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You are here: Chapter: 2 General physics
Section: 2.6 Electricity and magnetism
SubSection: 2.6.6 Magnetic properties of materials
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2.6.6 Magnetic properties of materials
Many magnetic properties of materials are expressed in terms of the magnetic field strength H, magnetic flux density B and the magnetic polarization J. The SI units
of H and B are, respectively, ampere per metre (A m−1) and tesla (T).
The relation between the quantities expressed in SI units is:
B= μ 0 H + J
in which µ 0 is 4π × 10−7 H m−1, the magnetic constant (permeability of free space). The absolute permeability, μ( = B/H) and the volume susceptibility
κ (= J/μ 0H), are thus related by the equation:
μ = μ 0(1 + κ)
In ferromagnetic materials as H is increased steadily from zero the permeability changes and is at first relatively small, its value being defined as the initial
permeability, then reaches a maximum value, and finally decreases towards μ 0 as the polarization tends towards a limiting value (B − μ 0H). The flux density
remaining when H is reduced to zero is the remanent flux density and the negative H needed to reduce B to zero is the coercive force. The remanent flux density
and coercive force for a cycle which proceeds to saturation are called the remanence, Br , and the coercivity, HcB. In an open magnetic circuit the variation of J with
H is usually measured and the coercivity is then denoted by HcJ.
When a ferromagnetic material is taken through a cycle of magnetization there is a loss of energy as heat due to the combined effects of hysteresis, induced eddy
currents and domain wall motion. The hysteresis loss per unit volume, Qh = H dB, has been shown empirically to vary as B1.6max over a limited range of peak
flux density of up to about 1 T for high saturation materials, and 0.5 T for low saturation materials. This relationship, known as the Steinmetz law, is nevertheless
only approximate. Some indication of the second loss, namely the eddy current power loss, may be calculated from standard formulae once certain relevant physical
parameters are known. In their present forms, however, these formulae are only approximate. The total power losses that will be dissipated in laminar material
when an alternating flux is developed in it has a direct bearing on the efficiency that can be realized in equipment such as transformers and electric motors and
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should therefore be known accurately. Accordingly the power losses of representative forms of typical materials are measured and some of these are given in Table
(3) in terms of power loss per unit mass.
Many magnetic properties of ferromagnetic materials depend greatly on previous history, state of strain, temperature, size, perfection and orientation of crystals,
and the effect of small traces of impurity may be enormous.
When heated, ferromagnetic materials become paramagnetic at a temperature known as the (ferromagnetic) Curie point.
Ferrimagnetic materials (ferrites) have all of the above characteristics of ferromagnetic materials. However, due to their high resistivity, soft (low coercivity)
ferrites are widely used in high frequency applications, in which case the following parameters are also of interest:
(a) Power loss density—this is another name for specific total power loss, but for ferrite materials the loss is usually expressed per unit volume.
(b) Loss factor—the performance of ferrites at low field strengths is often indicated by the expression tan δ where δ is the loss angle, i.e. the phase angle between
B and H. However, information regarding power losses is usually given in the form of loss factors normalized to unit permeability, μ, since this facilitates the
calculation of loss coefficients of gapped ferrite cores. Hence the loss factor is:
tan
tan δh tan δe tan δr
δ = + +
μ μ μ μ
where tan δh, tan δe and tan δr are the loss angles for the hysteresis, eddy current and residual losses respectively, all of which are present to a greater or
lesser extent and combine to give the total loss, tan δ.
(c) IEC hysteresis coefficient ηB—in considering recommendations for standard forms of loss expression, the International Electrotechnical Commission agreed the
following relationship for the hysteresis coefficient, ηB,
tan δh
ηB =
μBmax
(d) Temperature factor—the permeability of a magnetic material may change for a variety of reasons, the most obvious being the change of temperature. Over a
limited temperature range the relationship between the reversible change in magnetic permeability, Δμ, and the corresponding change in temperature, Δθ, is
given by the temperature coefficient, TC:
Δμ
TC =
μΔθ
As with the loss factor, it is usual to normalize the values to unit permeability which gives the loss factor:
loss factor = Δμ ·
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μ 2Δθ
(e) Disaccommodation factor—the permeability of a magnetic material can also change with time after magnetization. This phenomenon is often called
disaccommodation. If the permeabilities μ 1 and μ 2 correspond to times t1 and t2 then the disaccommodation is given by:
μ 1 − μ 2
× 100%
μ1
As with the loss and temperature factors, the disaccommodation factor is normalized to unit permeability and is given by:
μ 1 − μ 2
disaccommodation factor = × 100%.
μ 12
Apart from changes in their magnetic permeability, some materials have other responses to changes in magnetic field strength. All conducting materials exhibit the
Hall effect, of which there are two forms. In the transverse Hall effect a voltage is developed in a direction at right angles to a current passing through the material
when a magnetic field is applied in a mutually perpendicular direction. The relationship between the current flowing through the material Ix, the output voltage, Vy,
the thickness of the material, tz, and the applied magnetic field strength, Hz, is given by:
Vy = (KH Ix μ 0 Hz) /tz
where KH is the transverse Hall coefficient of the material. It has been found that some semiconducting materials have sufficiently high Hall coefficients to produce
convenient, small size and low cost magnetic sensors. Indium arsenide having a Hall coefficient of 0.75 Vm/TA is a widely used material.
Since the properties may vary considerably from specimen to specimen due to chemical composition and state of heat treatment, the values given are only to be
regarded as typical of the materials mentioned. A range of values is indicated by a dash.
Symbols used in tables:
B = magnetic flux density
Br = remanence
H = magnetic field strength
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HcB = induction coercive force, coercivity
HcJ = magnetization coervice force, coercivity
J = magnetic polarization
Js = (B − μ 0H)s = saturation polarization
Qh = hysteresis loss per unit volume per cycle
μ r = relative magnetic permeability
μ i = initial relative magnetic permeability
(1) Magnetic susceptibilities of paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials
Values are mass susceptibility per kilogram, χ, at 20°C.
Notes:
(1) To obtain values in CGS units per gramme, the SI values given should be multiplied by 103 /4π.
(2) For a more complete list of elements, see L. F. Bates, Modern Magnetism (CUP).
(2) Feebly magnetic steels and cast irons
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* In general, the relative magnetic permeability decreases at higher values of magnetic field strength.
† Low permeability reference materials available from National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex, TW11 0LW, UK.
‡ C. B. Post and W. S. Eberley, ‘Stability of austenite in stainless steels’, Trans. Am. Soc. Metals, 1947, 39, p. 868.
(3) Soft (low coercivity) materials
Steels (sheet)†
Grain oriented silicon steels with
preferred magnetic properties in
direction of rolling of the parent strip
(d.c. magnetization):
UnisilH, 10327P5, (27MOH) 2.9% Si 1.93 2.00 — 93 2.00 6 — 745 45 1.00 (J = 1.7T) 1.38 (J = 1.7T)
Unisil,08927N5,(27M4) 1.86 1.96 — 75 2.00 7 — 745 48 0.84 1.16
09730N5, (30M5) 3.1%Si 1.86 1.96 — 59 2.00 7 — 745 48 0.89 1.32
11135N5, (35M6) 1.84 1.94 — 58 2.00 7 — 745 48 1.00 1.39
Nonoriented silicon steels:
SURA 30035A5, (CK37) 2.9% Si 1.46 1.65 — 8 2.00 40 — 745 48 2.95 28
40050A5, (CK40) 2.4% Si 1.48 1.69 — 7 2.03 40 — 748 44 3.60 19
80065A5, (DK70) 1.6% Si 1.53 1.73 — 5 2.08 70 — 758 34 6.50 14
Nonoriented, nonsilicon steel:
Newcor 100065D5 . . . . . . . 1.59 1.75 — 8 2.15 50 — 770 12 7.00 9.6
Amorphous iron–boron alloys
(metallic glass)
Metglas‡ 2605 S3 . . . . . . . — — — — 1.58 8 0.7 405 125 0.15 (J = 1.7T) 0.20 (J = 1.0T)
Metglas† 2605 SC . . . . . . . — — — — 1.61 5 1.1 370 125
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Nilomag 471¶
0.03 1.02 1.25 1.4 1.62 — 2–11 50–120 1.6 4–12 0.4–1.2 530 43
Super Radiometal§
50% Ni + small
Radio metal 4550§ amounts of
0.01 0.48 1.05 1.18 1.62 — 3–6 20–50 1.6 12–24 0.4–1.0 530 50
other elements
Satmumetal§ 0.20 1.15 1.3 1.35 — — 65 240 1.5 2.0 0.7 550 60
HCR alloy§ +oriented structure — 0.3 1.46 1.50 1.55 — 0.5–1.0 50–100 1.6 10 1.5 525 40
Radio metal 36§ 35% Ni — 0.15 0.72 0.90 1.2 — 2 15 1.3 12 0.35 180–270 80
Hyperm 36 36% Ni constant permeability alloy 1.75 6 — — — — —
R2799§ 30% Ni, temperature — — — — 0.1 — — — 0.45 — — 70 85
compensating alloy
Cobaltiron alloys§
Permendur 24 24% Co — 0.002 0.02 0.05 1.45 2.34 0.25 2.0 2.35 950 1.65 980 20
Permendur 49 49% Co — 0.01 0.13 0.33 1.85 2.34 1.0 7 2.35 140 1.5 980 47
Supermendur 49% Co, 2% V — — 2.05 2.1 2.3 2.34 — 70 2.35 20 2.1 980 40
Hisat 50 49% Co, 0.3% Ta — — 1.5 1.8 2.3 2.44 — 18 2.44 40 1.8 980 10
Other alloys
Heusler alloy 61% Cu, 26% Mn, 13% Al — — — 0.01 0.25 0.45 — — 0.48 550 — 330 —
Isoperm 30% Ni, 11% Cu constant permeability alloy 0.06 0.065 — — — — —
Perminvar 40% Ni, 25% Co constant permeability alloy 0.30 1.5 1.55 100 — 715 19
Nickel copper 70% Ni, 30% Cu — — — — 0.07 0.15 — — — — — 10–100 —
Material Initial Frequency Loss Temperature Flux Power loss IEC Disaccommodation Curie Resistivity
relative range factor factor density density for hysteresis factor point
permeability B/T for Ωm
at B = 0.2T, coefficient
μi MHz 10−6 /°C ηB 10−6 °C
maximum H/(A m−1) f = 16 kHz
frequency =800
mW/cm3
10−6
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Carbonyl iron powder cores
type 100 30 0.1–2 700 20 — — — — — —
type 500 12 1–10 250 12 — — — — — —
type 900 10 1–50 600 12 — — — — — —
type 901 5 10–100 1500 12 — — — — — —
Magnetic iron oxide powder cores
500
type 910 4 20–300 40 — — — — — —
(at 100 MHz)
Iron flake cores
used for interference 90 at 1 kHz — — — — — — — — —
suppression, relative
initial permeability
falls rapidly with
frequency 65 at 150 kHz — — — — — — — — —
Ferrite cores
(a) for radio, TV and
low power uses:
nickel zinc,
type F13 650 0.05–1 130 — — — — — 180 300
type F14 220 0.1–2 50 — — — — — 270 1000
type F16 125 1–10 100 — — — — — 270 1000
type F22 19 5–40 500 — — — — — 500 1000
manganese zinc,
type F10 5000 0.01–0.1 12 — — — — — 180 0.5
type F8 1500 0.05–0.5 80 — — — — — 180 1
type F11 600 0.1–1 50 — — — — — 220 5
(b) perminvar, high
frequency low power
uses
type F25 50 5–40 300 — — — — — 450 1000
type F29 12 10–200 1000 — — — — — 500 1000
(c) manganese zinc for
high power uses
type F6 1500 — — — 0.45 150 — — 180 1
type F5 2000 — — — 0.48 75 — — 200 1
(d) manganese zinc, high
stability, low loss,
telecommunications
uses
type P10 2000 — 12* 0–2 — — 2.5 8 150 1
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* Loss factor at 100 kHz.
Note: For more complete details of soft ferrite materials see E. C. Snelling, Soft Ferrites, Properties and Applications (Iliffe Books Ltd., London).
(4) Permanent magnet (magnetically hard) materials
(a) Typical alloys in the Al–Ni–Co series (cast material):
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Note: The isotropic and anisotropic alloys can also be prepared by sintering, in which case the magnetic properties can be up to 20% less than those for cast
material.
(b) Rareearth alloys:
* Limited by the properties of the bonding material.
(c) Ferrites:
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* Limited by the properties of the bonding material.
Further information on the properties of permanent magnet materials and details of manufacturers are given in M. McCaig and A. G. Clegg (1987) Permanent Magnets in Theory and Practice, 2nd edn,
Pentech Press, London.
A.E.Drake.
This site is hosted and maintained by the National Physical Laboratory © 2015.
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