The Structure of English Language – Introduction

This is a guide to the structure of the English language. Teachers of English and English as a second
language may use it for reference. This text is recommended for advanced users of English.

We can study the structure of language in a variety of ways. For example, we can study

 classes of words (parts of speech),

 meanings of words and longer structures (semantics),
 how words are organized in relation to each other (syntax),
 how words are formed (morphology),
 the sounds of words (phonology) and
 how written forms represent these (lexicography).

There is no universally accepted model for doing this, but some models use the notion of a hierarchy, and
this may prove fruitful for you.

The most basic units of meaning are simple words (e.g.: dog, yes and swim) or the elements of complex
words (e.g.: un- -happi- and -ness in unhappiness). These basic elements are called morphemes, and the
study of how they are combined in words is morphology.

The study of how words are organized into phrases, clauses and sentences is usually referred to as syntax.

A longer stretch of language is known as discourse, the study of its structure as discourse analysis.

This hierarchy is partly explained by the table below. The right hand column should be read upwards, in the
direction of the arrow.

Outline structure of English

sentences sentences
are analysed into are used to build
clauses clauses
are analysed into are used to build
phrases
are analysed into
↓↑ phrases
are used to build
words words
are analysed into are used to build
morphemes morphemes
The following table shows a three-part model of the structure of English.

Three-part model of English

Morphology Syntax Discourse
morphemes phrases relationships between sentences
in longer stretches of language
↓ ↓
words clauses

↓
sentences

EXERCISES: Answer the following questions.

1. Why is the knowledge on the “Structures of English Language” essential in your profession and
course? (at least 10 sentences)
2. Do you agree that words are powerful? Explain. (at least 5 sentences)
3. Compare and contrast phrases, clauses, and sentences in a tabular form.
 The Structure of English Language - Morphology

This is the study of the structure of words. The name comes from
Greek morphos (=shape or form). The smallest units of meaning may be whole simple
words (e.g. man, run, big) or parts of complex words (e.g. un-, -faith- and -ful in
unfaithful) which are called morphemes.

Some morphemes, such as faith in un-faith-ful or dream in dream-ing can stand

alone as words which make sense. These are known as free morphemes. You will
see how very many simple words are free morphemes, but can combine with other
morphemes, both free and bound (see below) to form complex words.

Where two simple words are joined together to form a new complete word, this is
called a compound word. Examples include teapot, starlight and careworn. When
these terms are first coined, they are shown in some dictionaries with a hyphen,
as light-house or fish-finger.

Other morphemes, such as prefixes and suffixes (collectively called affixes), cannot
stand alone - they need to be part of a complex word to make sense. Examples are

 dis- in dis-miss, dis-pute or dis-grace,

 -ing in dream-ing,
 -ness in happi-ness or sad-ness and even
 -s used to form plurals, as in boy-s or horse-s.

These morphemes are said to be bound morphemes.

Inflection and derivation

Bound morphemes are traditionally divided into two further classes. Sometimes a
word is changed in its form to show the internal grammar of a sentence (“agreement”).
Examples would be plural forms of nouns (dog + s → dog-s) or past (imperfect) tenses
of regular verbs (want + ed → want-ed). The study of such changes is inflectional
morphology (because the words in question are inflected - altered, in this case by
adding a suffix).

Other compound or complex words are made by adding together elements without
reference to the internal grammar of a sentence. For example, the
verb infect suggests a new verb disinfect (=to undo the action of infecting). New
words are often formed by noun + -ize, noun + ism, or verb + able (scandalize,
Thatcherism, disposable). The study of such words, “derived” from existing words or
morphemes is derivational morphology. The elements of which the word is made may
have a grammatical relationshipwithin the word (you may find this idea difficult), but
their formation is independent of the syntax of the clause or sentence in which they
occur. If you find this puzzling, two things may help:

 Inflectional morphology is much easier to recognize. A relatively small

number of types of inflection (showing number or tense, say) covers most
cases.
  All compound and most complex words show derivational morphology. If a
complex word does notshow inflection it will show derivation.

But note: a complex word may show both inflection and derivation! A derived word
may be inflected to show, for example, tense or number: deported or disposables (as
in nappies).

This table shows how the most common kinds of inflection are found in three word
classes:

Inflection of nouns, verbs and qualifiers

Nouns Verbs Adjectives and adverbs
Addition of terminal s to Ending shows tense Addition of -
show plural (one cat; two (wanted) or person er → comparative (hotter;
cats); ([she]wants). likelier);

addition of 's to show addition of -est → superlative

possession (Henry's cat). (coldest; soonest).

This table illustrates how derivation can occur:

Derivational morphology in complex words

Prefix Base of Word Suffix Complex Word
Bi cycl(e) ing Bicycling
Dis grace ful Disgraceful
In tolera(te) able Intolerable
Re vision ist Revisionist
Un, co operat(e) ive, ly Uncooperatively
Un likely (y becomes i) hood Unlikelihood

Remember that morphology is the study of the structure of words. The structure of
words can also be studied to show how the meaning of a given morpheme, or its
relation to the rest of the word, varies from one complex word to another. Consider
how sun works in the following words: sunbeam, sunburnt, sundial, sunflower,
sunglasses, sunlight, sunrise, sun-spot (scientific sense), sun-spot (tourist
sense), suntan.

Inflection does not really yield “new” words, but alters the form of existing ones for
specific reasons of grammar. Derivation, on the other hand, does lead to the creation
of new words. There are at least four normal processes of word-formation, of which
three are examples of derivation:
 Four kinds of word-formation
Prefixation Suffixation Compounding Conversion
(derivational) (derivational) (derivational) (not derivational)
Affix placed before base Affix placed after base of Two base forms are Word changes class,
of word, e.g. disobey word, e.g. kindness added together, without any change of form,
e.g. blackbird e.g. (the) pet (n)
becomes (to) pet (vb.)

Words considered as wholes can be categorized according to how they work within
phrases, clauses or sentences. These categories, traditionally called parts of
speech are now more usually known as word classes. Parts of speech are labels for
categories in which words are usually placed. But in a given sentence a word from
one category may behave as if it were in another. A dictionary will only record
established or standard usage.

The traditional parts of speech were of eight kinds, excluding the two articles (a/an,
the). These were nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions,
adverbs, and interjections. Modern linguists prefer to list words in classes that are
coherent - all the words in them should behave in the same way. But if this principle
were applied rigidly, we would have hundreds of classes, so irregularities are
tolerated!

Exercise 1: List the morphemes in each word below, and state whether each morpheme is free (F)
or bound (B).

Sample: forgiving = forgive (F) , ing (B)

1. creating = _____________ 2. Seaward = _____________

3. wastage = _____________ 4. Poetic = _____________

5. modernize = _____________ 6. unhealthy = _____________

7. waiter = _____________ 8. reconsider = _____________

9. keys = _____________ 10. incompletion = _____________

Exercise 2: For each word below, draw a word tree:

1. shipper 2. disobey
3. resettled 4. anticlimaxes
5. disengagement 6. simply
7. jumping 8. digitizes
9. activity 10. confrontational

Sample: counter
N N – noun
V – verb
V D Aff D – derivational
Aff - Affix
count er
Exercise 3: Word Origins

Look up the words listed below in a dictionary which gives word origins. Classify them as as
NATIVE, LATIN, GREEK or EXOTIC.

chaos chocolate complex deprecate gradient

hand hurricane husband mammoth renovate
robot telegraph tooth trauma tree

Exercise 4: Word Histories

Look up the following words in a dictionary which gives word origins. Trace the history of each
word as completely as possible.

Example: sherbet Turkish < Persian < Arabic ( < = 'from')

a. sugar d. hurricane
b. chocolate e. bizarre
c. robot f. horde

Exercise 5:

You are an anthropologist doing field research in the jungles of New Guinea. You have just
discovered an unknown anthropophagous tribe. The chief and his brother have come to your
camp to invite you to dinner. What is your safest response to the invitation?

a) inquire about the health of their wives, children, parents, and other relatives and then accept the
invitation;

b) accept the invitation and be grateful for the opportunity to observe native food preparation
techniques;

c) politely decline the invitation and reconsider your choice of profession.

Explanation:
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
 The Structure of English Language - Word Classes

We put words into categories or logical groups, according to how they work within phrases,
clauses or sentences. These categories, traditionally called parts of speech are now more usually known
as word classes. Parts of speech are labels for categories in which we usually place words. But in a given
sentence a word from one category may behave as if it were in another. A dictionary will only record
established or standard usage.

The traditional parts of speech were of eight kinds, excluding the two articles (a/an, the). These were

 nouns,
 pronouns,
 adjectives,
 verbs,
 prepositions,
 conjunctions,
 adverbs, and
 interjections.

Modern linguists prefer to list words in classes that are coherent - all the words in them should behave in
the same way. But if this principle were applied rigidly, we would have hundreds of classes, so we allow
irregularities!

Closed and Open Word Classes

Some classes of words are called closed because they contain a relatively small number of items to which
no new words can normally be added. These are the structural words, which include:

 words (prepositions and conjunctions) which make connections (connectives or connectors),

 pronouns and
 words (including articles) like the, some, each that co-occur with nouns - these are
called determiners.

Other classes of word are constantly being added to. Each contains a vast number of terms already. They
are open to new words being introduced. The open classes are

 nouns,
 verbs and
 the words which qualify them, adjectives and adverbs.

These form the bulk of a language's vocabulary or lexis (also lexicon, though this sometimes refers to a
published version). These classes may be called lexical whereas the closed-class words
are structural or functional. These tables illustrate the two kinds of word class.

Closed Word Classes

 Determiner Pronoun Preposition Conjunction
A, the, any, my, those, which She, them, who, that, himself In, across, at, by, near, within And, but, if, or, while, unless

Open Word Classes

Noun Verb Adjective Adverb
Abstract: fear, joy Transitive: bite, steal Descriptive: lazy, tall Manner: reluctantly, keenly,
easily, softly
Concrete: chair, mud Intransitive: live, cry Comparative: lazier
Time: soon, often
Common: boy, town Modal: can, will, may Superlative: tallest
Place: here, there
Proper: Fred, Hull Auxiliary: be, have, do

Problems of classification
Some words are difficult to classify. Not all grammatical descriptions will place them in the same word
class. This, these or those are sometimes classified as demonstrative (or distinctive) adjectives or
pronouns. Possessives, like my, his, their, are sometimes classified as pronouns (showing the word from
which they are formed), sometimes as adjectives, showing their grammatical function of qualifying nouns:
usually they are pronouns when alone (I like that) and adjectives when they precede a noun (I
like thiscupof tea). Traditional lists of adverbs contain words like very which qualify other adverbs or
adjectives. This word class is sometimes called a “dustbin class”, because any word for which there is no
obvious class will be put in it! Among words which have sometimes been classified as adverbs are the
following: however, just, no, not, quickly, tomorrow and when.

This incoherence has long been recognized by grammarians who subdivide adverbs into further
categories, such as adverbs of time, place or manner.

In trying to organize words into coherent classes, linguists will consider any or all of the following:

 what they mean (semantics),

 their form (morphology),
 provenance (historical origin or derivation) and
 function in a phrase, clause or sentence (syntax).

Some words, such as numbers, do not fit in any of the word classes given above. They can behave as
adjectives (one loaf or two?) or pronouns (I want one now!). And no one description of word classes is
regarded as finally authoritative. Some classes (such as verbs or conjunctions) are fairly coherent. You
should be able to discuss the problems of how or where to classify words which seem not to “fit”.

Also note that a dictionary does not (or should not) prescribe, but indicates the word class or part of speech
where a word is usually placed. But in a given sentence, if the speaker or writer has used it as if it were in
a different class, then this is where it should be placed.

For example, toilet is usually classified as a noun. But UK primary school teachers often speak
of toileting children (I had to toilet John twice today). In describing such a sentence, you should be guided
by the internal grammar of the sentence (syntax) rather than the dictionary. Here toilet is a transitive verb.
If this usage becomes standard, lexicographers will record it. This kind of word formation is
called conversion, a self-explanatory name.

Every statement is a combination of words, and every statement says something to communicate
information. The simplest possible kind of statement - for example, Dogs bark - has two kinds of words in
it. It has a what word, dogs, and a what happens word, bark. These kinds of words are the most basic
parts of any statement. If a person only says dog, no statement is made, and no information is conveyed.
A sound is made that calls to mind a common, four-footed animal, but nothing regarding it is learned.

The what words are called nouns. They tell what is being talked about. They are identifying words, or
names. Nouns identify persons, places, or things. They may be particular persons, places, or
things: Michael Jackson, Reykjavik, World Trade Center. Or they may be general nouns: singer, town,
building.Concrete nouns indicate things that can be seen such as car, teapot, and potato. Abstract
nouns denote concepts such as love, honesty,and beauty.

The what happens words are called verbs. They are the action words in a statement. Without them it is
impossible to put sentences together. It is the verb that says something about the noun: dogs bark, birds
fly, fish swim. Verbs are the important words that create information in statements. Although nouns alone
make no statement, verbs can occasionally do so. Help! gives the information that someone is in trouble,
and Go away! tells someone or something emphatically to leave.

Besides nouns and verbs there are other kinds of words that have different functions in statements. They
are pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, articles, prepositions, and a very few words that can be
called function words because they fit into none of the other categories. All of these kinds of words together
are called parts of speech. They can just as well be called parts of writing because they apply to written
as well as to spoken language.

Exercise: Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners (including articles &
numerals) & conjunctions are classes of word.
Can you identify the word classes in the following text. Determine what class in each word.
Caddis flies are rather nondescript, drab brown insects, which most of us fail to notice as they fly rather clums
ily over rivers. That is when they are adults. But before they emerge as adults they have a rather longer incarn
ation as larvae walking about the river bottom. And caddis larvae are anything but nondescript. They are amo
ng the most remarkable creatures on earth. Using cement of their own manufacture, they skilfully build tubula
r houses for themselves out of materials that they pick up from the bed of the stream. The house is a mobile h
ome, carried about as the caddis walks, like the shell of a snail or hermit crab except that the animal builds it i
nstead of growing it or finding it. Some species of caddis use sticks as building materials, others fragments of
dead leaves, others small snail shells. But perhaps the most impressive caddis houses are the ones built in loca
l stone. The caddis chooses its stones carefully, rejecting those that are too large or too small for the current g
ap in the wall, even rotating each stone until it achieves the snuggest fit.

1. Caddis –Noun
2. flies – Noun
3. are- Verb
4. (continue answering)
5.
6.
 The Structure of English Language — Nouns and Articles

Nouns can be particular or general: the house, a house. The words the and a are
articles, or, in more technical terms, determiners. A house can be any house,
but the house is a quite definite building. When a noun begins with a vowel (a, e, i, o,
u, and, occasionally, y) the indefinite article a becomes an for the sake of easier
pronunciation - an apple, an elephant, an orange. Sometimes an is used before
words that start with h, especially if the h is silent: an honorary degree. If the h is
sounded a is the standard form: an ’otel, a hat.

Nouns can be singular or plural in number: cat, cats. In some cases es is added to
make nouns plural: dress, dresses. Some nouns change their forms in the plural,
without adding an s: foot, feet; man, men; mouse, mice; goose, geese Some nouns
do not change at all in the plural: sheep, fowl.

There are also group nouns, called noun phrases. This means that two or more
nouns, or a noun and an adjective, are put together to form what amounts to, or works
like, one noun: football stadium, rock concert, orange tree. In each case certain nouns
- football, rock, orange - are attached to other nouns, and each modifies or describes
the second noun in some way to convey a different kind of object. A football and a
football stadium are two entirely different things, though they both have to do with the
same game.

Some nouns are one-of-a-kind names: Suez Canal, Elvis Presley, Empire State
Building. Also called proper nouns, they are capitalized to set them off from general
nouns. Sometimes adjectives (words that describe nouns) are also capitalized. This
normally happens when the adjective is made from a proper noun, especially a place
or person: American literature, English countryside, Elizabethan theatre.

Nouns are used in different ways: The dog barks. The man bit the dog. In the first
case, dog is the actor, or the one that initiates the action of the verb. In the second
case, dog is acted upon. In The dog barks, dog is the subject of the verb. In “The man
bit the dog”, dog is the object of the verb.

Sometimes a noun is the indirect object of a verb: He gave the dog a bone. Bone is
the direct object; it is what was given. Because it was given to the dog, dog is
considered the indirect object of the action.

Nouns can also be objects of prepositions - words like to, in, for, and by - so the
above sentence could read: He gave a bone to the dog. The words to the dog are
called a prepositional phrase.

Some verb forms take nouns as objects: Drinking milk is good for you. In this
sentence, milk is the object of the verbal form drinking. Such a combination of verb
and noun is called a verbal phrase.

Nouns can show possession: The dog's collar is on the table. The collar is possessed,
or owned, by the dog. All possession does not indicate ownership, however. In The
building's roof is black, the roof is on, but not owned by, the building. Adding an
apostrophe [ ' ] and an s to a noun shows possession: the cat's tongue, the woman's
purse. If the noun is plural (stands for more than one thing) or already has an s, then
often only an apostrophe need be added: the mothers' union (that is, a union of many
mothers). The word of may also be used to show possession: the top of the house,
the light of the candle, the Duke of Wellington.

Exercise 1:
Create an article about your profession. You can describe your work or describe your occupation.
Specify your job description.

1. Underline all the nouns and determine what type.

2. Encircle all the articles.
3. Box all the noun phrases

Exercise 2: Underline the correct choice for each. Make sure to observe the presence of the collective
noun.
1. A herd of cattle (stand, stands) near the gate.
2. The crew (is, are) at work on the bridge.
3. A school of fishes (was, were) beside the boat.
4. The team (was putting, were putting) on their shirts.
5. The crowd, angry with the umpire, (is, are) on their feet.
6. Katherine’s family (is, are) going away on Saturday.
7. The jury (was, were) in their place.
8. The new class (was, were) in its place.
9. The group of youngsters (shout, shouts) at each newcomer.
10. The company (is raising, are raising) its requirements for applicants.
11. A committee from the state department (was meeting, were meeting) with us.
12. Wait! The choir (is singing, are singing) the last hymn.
13. The audience (was enthusiastic, were enthusiastic) and responded warmly.
14. (Does, Do) your team of boys plan to participate in this race?
15. The flock (fly, flies) high over these marshes.
16. The band from Lee High School (is, are) one of the best.
17. The army no longer (march, marches) on its stomach.
18. The gang of bandits often (rush, rushes) down upon the settlers.
19. Over the city (roam, roams) the horde of wild men!
20. The swarm (settle, settles) on the limbs of nearby trees.
 The Structure of English Language — Pronouns

There are several words that are used to replace nouns. They are
called pronouns. Pro in Greek means "for" or "in place of". Some are called personal
pronouns because they take the place of specific names of persons, places, or thing,
as in: Has Fred arrived? Yes, he is here. Here he is the personal pronoun that
replaces Fred. As indicated in the table, there are both subject and object personal
pronouns as well as those that show possession. In His house is the white and green
one, his is a personal possessive pronoun.

Personal pronouns: subjects, objects and possessives

Singular Subject Object Possessive

First person I me my, mine

Second person you you your, yours

Third person he, she, it (one) him, her, it (one) his, her, hers, its
(one's)

Plural Subject Object Possessive

First person we us our, ours

Second person you you your, yours

Third person they them their, theirs*

*Some authorities give my, your, his, her, our,

your and their as possessive adjectives or pronominaladjectives, as they qualify
nouns.

Some personal pronouns are formed by the addition of -self or -selves as a

suffix: myself, ourselves, yourself, himself, herself, itself, and themselves.

Demonstrative pronouns - this, that, these, those - refer to particular people or

things. This is mine, and that is yours. The demonstrative words can also be used as
adjectives: this house, those cars.

Pronouns that refer to people or things in general are called indefinite pronouns. Like
the demonstrative pronouns, they can be used as adjectives: another day, both
animals, many weeks.

The words who, whose, whom, that, which, and what are called relative pronouns.
(The word that can be a demonstrative or a relative pronoun.) They create relative
clauses in a sentence: The committee, which met last night, discussed your
report. The words which met last night form a relative clause that describes the
subject of the main clause, the committee.

When a relative pronoun is used as the subject of a sentence such as Who ate the
pizza?, it is classed as an interrogative pronoun. Interrogate means “ask” (questions).

EXERCISE 1:
In the following sentences, supply the missing relative pronouns as shown in these examples:
Whoever turns in the best essay will receive the award.
The table that you refinished is standing in the study.
1. This essay, ___________ is the worst she has ever written, will surely be judge unworthy of publication.
2. The story _____________ I told you must not repeated.
3. Actresses _____________ are good enough for the Broadway stage must surely be good enough for regional
theaters.
4. The antiques of _________________ you boast may well turn out to be worthless.
5. Plays _____________plots are that obvious cannot hold the interest of any mature audience.
6. Of _____________ I have no opinion worth declaring.
7. People in ____________ you place great trust are surely special people.
8. The paragraphs to _______________ you allude have been lost in the computer printout.
9. The answer to ________________ is clearly beyond my limited knowledge.
10. ______________ finds the dog will demand a reward for its return.
11. Coats and hats _________________ are left in the cloakroom must be claim by their owners within the hour
after the performance.
12. ______________ you cite, be certain that your footnote fully credits the source.
13. Horses _____________ find their way a great distance from home cannot be thought of as dumb animals.
14. ___________________ of the two paintings you buy is certainly going to please her.
15. Blue flowers, for _____________ I have a special fondness, are not often found in a modern garden.
16. I decided to like ______________ she chooses to marry.
17. The house ___________ I live in is for sale at any reasonable price.
18. My house, ____________is for sale, sits on a cramp but attractive plot.
19. Houses _______________designs are unconventional may not be readily marketable.
20. Despite her protects, I proceeded to buy the chair ____________ she did not want.
21. The partners ______________ signed the agreement happily lived to regret doing so.
22. Young men ________________ you see in bars are spending their time unwisely.
23. _____________ agrees to undertake this project will find that he or she has contracted for a great deal of
work.
24. ______________ of these minor masterpieces do you prefer?
25. To _________________ shall I address the letter of application?

EXERCISE 2:
In the following sentence, identify pronouns and their antecedent as shown in these examples:
John gave the money to Jane. He gave o her.
Pronoun he; her
Antecedent John; Jane
Deirdre balanced her checkbook. She then deposited additional funds.
Pronoun her; she
 Antecedent Deirdre; Deirdre
1. Kate and Leonard saved regularly for the house they knew they would purchase one day.
Pronoun
Antecedent
2. The dog chased the mouse and finally killed it.
Pronoun
Antecedent
3. The painter prepared five brushes, and he finally got to use them.
Pronoun
Antecedent
4. Heinrich Boll was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature after he had achieved worldwide
recognition for his work.
Pronoun
Antecedent
5. Long after he had returned to civilian life, the war veteran found he was still anxious from time to
time.
Pronoun
Antecedent
6. John and Sally worked hard together. He did the physical labor, and she did the clerical work.
Pronoun
Antecedent
Pronoun
Antecedent
7. John and Sally worked hard together. They shared the worked fairly. She did the physical labor, and
he attended to the records.
Pronoun
Antecedent
Pronoun
Antecedent
Pronoun
Antecedent
8. The children found their game tiresome. It consisted of nothing more than repeating a few words
over and over until they were memorized.
Pronoun
Antecedent
Pronoun
Antecedent
9. Joan and Audrey found they were working more harmoniously than they had expected.
 Pronoun
Pronoun
Antecedent
10. Teachers and parents agreed that they have the same interest.
Pronoun
Antecedent
11. Extraction of a wisdom tooth can cause great pain if it is impacted.
Pronoun
Antecedent
12. The governor signed the proclamation even though she did not understand the reasons why it was
drafted.
Pronoun
Antecedent
Pronoun
Antecedent
13. Zebras are prized for the beauty they display.
Pronoun
Antecedent
14. Mr. Cunningham is known for music lessons of quality. They have a liveliness of their own that he
never fails to communicate.
Pronoun
Antecedent
Pronoun
Antecedent
15. Dan told his son that he would be given a watch that would help him get home on time.
Pronoun
Pronoun
Pronoun
Antecedent
16. Textbooks cost money, but they are worth it.
Pronoun
Antecedent
17. Mary left all the dishes in the sink, even though she knew she would have to them when she returned
from the movies.
Pronoun
Pronoun
 Pronoun
Pronoun
Antecedent
Pronoun
Antecedent
18. Marjorie’s mother gave her a bracelet to wear when she attended the party.
Pronoun
Pronoun
Antecedent
19. The doctor will test Jon again when he is five years old.
Pronoun
Antecedent
20. Ruth is bound to sell some antiques if she tries long enough.
Pronoun
Antecedent
21. San Francisco has its advantages, but they cost tourists dearly when they are not careful.
Pronoun
Antecedent
Pronoun
Antecedent
22. Two atomic bombs ended World War II, and they are still remembered today.
Pronoun
Antecedent
23. Vermont imposes heavy income taxes when it needs funds.
Pronoun
Antecedent
24. In a democracy, citizens have equal rights, but not all of them exercise their rights.
Pronoun
Pronoun
Antecedent
25. Chicago is a beautiful city, but it lacks proximity to New York.
Pronoun
Antecedent
 The Structure of English Language — Verbs

Verbs are the action words in a statement. They tell what is happening - what a noun
is doing or what is being done to it, or the state of being, becoming, thinking or feeling.
A verb with a subject, which will be in a particular tense is a finite verb. Without a
subject it will be the infinitive form (for example, to think, to dream) or a gerund (the
present participle, used as a noun: smoking is bad for you).

When a verb denotes what a noun is doing, the noun is said to be the subject of the
verb: The man speaks. (Here man is the subject of the verb.) When the verb denotes
what is being done to a noun, the noun is the object of the verb: The man eats
jelly. Here the noun jelly is the direct object of the verb. Verbs can also take indirect
objects: Parents give children toys. In this sentence, toys is the direct object, (what is
given) and children is the indirect object. The parents do not give children; they give
toys.

Verbs that take objects are called transitive verbs, and those that normally do not take
an object are intransitive verbs (but note that an intransitive verb may be used
transitively in non-standard speech or writing). Some common transitive verbs are:
tell, give, show, eat, buy, take, and see. Some verbs can be both transitive and
intransitive: Tell a story (transitive), and Time will tell (intransitive). Verbs like sleep,
walk, rest, come, and go are nearly always intransitive. The most common verb of
all, to be, is intransitive in all of its forms: am, are, is, was, were, and been.

Tenses (time signals): Verb tenses tell the time when an action takes place. Any
action or condition may be in the past, present, or future: he was, he is, he will
be. Most common verbs simply add an -ed to show the past time, or form the past
tense, as it is normally called. Thus walk becomes walked. Other verbs, sometimes
called irregular (or strong) verbs, do not add -ed. Instead they undergo an internal
change: sing, sang, sung; fly, flew, flown; go, went, gone.

Auxiliary verbs: In the sentence She will sing even though he cannot stay, the
verbs will and cannot are called auxiliary, or helper, verbs. Other auxiliary verbs are
the incomplete or modal verbs: can, could, may, might, shall, should, and would.

The various forms of the verb to be can also be used as auxiliaries: I am going.
He was singing. They have been shopping. The verb have - and its other
forms has and had - are also common auxiliaries to indicate past action.

Participles: The verb form used with auxiliaries is the participle. There is a present
participle, talking, and a past participle, talked. Thus, a person can say either I
talk (present tense) or I am talking (present continuous) to show present action and I
talked (imperfect), I have talked (perfect), or I had talked(pluperfect) to show past
action. When a present participle is used with an auxiliary verb, the purpose is to show
continuing or ongoing action. She is doing the laundry. He was speaking when
someone interrupted him. Note that this uses a present participle with a past tense
auxiliary verb (was) to indicate continuous past action.

Verb flexibility: Verbs and verb forms can be used in a number of ways in sentences.
A verb can be the subject of a statement (To walk is good exercise) or its object (I
like to walk). In each case, the infinitive form to walk is used as a noun. Participles
can be used in the same way: He likes swimming. Flying is great sport. In the first
sentence, swimming is the object of the verb, and in the second, flying is the subject.

Verb forms can also be used as adjectives, or words that describe nouns.
In a wrecked car, the word wrecked is a past participle used as an adjective.

Occasionally a verb form or verb phrase can be used as an adverb: He was pleased
to meet her. The phrase to meet her modifies the adjective pleased.

EXERCISE 1:
In the following sentences, underline the verbs and identify them as transitive or intransitive as shown in these
examples:
Stray dogs often menace young city children. Transitive
Television and radio have helped him through lonely hours. Transitive
He sat alone all afternoon. Intransitive

1. Cigarette smoke inevitably blanked his lungs. ________

2. The automobile struck the wall head-on and burned. ________
3. She smiled weakly at last.________
4. Divorce hurts entire families.________
5. The crowd indicated its approval. ________
6. The outgoing governor gave a memorable speech. ________
7. The stream ran through the valley.________
8. Wars go on and on all over the world.________
9. Their obstinacy incensed me.________
10. The churches of Rome always attract many visitors.________

EXERCISE 2:
In the following sentences, underline the correct form of the verb as shown in these examples:

I wish that he (was, were) not her.

I demand that she (leave, leaves).
If I (was, were) King, I would be the happiest man on earth.

1. Heaven (forbid, forbids) that she should marry a clone of her first husband.
2. I request that the Board of Elections (pay, pays) particular attention to votes cast in the Twelfth District,
where all the town cemeteries are located.
3. I wish she (was, were) going to medical school in place.
4. If she (insist, insists) on paying the bill, it will be all right with me.
5. If the theater (was, were) nearer my house, I would be able to walk there.
6. The judge ordered that widows or orphans (are, be) protected.
7. (Come, Comes) what may, I shall forever believe I mistreated him.
8. A member of the opposition moved that the meeting (be, is) adjourned.
9. We request that they (are, be) barred from the meeting.
10. I would make the situation clear to him if he (was, were) there.
11. I think James (was, were) sound asleep on the beach when the poor boy died.
12. I ask only that the bill (was, were) treated with respect.
13. We believe that the bill (was, were) counterfeit.
14. If he (was, were) here, how would make everything clear.
15. I recommend that he (apologize, apologizes) at once.
EXERCISE 3:
In the following sentences, supply the correct form of the verb as shown in these examples:

I (be) complete agreement with everything you say. am

Today we (be) completely opposed to all your ideas. are

1. Cats (have) an extraordinary ability to get their own way. ________

2. A cat (have) complete freedom to roam in our neighborhood. ________
3. England (be) no longer a world power in the minds of many. _______
4. The countries of Europe finally (achieve) economic unity in the coming years.________
5. Economic strength and political vitality (go) hand in hand. _______
6. Snow and ice (collect) in our driveway every winter. _________
7. Unpaid parking tickets (be) my greatest problem right now. _______
8. Ian (have)always been a good lawyer, the judge said. _______
9. Mark Twain still (find) a large readership among Russians._______
10. Many countries of Africa (be) beginning to exploit valuable natural resources._______

EXERCISE 4:
In the following sentences, supply the correct form of the verb as shown in these examples:

At the time of her death, Rose’s principal hobby (was,were) all types of stitchery. was
On most subjects, Jane and John now (is,are) in agreement. are
He found that there (was,were) little use in continuing work on his novels and plays. was
The aggression he observed is apes, large cats, and other mammals (was,were) also reported by other
investigators. was

1. The first violinist, unlike other members of the string section, (is,are) not ready to play when the
conductor raised his baton. _______
2. The first violinist and the entire string section (is,are) unwilling to rehearse, because the conductor is so
difficult to work with. _______
3. Beyond the knoll (lie,lies) deposits of rock of the right type for the beautiful house he wants to build.
______
4. The necessity of assuring adequate stores of food and drink (is,are) not recognized by many of the
inexperienced hikers who undertook the climb.________
5. Of primary importance (is,are) a supply of clear drinking water, if one is selecting a home site. _______
6. After the dinner, there (is,are) going to be two long speeches by the candidates._______
7. Once the sap begins to flow next spring, there (is,was) going to be work for all of us._______
8. After the principal address was given, there (is,are) few of us still awake in the room._______
9. People are our main concern, even though there (is.are) many other problems facing us.______
10. Inflation and recession no longer (has,have) the most serious public concern in our country.______
 The Structure of English Language — Adjectives and
Adverbs

Adjectives and adverbs are descriptive words, sometimes called modifiers because
they restrict meaning. They add detail to statements. The difference between the two
is that

 adjectives modify only nouns, pronouns, and verb forms used as nouns;
 adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

Adjective function: An adjective may be a single word: blue, tall, funny, warm. As a
single word, it may come before the noun - the blue sky - or after the verb - the sky
is blue. Adjectives may be positive (tall), comparative (taller) or superlative
(tallest). Adjective phrases usually follow the noun they describe: the girl with blond
hair. The phrase with blond hair describes girl. Adjective clauses also usually follow
the noun: The child who finds the most Easter eggs wins. The clause who finds the
most Easter eggsmodifies child.

Adverb function: The most common use of an adverb, of course, is to describe

verbs: He ran quickly. Actually, however, adverbs can modify anything but nouns (or
verb forms used as nouns). Typically adverbs express:

 time (now, then)

 manner (happily, easily)
 degree (less, more, very)
 direction and place (there, up, down)
 affirmation or negation (certainly, not)
 cause and result (thus, consequently), and
 qualification or doubt (however, probably).

Although many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to adjectives (quick, quickly; happy,
happily), adverbs have no characteristic form. They must be identified by the function
they perform in a sentence. In the sentence That is a fast car, fast is an adjective. But
in He ran fast, it is an adverb.

Certain adverbs (how, when, where, why, whenever, and wherever) are
called relative adverbs because they introduce relative clauses in a sentence: The
keys are upstairs where you left them. The clause where you left them modifies the
adverb upstairs.

Other adverbs are called conjunctive adverbs because they join one clause with
another. Some of these adverbs are: therefore, accordingly, besides, furthermore,
instead, meanwhile, and nevertheless. In the sentence He was tired; therefore he
stayed home, the word therefore modifies the clause of which it is a part and connects
that clause to the previous part of the sentence. Note that therefore is not to be used
as a conjunction, hence the semi-colon.

EXERCISE 1:
Convert the following words into adjectives.
 1. beauty - ________________
2. prevention - _____________
3. continuation - ____________
4. belief - ______________
5. necessity - ______________
6. benevolence - ____________
7. confidence - _____________
8. idolatry - _____________
9. disgusted - ____________
10.definition - ___________
11.respect - ____________
12.believe - ___________
13.competition - _____________
14.stunned - ______________
15.curiousity - _____________
16.irritates - ______________
17.selection - ______________
18.harm - _______________
19.approach - ______________
20.anticipation - ____________

EXERCISE 2:
Below is a box with jumbled letters. Encircle all the adjectives in the puzzle.
R E M R O F W E N A S N I B G
Z C U R I O U S Z U I Q F R U
T A N X I O U S J V Q A E A C
A X P M N O I S Y Q S E Z V L
F E W G X O L M E T N Z K E B
D J G H R Z R A A T T I J D X
E L F G C E G M H N S O C Y L
N Q O U T E E J A Z Y E R E A
I Z X O R S X D O L J G N W E
U D I R T Y A X Y T N D J O R
N E K C I U Q D Q A M U C H H
E S C I E N T I F I C Z Y Q N
G N I T A T I C A P A C N I Q
S L A T E J D L A V E I D E M
R E D E T A C I D E D A X M W

Clues:
1. Sad 6. Brave
2. Curious 7. Scientific
3. Dirty 8. Anxious
4. Bad 9. Mad
5. Much 10. Genius

EXERCISE 3.
In the following sentences, identify the italicized limiting adjectives as demonstrative, indefinite, interrogative,
numerical, possessive, or relative as shown in these examples:
Which side are you on?
interrogative
My first bad mistake was followed by many others.
first, numerical; many, indefinite
1. His ignorance was matched by his stupidity.

2. Eleven players are needed if we are to have a good game.

3. She asked advice of her mother before cooking breakfast for her sisters.
 4. That shirt goes well with both my suits.

5. What nonsense are you telling me?

6. Police officers whose only duties are clerical receive the same pay that all patrol officers receive.

7. Each sentence he spoke revealed his disappointment.

8. No decent person would ever hold such opinions.

9. Parents whose children play baseball have been known to carry on like maniacs.

10. Their turn is next in the examining room.

11. His shoelaces were untied once again.

12. Which channel did she waste her time on last night?

13. The first point to remember is that her role is worthy of recognition.

14. That boy will be the only one in your class.

15. Any student who uses material without proper attribution is guilty of plagiarism.

EXERCISE 4:

Rewrite the sentences, putting the adjectives that are in parentheses in the correct order to modify the noun that is
shown in following sentences.

1. James just bought a (red /racing / bright /French) bike.

__________________________________________________________________
2. King Kong climbed the building holding a (slender/young /beautiful) girl in his hand.
__________________________________________________________________
3. The king graciously allowed Sir Reginald to keep the (gold / valuable /carved) chest as his reward.
__________________________________________________________________
4. Harvey had a (game /mounted /stuffed) fish hanging on the wall of his office.
__________________________________________________________________
5. A cuddle was a (huge /snarling /mean) dog.
__________________________________________________________________
6. The smell of a (beef /spicy /hot ) burrito makes Sally hungry.
__________________________________________________________________
7. Some people like a (cold /tart /tall ) glass of lemonade when they are hot.
__________________________________________________________________
8. Too many poor people are forced to live in (rat-infested /sub-standard) housing.
__________________________________________________________________
9. The (snow-covered /mountain /high) peaks glistened in the morning sun.
___________________________________________________________________
10. Gertrude collects (dollhouse /authentic /Victorian) furniture.
__________________________________________________________________
EXERCISE 5.
In the following sentences, underline all adverbs and identify their functions – manner,
degree, time, place, cause or purpose, assertion- as shown in these examples:
I cannot forgive you completely. degree
Lately I have had many colds. time
She certainly is our best speaker. assertion

1. Teachers sometimes make mistakes in scoring quizzes. ____________

2. I may possibly join the two of you. ____________
3. He almost lost his temper. ____________
4. He fell awkwardly to the kitchen floor and fainted. ___________
5. Men never make passes at girls who wear glasses. ___________
6. He lived frugally during bad times. ___________
7. Finally our train arrived, two hours behind schedule. ____________
8. Have you ever gone there? ____________
9. He has been paid less than I from his first day on the job. ____________
10. The bus you must take leaves soon. ___________
11. Yes, I will go to sleep. ____________
12. You will undoubtedly be reprimanded. ____________
13. I am guardedly optimistic. ____________
14. You must move quickly if you are to succeed. _____________
15. Go west, young man. ____________
 The Structure of English Language - Conjunctions

Conjunctions are joining words: they connect words, phrases, or entire clauses. There
are two general kinds of conjunctive words: coordinate and subordinate.

Coordinate conjunctions join elements that are grammatically the same: two or more
words, two equivalent phrases, or two equivalent clauses. The most common
coordinate conjunctions are: and, but, or, for, nor, so, yet.

 Red and white (two equal words joined in a phrase).

 Taking walks and looking at nature (two equal phrases in a relative clause).
 She ran to the corner, but she missed the bus (two equal clauses in a
complete sentence).

A correlative conjunction is a special kind of coordinate conjunction. It connects

equivalent elements, but it works in pairs of words: both, and; either, or; neither,
nor; whether, or; not only, but also.

 He wants both money and power.

 Neither money nor power matters.
 Either she will go, or she will stay.

Subordinate conjunctions. While coordinate conjunctions connect equal grammatical

elements, subordinate conjunctions introduce dependent or conditional clauses.

 Although she has money, she buys few luxuries.

 Because he was late, he missed the train.
 After the movie is over, we shall have dinner.

Other word uses. Words that normally operate as conjunctions can often be used in
other ways: as adverbs, prepositions, adjectives, or even pronouns.

 We have met before. (Here before is an adverb).

 Before they leave, let us have dinner. (Here before is a conjunction).

There are other words besides conjunctions that serve as connectors (or connectives)
in sentences. The relative pronouns who and which are often so used.

 That is the man who was speaking to her.

 The dessert is strawberries, which give him a rash.

Some of the conjunctions work both as adverbs and conjunctions in the same
sentence. This is often true of consequently, however, therefore, and nevertheless.

 He was ill; nevertheless he went to work.

 She disliked work; consequently she lost her job.
Note the semi-colon [ ; ]. This is standard here but is non-standard before but or and.
(This appears to be changing, as speakers and writers treat words
like nevertheless as conjunctions.)

It is possible to make clauses with conjunctions into separate sentences, especially

when writing for literary effect.

 He did it. And he was glad.

 Stay away from here. Unless you want trouble.

In the second case the clause is so obviously dependent that it would not stand alone
as a sentence and make sense. It can only be written that way for emphasis or some
other effect.

EXERCISE 1:

Paying attention to the expressions used in the following sentences, fill in the blanks with the words and, but
also, nor, or, than, then and when, as appropriate. For example:
We should either walk quickly __ take the bus.
We should either walk quickly or take the bus.

I had scarcely sat down ____ the telephone rang.

I had scarcely sat down when the telephone rang.

1. I have both respect _________ admiration for them.

2. Hardly had I finished reading over the problem, _________ the answer leapt to my mind.
3. It will rain either today _________ tomorrow.
4. He could not decide whether to tell the truth _________ keep silent.
5. It was not only a beautiful day, ___________ the first day of Spring.
6. If you follow the instructions, __________ you should have no difficulty.
7. He is neither proud _________ condescending.
8. What with one thing _________ another, it was very late by the time we left the house.
9. No sooner had I opened my eyes, _________ I remembered where I was.
10. Scarcely had I heard the news, _________ my friend arrived.
11. I do not know whether he has seen the movie before ________ not.
12. I would rather wait here _________ risk missing the bus.
13. She could find the book neither at the Library, _________ at the bookstore.
14. No sooner had I opened the window, _________ a butterfly flew into the room.
15. The crowd was both large _________ enthusiastic.

EXERCISE 2:
Paying attention to the meanings of the sentences, fill in the blanks with the correct subordinate conjunctions or
similar expressions chosen from the pairs given in brackets. For example:
I went for a walk _______ the sun was shining. (because, otherwise)
I went for a walk because the sun was shining.

Do you know _______ the stores are open today? (as if, whether)
Do you know whether the stores are open today?

1. We recognized her at once, ____________ we had not seen her for years. (although, in case)
2. He kept reading ___________ he fell asleep. (for, until)
3. The moon will rise ____________ the sun sets. (as soon as, than)
4. It looks ____________ the train will be late. (while, as though)
5. ____________ she got her degree, she became a teacher. (After, Than)
6. We will not go skiing ____________ the weather is good. (as if, unless)
7. ____________ he left, he made sure he had his keys with him. (Before, For)
8. ____________ I told the truth, you would not believe me. (Even if, So that)
9. They have known her ___________ she was a child. (until, since)
10. I must leave now, ____________ I have a great deal of work to do. (as, than)
11. What shall we do ____________ it rains? (or else, supposing)
12. ____________ you read this book, you would be sure to enjoy it. (If, Until)
13. The door was open, ____________ we could hear everything. (in case, so)
14. I studied more ____________ he did. (than, whereas)
15. We packed a lunch, ____________ we knew we would soon be hungry. (lest, for)
16. I will join you, ____________ the weather is fine. (providing, than)
17. ____________ he is very busy, he is seldom at home. (Or else, Because)
18. We must hurry, ___________ we will be late. (so that, or else)

EXERCISE 3:

For each of the following sentences, paying attention to the structure of the sentence, fill in the blank with either the
conjunction or the preposition given in brackets. For example:
_______ my warning, they went ahead with their plan. (Although, Despite)
Despite my warning, they went ahead with their plan.

________ the sun was shining, the water was cold. (Although, Despite)
Although the sun was shining, the water was cold.

The price of oranges is high, __________ frost damage. (because, because of)
The price of oranges is high, because of frost damage. (because, because of)

1. We stayed up late, ____________ we were tired. (although, despite)

2. They went swimming, ____________ the coldness of the water. (although, despite)
3. I enjoy the course, ____________ the professor is a good teacher. (because, because of)
4. She looks ___________ your sister. (as if, like)
5. Please wait ___________ I make a phone call. (during, while)
6. Did you hear any noises ____________ the night? (during, while)
7. It looked ____________ we would not be able to leave until the next day. (as if, like)
8. We all felt tired ____________ the hot weather. (because, because of)
9. I read a book ___________ I was waiting. (during, while)
10. Her eyes shone _____________ stars. (as if, like)
11. They managed to work together, ___________ their differences of opinion. (although, despite)
12. I left home early, ____________ I had to do several errands. (because, because of)
13. He speaks about the subject ____________ he were an expert. (as if, like)
14. We rested ____________ the hottest part of the day. (during, while)
15. ____________ she lost her way twice, she arrived safely. (Although, Despite)
16. ____________ their interest in comets, they decided to study astronomy. (Because, Because of)
 The Structure of English Language — Prepositions

Prepositions are words or groups of words, that introduce phrases; and these phrases
modify some element in a sentence. What follows a preposition is normally a noun,
pronoun, or noun clause. A word that follows a preposition is its object, and, in the
case of pronouns especially, this affects the form of the word.

 He walked near her (never He walked near she).

 He gave them to her and me (never He gave them to she and I or He gave
them to her and I).

One of the problems in spotting prepositions in a sentence is that many of the words
that are usually prepositions can also be used as adverbs.

 He never saw them before. (Here before is an adverb).

 They sat before the counter. (Here before is a preposition,and the whole
prepositional phrase serves as an adverb, modifying sat).

EXERCISE 1:
In the following sentences, underscore the prepositional phrases and identify the verbs, nouns, pronouns, or adjectives
modified, as shown in these examples:

His respect for his elders was apparent. respect (noun)

Few of the later poems show any special qualities. Few (pronoun)

1. During the raid three guards were wounded. _______________

2. They lost their purses in the bus station. _______________
3. I removed my hat as the flag passed by the reviewing stand. ________________
4. By the end of the performance, no one was left in the audience. ____________________
5. Close to our school is a new public housing development. ________________
6. He was rewarded for his courtesy by the old woman. ________________
7. He took great delight in his coin collection. ________________
8. Is this the most direct way to the hospital? ________________
9. Elementary decency is never recognized by some people. ______________
10. She selected her European itinerary with great care. ________________
EXERCISE 2:
In the following sentences, underscore all prepositional phrases, if any, as shown in these examples:
When my clothes need laundering, I take them to the automatic laundry for quick and in expensive
washing. But I usually cannot afford to use the dryers, so I put my washed clothes on a line.
Besides hoping, there was little I could do, since nothing was left of the money.

1. Of all the members, she is the first I would accuse of doing such mischief.
2. The cottage stood on a little hill behind the wall, waiting for someone to come along and
buy it.
3. Paper is wasted in offices that are equipped with copying machines.
 4. A pipe filled with good tobacco can help a lonely man.
5. Near the farm stood three unused kilns once devoted to the making of lime.
6. A maple tree will give sweet sap if the nights are cold and the days are warm.
7. She stood by the firehouse, wondering whether the alarm would ring during her lunch hour so she could
see how quickly the handsome firemen would respond.
8. In the afternoons, he would walk about the city, looking for some diversion that would cheer him in his
misery.
9. The apartment was filled with smoke after the firemen stopped spraying their water on the upper floors.
10. Once he had completed his essay, he left the library and walked home.

EXERCISE 3.
Write at least three situations that you could share in attaining your goals in life.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
 The Structure of English Language — Syntax

Parts of speech, or word categories, indicate what words usually do, or may be
expected to do. Some of these categories - such as nouns and pronouns - make
sense when we consider words in isolation. Others - such as conjunctions or
prepositions - only make sense within a longer structure, a phrase,
clause or sentence.

Note that these three terms are traditional, and do not easily describe how strings of
language work. All are broad categories. The sentence, especially, is much more
characteristic of written than of spoken English, and of formal rather than informal
usage. Alternatively, we may say that spoken English contains sentence types not
usually found in writing.

The internal grammar of phrases, clauses and sentences refers to the principles
(sometimes mistakenly called “rules”) of structure and organization. Be aware of the
tension between model structures devised for textbooks and guides for learners of
the language, and the syntax of real sentences (those you have found in speech or
writing), which you are subjecting to analysis.

A phrase is a useful all-purpose name for any short sequence of words (or even a
single word, considered as an element in the structure of a clause or sentence),
especially a grouping which could be replaced by a single word. A phrase which works
like, or equates to, a noun is a noun phrase, one which qualifies a verb is an adverb
phrase and so on.

A clause may be short or long, but must contain at least one main, finite verb. A short
clause may in fact be identical with a verb phrase: the two terms reflect differences of
emphasis or analysis in regard to the language string in question.

 If you are analysing a sentence, you will look first for clauses;
 if you wish to see how words have been combined in simple sequences, you
will look for phrases.

Phrases are especially important for analysing spoken data, and some kinds of written
text (such as advertisements or information leaflets) where (written) sentence forms
are not considered essential.