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Article history: The STE (solar thermal energy) system is considered an important new renewable energy resource.
Received 14 November 2015 While various simulations are used as decision-making tools in implementing the STE system, it has a
Received in revised form limitation in considering both diverse impact factors and target variables. Therefore, this study aimed to
15 February 2016
develop an integrated multi-objective optimization model for determining the optimal solution in the
Accepted 16 February 2016
Available online 12 March 2016
STE system. As the optimization algorithm, this study utilizes GA (genetic algorithm) to select optimal
STE system solution. Using crossover and mutation, GA investigates optimal STE system solution. The
proposed model used GA based on the software program Evolver 5.5. The proposed model presents high
Keywords:
Solar thermal energy system
available and efficient results as decision-making tools. First, to determine the optimal solution, a total of
Multi-objective optimization 30,407,832 possible scenarios were generated by considering various factors in terms of their high
Generic algorithm availability. Second, in terms of efficiency, an average of 131 s were used to determine the optimal so-
Economic and environmental assessment lution out of the previously proposed various scenarios. The proposed model can become a tool for
consumers to decide on the optimal solution for the design of the STE system.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.02.104
0360-5442/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Kim et al. / Energy 102 (2016) 416e426 417
(i.e., the government's support policies and its high efficiency), it is design value as the characteristic of the solar collector in the eco-
difficult to widely implement due to its high IIC (initial investment nomic analysis. However, their analysis did not consider the full life
cost) and its unstable performance against climate conditions. To cycle and the environmental effect.
overcome these challenges, the full life-cycle cost of the STE system Third, recent studies have also analyzed the environmental ef-
must be analyzed before it is implemented. In other words, through fect of the installation of the STE system. These studies mainly
the overall analysis of the life-cycle cost, the economic feasibility of considered the regional factor and heat generation of the STE sys-
the STE system should be confirmed with decision-makers. Toward tem [17,41,43,51,54]. Zambrana-Vasquez et al. [41], performed the
this end, one of the most important steps is to estimate the amount life cycle assessment for the environmental assessment based on
of heat generated by the STE system. There are several impact the characteristics of the STE system. Bessa and Prado [51], con-
factors that should be considered in estimating the amount of heat ducted a comparative analysis of the CO2 emissions of the electrical
generated by the STE system. Those factors include (see Table S1, heating system and of the STE system in 24 regions in Brazil to
Supplementary material (SM)): (i) the regional factors and (ii) the propose an optimal solution. Though they analyzed the environ-
building characteristics. Previous studies have analyzed the target mental effect based on the regional factor, they did not simulta-
variables of the STE system (i.e., heat generation, economic effect, neously consider the life cycle cost. Based on the previous
and environmental effect) by considering the aforementioned researches, it can be concluded that several types of target variables
impact factors [2e4,9e12,18e35], [36e55]. There are many impact should be simultaneously considered to analyze the economic and
factors affecting solar collection cycle, however aforementioned environmental feasibility of the STE system [56e62].
impact factors (i.e. regional factors, building characteristics) are Therefore, this study aimed to develop an iMOO (integrated
sufficient technical factors to considered for the design of STE Multi-Objective Optimization) model that would satisfy several
systems [10,11,23,24,40]. If decision maker wants to adopt the STE target variables by simultaneously considering various impact
system, the proposed model could be decision support tool as factors. The proposed model was developed in six steps: (i) estab-
intuitive model in the early design phase. Using proposed model, lishment of a database, (ii) generation of the STE system's instal-
easily, decision maker can easily select the STE system by consid- lation scenarios, (iii) analysis of the STE system's installation
ering heat generation, economic and environmental analysis from scenarios, (iv) economic and environmental assessment from the
life cycle perspective. life cycle perspective, (v) establishment of an iMOO process using a
First, some studies have analyzed the heat supply demand of a GA (genetic algorithm), and (vi) systemization of the proposed
building by considering the heat generation of the STE system. The model using a Microsoft-Excel-based VBA (Visual basic application)
analysis of the heat generated by the STE system considered the (see Fig. 1). Using the optimal solution, these five objectives can be
regional factors and the physical information of the STE system [i.e., attained: (i) minimization of the IIC (with government subsidy); (ii)
the ToC (type of collector) and the ToS (type of storage)] maximization of the AHG (annual heat generation), (iii) maximi-
[2,4,21,27,33]. Allouhi et al. [4], aimed for technical evaluations of zation of the NPV (net-present value), (iv) maximization of the SIR
the STE system in Morocco, used the flat plate collector and the (savings-to-investment ratio), and (v) maximization of the AHG/
apricus collector to analyze the energy generated by the STE system unit. In addition, Fig. 2 showed the decision-making process in the
in six regions. Hobbi and Siddiqui [27], proposed an STE system that iMOO model.
could satisfy the hot water demand of single households in Canada.
For maximum heat generation, they set the characteristic of the 2. Materials and methods
collector as the design variable. Other studies have focused only on
the heat supply and demand of a building with the installation of 2.1. Step 1: establishment of database
the STE system, but have not analyzed the economic and environ-
mental effects. To select the optimal STE system solution, the research team
Second, recent studies have analyzed the economic effect of the first considered the impact factors associated with the PV (photo-
installation of the STE system. These studies selected the optimal voltaic) system [63,64], which are very similar to those of the STE
ToC and ToS by considering mainly the IIC and heat generation of system, except that modules are used in the PV system whereas
the STE system [9,10,31,40]. Bornatico et al. [9] calculated the solar collectors are used in the STE system [65,66]. Toward this end,
optimal STE system that would satisfy the minimum initial cost and the study established a database of several impact factors based on
maximum energy generation through an optimization algorithm. previous studies (see Table S1) and the Korea Public Institution and
Szargut and Stanek [31] determined the optimal cost by setting the Geographical Information [63e71]. As shown in Table S2, the
418 J. Kim et al. / Energy 102 (2016) 416e426
parameters were divided into three categories: (i) regional efficiency, and negative slope of the efficiency curve; and (ii) ToS:
geographical information, (ii) regional meteorological information, diameter, height, and volume (see Tables S8 and S9, SM) [70].
and (iii) physical information on the STE system. The established
database will be used in Step 2 (generation of the STE system's 2.2. Step 2: generation of the STE system's installation scenarios
installation scenarios) and Step 3 (analysis of the STE system's
installation scenarios). To acquire the optimal STE system solution, the aforementioned
As the regional geographical information, the latitudes of 16 impact factors were considered (refer to Table S1). Based on the
major cities in South Korea were collected from Google EarthTM, previous studies [63,71], which conducted a sensitivity analysis
which offers geographic information. The meridian altitudes (at from the unit panel to the rooftop PV system, the complex corre-
noon of the winter solstice) were calculated as follows [67]. (refer lations among the impact factors affected the amount of electricity
to Eq. (1) and see Table S3, SM): generated by the rooftop PV system. Because the impact factors of
the STE system are very similar to those of the PV system [65,66],
they were divided into three categories: (i) defined parameters, (ii)
t ¼ 90 4 ε (1) adjustable parameters, and (iii) constraint parameters.
Defined parameters are fixed parameters that cannot be
where, t is minimum incident angle of the sun, 4 is the region adjusted while the STE system is installed and signify the following
latitude, and ε is the tilt angle of the Earth's axis. information on the target building: (i) the regional information on
As the regional meteorological information, the monthly inci- the target building, (ii) the types of facilities and systems, and (iii)
dent solar radiation and the monthly diffuse solar radiation of the the AoC. The AoC is the installation azimuth of the solar collector
16 cities in South Korea were collected from the New & Renewable whose efficiency is highest when it faces south (0 ) [63].
Energy Data Center, through which the monthly total solar radia- Adjustable parameters can be considered when installing the
tion was calculated [68] (see Tables S4 and S5, SM). The monthly STE system. Various STE system scenarios can be generated by
ambient temperature and the monthly water supply temperature combining the adjustable parameters: (i) the SoC, (ii) the ToC, (iii)
in Korea were collected from the most updated data of the Korea the ToS, (iv) the number of installed collectors along with the
Meteorological Administration [69] (see Tables S6 and S7, SM). The length of the rooftop area (NoC_L), and (v) the number of installed
monthly water supply temperature is the temperature of the water collectors along with the width of the rooftop area (NoC_W).
supplied to buildings through the water pipes from the waterworks Constraint parameters are the limitations that should be
headquarters [69]. considered in installing the STE system. They filter the scenarios
As the physical information on the STE system, the following that need to be excluded from all the possible STE system scenarios:
information on the ToC and ToS were collected from the Public (i) the rooftop length (RL), (ii) the rooftop width (RW), (iii) the
Procurement Service: (i) ToC: width, length, area, intercept minimum AHG limit, and (iv) the maximum budget limit.
J. Kim et al. / Energy 102 (2016) 416e426 419
Considering the above three parameter categories, scenarios diffuse solar radiation on horizontal surfaces (kWh/m2/day), b is
were generated to calculate the optimal STE system for the target the tilt angle ( ), H is the daily total radiation on horizontal surfaces
building. Using the produced scenarios, the heat generated by the (kWh/m2/day), and rg is the ground reflectivity (0.2).
STE system was analyzed in Step 3. H, the daily total radiation, is calculated using Eq. (3) [72,73]:
H ¼ Hb þHd (3)
2.3. Step 3: analysis of the STE system's installation scenarios
where, Hb is the daily incident solar radiation on horizontal sur-
The STE system scenarios generated in Step 2 were analyzed to faces (kWh/m2/day) and Hd is the daily diffuse solar radiation on
determine the optimal solution. The heat generated by the STE horizontal surfaces (kWh/m2/day).
system can be calculated from the impact factors such as the effi- Rb is calculated using Eqs. (4)e(6) [72,73]:
ciency of the solar collector, the total collector area, and the solar
h i.
radiation [refer to Eqs. (2)e(8)] [72,73]. 0 0
Rb ¼ cosðf bÞcos d sin WS þ p 180 WS sinðf bÞsin d
=
Eq. (2) calculates the solar radiation based on the angle [72,73]:
h i
cos f cos d sin WS þ p 180 WS sin d
=
HT ¼ Hb Rb þHd ð1 þ cosbÞ=2 þ Hrg ð1 cosbÞ=2 (2)
(4)
where, HT is the daily average radiation on tilted surfaces (kWh/m2/
day), Hb is the daily incident solar radiation on horizontal surfaces where, 4 is the latitude angle ( ), b is the tilt angle ( ), d is the
(kWh/m2/day), Rb is the ratio of the monthly radiation incident on declination angle ( ), WS is the sunset hour angle for horizontal
an inclined plane to that on a horizontal plane, Hd is the daily surfaces ( ), and W’S is the sunset hour for tilted surfaces ( ); and
420 J. Kim et al. / Energy 102 (2016) 416e426
The costs (i.e., the initial construction cost, and the operations
WS ¼ cos1 ð tan 4 tan dÞ and (5) and maintenance cost) and benefits [i.e., the gas bill savings, gov-
ernment subsidy, and KCERs (reduction of CO2 emissions due to
h i
0
WS ¼ min cos1 ð tan4 tandÞ; cos1 ð tanð4 bÞtandÞ energy consumption savings)] generated during the life cycle of the
STE system were considered as the significant costs of ownership.
(6)
2.5. Step 5: establishment of an iMOO process using a genetic
where, ‘min’ refers to the smaller of the two items in the brackets. algorithm
The efficiency of the collector is evaluated by applying the ra-
diation data with the installation angle, determined using Eq. (2), to The iMOO model, a more intuitive, simplified, applicable, and
Eq. (7) [11]: flexible model, presents the optimal solution set based on the
Pareto front according to the following six steps (see model
h ¼ Q u =Ap IT ¼ FrðtaÞ Fr UL ðTi Ta Þ=IT (7)
implementation part, SM) [91]: (i) problem statement, (ii) defini-
tion of the optimization objective function, (iii) establishment of
where, h is the efficiency (%), Q u is the heat generation per day
the data structure, (iv) standardization of the optimization objec-
(kWh/day), AP is the total collector area (m2), IT is the incident ra-
tive function, (v) definition of the fitness function, and (vi) imple-
diation (kWh/m2/day), Fr (ta) is the intercept efficiency, FrUL is the
mentation of the genetic algorithm.
negative slope of the efficiency curve [(W/m2)/ C], Ti is the tem-
In previous researches, the STE system presents the optimal
perature of the fluid-entering collector ( C), and Ta is the ambient
solution as follows (see Table S1): (i) heat generation; and (ii)
temperature ( C).
economic and environmental effect. Thus the objective functions
Finally, the heat generated by the STE system was calculated
related to the energy, economic and environmental effect were
using Eq. (8) [72,73]:
considered in this model.
Q u ¼ hAP IT (8) For the optimization objectives, the objective functions were
defined by energy and economic and environmental effect. There-
where, Q u is the heat generated per day (kWh/day), h is the effi- fore, the final objective functions of this model were as follows: (i)
ciency (%), AP is the total collector area (m2), and IT is the incident minimization of the IIC and (ii) maximization of the AHG, NPV, SIR,
radiation (kWh/m2/day). and AHG/unit.
To calculate the STE system's optimal solution set, the regional
information, and the information on the types of collectors and
2.4. Step 4: economic and environmental assessment from the life storage, were collected. For the regional information, the ambient
cycle perspective temperatures, radiation levels, and latitudes of the 16 regions in
South Korea were collected (see Tables S3eS7, SM). From the Public
For the economic and environmental assessment, LCC and Procurement Service, 26 types of collectors and 27 types of storage
LCCO2 analyses were performed. From the results, the following information were collected (see Tables S8 and S9, SM). The pro-
four assumptions were established [67e70,74e90]: (i) the starting posed objective functions were standardized to the two extreme
point of the analyses and the analysis period, (ii) the real discount points -the maximum extreme point (Zþ) and the minimum
rate, and (iii) the significant costs of ownership. Table S10, SM extreme point (Z)- using the SM Eqs. (S3) and (S4) (i.e., the IIC,
shows the assumptions for the key elements of the LCC and LCCO2 AHG, NPV, SIR, and AHG/unit) (see Table S11, SM).
analyses. To standardize the optimization objectives, the objective func-
The starting points of the analysis and the analysis period were tions were standardized. The optimization objectives were mini-
set as 2015 and 25 years, respectively. The analysis period was mization of the IIC and maximization of the AHG, NPV, SIR, and
determined through interviews with STE system experts. AHG/unit. The STE system's optimal solution, which is the scenario
Data on nominal interest rates and inflation rates were collected with the lowest iMOO score, was calculated using the fitness
from the Bank of Korea Economic Statistics System and the Korean function [refer to Equation (10)]:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Fitness function ¼ ðSA 0Þ2 þ ð1SB Þ2 þ ð1SC Þ2 þ ð1SD Þ2 þ ð1SE Þ2 (10)
Statistical Information Service to calculate the real discount rate where, SA, SB, SC, SD, and SE are the standardized values for the
[refer to Eq. (9)] [The real discount rates are the interest growth rate optimization objectives of the IIC, AHG, NPV, SIR, and AHG/EA,
(2.68%), the electricity price growth rate (0.98%), the gas price respectively; and the iMOO score is the value of the fitness function.
growth rate (1.97%), and the KCERs (Korea certified emission re- Developed in 1970 by J. Holland, GA is an optimization algo-
ductions) growth rate (2.61%)]: rithm that plays an important role in the search for solutions using
crossover operators [92,93]. The proposed model used GA based on
the software program Evolver 5.5. To apply GA, the study used SoC,
i ¼ ð1 þ in Þ=ð1 þ f Þ 1 (9) ToC, ToS, NoC_L, and NoC_W, which are the adjustable parameters
considered in Step 2, as well as the limitations of RL and RW, the
where, i is the real discount rate, in is the nominal interest rate, and minimum AHG limit, and the maximum budget limit, which are the
f is the inflation rate. constraint parameters.
J. Kim et al. / Energy 102 (2016) 416e426 421
Table 1
Information on the target buildings.
Target building Region Azimuth Length of roof (m) Width of roof (m) Annual heat load (kWh)
Table 2
Establishment of the optimization process using a genetic algorithm.
except that of ‘S’ high school. Therefore, the AHG can be maximized requirement should be supplied by an STE system, and therefore,
by setting the AoC to the south. the minimum heat generation limit (GL) was limited to 15% of the
Since the SoC affects the performance of the STE system, it was heat consumption (11,173 kWh). The maximum budget limit was
adjusted in the optimization process by considering the regional set at US$1,000,000 for the proposed model. Based on these pa-
factor of each region. The 26 types of ToC and the 27 types of ToS rameters, possible installation scenarios were generated.
were collected from the Public Procurement Service (see Tables S8
and S9, SM) and adjusted in the optimization process based on the 4. Results and discussion
regional factor of each region.
In Table 1, the rooftop area limits (RL and RW) of each target To generate the possible installation scenarios, the defined
building are presented. From the constraint parameters (i.e., RL, RW, parameters, adjustable parameters, and constraint parameters
and GL), the possibility of installation of NoC_L and NoC_W was were determined. As mentioned, the defined parameters were
determined (see Table S12, SM). According to RPS in 2015, public determined as shown in Table 2, and the adjustable parameters
institutions should use an NRE system for over 15% of their total were defined within a certain range: (i) the SoC, 0 e90 ; (ii) the
energy consumption. In ‘G’ elementary school, 15% of its energy ToC, from No. 1 to No. 26; and (iii) the ToS, from No. 1 to No. 27. As
Table 3
Optimal STE system solution for each target building.
l
Target building Adjustable parameters Objective function iMOO score
a b c d e f g h i j k 2
SoC ( ) ToC ToS NoC_L NoC_W NoC IIC (US $) AHG (kWh) NPV (US $) SIR AHG/unit (kWh/m )
‘A’ company building 26 No.20 No.13 14 7 98 45,810 145,465 142,151 2.355 1484 0.3391
‘A’ university 27 No.20 No.1 5 16 80 37,800 126,077 121,633 2.405 1576 0.3474
‘G’ elementary school 28 No.20 No.2 7 8 56 36,660 57,705 87,386 2.041 1030 0.4989
‘S’ high school 32 No.20 No.10 5 18 90 43,290 141,775 26,933 1.162 1575 0.4547
a
SoC stands for the slope of the installed collector.
b
ToC stands for the type of the collector.
c
ToS stands for the type of the storage.
d
NoC_L stands for the number of the installed collectors on length side.
e
NoC_W stands for the number of the installed collectors on width side.
f
NoC stands for the number of the installed collectors.
g
IIC stands for the initial investment cost.
h
AHG stands for the annual heat generation.
i
NPV stands for the net present value.
j
SIR stands for the savings-to-investment ratio.
k
AHG/Unit stands for the annual heat generation per unit collector.
l
iMOO score stands for the value of the fitness function.
J. Kim et al. / Energy 102 (2016) 416e426 423
Table 4
Correlation analysis of the objective function.
of STE systems such as the region factors and the building charac-
teristics. The iMOO model could enable a potential STE system user
to easily, efficiently, and accurately determine the optimal solution
for the implementation of the STE system in the early design phase.
This could be achieved using a visual chart for intuitive decision-
making. In addition, it could be useful for contractors in competi-
tive bidding processes to analyze the alternatives.
This study had some limitations. First, it used only a GA to
establish the multi-objective optimization process. Thus, in future
studies, more advanced optimization approaches should be used.
Second, as combinations of NRE systems are applied to buildings
nowadays, the iMOO model should be applied to hybrid NRE sys-
tems (i.e., the STE system and the ground source heat pump sys-
tem) and could be extended to any other country or sector in the
global environment.
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