Divisions of Philosophy

Abstract: Philosophy, philosophical inquiry, and the main branches of philosophy are
characterized.

I. What is Philosophy?

A. The derivation of the word "philosophy" from the Greek is suggested by the following words
and word-fragments.
 philo—love of, affinity for, liking of
 philander—to engage in love affairs frivolously
 philanthropy—love of mankind in general
 philately—postage stamps hobby
 phile—(as in "anglophile") one having a love for
 philology—having a liking for words
 sophos—wisdom
 sophist—lit. one who loves knowledge
 sophomore—wise and moros—foolish; i.e. one who thinks he knows many
things
 sophisticated—one who is knowledgeable

B. A suggested definition for our beginning study is as follows.

Philosophy is the systematic inquiry into the principles and presuppositions of
any field of study.

1. From a psychological point of view, philosophy is an attitude, an approach, or a calling to

answer or to ask, or even to comment upon certain peculiar problems (i.e., specifically the
kinds of problems usually relegated to the main branches discussed below in Section II).

2. There is, perhaps, no one single sense of the word "philosophy." Eventually many writers
abandon the attempt to define philosophy and, instead, turn to the kinds of things
philosophers do.

3. What is involved in the study of philosophy involves is described by the London Times in
an article dealing with the 20th World Congress of Philosophy: "The great virtue of
philosophy is that it teaches not what to think, but how to think. It is the study of
meaning, of the principles underlying conduct, thought and knowledge. The skills it hones
are the ability to analyse, to question orthodoxies and to express things clearly. However
arcane some philosophical texts may be … the ability to formulate questions and follow
arguments is the essence of education."

II. The Main Branches of Philosophy are divided as to the nature of the questions asked
in each area. The integrity of these divisions cannot be rigidly maintained, for one area
overlaps into the others.

A. Axiology: the study of value; the investigation of its nature, criteria, and metaphysical status.
More often than not, the term "value theory" is used instead of "axiology" in contemporary
discussions even though the term “theory of value” is used with respect to the value or price
of goods and services in economics.

1. Some significant questions in axiology include the following:

a. Nature of value: is value a fulfillment of desire, a pleasure, a preference, a behavioral

disposition, or simply a human interest of some kind?
 b. Criteria of value: de gustibus non (est) disputandum(i.e., (“there's no accounting for
tastes”) or do objective standards apply?

c. Status of value: how are values related to (scientific) facts? What ultimate worth, if
any, do human values have?

2. Axiology is usually divided into two main parts.

a. Ethics: the study of values in human behavior or the study of moral problems: e.g.,
(1) the rightness and wrongness of actions, (2) the kinds of things which are good or
desirable, and (3) whether actions are blameworthy or praiseworthy.

i. Consider this example analyzed by J. O. Urmson in his well-known essay, "Saints and
Heroes":

"We may imagine a squad of soldiers to be practicing the throwing of live hand
grenades; a grenade slips from the hand of one of them and rolls on the ground near
the squad; one of them sacrifices his life by throwing himself on the grenade and
protecting his comrades with his own body. It is quite unreasonable to suppose that
such a man must be impelled by the sort of emotion that he might be impelled by if his
best friend were in the squad."

ii. Did the soldier who threw himself on the grenade do the right thing? If he did not
cover the grenade, several soldiers might be injured or be killed. His action probably
saved lives; certainly an action which saves lives is a morally correct action. One
might even be inclined to conclude that saving lives is a duty. But if this were so,
wouldn't each of the soldiers have the moral obligation or duty to save his
comrades? Would we thereby expect each of the soldiers to vie for the opportunity
to cover the grenade?

b. Æsthetics: the study of value in the arts or the inquiry into feelings, judgments, or
standards of beauty and related concepts. Philosophy of art is concerned with
judgments of sense, taste, and emotion.

i. E.g., Is art an intellectual or representational activity? What would the realistic

representations in pop art represent? Does art represent sensible objects or ideal
objects?

ii. Is artistic value objective? Is it merely coincidental that many forms in architecture
and painting seem to illustrate mathematical principles? Are there standards of
taste?

iii. Is there a clear distinction between art and reality?

B. Epistemology: the study of knowledge. In particular, epistemology is the study of

the nature, scope, and limits of human knowledge.

1. Epistemology investigates the origin, structure, methods, and integrity of knowledge.

2. Consider the degree of truth of the statement, "The earth is round." Does its truth
depend upon the context in which the statement is uttered? For example, this statement
can be successively more accurately translated as …
 "The earth is spherical"
 "The earth is an oblate spheroid" (i.e., flattened at the poles).
 But what about the Himalayas and the Marianas Trench? Even if
we surveyed exactly the shape of the earth, our process of surveying would alter the surface
by the footprints left and the impressions of the survey stakes and instruments. Hence, the
exact shape of the earth cannot be known. Every rain shower changes the shape.
 (Note here as well the implications for skepticism and relativism:
simply because we cannot exactly describe the exact shape of the earth, the conclusion does
not logically follow that the earth does not have a shape.)

2. Furthermore, consider two well-known problems in epistemology:

a. Russell's Five-Minute-World Hypothesis: Suppose the earth were

created five minutes ago, complete with memory images, history books, records, etc.,
how could we ever know of it? As Russell wrote in The Analysis of Mind, "There is no
logical impossibility in the hypothesis that the world sprang into being five minutes
ago, exactly as it then was, with a population that "remembered" a wholly unreal past.
There is no logically necessary connection between events at different times; therefore
nothing that is happening now or will happen in the future can disprove the hypothesis
that the world began five minutes ago." For example, an omnipotent God could create
the world with all the memories, historical records, and so forth five minutes ago. Any
evidence to the contrary would be evidence created by God five minutes ago.
(Q.v., the Omphalos hypothesis.)

b. Suppose everything in the universe (including all spatial relations)

were to expand uniformly a thousand times larger. How could we ever know it? A
moment's thought reveals that the mass of objects increases by the cube whereas the
distance among them increases linearly. Hence, if such an expansion were possible,
changes in the measurement of gravity and the speed of light would be evident, if,
indeed, life would be possible.

c. Russell's Five-Minute-World Hypothesis is a philosophical problem;

the impossibility of the objects in the universe expanding is a scientific problem since
the latter problem can, in fact, be answered by principles of elementary physics.

B. Ontology or Metaphysics: the study of what is really real. Metaphysics deals with the
so-called first principles of the natural order and "the ultimate generalizations available
to the human intellect." Specifically, ontology seeks to indentify and establish the
relationships between the categories, if any, of the types of existent things.

1. What kinds of things exist? Do only particular things exist or do general things also exist?
How is existence possible? Questions as to identity and change of objects—are you the
same person you were as a baby? as of yesterday? as of a moment ago?

2. How do ideas exist if they have no size, shape, or color? (My idea of the Empire State
Building is quite as "small" or as "large" as my idea of a book. I.e., an idea is not
extended in space.) What is space? What is time?

3. E.g., Consider the truths of mathematics: in what manner do geometric figures exist? Are
points, lines, or planes real or not? Of what are they made?

4. What is spirit? or soul? or matter? space? Are they made up of the same sort of "stuff"?

5. When, if ever, are events necessary? Under what conditions are they possible?

II. Further characteristics of philosophy and examples of philosophical problems are

discussed in the next tutorial.
 Further Reading:

 Edward Craig on What is Philosophy? This interview on Philosophy Biteswith David Craig,
editor of The Routledge Encyclopedia, by David Edmonds and Nigel Warburton explains the
nature of philosophy. Craig believes the definition of philosophy has been too narrow in the past;
he thinks it's better to think of philosophy in terms of the vast range of different kinds of
problems which are not answered by specific disciplines. Good philosophy can be done by anyone
and either involves reasoning or the explanations of reasoning. Good philosophy is not just a
question of personal preference in everyday thinking since everyday thoughts do not have the
level of self-awareness of reasoning processes.

 The Nature of Philosophical Inquiry. A chapter from Reading for Philosophical Inquiry, an
online e-text on this site, summarizing the main divisions of philosophy as well as illustrating
some introductory philosophical problems.

 Omphalos (theology). Wikipedia entry for several variations of the Omphalos hypothesis
—the philosophical problem of accounting for present state of the universe by purported
evidence drawn from the past.

 Philosophy. Useful encyclopedia entry from the authoritative 1911 Encyclopedia

Britannica outlining the branches of philosophy.

 Philosophy—General Introduction. Ralph Barton Perry's accessible introduction to

philosophy and a discussion of philosophy's relation to art, science, ethics, and religion are
discussed in a lecture on the Harvard Classics.

 What is Philosophy Anyway? Summary article from M. Russo and G. Fair's Molloy College
site discussing the definition and main branches of philosophy.

“Philosophy … has no other subject matter than the nature of the real world, as that world lies
around us in everyday life, and lies open to observers on every side. But if this is so, it may be
asked what function can remain for philosophy when every portion of the field is already lotted
out and enclosed by specialists? Philosophy claims to be the science of the whole; but, if we get
the knowledge of the parts from the different sciences, what is there left for philosophy to tell
us? To this it is sufficient to answer generally that the synthesis of the parts is something more
than that detailed knowledge of the parts in separation which is gained by the man of science. It
is with the ultimate synthesis that philosophy concerns itself; it has to show that the subject-
matter which we are all dealing with in detail really is a whole, consisting of articulated
members.” “Philosophy,” Encyclopedia Britannica (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1911) Vol. 21.

Some may argue that philosophy is the essence of education and without knowing your
philosophy how can you learn, how can you teach, how can you live? In this article the four
main branches of philosophy will be discussed as an overview to aid in understanding the
importance of philosophy as a teacher, educator, parent, or student.
The word philosophy is derived from two Greek words. The first word, philo, means “love.” The
second, sophy, means “wisdom.” Literally, then, philosophy means “love of wisdom”. Each
individual has an attitude toward life, children, politics, learning, and previous personal
experiences that informs and shapes their set of beliefs. Although you may not be conscious of
it, this set of beliefs, or personal philosophy, informs how you live, work, and interact with
others. What you believe is directly reflected in both your teaching and learning processes. This
chapter explores the various philosophical views that influence the teaching profession.

Although the role of Eastern philosophy in the history of the world and in education has been
significant, this chapter focuses on the role of Western philosophy in shaping the educational
philosophies prevalent in the United States. It is important to understand how philosophy and
education are interrelated. To become the most effective teacher you can be, you must
understand your own beliefs, while at the same time empathizing with others. Developing your
own educational philosophy is a key part of your journey to becoming a teacher.

To understand the foundations of educational philosophies, it’s necessary to first examine

philosophy’s four main branches. Understanding educational philosophy will contribute to the
understanding of how these foundations have given rise to what is commonly practiced and
believed in the classroom today. The four main branches of philosophy are metaphysics,
epistemology, axiology, and logic.

Metaphysics

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that considers the physical universe and the nature of
ultimate reality. It asks questions like, What is real? What is the origin of the world? What is
beyond the stars? Your consideration of reality as an external creation or an internal construct
can influence your metaphysical beliefs and perspectives and your teaching. Regardless of your
definition of reality, the exploration and categorization of the physical universe form the
foundation of several school subjects.

Epistemology

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that considers how people come to learn what they
know.
Derived from the Greek word episteme, meaning knowledge or understanding, epistemology
refers to the nature and origin of knowledge and truth. Epistemology proposes that there are
four main bases of knowledge: divine revelation, experience, logic and reason, and intuition.
These influence how teaching, learning, and understanding come about in the classroom.

Axiology

Axiology is the branch of philosophy that considers the study of principles and values. These
values are divided into two main kinds: ethics and aesthetics. Ethics is the questioning of morals
and personal values. Aesthetics is the examination of what is beautiful, enjoyable, or tasteful. In
axiology education is more than just about knowledge but also quality of life.

Logic

Logic is the branch of philosophy that seeks to organize reasoning. Students of logic learn how
to think in a structurally sound manner. Logic has two types: deductive and inductive reasoning.
Deductive reasoning involves examining a general case, deducing a general set of rules or
principles, and then applying these rules to specific cases. Inductive reasoning involves taking
specific examples and considering the general principles, rules, or cases that caused them.

What is your philosophy? Are all four branches incorporated into your values on education?

Overview

Philosophy means "love of wisdom." It is made up of two Greek words, philo,

meaning love, and sophos, meaning wisdom. Philosophy helps teachers to reflect on
key issues and concepts in education, usually through such questions as: What is
being educated? What is the good life? What is knowledge? What is the nature of
learning? And What is teaching? Philosophers think about the meaning of things and
interpretation of that meaning. Even simple statements, such as "What should be
learned? Or What is adolescence?" set up raging debates that can have major
implications. For example, what happens if an adolescent commits a serious crime?
One interpretation may hide another. If such a young person is treated as an adult
criminal, what does it say about justice, childhood, and the like? Or if the adolescent
is treated as a child, what does it say about society's views on crime?

Your educational philosophy is your beliefs about why, what and how you teach,
whom you teach, and about the nature of learning. It is a set of principles that guides
professional action through the events and issues teachers face daily. Sources for your
educational philosophy are your life experiences, your values, the environment in
which you live, interactions with others and awareness of philosophical approaches.
Learning about the branches of philosophy, philosophical world views, and different
educational philosophies and theories will help you to determine and shape your own
educational philosophy, combined with these other aspects.

When you examine a philosophy different from your own, it helps you to "wrestle"
with your own thinking. Sometimes this means you may change your mind. Other
times, it may strengthen your viewpoint; or, you may be eclectic, selecting what
seems best from different philosophies. But in eclecticism, there is a danger of sloppy
and inconsistent thinking, especially if you borrow a bit of one philosophy and stir in
some of another. If serious thought has gone into selection of strategies, theories, or
philosophies, this is less problematic. For example, you may determine that you have
to vary your approach depending on the particular learning needs and styles of a given
student. At various time periods, one philosophical framework may become favored
over another. For example, the Progressive movement led to quite different
approaches in education in the 1930s. But there is always danger in one "best or only"
philosophy. In a pluralistic society, a variety of views are needed.

Branches of Philosophy

There are three major branches of philosophy. Each branch focuses on a different
aspect and is central to your teaching. The three branches and their sub-branches are:

Branch Metaphysics: What is the Epistemology: What is the Axiology: What

nature of reality? nature of knowledge? How do values should one
we come to know? live by?
Educational –Do you think human –How would an anthropologist –Is morality
Examples beings are basically good look at this classroom? A defined by our
or evil? political scientist? A biologist? actions, or by
–What are conservative or –How do we know what a child what is in our
liberal beliefs? knows? hearts?
–What values
should be taught
in character
education?
Sub- –Ontology Knowing based on: –Ethics
branches What issues are related to –Scientific Inquiry What is good and
nature, existence, or –Senses and Feelings evil, right and
being? Is a child –From authority or divinity wrong?
inherently evil or good? –Empiricism (experience) Is it ever right to
How might your view –Intuition take something
determine your classroom –Reasoning or Logic that does not
management? What reasoning processes belong to you?
–Cosmology yield valid conclusions? –Aesthetics
What is the nature and –Deductive: reasoning What is beautiful?
origin of the cosmos or from the general to the How do we
universe? Is the world and particular All children can recognize a great
universe orderly or is it learn. Bret is a fifth grader. He piece of music?
marked by chaos? What has a learning disability. Can Art?
would one or the other Bret learn? Can there be
mean for a classroom? –Inductive: reasoning beauty in
from the specific to the destruction?
general. After experimenting
 with plant growth under varied
conditions, stu-dents conclude
plants need water and light

Think about it:

1. Why might the study of philosophy be particularly important to educators?

2. Which branch or branches of philosophy would you want to emphasize in your

classroom? Why?

3. Do you learn better deductively or inductively? Why do you think?

4. Can you think of other school-based examples for each of the branches and sub
branches?