn;m
¼ pro þ pro
rpro
n;a rn;a rn;a
Using 1045HR steel as an example, Fig. 11 shows rn;m =rpro n;a vary-
ing with the strain ratio, R (= ex,min/ex,max = cxy,min/cxy,max), when in-
phase and out-of-phase axial–torsional loadings with mean strains
are considered. It can be seen from Fig. 11a–c that for either in-
phase or out-of-phase loading rn;m =rpro n;a increases as the strain ratio
R increases. This simply means that the proposed model is in
agreement with the experimental evidence that fatigue damage
increases by increasing the magnitude of the superimposed tensile
static stresses [68].
It is necessary to point out here that, for the loading case, i.e.,
the cyclic shear with a superimposed mean tensile normal stress
(See Path E in Fig. 12), Eq. (3) is incapable since the second term
in Eq. (3) which corrects for mean stress will be zero for this case
as the normal strain amplitude term is zero. Under such cases,
the critical plane was redefined as the maximum damage plane
on which the largest fatigue damage parameter (Eq. (3)) was
obtained. Then Eq. (3) can be rewritten as
2sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi3
 2  
Decr
eq 3  v eff Dc rn De 2 5
¼4 þ pro
2 4ð1 þ v eff Þ 2 rn;a 2
max
where Dc, De, and rn are the shear strain range, the normal strain
range and the normal stress on the maximum damage plane,
respectively. Using Inconel 718 as an example [1], validation of
Eq. (27) using the limited data shows that the predicted life is
16,769, which is closed to the experimental one (equals to
10,300). Although this predicted result is encouraging, for this spe-
cial loading condition, more test data are still needed to verify the
reliability of the proposed model further.
In fact, the interaction of different stress and strain parameters
(including Path E in Fig. 12) on the critical plane and their effect on
fatigue damage are not yet well understood. Take the load paths
presented in Fig. 12 for example, Shamsaei [69] reported that all
these load paths have the same shear strain range and maximum
normal stress on the maximum shear strain range plane. However,
shear strain and normal stress components for each load path
interact differently [69]. In Fig. 12, Path E which tensile normal
stress is constantly applied may have larger effect on fatigue dam-
age than Path F which normal stress is pulsating only once at the
zero shear strain [69]. However, the FS model cannot differentiate
these load paths. Using 1050QT steel as an example, Shamsaei [69]
reported that the conservative life prediction was obtained by the
FS model for Path E, whereas the non-conservative life prediction
was obtained by the FS model for Path F. To give better fatigue life
prediction, the interaction of different stress and strain compo-
nents on the critical plane should be studied further in multiaxial
fatigue analysis.
As mentioned earlier, the increased hardening under non-pro-
portional loading results from the change of dislocation substruc-
tures from single slip to multi-slip structures. Doong et al. [24]
reported that formation of the multi-slip structures results from
the change of slip direction during the cyclic loading. Ideally, the
stress history under elastic deformation can be viewed as a record
for the change of atomic spacing [24]. On the other hand, the plas-
tic strain of metals results from the dislocation slip. Each macro-
scopic plastic increment corresponds to certain microscopic
dislocation movements [24]. In comparison with proportional
loading, the microscopic dislocation movements decrease under
non-proportional loading, which is in agreement with the experi-
mental observation [24,70]. Therefore, under the same equivalent
strain loading, the value of effective Poisson’s ratio, meff, should
decrease with increasing the non-proportional cyclic hardening.
Take 1045HR steel for example, correlation between effective
19
ð26Þ
Fig. 15. Fatigue life predictions of studied materials by the proposed model
[14,42,46–57].
Poisson’s ratio, meff, and phase shift, u, is drawn in Fig. 13. This dia-
gram is in conformity with the above analyses. In other words, the
proposed damage parameter can consider the common elastic–
ð27Þ
plastic states of materials through employing the effective Pois-
son’s ratio, meff.
In addition, the SSB model was checked by using the fatigue
data of the aforementioned materials, for comparison purposes
(see Fig. 14). It can be seen from Fig. 14a, under uniaxial and pro-
portional loadings, the predicted lifetime by the SSB model are sat-
isfactory. However, under non-proportional loading and/or loading
conditions with non-zero mean stress the predicted lifetime by SSB
model is non-conservative (see Fig. 14b). The predicted results of
Fig. 14b clearly show that the use of the normal strain excursion
en is incapable of correctly accounting for the presence of the
non-zero mean stress as well as the additional cyclic hardening
caused by the non-zero out-of-phase angles. In order to clearly
evaluate the capability of the proposed life prediction model, all
of the predicted fatigue lives are plotted vs. the experimental lives
in Fig. 15. Considering all the data of the investigated materials in
Fig. 15, 84.9% and 96.6% of the data fall within scatter of 2 and 3,
respectively. For the SSB model, 72.9% and 82.4% of the data fall
within scatter of 2 and 3, respectively. However, during non-pro-
portional loading, over 85% of data points predicted by the SSB
model fall within the non-conservative side, even by up to a factor
of 11. Therefore, the proposed model for multiaxial fatigue life pre-
diction of metallic materials improves prediction accuracy to the
SSB model.
5. Conclusions
 A critical plane-based fatigue life prediction model is proposed,
i.e.
Decr
eq r0f
¼ ð2Nf Þb þ e0f ð2Nf Þc
2 E
with
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
   ffi
Decr
eq 3  v eff Dcmax 2 rn;max Den 2
¼ þ pro
2 4ð1 þ v eff Þ 2 rn;a 2
 The maximum normal stress can correctly account for the pres-
ence of non-zero mean stress as well as the non-proportional
cyclic hardening.
 Under the same equivalent strain loading, the value of effective
Poisson’s ratio, meff, decreases with increasing the non-propor-
tional cyclic hardening. The proposed damage parameter can
consider the common elastic–plastic states of materials through
employing the effective Poisson’s ratio, meff.
20 J. Li et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 68 (2014) 10–23

2 1
3
 The SSB model can give satisfactory fatigue life predictions ex c
2 xy
0
under uniaxial and proportional loadings, while it is incapable 61 7
eij ¼ 4 2 cxy meff ex 0 5 ðA1Þ
of accounting for the presence of the non-zero mean stress as
0 0 meff ex
well as the non-proportional cyclic hardening. The predicted
lives by the SSB model are non-conservative under non-propor- If the applied axial and shear strains of the thin-walled tubular
tional loading. Experimental validations using 16 different specimen are given with the sine wave, i.e.
materials show that the proposed model is reliable for assessing
the fatigue life of materials under both proportional and non-
Deapp
ex ¼ sin xt þ em ðA2Þ
proportional loading. 2

Dcapp
cxy ¼ sinðxt  uÞ þ cm ðA3Þ
2
Acknowledgement
where u is the phase angle between the axial strain and shear
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of strain. Deapp and Dcapp are the applied axial and shear strain ranges,
Innovation Funds of Air Force University of Engineering respectively. em and cm are the mean axial and shear strains, respec-
(Dx2010403). tively. meff represents the effective Poisson’s ratio, which can be
determined by [71]
Appendix A. Strain varying behavior under axial–torsional ð0:5  me ÞDreq
loading meff ¼ 0:5  ðA4Þ
EDeeq

If the X-axis is conveniently chosen to be parallel to the loading where me is the elastic Poisson’s ratio. E is the elastic modulus. Dreq
and the Z-axis coincides with the outside normal of the surface, the and Deeq are the von-Mises equivalent stress and strain ranges,
strain tensor for thin-walled tubular specimen under strain-con- respectively. Fig. A1 shows the step-by-step procedure required to
trolled loading can be given by calculate the effective Poisson’s ratio. In this figure, K0 and n0 are

Fig. A1. Procedure for determining the effective Poisson’s ratio meff.
 J. Li et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 68 (2014) 10–23 21

the cyclic strength coefficient and the cyclic strain hardening expo- 1
nent, respectively. L is the non-proportional hardening coefficient, Δεapp = 1.2%, λ = 0.5, ϕ = 90°
which is defined as the ratio of the equivalent stress under 90°
out-of-phases loading to the equivalent stress under in-phase load-
ing [40–41]. This coefficient may be defined at any strain level as 0.5
γα

Strain Amplitude (%)

follows [40–41]

L¼
rOP
1 ðA5Þ ε n ,α
rIP 0

where rOP is the 90° out-of-phase equivalent stress and rIP is the in- ξ+η
phase equivalent stress at the same strain level. The non-propor-
tionality factor, U, is determined by the following formulation [72] -0.5
A
U¼2 a 1 ðA6Þ
Amax
where Amax is the area of the circle with radius equal to the maxi- -1
0 90 180 270 360
mum shear strain during one cycle. Aa is the swept area of ca –a
polar coordinate (shadow area in Fig. A2) space. ωt (deg)
The normal and shear strains on the plane which make an angle
Fig. A3. Schematic showing of the phase angle n + g.
a with the thin-walled tubular specimen axis are expressed as
1  meff 1 þ meff 1
en;a ¼ ex þ ex cos 2a þ cxy sin 2a ðA7Þ
2 2 2 k cos 2a sin u
tan g ¼ ðA12Þ
k cos 2a cos u  ð1 þ meff Þ sin 2a
ca ¼ ð1 þ meff Þex sin 2a þ cxy cos 2a ðA8Þ

It can be derived from Eqs. (A2)–(A8) that Dcapp

k¼ ðA13Þ
Deapp
1
ca ðtÞ ¼ Deapp
2 The phase angle between en,a and ca is (n + g) (schematic show-
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 2 ffi
2 ing in Fig. A3), ranging between –90° and 90°. From Eqs. (A9) and
 k cos 2a cos u  ð1 þ meff Þ sin 2a þ ½k cos 2a sin u
(A10), the Dca and Den,a can be obtained as
1  meff 1 þ meff
 sinðxt þ gÞ þ em þ em cos 2a Dca ¼ Deapp
2 2 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1  2 2
þ cm sin 2a  k cos 2a cos u  ð1 þ meff Þ sin 2a þ ½k cos 2a sin u
2
ðA14Þ
ðA9Þ
1
1 Den;a ¼ Deapp
en;a ðtÞ ¼ Deapp 2
4 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  2 2
 2 2  2ð1 þ meff Þ cos2 a  2meff þ k sin 2a cos u þ ½k sin 2a sin u
 2ð1 þ meff Þ cos2 a  2meff þ k sin 2a cos u þ ½k sin 2a sin u
ðA15Þ
 sinðxt  nÞ  ð1 þ meff Þem sin 2a þ cm cos 2a
ðA10Þ Eq. (A14) is differentiated with respected to a which gives the
maximum or minimum value of angle ac for the shear strain range.
where
2kð1 þ meff Þ cos u
k sin 2a sin u tan 4ac ¼ ðA16Þ
tan n ¼ ðA11Þ ð1 þ meff Þ2  k2
ð1 þ meff Þ cos 2a þ ð1  meff Þ þ k sin 2a cos u
The angles determined by Eq. (A16) are substituted into Eq.
(A15), the one giving the maximum value for the normal strain is
taken as the critical plane angle. Then the maximum shear strain
range plane is determined. Using 1045HR steel as an example,
the variation of maximum shear strain range and normal strain
range with respect to the angle, a, are illustrated in Fig. A4. It
can be seen from this figure that the above method can determine
a fixed critical plane. The maximum shear strain range and the nor-
mal strain range on the critical plane are given by
Dcmax ¼ Deapp
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 2 ffi
2
 k cos 2ac cos u  ð1 þ meff Þ sin 2ac þ ½k cos 2ac sin u
ðA17Þ

1
Den ¼ Deapp
2
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 2 2
 2ð1 þ meff Þ cos2 ac  2meff þ k sin 2ac cos u þ ½k sin 2ac sin u
ðA18Þ
Fig. A2. Illustration of Aa in ca–a polar coordinate space.
22 J. Li et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 68 (2014) 10–23
1.5
1.2
Strain Amplitude (%)
0.9
0.6
0.3
Critical Plane
0 fatigue damage model for high strength alloys using a critical plane
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60
Angle, α (deg)
Fig. A4. Variations of strain range with the angle a.
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