Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 30 (2006) 449–462

www.elsevier.com/locate/etfs

Surge limit definition in a specific test bench for the characterization

of automotive turbochargers q
J. Galindo, J.R. Serrano *, C. Guardiola, C. Cervelló
Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, CMT-Motores Térmicos, Camino de Vera, s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain

Received 28 November 2004; received in revised form 13 May 2005; accepted 22 June 2005

Abstract

This paper describes an experimental facility for the characterization of automotive turbochargers. This installation is used to deter-
mine turbine and compressor maps from turbochargers, in situations that are quite similar to reciprocating internal combustion engine
operating conditions. A heavy duty diesel engine equipped with modular joints is used as a flow generator for driving the turbines, while
the centrifugal compressors flow is independently fixed.
In engine operation, automotive turbochargers frequently run the risk of surging and a concise knowledge of the compressor surge
limits is needed so that it can be matched correctly with the engine. In this paper, a mathematical tool has been developed for marking
out surge operation points from stable compressor points. The detection principle is based on the frequency domain analysis of the
instantaneous variables measured in the centrifugal compressor.
Ó 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Turbochargers testing; Turbocharging; Surge; Diesel engines

1. Introduction to simulate a match between the turbocharger and the

Over the last few decades, the application of turbocharg-
ers to internal combustion engines has increased and now-
adays covers most diesel applications. Automotive
turbochargers usually consist of a centripetal turbine and
a centrifugal compressor mounted on the same shaft. The
latest advances in automotive turbocharger technology
include variable geometry systems in turbines and compres-
sors, and the future points to electrical power assistance,
with the main objective of improving the transient response
of turbocharged diesel engines.
Obviously, a proper selection of the turbocharger is a
key point affecting engine efficiency and performance.
Nowadays, most engine manufacturers use computer codes
q
This work has been partially supported by the local Valencian
Government (G.V.A.) Grant CTIDIA/2002/17.
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 96 387 9657; fax: +34 96 387 76 59.
E-mail address: jrserran@mot.upv.es (J.R. Serrano).
engine. These codes are usually quite accurate but they
need a good characterization of the different elements
and the phenomena involved in the system [1–16]. The
compressor and turbine characterization is usually made
by turbocharger manufacturers and transferred to the
engine manufacturers by means of maps. However, test
conditions are sometimes quite different from those in the
engine; this may cause a mismatch that will affect the accu-
racy of the codes.
This is particularly critical in the turbine case, since its
inlet conditions in engine operation present pulsation in
mass flow, temperature and pressure [17–27] while it is usu-
ally tested in steady conditions. Important differences have
been encountered in the efficiency of the turbine depending
on the flow conditions [17,18,20,22–27].
In the case of the centrifugal compressor it is known that
unsteady behaviour is apparent when air mass flow
through the compressor is lower than a critical one. This
unstable phenomenon is denoted as surge and corresponds

0894-1777/$ - see front matter Ó 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2005.06.002
450 J. Galindo et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 30 (2006) 449–462
to a periodic return of the compressed fluid through the
compressor into its inlet [18,28–32]. This surge phenome-
non is usually clearly audible [18,32] and causes a signifi-
cant drop in the efficiency and a deterioration in the
compressor blades. In the maps provided by turbocharger
manufacturers, the stable operation is delimited by the
surge line, but no objective criteria explain how to delimit
this zone.
When applied to boosting internal combustion engines,
surge phenomenon limits boost pressure in the low engine
speed region. Surging in engine operation is not only criti-
cal for the life of the compressor but also causes important
fluctuations in the supplied engine power. In order to avoid
these two features, engine manufacturers usually reduce
boost pressure, and consequently engine torque, at the
low engine speed region. An objective and accurate delim-
itation of the compressor surge zone could be used to
increase the engine performance while guaranteeing com-
pressor stable operation.
In this work an specific test bench for turbocharger test-
ing is presented and detailed in Section 2, the main differ-
ence in this bench with respect to others [17,20,33–36] is
that it is an experimental device capable of reproducing,
with real exhaust gas mass flow, the flow conditions at
the turbine and compressor inlet quite close to the existing
when they are placed in an internal combustion engine.
Furthermore, turbochargers can be tested under highly
controlled conditions, making it possible to change each
mass flow property independently, such as turbine inlet
mass flow temperature or pressure pulses frequency and
amplitude. In Section 3, the fundamentals and results of
a surge detection algorithm are shown. An objective crite-
rion, based on the frequency domain analysis of the instan-
taneous measurements, has been used to detect this
phenomenon. Finally, Section 4 presents the conclusions
of the paper.
2. Specific turbochargers test bench
2.1. Functional specifications
The first issue when designing the turbochargers test
bench was to define the functions it should fulfill. After
that, a state-of-the-art survey will be carried out and
limitations for different technical solutions will be dis-
cussed. The following paragraphs describe the main func-
tions:
(a) The turbocharger test bench must be able to charac-
terize both compressors and turbines. Furthermore,
the turbochargers must be tested as a unique machine
and dismounting the centrifugal compressor is not a
possibility.
(b) The test bench should be flexible for testing turbo-
chargers of different sizes easily; up to 0.6 kg/s of
gas mass flow at the turbine inlet and a maximum
temperature of about 1100 K.
Table 1
Maximum requirements from the turbocharger test bench
Turbine inlet temperature (K) 1100
Absolute boost pressure (bar) 4
Hot gas mass flow (kg/s) 0.6
Mechanical power for the booster (g ffi 0.6) (kW) 130
Thermal power for the turbine (g ffi 0.75) (kW) 200
(c) The characterization of a centrifugal compressor
includes the determination of its efficiency and pres-
sure ratio performance; an objective detection of the
surge region is also required.
(d) The characterization of the turbine includes the deter-
mination of its efficiency and gas mass flow perfor-
mance for the maximum operative range available.
Flow conditions at the turbine inlet should be con-
trollable in terms of temperature and flow pulsation
characteristics (either continuous flow or pressure
pulses similar to those existing in engine operating
conditions).
Approximate maximum requirements for the installa-
tion are listed in Table 1.
2.2. State-of-the-art survey
In recent years, solutions covering part of the functional
specifications listed above have been proposed. From clas-
sical turbine test rigs with cold and continuous flow, the
main modifications were to increase turbine inlet tempera-
ture and to modify the pulsation characteristic of the flow
for studying non-stationary effects on the efficiency.
Table 2 shows a requirements and capabilities compari-
son for different turbocharger test bench. As it can be sown
on the table, all the installations need a volumetric com-
pressor to supply air and a diesel or an electric engine to
drive the volumetric compressor. Even in some cases, when
big centrifugal compressors are tested, they are directly
electrically driven [37]. However authors presented test
bench need an additional engine break, in spite of this,
the bench allows a higher temperature test range, higher
turbine inlet pressure and continuous and pulsating flow
at the turbine inlet. The test bench presented allows as
much mass flow range as similar installations [20,34,36],
only one of the installations presented on the bibliography
[35] allows higher mass flow range, but needs four volumet-
ric compressors.
Some researchers [17,20] used electrical heating for pro-
viding the required thermal level at the turbine inlet. This
solution has the advantage of using clean gas, which makes
it possible to apply air mass flow devices (like hot wire ane-
mometers) right at the turbine inlet. However, if heavy
duty turbochargers are considered, the energetic cost of
this solution is not negligible.
In this way, on Table 3 there is a comparison between
the energetic cost to achieve two different turbine operating
 J. Galindo et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 30 (2006) 449–462 451

Table 2
Comparison table of overall system requirements and capabilities of different benches
Imperial College of Purdue University Kratzer Automation Technical University of Universidad
S, T & M (1996) [20] Turbocharger Test AG & Borg-Warner Berlin (2002) [36] Politécnica de
Facility (1997) [34] Turbosystems GMBH Valencia (Authors
(2001) [35] test bench)
Engine Electric Diesel Electric Electric Diesel
Requirements
Volumetric compressor X X X X X
Electric heaters X
Engine break X
Combustion chamber X X X
Rotative valves X
Capabilities
Temperature range (K) 400 550–900 – 670–1700 370–1100
Mass flow range <0.5 kg/s <0.6 kg/s <2.3 kg/s – <0.6 kg/s
Turbine inlet flow Continuous and pulsating Continuous Continuous Continuous Continuous
and pulsating
Maximum turbine 4 3.45 – – 4
inlet pressure (bar)
Turbine inlet gas Atmospheric air Natural gas Natural gas Natural gas Diesel combustion
combustion combustion combustion

Table 3 obtain the energetic cost to achieve one operating point

Comparison between the energetic costs using a diesel engine or electric with the exhaust gas of a diesel engine, because is the
heaters injected fuel which provides the thermal energy needed to
Point 1 Point 2 heat the exhaust gas mass flow and the power to drive vol-
Mass flow (kg/s) 0.163 0.379 umetric compressor. On the other side, the volumetric com-
Turbine inlet temperature (K) 912 636 pressor power necessary to achieve the mass flow rate
Turbine outlet temperature (K) 779 500 required and the efficiency of the electrical engine used to
Turbine inlet pressure (bar) 4.14 3.33
Turbine outlet pressure (bar) 1.04 1.12
drive the compressor, the power requested by the electric
Fuel consumption (kg/h) 25.63 26.36 heaters to heat the air to the desired temperature and the
electricity supply system characteristics (electricity trans-
Diesel engine energetic cost (kW) 302.6 311.2
(Fuel consumption Æ Specific diesel calorific value) port, voltage transformation and the power plant average
efficiencies) must be taken into account to obtain the ener-
Volumetric compressor power (kW) 78 110 getic cost to achieve the same operating point using a vol-
Volumetric compressor outlet temperature (K) 460 437 umetric compressor and electric heaters.
Electric heaters power (kW) 88 76
Table 3 shows that to achieve point 1 (with high turbine
Electrical device energetic cost (kW) 333.9 407.8 inlet temperature) the energetic cost differs on more than
10% in favour to the diesel engine system, but to achieve
point 2 (with less turbine inlet temperature but with high
Table 4
Some technical data used to the calculation
turbine mass flow) the energetic cost differs on near
100 kW, that means that it is necessary more than 31% plus
Technical data
energy to achieve the same point with electric heaters than
Specific diesel fuel calorific value (kJ/kg) 42,500 with a diesel engine.
Electrical engine efficiency 0.95
Maximum power plant efficiency 0.6
In order to avoid the extra energetic cost and maintain
Electricity transport average efficiency 0.80 sufficiently clean hot gas mass flow, other authors propose
Voltage transformation average efficiency 0.98 the use of gas burners fed with propane [34,35] or natural
Air specific heat (J/(kg K)) 1.0055 gas. Another way of limiting the electric consumption, par-
ticularly if there are limitations in the high voltage electric
power available, is to drive the supply compressor with a
points using the exhaust gas of a diesel engine or using a heavy-duty engine [34].
volumetric compressor and electric heaters. Technical data Most test benches [34–38] only continuous flow is pro-
and main assumptions are on Table 4, where it is possible vided at the turbine inlet. However, due to the importance
to see the specific calorific value for diesel fuel considered of the pressure pulsation over the turbine efficiency, some
and the main considerations for the electricity supply sys- researchers have developed test benches for generating
tem. On one side, the fuel mass consumption and the spe- pressure pulses. Pulses generator usually include rotary-
cific diesel fuel calorific value must be taken into account to disc valves or cylindrical rotors. Rotary elements in the
452 J. Galindo et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 30 (2006) 449–462
pulse generator increase the risk of gas leakage, particu-
larly when high pressure and temperature supply condi-
tions are employed [17,20,33]. Although the leakages
problem in the rotary elements is not quantified in the
existing literature, this problem is important enough to
condition the design of the test bench [17,20], at least for
turbine testing. The authors that use rotary valves have
to measure the turbine gas mass flow just at the turbine
inlet [17,20], in spite of such condition forces to use clean
air as turbine gas mass flow instead of hot exhaust gas from
a combustion process [17,20]. In these cases, if a relatively
hot and clear gas mass flow is desired the electrical heaters
must be used. In any case mass flow leakages are critical in
the determination of turbines performance, since the errors
in turbine efficiency determination are proportional to the
errors in mass flow measurement. In addition, combining
rotary valves and hot exhaust gases from engine combus-
tion not only are expected problems of leakages but also
of dirtiness that damages the mechanism and make this sys-
tem little robust to failures [33]. After this analysis, authors
consider that the best mechanism to generate and deal with
a hot and dirty non-steady flow of exhaust gases is the
valve train system of a reciprocating internal combustion
engine.
Finally, there are various ways of loading the turbine. A
good approach is to use oil turbine dynamometers, or elec-
trical dynamometers, taking into account that the use of
these dynamometers limits turbocharger speed. These
devices are used to obtain an optimum determination of
the turbine power in unsteady behaviour [17,39]. Another
possibility is to charge the turbine with the turbocharger
centrifugal compressor, although this is a less accurate
solution due to uncertainties concerning compressor oper-
ation. However the use of a dynamometer must be dis-
missed when only the whole turbocharger is available and
it is not possible to disassemble it as it happens in many sit-
uations when working directly with reciprocating internal
combustion engine manufacturers.
2.3. Test bench description
The experimental facility for turbocharger testing pre-
sented in this paper is based on a heavy duty diesel engine
(Table 5) that has been devoid of its original turbocharger
and is used as a hot and pulsating gas mass flow generator.
Using this method, the leakages caused by rotary valves are
avoided and electric heating of the gas is not needed, as the
injected fuel provides the necessary energy for heating the
turbine feeding gas.
The following consideration is that in order to make it
possible to test the maximum operative range of radial tur-
bine and centrifugal compressor, independent gas mass
flow circuits must be used for each one. Therefore, the cen-
trifugal compressor from the tested turbocharger does not
boost the heavy duty diesel engine, and because the engine
has been devoid of its original turbocharger, it has to be
boosted with an additional mechanical screw compressor
Table 5
Characteristics of the internal combustion engine
Engine: RVI MIDR 06-20-45
Number of cylinders 1–6
Swept volume (l) 9.84
Piston bore (mm) 120
Stroke (mm) 145
Compression ratio 17.8:1
Engine speed range (rpm) 800–2000
Maximum power (kW) 257
Number of valves per cylinder 2
Fuel injection pump In-line
Table 6
Characteristics of the volumetric screw compressor
Volumetric screw compressor Atlas Copco ZA 110-3.5
Air mass flow rate (kg/s) 0.27–0.61
Compression ratio (bar) 1.5–4
Operation shaft speed (rpm) 1800–3600
Shaft power (kW) 30–130
Air outlet maximum temperature (°C) 130
in order to guarantee the heavy duty engine air mass flow
and to generate the desired turbine inlet conditions. The
unit described in Table 6 fulfils these requirements and
those exposed in Table 1.
In a similar way to other projected benches [34] the
heavy duty engine is used to drive the mechanical compres-
sor using the energy provided by the injected fuel. Never-
theless, in a different way to any other studied
installation, the same injected fuel also provides the ther-
mal energy needed to heat the exhaust gas mass flow that
drives the tested radial turbine. This results in a fairly effi-
cient use of the injected fuel, which represents the only
energy necessary for turbocharger testing. A basic diagram
of the installation is depicted in Fig. 1. In short, for ener-
getic reasons the screw compressor has been mechanically
coupled with the heavy duty engine. Therefore, it is neces-
sary to use a gearbox to adapt their rotating speed, which
can also be observed in Fig. 1. In addition, an electromag-
netic brake must be used, in spite of the fact that the screw
compressor is partially loading the engine, to absorb the
differences of power between the heavy duty engine and
the screw booster, and therefore, to regulate the rotating
speed of the total system.
In addition, considering that the air mass flow rate deliv-
ered by the screw compressor mainly depends on its rotat-
ing speed, a device is needed in order to make these two
variables independent and have a better control over the
turbine inlet conditions. Therefore, a settling tank with
an electronically controlled valve has been installed, named
as discharging flow valve in Fig. 1. This valve is used to
purge the intake system if the volumetric screw compressor
supplies too much air mass flow rate, thus controlling the
heavy duty engine boost pressure independently from its
rotating speed.
 J. Galindo et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 30 (2006) 449–462 453

DISCHARGING FLOW VALVE

SETTLING
INTERCOOLER TANK ENGINE FUEL
HOT FILM SETTLING
ANEMOMETER TANK

COUPLING
6 CYLINDER10
6C YLINDER1 0ll..
SCREW

GEAR
ELECTRIC DIESEL ENGINE
COMPRESSOR
BRAKE 250 kW,0
kW, 0.5
.5 kg/s
150 Kw, 0.5k g/s
900-1800 rpm, 750ºC

SETTLING (OPTIONAL)
ATMOSPHERIC AIR TANK
HOT FILM
AIRF
AIR FILTER
ILTER OIL COOLING
OI
ANEMOMETER SYSTEM

COMPRESSOR TURBINE

ROTARY VALVE
INTERCOOLER (OPTIONAL)

Instantaneous Pressure
InstantaneousP ressure
PRES
PRESSURE
Te
Temperature
OIL
REGU TOR
REGULATOR DECANTOR
BACKPRESSURE
Ma
Massflow
VALVE Speed

Fig. 1. Basic diagram of the installation.

It is also interesting to explain that as the radial turbine
is fed directly from the engine exhaust manifold, it is pos-
sible to modify, apart from the engine speed, the number
of cylinders discharging to the centripetal machine in order
to adapt the gas mass flow or the pulses frequency to the
turbine testing requirements. To achieve this, different
manifolds including 1, 3 or 6 operative cylinders have been
designed. In addition, if steady flow conditions are pre-
ferred a settling tank has been manufactured and could
be installed between the exhaust manifold and the turbine
inlet, as shown in Fig. 1.
The turbine loading is obtained using the turbochargers
centrifugal compressor. The tested compressor has its own
mass flow circuit and at the compressor outlet there are two
backpressure valves that are used to control compression
ratio and compressor power. Nevertheless, in the case of
the centripetal turbine there are some limitations to cover-
ing its operating area at constant wheel speed, due to the
limited range of loads available, between surge and choke
limits of the compressor that is breaking the turbine. There
is a way to increase turbine range of measurement, when it
is working coupled to a compressor, which consists of
increasing or decreasing the air mass flow that goes
through the centrifugal compressor by increasing or
decreasing the air density at its inlet. In order to achieve
this objective, the centrifugal compressor is placed in a
closed circuit of air, which has been developed to control
compressor inlet pressure, thus extending the turbine oper-
ating area, this circuit can also be observed in Fig. 1. If the
pressure regulator is disconnected, the system is an open
circuit, and the compressor works with atmospheric inlet
pressure. If the pressure regulator is working, this is a
closed circuit with controlled pressure, and therefore den-
sity, of the air at the compressor inlet. The last circuit that
can be observed in Fig. 1 is a lubrication circuit that con-
trols oil pressure and temperature.
Considering all these systems, the main limits of the test
bench for continuous flow turbochargers testing are follow-
ing discussed. Analyzing first turbine testing, the main limit
is the corrected gas mass flow range that the 6 cylinder
engine boosted with the screw compressor is able to pro-
vide, which is computed as shown in Eq. (1):
pffiffiffiffi
m_ T
m_  ¼ ð1Þ
p
This limit is computed with the following maximum
parameters 0.6 kg/s of gas mass flow with a maximum tur-
bine inlet gas temperature of 1100 K and an approximate
gas pressure of 4 bar at the turbine inlet. Any centripetal
turbine that needs to be tested at higher corrected mass
flow rate overcomes the limits of the presented test bench.
With respect to the compressor testing with continuous
flow, the limit is the maximum power that is desired to
reach with a compressor from a given turbocharger unit.
The authors have never tried to reach this limit because it
is related not only with the test bench but with the turbine
efficiency of the tested turbocharger unit. Nevertheless
some estimation can be provided; assuming that the ther-
mal power of the exhaust gases is of the same order that
the effective engine power [40] there is about 257 kW of
thermal power available in the exhaust gases. Obviously
not all this power is really converted into mechanical power
by the turbine due to second principle limitations. It is also
possible to calculate an isentropic available power of about
200 kW, considering previous conditions of gas mass flow,
pressure and temperature at the turbine inlet. Therefore,
454 J. Galindo et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 30 (2006) 449–462
assuming and average value of 0.7 for the product of tur-
bine isentropic efficiency and turbocharger mechanical effi-
ciency, the maximum available power for the compressor is
about 140 kW. This provides an exergetic efficiency of
about 55% of the initially available thermal power
(257 kW) in the exhaust gasses from the turbine.
These estimated limits of power and gas mass flow allow
testing a wide variety of turbochargers normally used in
heavy duty or passenger car engines, even at their maxi-
mum operative wheel speed and in the biggest units, at least
will be possible to test part of their operative ranges.
With respect to the limits of the proposed facility for
carrying out turbochargers testing with pulsating flow, it
is necessary to analyze the main aspects that will influence
the applicability of the test bench depending on the geom-
etry upstream of turbochargers in their final use. From
authors experience [11–15,23,24] the fluid-dynamic influ-
ence of the geometry upstream of turbochargers can be
reproduced by taking into account the frequency and
amplitude of the pressure pulses upstream the turbine
and downstream the compressor.
With respect to the compressor, there is a rotary valve
downstream the compressor (Fig 1) in this case it is not
necessary to worry about leakages because the air mass
flow is measured upstream the compressor. The rotary
valve is moved with a variable frequency electrical engine,
therefore the frequency of the pressure pulses can be
adapted to the desired value, in a relative wide range,
and the volume between the compressor outlet and the
valve can be adapted to the needed value in order to guar-
antee pressure pulses amplitude.
With respect to the turbine, the range of operation is lim-
ited by the exhaust configuration of the heavy duty engine
used in the facility. By one hand, the minimum frequency
Fig. 2. Scheme of the compressor installation.
is determined by the minimum engine speed of 900 rpm
and only one cylinder discharging to the turbine, this means
a pressure pulse frequency of 450 Hz. By other hand, the
maximum frequency is determined by 6 cylinders discharg-
ing to the turbine at the maximum engine speed of 1800 rpm
(limited by maximum accepted speed in the screw compres-
sor), this limit represent a maximum pressure pulse fre-
quency of 5.4 kHz. For example, if a turbocharger from a
V8 engine wanted to be tested, with the maximum pressure
pulses frequency that can be reproduced at the turbine inlet,
the performed test would be equivalent to the V8 engine
running at 1350 rpm. It is necessary to clarify that this limit
appears in the case it were desired to test the turbine with
pulsation flow, for traditional characterization with steady
flow the limits are those discussed in previous paragraphs.
Finally, it is interesting to describe briefly the test bench
basic instrumentation that includes some additional mea-
surements for safety and control requirements. Engine
measurements include fuel and air consumption, blow-by,
rotational speed, intake and exhaust manifold pressures
and temperatures, and crankshaft position. To calculate
the characteristic maps of the turbochargers, turbine gas
mass flow is determined indirectly with the addition of
charge air mass flow consumed by the heavy duty engine,
plus injected fuel mass flow and minus engine blow-by
flow. Gas mass flow at the turbine inlet and the other nec-
essary variables, such as inlet and output pressures and
temperatures in the compressor and the compressor air
mass flow rate, are measured following SAE standards
[41,42]. The number and position of pressure and tempera-
ture transducers following these standards are shown in
Figs. 2 and 3 and information about these sensors can be
found in Table 7. The final value obtained for each mea-
sured variable is always the average of several transducers,
 J. Galindo et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 30 (2006) 449–462 455

Fig. 3. Scheme of the turbine installation.

Table 7
Characteristics of the main instrumentation used in the turbocharger test bench
Pressure Temperature Air mass flow
Model Kistler 4045 A5 K Pt-100 Sensyflow P DN150 Elster TRZ-IFS G1600
Range 0–5 bar 0–1260 °C 200–390 °C 80–2400 kg/h 80–2500 m3/h
Precision (%) 0.1 0.3 0.033 at 0 °C 1.5 0.3

which helps to increase the measurement quality. The grey
coloured areas in Figs. 2 and 3 show the part of the exter-
nal surface that is thermally insulated with rock wool dur-
ing the tests, it also covers turbine and compressor in order
to guarantee that the operation of the machines during
their testing is as adiabatic as possible and therefore make
the calculation of isentropic efficiencies easier.
Concerning the data acquisition system, the operative
turbocharger parameters are registered by digital scopes.
Its features are eight high resolution analogical input data
channels (16 bits A/D conversion resolution), external trig-
ger and clock inputs, with a maximum memory of 2 Mb
per channel and output to GPIB interface for PC communi-
cation. A low frequency computer based data acquisition
system gathers all operative test data from the engine, elec-
tromagnetic brake, screw compressor, and auxiliary devices.
Considering the description performed and looking at
Table 2, the presented installation shows a good ratio
between capabilities and requirements compared with
other existing in the literature.
2.4. Test bench control and experimental procedure
To obtain a compressor or a turbine map it is necessary
to know the following variables at each operating point:
mass flow rate, pressure ratio and turbocharger speed.
The variables that can be modified by varying turbocharger
test bench settings are turbine inlet temperature, exhaust
gas mass flow rate, turbocharger speed, compression ratio
and unsteady flow pulsation parameters. Therefore, to
achieve one turbocharger working point in the installation
it is necessary to know which settings influence these
variables.
The following outline shows the methodology for turbo-
charger testing.
2.4.1. Procedure for turbine map characterization
1. Choose the number of cylinders discharging to the
turbine.
2. Choose an initial engine speed.
3. The desired gas mass flow (expansion ratio) is fixed by
varying the opening of the discharge flow valve down-
stream from the screw compressor. If it is not successful,
go back to step 2, if it still does not work go back to step 1.
4. Turbocharger speed is obtained by varying the compres-
sor load through the backpressure valve downstream
from the compressor. When the surge and choke limits
have been achieved in the compressor it is still possible
to add two working points to every constant speed line
of the turbine by changing air density upstream from
the centrifugal compressor. The first point can be
456 J. Galindo et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 30 (2006) 449–462
obtained by decreasing compressor inlet pressure when
the turbocharger is near to surge limit. If inlet pressure
decreases air mass flow density through the compressor
decreases, and compressor work decreases too, in this
way turbocharger speed increases, and it is possible to
decrease air mass flow through the turbine in order to
achieve the previous turbocharger speed. The second
point can be obtained by increasing compressor inlet
pressure. If inlet pressure increases, air mass flow density
will increase and compressor work increases too. In this
way turbocharger speed decreases, and it is possible to
increase air mass flow through the turbine in order to
recover the previous turbocharger speed. An example
of the results can be observed in Fig. 4 where the
Fig. 4. Increase in operating range if inlet compressor pressure is
increased (rhombus) and if inlet compressor pressure is decreased (square).
Fig. 5. Instantaneous turbine inlet pressure measured and modelled. Instantaneous turbine inlet temperature and efficiency modelled.
extreme points have been obtained by changing com-
pressor inlet pressure ±0.5 bar with respect to atmo-
spheric pressure.
As started in the introduction section, another capability
of the test bench is that turbochargers can be tested under
pulsating flow, in order to study how the non-steady flow
affects to the efficiency. Following the methodology pro-
posed by Luján et al. [24] the authors had obtained the out-
comes that Fig. 5 shows. This figure shows a comparison
between instantaneous measured and modelled pressure
pulses at the inlet of turbine placed downstream the
exhaust manifold of the reciprocating internal combustion
engine used in the test bench, without any settling tank
between them. Once the accuracy of instantaneous pressure
modelling is accepted, the calculated instantaneous temper-
ature is assumed correct [23,24], and it is possible to calcu-
late instantaneous turbine efficiency under pulsating flow
(bottom left of Fig. 5). In Fig. 5, it can be observed the
instantaneous efficiency modelled, as a function of the tur-
bine inlet blade to speed ratio, as well as the efficiency mea-
sured for the same turbine working under steady flow,
maintaining the same average mass flow rate, average
expansion ratio and average turbine speed in both com-
pared situations. Instantaneous modelled efficiency is vary-
ing from 40% to 48% due to the pulsating flow nature, and
its average value is smaller than the value obtained for the
turbine working under steady flow, as could be expected
[26,27]. From this example can be estimated the potential
of the presented test bench in combination with modelling
tools for the study of unsteady flow phenomena on engine
turbochargers.

2.4.2. Procedure for turbocompressor map characterization
1. Choose the number of cylinders discharging to the
turbine.
2. Choose an initial engine speed.
3. Establish the desired turbocharger speed actuating on
the discharging flow valve downstream from the screw
compressor, which changes the engine gas mass flow
feeding the turbine. If it is not successful, go back to
steps 2 or 1 if necessary.
4. The compression ratio is fixed by varying the opening of
the valves that are placed downstream from the centrif-
ugal compressor. If the desired working point (defined
by the turbocharger speed and the pressure ratio) is
not achieved, go back to step 3, if not, restart at step
2 and so on consecutively until step 1.
As an example, the tested map of a compressor from a
heavy duty engine is shown in Fig. 6. This map has been
obtained under condition of steady flow both at the turbine
and compressor inlet.
To summarize, two control strategies have been
designed for testing compressors and turbines from radial
turbochargers. Therefore, once an operating point has been
selected it can be reached by modifying some of the instal-
lation settings in a fully sequential way that is easy to
2.7
b a
3.5
2.6
40 45
3.0
Pressure Ratio (t/t)
2.5
90000
2.0 80000
60000
1.5
1.0
25000
0 20
Corrected airflow / Maximum corrected airflow (%)
Fig. 6. Compressor map measured at the installation. Surge area (around
100k rpm).
J. Galindo et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 30 (2006) 449–462 457
implement in an automatic control. Nevertheless, there
are some variables, like the number of cylinders discharg-
ing to the turbine, which have to be chosen before starting
the test, since to modify this variable it may be necessary to
change the exhaust manifold layout.
3. Criterion for surge limit delimitation
Compressor surge is a key factor that limits the boosting
capacity of the turbocharger at low engine rotational
speeds. A clear definition of the surge area will allow an
optimised application for turbocharging purposes, increas-
ing engine torque with no additional cost.
Historically, turbocharger compressor surge has been
associated with instabilities of compressor operating vari-
ables, audible effects or by important gas temperature
increments at the compressor inlet. During the experimen-
tal test, surge detection is usually carried out by an expert
operator who decides when the compressor surge has
started. These classical procedures have two main disad-
vantages: the compressor behaviour is classified on the
basis of a subjective criterion, and it is not possible to auto-
mate turbochargers testing with a sufficient level of reliabil-
ity. In this part of the paper, an objective criterion for surge
detection is presented.
It is known [18,28,43,44] that significant variations of
the turbocharger compressor operating variables (pressure,
air mass flow, and rotating speed) are encountered when
the surge phenomenon appears. This characteristic can be
used to easily detect the existence of surge. A simple algo-
rithm based on the frequency analysis of the instantaneous
variables seems enough to determine the unstable behav-
50 55 60 120000 iour. Some key factors must be investigated for such an
application:
(i) Out of all the operating variables, which is the is the
best one for determining the surge?
100000 (ii) Is the amplitude instant variation proportional to the
surging level?
(iii) Is the characteristic frequency of surge phenomenon
constant or does a frequency shift appear with the
surge level variation?
Experiments using different compressors were carried
out to answer these key questions.
3.1. Frequency domain analysis for surge detection
In order to extract the frequency contents of the instan-
taneous variable, the discrete-time Fourier series was used
[45]. This approach was preferable to other algorithms
because of its high performance. Although the non-causal-
40000
ity of the algorithm made it impossible to carry out on-line
40 60 80 100 application, this frequency domain analysis is an excellent
first approach that can be used to design an on-line filter.
In its basic form, the Fourier transform calculates the
frequency domain of a time series using Eq. (2):
458 J. Galindo et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 30 (2006) 449–462

1 X
N 1
2p
ck ¼ xðnÞ  ej N kn k ¼ 0; 1; 2; . . . N  1 ð2Þ
N n¼0

where n is the data index; ck is the Fourier coefficient for

frequency: Nkfs ; fs is the sampling frequency; N is the total
number of data.
The inverse transform that allows the reconstruction of
the original data from its frequency spectrum is given by
Eq. (3).
X
N 1
2p
xðnÞ ¼ ck  ej N kn n ¼ 0; 1; 2; . . . N  1 ð3Þ
k¼0

The basic transformation shown in Eq. (2) will be used to

obtain the spectra of the measured variables, and the differ-
ent harmonics will be studied. Furthermore, high frequency
noise can be isolated and removed from the spectrum, and
a further application of Eq. (3) results in an ideal zero-
phase filter.

3.2. Discussion of experimental results

In order to investigate the surge characteristics, several

compressors were analyzed, one from a heavy duty diesel
engine turbocharger and two from turbochargers of pas-
senger car engines. For each one, the compressor map
was obtained using the experimental procedure presented
in the previous section. The constant speed lines were mea-
sured from the point of maximum air mass flow (choke
conditions) to the point where deep surging occurs. In each
test compressor air mass flow, compressor inlet pressure,
compressor outlet pressure and turbocharger speed were
measured with a sampling frequency of 20 kHz. The results
obtained with the heavy duty turbocharger operating at
100k rpm are shown in Fig. 6. In Fig. 6 the studied operat-
ing points have been marked in the inplot. Case a corre-
sponds to a stable behaviour point; in case b a mild
surge is appreciated; finally, case c corresponds to deep
surge operation. This last case has not been represented,
since the large oscillation of the operating variables during
the compressor surge cycle makes the average not represen-
tative of the compressor behaviour.
In Fig. 7 the instantaneous evolution of compressor out-
let pressure (P2), air mass flow m_ a , and speed (Nt) is shown
for the three cases at 100k rpm. Starting from stable a
case, where all the variables keep a constant value, the
backpressure valve has been progressive closed. That
caused a decrease in air mass flow, while P2 was not varied Fig. 7. Instantaneous evolution of compressor outlet pressure (P2), air
in an important way. Turbocharger speed was kept con- mass flow (ma), and speed (Nt), for three different operating points at
stant acting over the power supplied to the turbine. 100k rpm.
Once a minimum limit value in m_ a is reached, the oscil-
latory behaviour is evident in all variables (case c), thus esting region where only a mild surge is appreciated. Note
the compressor is in deep surge operation. If the closed in Figs. 5 and 6 slight difference between averaged values of
loop air circuit of the compressor is not used, the instability m_ a in cases a and b.
is accompanied of a clearly audible sound effect. If the time variation of the three represented signals is
The transition from stable operation to surge occurs in a analyzed in deep surge operation (case c), a similar oscil-
narrow zone of m_ a . Case b is representative of this inter- lation pattern is present; however some differences can be
 J. Galindo et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 30 (2006) 449–462 459

marked. In the case of P2 and m_ a , a low frequency oscilla- 1

tion at 6 Hz is clearly noted; the ratio between the peak-to-

peak amplitude and the mean value is in both variables 0.1

very high: 33% in P2 and 100% in m_ a . In the case of Nt

the oscillation represents only the 6% of the mean value, 0.01
and an additional oscillation is present. This secondary
oscillation, which is also present in cases a and b, is

ck(P2 ) [bar]
0.001
related to the pressure waves at the turbine inlet [46] and
has no relationship with the surge phenomenon.
If the Fourier series expansion of the three signals for 0.0001

case c are represented (grey line in Fig. 8), the peak related
to the surge oscillation is clearly marked at 6 Hz for the 1E-005
case a
three signals. This frequency peak is replicated with case b
case c
decreasing amplitude by its harmonics. Note that human 1E-006
audible frequencies are within the range of 20–20,000 Hz, 1 10 100 1000
frequency [hz]
hence audible surge effects are caused from the fourth
1000
harmonic onwards.
If the mild surge case is analyzed in its spectral represen-
100
tation (black solid line in Fig. 8), it can be noted that even
although the increase in the surge main frequency was not
10
evident, the second harmonic is clearly present, and there-
fore it could be used as an advanced detection of this early
ck(ma) [kg/h]
1
stage of surge. In addition, the comparison of stable oper-
ation, case a, and the incipient surge in case b, shows an 0.1
increase in the whole low region band, up to 30 Hz. Conse-
quently, even without a precise knowledge of the frequency 0.01
at which surge peak appears, it is possible to detect the
surge by means of an integration of the low frequency 0.001 case a
region of the spectrum. case b
case c
For the selection of the more suitable signal for the 0.0001

surge detection, it must be considered the amplitude to 1 10 100 1000

frequency [hz]
mean value ratio, which clearly eliminates Nt as an option.
1000
As the time response of the pressure sensors is better than
the dynamical response of the anemometers, the authors
advise the selection of the P2 signal for surge detection. 100
This selection is strengthened if it is considered that the dis-
tance between the anemometer and the compressor can be
important, thus filtering the surge oscillation phenomenon. 10
ck(Nt) [rpm]

Next step was to extend the previous result obtained for

100k rpm to the full turbocharger operating range. In
1
Fig. 9 the spectra of P2 for deep surging points at different
turbocharger speeds, of the compressor shown in Fig. 6,
are represented. The low frequency peak is clear in them 0.1
all, but a drift in the surge frequency can be noticed, it case a

can be concluded that the surge frequency is affected by case b

case c

the operating conditions. In the case of the heavy duty 0.01

compressor, main surge frequency was located in the range 1 10

frequency [hz]
100 1000

of 5–10 Hz. As the surge phenomenon is related to the

emptying and filling process of the volume downstream
the compressor [32], this shift in the frequency when chang-
ing the outlet pressure can be justified: increasing the
pressure causes a proportional increase in the air mass
stored in the volume of the air circuit between the compres-
sor and the backpressure valve, thus decreasing the charac-
teristic frequency of the phenomenon.
In order to confirm the effects of the impulsion circuit an
additional experience was performed with a car turbo-
Fig. 8. Fourier series representation of P2 (top), ma (centre) and Nt
(bottom) for the three studied cases.
charger. It was tested in surge operation with two different
impulsion circuits. Both circuits, as shown in Fig. 10, were
arranged with different effective volumes. In the first case a
9 l settling tank was used, while in the second experience a
duct was used (L = 1350 mm). The differences in the surge
frequency are represented in Fig. 11. It can be clearly
460 J. Galindo et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 30 (2006) 449–462

1 observed that reduced circuit volume corresponds to higher

120000 rpm surge frequency; the decrease in the duct length also
100000 rpm
80000 rpm increased the surge frequency (not shown). On the other
0.1 40000 rpm hand, the reduction in the circuit volume reduces the oscil-
25000 rpm
lation amplitude, which agrees with previous studies [32].
In the case of the original installation presented in Fig. 1,
0.01 the impulsion volume is approximately 20 l, and the mea-
ck(P2 )[bar]

sured surge frequencies are above of those measured of

the 9 l tank. It has been also confirmed that in spite
0.001 of the change in frequency and amplitude the position of
the surge limit point does not change in the compressor
map (Fig. 6) with the variation of downstream volume.
0.0001 Finally, in Fig. 12 the surge frequencies for different tur-
bochargers and wheel speeds have been represented versus
P2. In both harmonics the same decreasing trend is
1E-005 observed. Of course, surge frequency was also sensitive to
1 10
frequency [hz]
100
the size of the total compressor as can be observed compar-
ing right and left hand part of Fig. 12. Although surge fre-
Fig. 9. Spectra of P2 for deep surging points at different turbocharger quency is not constant in all cases, it is always included in
speed. the low frequency band (below 15 Hz) and very similar val-

Calibrated Calibrated
orifice orifice

Settling Pressure transducer

Pressure transducer
tank
9 l. L
Thermocouple Thermocouple

Flowmeter Flowmeter

Compressor inlet Compressor inlet

Fig. 10. Disposition of the turbocharger with a settling tank (left) and with reduced impulsion circuit (right).

1.7
0.1

1.6
Settling tank
Duct

0.01
1.5
P2 [bar]

ck(P2 )[ bar]

1.4
0.001

1.3

0.0001
1.2

1.1 1E-005
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 1 10 100 1000
time [s] frequency [hz]

Fig. 11. Instantaneous evolution (left) and spectrum (right) of P2 using a settling tank (black) and with a duct (grey).
 J. Galindo et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 30 (2006) 449–462
Fig. 12. Surge frequencies for a heavy duty diesel engine turbocharger (left) and for different automotive turbochargers (right).
ues (around 5 Hz) have been obtained for two different pas-
senger car turbochargers. In addition, the same decreasing
trend with compression ratio has been found in small pas-
senger car and in large heavy duty turbochargers. In all
cases the standard impulsion circuit was used.
Based on previous information, once the volume down-
stream from the compressor is fixed (about 20 l in this spe-
cific test bench) a simple low pass filter detecting contents
above a critical value in the range of 5–15 Hz will be
enough for surge detection. Such a filter has been imple-
mented in the test cell control thus allowing automated
surge detection.
4. Summary and conclusions
In this paper, a test bench for automotive turbochargers
has been presented. With such an installation it is possible
to test both turbines and compressors. Main advantages
when testing turbines are the possibility of using pulsating
flow, inlet temperature control and the extension of the tur-
bine maps by means of the pressurization of the compres-
sor line.
In the case of the compressor, it was full range tested
using the turbine as the driving device. Therefore, the com-
pressor was tested from choke conditions to surge. For
surge detection, a frequency based criterion was used. Sev-
eral variables were analyzed and it was found that the most
sensitive to surge was the downstream pressure. When
surging, the pressure spectrum showed higher low fre-
quency contents than in stable operation. The main fre-
quency peak, which described the surge phenomenon
fairly accurately, was between 5 and 15 Hz, depending on
the compressor size, the installation arrangement, and
operating conditions. It was found low variations of the
frequency with turbocharger size and speed, but high with
downstream volume, therefore in a turbocharged engine
the volume between the compressor and the engine (inter-
cooler and intake manifold volume) will be directly related
with the surge frequency value.
461
Acknowledgments
To Holset Turbochargers Ltd. for their technical
support and for providing the turbocharger unit.
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