Applying the proper logarithmic relationship results in

Gv _ 20 log10 _AvT_ _ 20 log10 _Av1_ _ 20 log10 _Av2_

_ 20 log10 _Av3_ _ _ 20 log10 _Avn_ (dB) (11.14)
In words, the equation states that the decibel gain of a cascaded system is simply the
sum of the decibel gains of each stage, that is,
Gv _ Gv1 _ Gv2 _ Gv3 _ _ Gvn dB (11.15)
In an effort to develop some association between dB levels and voltage gains,
Table 11.2 was developed. First note that a gain of 2 results in a dB level of _6 dB
while a drop to _12
_ results in a _6-dB level. A change in Vo/Vi from 1 to 10, 10 to 100,
or 100 to 1000 results in the same 20-dB change in level. When Vo _ Vi, Vo/Vi _ 1
and the dB level is 0. At a very high gain of 1000, the dB level is 60, while at the
much higher gain of 10,000, the dB level is 80 dB, an increase of only 20 dB—a result
of the logarithmic relationship. Table 11.2 clearly reveals that voltage gains of
50 dB or higher should immediately be recognized as being quite high.
Find the magnitude gain corresponding to a decibel gain of 100.
Solution
By Eq. (11.10),
GdB _ 10 log10 _
P
P
2
1_
_ 100 dB log10 _
P
P
2
1_
_ 10
so that
_
P
P
2
1_
_ 1010 _ 10,000,000,000
This example clearly demonstrates the range of decibel values to be expected from
practical devices. Certainly, a future calculation giving a decibel result in the neighborhood
of 100 should be questioned immediately.
The input power to a device is 10,000 W at a voltage of 1000 V. The output power
is 500 W, while the output impedance is 20 _.
(a) Find the power gain in decibels.
(b) Find the voltage gain in decibels.
(c) Explain why parts (a) and (b) agree or disagree.
Solution
(a) GdB _ 10 log10 _
P
P
o
i_
_ 10 log10 _
5
1
0
0
0
k
W
W_
_ 10 log10 _2
1
0___10 log10 20
__10(1.301)__13.01 dB
(b) Gv _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
_ 20 log10 _
_
10
P_
0
R_
0_
_ 20 log10 _
_(_5_0
1
0_
00
W_
0
)
V
( _2_0_ _ _)_
_
_ 20 log10 _1
1
0
0
0
0
0_
_ 20 log10 _1
1
0___20 log10 10__20 dB
(c) Ri _ _
V
P
i
i
2
___
(
1
1
0
k
k
V
W
)2
__ _
1
1
0
0
6
4_
_ 100 _ _ Ro _ 20 _
11.3 Decibels 499

f
EXAMPLE 11.5
EXAMPLE 11.6
TABLE 11.2
Voltage Gain,
Vo/Vi dB Level
0.5 _6
0.707 _3
10
26
10 20
40 32
100 40
1000 60
10,000 80
etc.
An amplifier rated at 40-W output is connected to a 10-_ speaker.
(a) Calculate the input power required for full power output if the power gain is
25 dB.
(b) Calculate the input voltage for rated output if the amplifier voltage gain is 40 dB.
Solution
(a) Eq. (11.10): 25 _ 10 log10_
40
P
W
i_
Pi __anti
4
lo
0
g
W
(2.5) ___
3.1
4
6
0
_
W
102 _
__
4
3
0
1
W
6_
_ 126.5 mW
(b) Gv _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
40 _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
_
V
V
o
i_
_ antilog 2 _ 100
Vo ___P_R ___(4_0_W)_(_1_0_V_) _ 20 V
Vi _ _1
V
0
o
0_
__
2
1
0
00
V_
_ 0.2 V _ 200 mV
11.4 GENERAL FREQUENCY
CONSIDERATIONS
The frequency of the applied signal can have a pronounced effect on the response of
a single-stage or multistage network. The analysis thus far has been for the midfrequency
spectrum. At low frequencies, we shall find that the coupling and bypass capacitors
can no longer be replaced by the short-circuit approximation because of the
increase in reactance of these elements. The frequency-dependent parameters of the
small-signal equivalent circuits and the stray capacitive elements associated with the
active device and the network will limit the high-frequency response of the system.
An increase in the number of stages of a cascaded system will also limit both the
high- and low-frequency responses.
The magnitudes of the gain response curves of an RC-coupled, direct-coupled,
and transformer-coupled amplifier system are provided in Fig. 11.4. Note that the horizontal
scale is a logarithmic scale to permit a plot extending from the low- to the
high-frequency regions. For each plot, a low-, high-, and mid-frequency region has
been defined. In addition, the primary reasons for the drop in gain at low and high
frequencies have also been indicated within the parentheses. For the RC-coupled amplifier,
the drop at low frequencies is due to the increasing reactance of CC, Cs, or CE,
while its upper frequency limit is determined by either the parasitic capacitive elements
of the network and frequency dependence of the gain of the active device. An
explanation of the drop in gain for the transformer-coupled system requires a basic
understanding of “transformer action” and the transformer equivalent circuit. For the
moment, let us say that it is simply due to the “shorting effect” (across the input terminals
of the transformer) of the magnetizing inductive reactance at low frequencies
(XL _ 2fL). The gain must obviously be zero at f _ 0 since at this point there is no
longer a changing flux established through the core to induce a secondary or output
voltage. As indicated in Fig. 11.4, the high-frequency response is controlled primarily
by the stray capacitance between the turns of the primary and secondary wind-
500 Chapter 11 BJT and JFET Frequency Response
f
EXAMPLE 11.7
ings. For the direct-coupled amplifier, there are no coupling or bypass capacitors to
cause a drop in gain at low frequencies. As the figure indicates, it is a flat response
to the upper cutoff frequency, which is determined by either the parasitic capacitances
of the circuit or the frequency dependence of the gain of the active device.
For each system of Fig. 11.4, there is a band of frequencies in which the magnitude
of the gain is either equal or relatively close to the midband value. To fix the
frequency boundaries of relatively high gain, 0.707Avmid was chosen to be the gain at
the cutoff levels. The corresponding frequencies f1 and f2 are generally called the corner,
cutoff, band, break, or half-power frequencies. The multiplier 0.707 was chosen
because at this level the output power is half the midband power output, that is, at
midfrequencies,
Pomid _ _
_V
R
2
o
o_
___
_Avm
R
id
o
Vi_2
_
and at the half-power frequencies,
PoHPF _ _
_0.707
R
A
o
vmid
Vi_2
__ 0.5 _
_Avm
R
id
o
Vi_2
_
11.4 General Frequency Considerations 501

f
Figure 11.4 Gain versus frequency: (a) RC-coupled amplifiers; (b) transformercoupled
amplifiers; (c) direct-coupled amplifiers.
10 f1 100 10,000 100,000 f2 1 MHz 10 MHz f (log scale)
A
mid
A
0.707
1
1000
and PoHPF _ 0.5Pomid (11.16)
The bandwidth (or passband) of each system is determined by f1 and f2, that is,
bandwidth (BW) _ f2 _ f1 (11.17)
For applications of a communications nature (audio, video), a decibel plot of the
voltage gain versus frequency is more useful than that appearing in Fig. 11.4. Before
obtaining the logarithmic plot, however, the curve is generally normalized as shown
in Fig. 11.5. In this figure, the gain at each frequency is divided by the midband value.
Obviously, the midband value is then 1 as indicated. At the half-power frequencies,
the resulting level is 0.707 _ 1/_2_. A decibel plot can now be obtained by applying
Eq. (11.12) in the following manner:
_A
A
vm
v
id

__dB _ 20 log10 _A
A
vm
v
id

_ (11.18)
502 Chapter 11 BJT and JFET Frequency Response
f
At midband frequencies, 20 log10 1 _ 0, and at the cutoff frequencies, 20 log10
1/_2___3 dB. Both values are clearly indicated in the resulting decibel plot of Fig.
11.6. The smaller the fraction ratio, the more negative the decibel level.
For the greater part of the discussion to follow, a decibel plot will be made only
for the low- and high-frequency regions. Keep Fig. 11.6 in mind, therefore, to permit
a visualization of the broad system response.
It should be understood that most amplifiers introduce a 180° phase shift between
input and output signals. This fact must now be expanded to indicate that this is the
case only in the midband region. At low frequencies, there is a phase shift such that
Vo lags Vi by an increased angle. At high frequencies, the phase shift will drop below
180°. Figure 11.7 is a standard phase plot for an RC-coupled amplifier.
Figure 11.5 Normalized gain versus frequency plot.
10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1 MHz 10 MHz
f1 f2 f (log scale)
A
mid
A
(dB)
0 dB
3 dB
6 dB
9 dB
12 dB
Figure 11.6 Decibel plot of the normalized gain versus frequency plot of Fig. 11.5.
f1 f
1
AVo/Vi
0.707
0Applying the proper logarithmic relationship results in
Gv _ 20 log10 _AvT_ _ 20 log10 _Av1_ _ 20 log10 _Av2_
_ 20 log10 _Av3_ _ _ 20 log10 _Avn_ (dB) (11.14)
In words, the equation states that the decibel gain of a cascaded system is simply the
sum of the decibel gains of each stage, that is,
Gv _ Gv1 _ Gv2 _ Gv3 _ _ Gvn dB (11.15)
In an effort to develop some association between dB levels and voltage gains,
Table 11.2 was developed. First note that a gain of 2 results in a dB level of _6 dB
while a drop to _12
_ results in a _6-dB level. A change in Vo/Vi from 1 to 10, 10 to 100,
or 100 to 1000 results in the same 20-dB change in level. When Vo _ Vi, Vo/Vi _ 1
and the dB level is 0. At a very high gain of 1000, the dB level is 60, while at the
much higher gain of 10,000, the dB level is 80 dB, an increase of only 20 dB—a result
of the logarithmic relationship. Table 11.2 clearly reveals that voltage gains of
50 dB or higher should immediately be recognized as being quite high.
Find the magnitude gain corresponding to a decibel gain of 100.
Solution
By Eq. (11.10),
GdB _ 10 log10 _
P
P
2
1_
_ 100 dB log10 _
P
P
2
1_
_ 10
so that
_
P
P
2
1_
_ 1010 _ 10,000,000,000
This example clearly demonstrates the range of decibel values to be expected from
practical devices. Certainly, a future calculation giving a decibel result in the neighborhood
of 100 should be questioned immediately.
The input power to a device is 10,000 W at a voltage of 1000 V. The output power
is 500 W, while the output impedance is 20 _.
(a) Find the power gain in decibels.
(b) Find the voltage gain in decibels.
(c) Explain why parts (a) and (b) agree or disagree.
Solution
(a) GdB _ 10 log10 _
P
P
o
i_
_ 10 log10 _
5
1
0
0
0
k
W
W_
_ 10 log10 _2
1
0___10 log10 20
__10(1.301)__13.01 dB
(b) Gv _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
_ 20 log10 _
_
10
P_
0
R_
0_
_ 20 log10 _
_(_5_0
1
0_
00
W_
0
)
V
( _2_0_ _ _)_
_
_ 20 log10 _1
1
0
0
0
0
0_
_ 20 log10 _1
1
0___20 log10 10__20 dB
(c) Ri _ _
V
P
i
i
2
___
(
1
1
0
k
k
V
W
)2
__ _
1
1
0
0
6
4_
_ 100 _ _ Ro _ 20 _
11.3 Decibels 499

f
EXAMPLE 11.5
EXAMPLE 11.6
TABLE 11.2
Voltage Gain,
Vo/Vi dB Level
0.5 _6
0.707 _3
10
26
10 20
40 32
100 40
1000 60
10,000 80
etc.
An amplifier rated at 40-W output is connected to a 10-_ speaker.
(a) Calculate the input power required for full power output if the power gain is
25 dB.
(b) Calculate the input voltage for rated output if the amplifier voltage gain is 40 dB.
Solution
(a) Eq. (11.10): 25 _ 10 log10_
40
P
W
i_
Pi __anti
4
lo
0
g
W
(2.5) ___
3.1
4
6
0
_
W
102 _
__
4
3
0
1
W
6_
_ 126.5 mW
(b) Gv _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
40 _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
_
V
V
o
i_
_ antilog 2 _ 100
Vo ___P_R ___(4_0_W)_(_1_0_V_) _ 20 V
Vi _ _1
V
0
o
0_
__
2
1
0
00
V_
_ 0.2 V _ 200 mV
11.4 GENERAL FREQUENCY
CONSIDERATIONS
The frequency of the applied signal can have a pronounced effect on the response of
a single-stage or multistage network. The analysis thus far has been for the midfrequency
spectrum. At low frequencies, we shall find that the coupling and bypass capacitors
can no longer be replaced by the short-circuit approximation because of the
increase in reactance of these elements. The frequency-dependent parameters of the
small-signal equivalent circuits and the stray capacitive elements associated with the
active device and the network will limit the high-frequency response of the system.
An increase in the number of stages of a cascaded system will also limit both the
high- and low-frequency responses.
The magnitudes of the gain response curves of an RC-coupled, direct-coupled,
and transformer-coupled amplifier system are provided in Fig. 11.4. Note that the horizontal
scale is a logarithmic scale to permit a plot extending from the low- to the
high-frequency regions. For each plot, a low-, high-, and mid-frequency region has
been defined. In addition, the primary reasons for the drop in gain at low and high
frequencies have also been indicated within the parentheses. For the RC-coupled amplifier,
the drop at low frequencies is due to the increasing reactance of CC, Cs, or CE,
while its upper frequency limit is determined by either the parasitic capacitive elements
of the network and frequency dependence of the gain of the active device. An
explanation of the drop in gain for the transformer-coupled system requires a basic
understanding of “transformer action” and the transformer equivalent circuit. For the
moment, let us say that it is simply due to the “shorting effect” (across the input terminals
of the transformer) of the magnetizing inductive reactance at low frequencies
(XL _ 2fL). The gain must obviously be zero at f _ 0 since at this point there is no
longer a changing flux established through the core to induce a secondary or output
voltage. As indicated in Fig. 11.4, the high-frequency response is controlled primarily
by the stray capacitance between the turns of the primary and secondary wind-
500 Chapter 11 BJT and JFET Frequency Response
f
EXAMPLE 11.7
ings. For the direct-coupled amplifier, there are no coupling or bypass capacitors to
cause a drop in gain at low frequencies. As the figure indicates, it is a flat response
to the upper cutoff frequency, which is determined by either the parasitic capacitances
of the circuit or the frequency dependence of the gain of the active device.
For each system of Fig. 11.4, there is a band of frequencies in which the magnitude
of the gain is either equal or relatively close to the midband value. To fix the
frequency boundaries of relatively high gain, 0.707Avmid was chosen to be the gain at
the cutoff levels. The corresponding frequencies f1 and f2 are generally called the corner,
cutoff, band, break, or half-power frequencies. The multiplier 0.707 was chosen
because at this level the output power is half the midband power output, that is, at
midfrequencies,
Pomid _ _
_V
R
2
o
o_
___
_Avm
R
id
o
Vi_2
_
and at the half-power frequencies,
PoHPF _ _
_0.707
R
A
o
vmid
Vi_2
__ 0.5 _
_Avm
R
id
o
Vi_2
_
11.4 General Frequency Considerations 501

f
Figure 11.4 Gain versus frequency: (a) RC-coupled amplifiers; (b) transformercoupled
amplifiers; (c) direct-coupled amplifiers.
10 f1 100 10,000 100,000 f2 1 MHz 10 MHz f (log scale)
A
mid
A
0.707
1
1000
and PoHPF _ 0.5Pomid (11.16)
The bandwidth (or passband) of each system is determined by f1 and f2, that is,
bandwidth (BW) _ f2 _ f1 (11.17)
For applications of a communications nature (audio, video), a decibel plot of the
voltage gain versus frequency is more useful than that appearing in Fig. 11.4. Before
obtaining the logarithmic plot, however, the curve is generally normalized as shown
in Fig. 11.5. In this figure, the gain at each frequency is divided by the midband value.
Obviously, the midband value is then 1 as indicated. At the half-power frequencies,
the resulting level is 0.707 _ 1/_2_. A decibel plot can now be obtained by applying
Eq. (11.12) in the following manner:
_A
A
vm
v
id

__dB _ 20 log10 _A
A
vm
v
id

_ (11.18)
502 Chapter 11 BJT and JFET Frequency Response
f
At midband frequencies, 20 log10 1 _ 0, and at the cutoff frequencies, 20 log10
1/_2___3 dB. Both values are clearly indicated in the resulting decibel plot of Fig.
11.6. The smaller the fraction ratio, the more negative the decibel level.
For the greater part of the discussion to follow, a decibel plot will be made only
for the low- and high-frequency regions. Keep Fig. 11.6 in mind, therefore, to permit
a visualization of the broad system response.
It should be understood that most amplifiers introduce a 180° phase shift between
input and output signals. This fact must now be expanded to indicate that this is the
case only in the midband region. At low frequencies, there is a phase shift such that
Vo lags Vi by an increased angle. At high frequencies, the phase shift will drop below
180°. Figure 11.7 is a standard phase plot for an RC-coupled amplifier.
Figure 11.5 Normalized gain versus frequency plot.
10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1 MHz 10 MHz
f1 f2 f (log scale)
A
mid
A
(dB)
0 dB
3 dB
6 dB
9 dB
12 dB
Figure 11.6 Decibel plot of the normalized gain versus frequency plot of Fig. 11.5.
f1 f
1
AVo/Vi
0.707
0Applying the proper logarithmic relationship results in
Gv _ 20 log10 _AvT_ _ 20 log10 _Av1_ _ 20 log10 _Av2_
_ 20 log10 _Av3_ _ _ 20 log10 _Avn_ (dB) (11.14)
In words, the equation states that the decibel gain of a cascaded system is simply the
sum of the decibel gains of each stage, that is,
Gv _ Gv1 _ Gv2 _ Gv3 _ _ Gvn dB (11.15)
In an effort to develop some association between dB levels and voltage gains,
Table 11.2 was developed. First note that a gain of 2 results in a dB level of _6 dB
while a drop to _12
_ results in a _6-dB level. A change in Vo/Vi from 1 to 10, 10 to 100,
or 100 to 1000 results in the same 20-dB change in level. When Vo _ Vi, Vo/Vi _ 1
and the dB level is 0. At a very high gain of 1000, the dB level is 60, while at the
much higher gain of 10,000, the dB level is 80 dB, an increase of only 20 dB—a result
of the logarithmic relationship. Table 11.2 clearly reveals that voltage gains of
50 dB or higher should immediately be recognized as being quite high.
Find the magnitude gain corresponding to a decibel gain of 100.
Solution
By Eq. (11.10),
GdB _ 10 log10 _
P
P
2
1_
_ 100 dB log10 _
P
P
2
1_
_ 10
so that
_
P
P
2
1_
_ 1010 _ 10,000,000,000
This example clearly demonstrates the range of decibel values to be expected from
practical devices. Certainly, a future calculation giving a decibel result in the neighborhood
of 100 should be questioned immediately.
The input power to a device is 10,000 W at a voltage of 1000 V. The output power
is 500 W, while the output impedance is 20 _.
(a) Find the power gain in decibels.
(b) Find the voltage gain in decibels.
(c) Explain why parts (a) and (b) agree or disagree.
Solution
(a) GdB _ 10 log10 _
P
P
o
i_
_ 10 log10 _
5
1
0
0
0
k
W
W_
_ 10 log10 _2
1
0___10 log10 20
__10(1.301)__13.01 dB
(b) Gv _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
_ 20 log10 _
_
10
P_
0
R_
0_
_ 20 log10 _
_(_5_0
1
0_
00
W_
0
)
V
( _2_0_ _ _)_
_
_ 20 log10 _1
1
0
0
0
0
0_
_ 20 log10 _1
1
0___20 log10 10__20 dB
(c) Ri _ _
V
P
i
i
2
___
(
1
1
0
k
k
V
W
)2
__ _
1
1
0
0
6
4_
_ 100 _ _ Ro _ 20 _
11.3 Decibels 499

f
EXAMPLE 11.5
EXAMPLE 11.6
TABLE 11.2
Voltage Gain,
Vo/Vi dB Level
0.5 _6
0.707 _3
10
26
10 20
40 32
100 40
1000 60
10,000 80
etc.
An amplifier rated at 40-W output is connected to a 10-_ speaker.
(a) Calculate the input power required for full power output if the power gain is
25 dB.
(b) Calculate the input voltage for rated output if the amplifier voltage gain is 40 dB.
Solution
(a) Eq. (11.10): 25 _ 10 log10_
40
P
W
i_
Pi __anti
4
lo
0
g
W
(2.5) ___
3.1
4
6
0
_
W
102 _
__
4
3
0
1
W
6_
_ 126.5 mW
(b) Gv _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
40 _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
_
V
V
o
i_
_ antilog 2 _ 100
Vo ___P_R ___(4_0_W)_(_1_0_V_) _ 20 V
Vi _ _1
V
0
o
0_
__
2
1
0
00
V_
_ 0.2 V _ 200 mV
11.4 GENERAL FREQUENCY
CONSIDERATIONS
The frequency of the applied signal can have a pronounced effect on the response of
a single-stage or multistage network. The analysis thus far has been for the midfrequency
spectrum. At low frequencies, we shall find that the coupling and bypass capacitors
can no longer be replaced by the short-circuit approximation because of the
increase in reactance of these elements. The frequency-dependent parameters of the
small-signal equivalent circuits and the stray capacitive elements associated with the
active device and the network will limit the high-frequency response of the system.
An increase in the number of stages of a cascaded system will also limit both the
high- and low-frequency responses.
The magnitudes of the gain response curves of an RC-coupled, direct-coupled,
and transformer-coupled amplifier system are provided in Fig. 11.4. Note that the horizontal
scale is a logarithmic scale to permit a plot extending from the low- to the
high-frequency regions. For each plot, a low-, high-, and mid-frequency region has
been defined. In addition, the primary reasons for the drop in gain at low and high
frequencies have also been indicated within the parentheses. For the RC-coupled amplifier,
the drop at low frequencies is due to the increasing reactance of CC, Cs, or CE,
while its upper frequency limit is determined by either the parasitic capacitive elements
of the network and frequency dependence of the gain of the active device. An
explanation of the drop in gain for the transformer-coupled system requires a basic
understanding of “transformer action” and the transformer equivalent circuit. For the
moment, let us say that it is simply due to the “shorting effect” (across the input terminals
of the transformer) of the magnetizing inductive reactance at low frequencies
(XL _ 2fL). The gain must obviously be zero at f _ 0 since at this point there is no
longer a changing flux established through the core to induce a secondary or output
voltage. As indicated in Fig. 11.4, the high-frequency response is controlled primarily
by the stray capacitance between the turns of the primary and secondary wind-
500 Chapter 11 BJT and JFET Frequency Response
f
EXAMPLE 11.7
ings. For the direct-coupled amplifier, there are no coupling or bypass capacitors to
cause a drop in gain at low frequencies. As the figure indicates, it is a flat response
to the upper cutoff frequency, which is determined by either the parasitic capacitances
of the circuit or the frequency dependence of the gain of the active device.
For each system of Fig. 11.4, there is a band of frequencies in which the magnitude
of the gain is either equal or relatively close to the midband value. To fix the
frequency boundaries of relatively high gain, 0.707Avmid was chosen to be the gain at
the cutoff levels. The corresponding frequencies f1 and f2 are generally called the corner,
cutoff, band, break, or half-power frequencies. The multiplier 0.707 was chosen
because at this level the output power is half the midband power output, that is, at
midfrequencies,
Pomid _ _
_V
R
2
o
o_
___
_Avm
R
id
o
Vi_2
_
and at the half-power frequencies,
PoHPF _ _
_0.707
R
A
o
vmid
Vi_2
__ 0.5 _
_Avm
R
id
o
Vi_2
_
11.4 General Frequency Considerations 501

f
Figure 11.4 Gain versus frequency: (a) RC-coupled amplifiers; (b) transformercoupled
amplifiers; (c) direct-coupled amplifiers.
10 f1 100 10,000 100,000 f2 1 MHz 10 MHz f (log scale)
A
mid
A
0.707
1
1000
and PoHPF _ 0.5Pomid (11.16)
The bandwidth (or passband) of each system is determined by f1 and f2, that is,
bandwidth (BW) _ f2 _ f1 (11.17)
For applications of a communications nature (audio, video), a decibel plot of the
voltage gain versus frequency is more useful than that appearing in Fig. 11.4. Before
obtaining the logarithmic plot, however, the curve is generally normalized as shown
in Fig. 11.5. In this figure, the gain at each frequency is divided by the midband value.
Obviously, the midband value is then 1 as indicated. At the half-power frequencies,
the resulting level is 0.707 _ 1/_2_. A decibel plot can now be obtained by applying
Eq. (11.12) in the following manner:
_A
A
vm
v
id

__dB _ 20 log10 _A
A
vm
v
id

_ (11.18)
502 Chapter 11 BJT and JFET Frequency Response
f
At midband frequencies, 20 log10 1 _ 0, and at the cutoff frequencies, 20 log10
1/_2___3 dB. Both values are clearly indicated in the resulting decibel plot of Fig.
11.6. The smaller the fraction ratio, the more negative the decibel level.
For the greater part of the discussion to follow, a decibel plot will be made only
for the low- and high-frequency regions. Keep Fig. 11.6 in mind, therefore, to permit
a visualization of the broad system response.
It should be understood that most amplifiers introduce a 180° phase shift between
input and output signals. This fact must now be expanded to indicate that this is the
case only in the midband region. At low frequencies, there is a phase shift such that
Vo lags Vi by an increased angle. At high frequencies, the phase shift will drop below
180°. Figure 11.7 is a standard phase plot for an RC-coupled amplifier.
Figure 11.5 Normalized gain versus frequency plot.
10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1 MHz 10 MHz
f1 f2 f (log scale)
A
mid
A
(dB)
0 dB
3 dB
6 dB
9 dB
12 dB
Figure 11.6 Decibel plot of the normalized gain versus frequency plot of Fig. 11.5.
f1 f
1
AVo/Vi
0.707
0Applying the proper logarithmic relationship results in
Gv _ 20 log10 _AvT_ _ 20 log10 _Av1_ _ 20 log10 _Av2_
_ 20 log10 _Av3_ _ _ 20 log10 _Avn_ (dB) (11.14)
In words, the equation states that the decibel gain of a cascaded system is simply the
sum of the decibel gains of each stage, that is,
Gv _ Gv1 _ Gv2 _ Gv3 _ _ Gvn dB (11.15)
In an effort to develop some association between dB levels and voltage gains,
Table 11.2 was developed. First note that a gain of 2 results in a dB level of _6 dB
while a drop to _12
_ results in a _6-dB level. A change in Vo/Vi from 1 to 10, 10 to 100,
or 100 to 1000 results in the same 20-dB change in level. When Vo _ Vi, Vo/Vi _ 1
and the dB level is 0. At a very high gain of 1000, the dB level is 60, while at the
much higher gain of 10,000, the dB level is 80 dB, an increase of only 20 dB—a result
of the logarithmic relationship. Table 11.2 clearly reveals that voltage gains of
50 dB or higher should immediately be recognized as being quite high.
Find the magnitude gain corresponding to a decibel gain of 100.
Solution
By Eq. (11.10),
GdB _ 10 log10 _
P
P
2
1_
_ 100 dB log10 _
P
P
2
1_
_ 10
so that
_
P
P
2
1_
_ 1010 _ 10,000,000,000
This example clearly demonstrates the range of decibel values to be expected from
practical devices. Certainly, a future calculation giving a decibel result in the neighborhood
of 100 should be questioned immediately.
The input power to a device is 10,000 W at a voltage of 1000 V. The output power
is 500 W, while the output impedance is 20 _.
(a) Find the power gain in decibels.
(b) Find the voltage gain in decibels.
(c) Explain why parts (a) and (b) agree or disagree.
Solution
(a) GdB _ 10 log10 _
P
P
o
i_
_ 10 log10 _
5
1
0
0
0
k
W
W_
_ 10 log10 _2
1
0___10 log10 20
__10(1.301)__13.01 dB
(b) Gv _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
_ 20 log10 _
_
10
P_
0
R_
0_
_ 20 log10 _
_(_5_0
1
0_
00
W_
0
)
V
( _2_0_ _ _)_
_
_ 20 log10 _1
1
0
0
0
0
0_
_ 20 log10 _1
1
0___20 log10 10__20 dB
(c) Ri _ _
V
P
i
i
2
___
(
1
1
0
k
k
V
W
)2
__ _
1
1
0
0
6
4_
_ 100 _ _ Ro _ 20 _
11.3 Decibels 499

f
EXAMPLE 11.5
EXAMPLE 11.6
TABLE 11.2
Voltage Gain,
Vo/Vi dB Level
0.5 _6
0.707 _3
10
26
10 20
40 32
100 40
1000 60
10,000 80
etc.
An amplifier rated at 40-W output is connected to a 10-_ speaker.
(a) Calculate the input power required for full power output if the power gain is
25 dB.
(b) Calculate the input voltage for rated output if the amplifier voltage gain is 40 dB.
Solution
(a) Eq. (11.10): 25 _ 10 log10_
40
P
W
i_
Pi __anti
4
lo
0
g
W
(2.5) ___
3.1
4
6
0
_
W
102 _
__
4
3
0
1
W
6_
_ 126.5 mW
(b) Gv _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
40 _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
_
V
V
o
i_
_ antilog 2 _ 100
Vo ___P_R ___(4_0_W)_(_1_0_V_) _ 20 V
Vi _ _1
V
0
o
0_
__
2
1
0
00
V_
_ 0.2 V _ 200 mV
11.4 GENERAL FREQUENCY
CONSIDERATIONS
The frequency of the applied signal can have a pronounced effect on the response of
a single-stage or multistage network. The analysis thus far has been for the midfrequency
spectrum. At low frequencies, we shall find that the coupling and bypass capacitors
can no longer be replaced by the short-circuit approximation because of the
increase in reactance of these elements. The frequency-dependent parameters of the
small-signal equivalent circuits and the stray capacitive elements associated with the
active device and the network will limit the high-frequency response of the system.
An increase in the number of stages of a cascaded system will also limit both the
high- and low-frequency responses.
The magnitudes of the gain response curves of an RC-coupled, direct-coupled,
and transformer-coupled amplifier system are provided in Fig. 11.4. Note that the horizontal
scale is a logarithmic scale to permit a plot extending from the low- to the
high-frequency regions. For each plot, a low-, high-, and mid-frequency region has
been defined. In addition, the primary reasons for the drop in gain at low and high
frequencies have also been indicated within the parentheses. For the RC-coupled amplifier,
the drop at low frequencies is due to the increasing reactance of CC, Cs, or CE,
while its upper frequency limit is determined by either the parasitic capacitive elements
of the network and frequency dependence of the gain of the active device. An
explanation of the drop in gain for the transformer-coupled system requires a basic
understanding of “transformer action” and the transformer equivalent circuit. For the
moment, let us say that it is simply due to the “shorting effect” (across the input terminals
of the transformer) of the magnetizing inductive reactance at low frequencies
(XL _ 2fL). The gain must obviously be zero at f _ 0 since at this point there is no
longer a changing flux established through the core to induce a secondary or output
voltage. As indicated in Fig. 11.4, the high-frequency response is controlled primarily
by the stray capacitance between the turns of the primary and secondary wind-
500 Chapter 11 BJT and JFET Frequency Response
f
EXAMPLE 11.7
ings. For the direct-coupled amplifier, there are no coupling or bypass capacitors to
cause a drop in gain at low frequencies. As the figure indicates, it is a flat response
to the upper cutoff frequency, which is determined by either the parasitic capacitances
of the circuit or the frequency dependence of the gain of the active device.
For each system of Fig. 11.4, there is a band of frequencies in which the magnitude
of the gain is either equal or relatively close to the midband value. To fix the
frequency boundaries of relatively high gain, 0.707Avmid was chosen to be the gain at
the cutoff levels. The corresponding frequencies f1 and f2 are generally called the corner,
cutoff, band, break, or half-power frequencies. The multiplier 0.707 was chosen
because at this level the output power is half the midband power output, that is, at
midfrequencies,
Pomid _ _
_V
R
2
o
o_
___
_Avm
R
id
o
Vi_2
_
and at the half-power frequencies,
PoHPF _ _
_0.707
R
A
o
vmid
Vi_2
__ 0.5 _
_Avm
R
id
o
Vi_2
_
11.4 General Frequency Considerations 501

f
Figure 11.4 Gain versus frequency: (a) RC-coupled amplifiers; (b) transformercoupled
amplifiers; (c) direct-coupled amplifiers.
10 f1 100 10,000 100,000 f2 1 MHz 10 MHz f (log scale)
A
mid
A
0.707
1
1000
and PoHPF _ 0.5Pomid (11.16)
The bandwidth (or passband) of each system is determined by f1 and f2, that is,
bandwidth (BW) _ f2 _ f1 (11.17)
For applications of a communications nature (audio, video), a decibel plot of the
voltage gain versus frequency is more useful than that appearing in Fig. 11.4. Before
obtaining the logarithmic plot, however, the curve is generally normalized as shown
in Fig. 11.5. In this figure, the gain at each frequency is divided by the midband value.
Obviously, the midband value is then 1 as indicated. At the half-power frequencies,
the resulting level is 0.707 _ 1/_2_. A decibel plot can now be obtained by applying
Eq. (11.12) in the following manner:
_A
A
vm
v
id

__dB _ 20 log10 _A
A
vm
v
id

_ (11.18)
502 Chapter 11 BJT and JFET Frequency Response
f
At midband frequencies, 20 log10 1 _ 0, and at the cutoff frequencies, 20 log10
1/_2___3 dB. Both values are clearly indicated in the resulting decibel plot of Fig.
11.6. The smaller the fraction ratio, the more negative the decibel level.
For the greater part of the discussion to follow, a decibel plot will be made only
for the low- and high-frequency regions. Keep Fig. 11.6 in mind, therefore, to permit
a visualization of the broad system response.
It should be understood that most amplifiers introduce a 180° phase shift between
input and output signals. This fact must now be expanded to indicate that this is the
case only in the midband region. At low frequencies, there is a phase shift such that
Vo lags Vi by an increased angle. At high frequencies, the phase shift will drop below
180°. Figure 11.7 is a standard phase plot for an RC-coupled amplifier.
Figure 11.5 Normalized gain versus frequency plot.
10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1 MHz 10 MHz
f1 f2 f (log scale)
A
mid
A
(dB)
0 dB
3 dB
6 dB
9 dB
12 dB
Figure 11.6 Decibel plot of the normalized gain versus frequency plot of Fig. 11.5.
f1 f
1
AVo/Vi
0.707
0Applying the proper logarithmic relationship results in
Gv _ 20 log10 _AvT_ _ 20 log10 _Av1_ _ 20 log10 _Av2_
_ 20 log10 _Av3_ _ _ 20 log10 _Avn_ (dB) (11.14)
In words, the equation states that the decibel gain of a cascaded system is simply the
sum of the decibel gains of each stage, that is,
Gv _ Gv1 _ Gv2 _ Gv3 _ _ Gvn dB (11.15)
In an effort to develop some association between dB levels and voltage gains,
Table 11.2 was developed. First note that a gain of 2 results in a dB level of _6 dB
while a drop to _12
_ results in a _6-dB level. A change in Vo/Vi from 1 to 10, 10 to 100,
or 100 to 1000 results in the same 20-dB change in level. When Vo _ Vi, Vo/Vi _ 1
and the dB level is 0. At a very high gain of 1000, the dB level is 60, while at the
much higher gain of 10,000, the dB level is 80 dB, an increase of only 20 dB—a result
of the logarithmic relationship. Table 11.2 clearly reveals that voltage gains of
50 dB or higher should immediately be recognized as being quite high.
Find the magnitude gain corresponding to a decibel gain of 100.
Solution
By Eq. (11.10),
GdB _ 10 log10 _
P
P
2
1_
_ 100 dB log10 _
P
P
2
1_
_ 10
so that
_
P
P
2
1_
_ 1010 _ 10,000,000,000
This example clearly demonstrates the range of decibel values to be expected from
practical devices. Certainly, a future calculation giving a decibel result in the neighborhood
of 100 should be questioned immediately.
The input power to a device is 10,000 W at a voltage of 1000 V. The output power
is 500 W, while the output impedance is 20 _.
(a) Find the power gain in decibels.
(b) Find the voltage gain in decibels.
(c) Explain why parts (a) and (b) agree or disagree.
Solution
(a) GdB _ 10 log10 _
P
P
o
i_
_ 10 log10 _
5
1
0
0
0
k
W
W_
_ 10 log10 _2
1
0___10 log10 20
__10(1.301)__13.01 dB
(b) Gv _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
_ 20 log10 _
_
10
P_
0
R_
0_
_ 20 log10 _
_(_5_0
1
0_
00
W_
0
)
V
( _2_0_ _ _)_
_
_ 20 log10 _1
1
0
0
0
0
0_
_ 20 log10 _1
1
0___20 log10 10__20 dB
(c) Ri _ _
V
P
i
i
2
___
(
1
1
0
k
k
V
W
)2
__ _
1
1
0
0
6
4_
_ 100 _ _ Ro _ 20 _
11.3 Decibels 499

f
EXAMPLE 11.5
EXAMPLE 11.6
TABLE 11.2
Voltage Gain,
Vo/Vi dB Level
0.5 _6
0.707 _3
10
26
10 20
40 32
100 40
1000 60
10,000 80
etc.
An amplifier rated at 40-W output is connected to a 10-_ speaker.
(a) Calculate the input power required for full power output if the power gain is
25 dB.
(b) Calculate the input voltage for rated output if the amplifier voltage gain is 40 dB.
Solution
(a) Eq. (11.10): 25 _ 10 log10_
40
P
W
i_
Pi __anti
4
lo
0
g
W
(2.5) ___
3.1
4
6
0
_
W
102 _
__
4
3
0
1
W
6_
_ 126.5 mW
(b) Gv _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
40 _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
_
V
V
o
i_
_ antilog 2 _ 100
Vo ___P_R ___(4_0_W)_(_1_0_V_) _ 20 V
Vi _ _1
V
0
o
0_
__
2
1
0
00
V_
_ 0.2 V _ 200 mV
11.4 GENERAL FREQUENCY
CONSIDERATIONS
The frequency of the applied signal can have a pronounced effect on the response of
a single-stage or multistage network. The analysis thus far has been for the midfrequency
spectrum. At low frequencies, we shall find that the coupling and bypass capacitors
can no longer be replaced by the short-circuit approximation because of the
increase in reactance of these elements. The frequency-dependent parameters of the
small-signal equivalent circuits and the stray capacitive elements associated with the
active device and the network will limit the high-frequency response of the system.
An increase in the number of stages of a cascaded system will also limit both the
high- and low-frequency responses.
The magnitudes of the gain response curves of an RC-coupled, direct-coupled,
and transformer-coupled amplifier system are provided in Fig. 11.4. Note that the horizontal
scale is a logarithmic scale to permit a plot extending from the low- to the
high-frequency regions. For each plot, a low-, high-, and mid-frequency region has
been defined. In addition, the primary reasons for the drop in gain at low and high
frequencies have also been indicated within the parentheses. For the RC-coupled amplifier,
the drop at low frequencies is due to the increasing reactance of CC, Cs, or CE,
while its upper frequency limit is determined by either the parasitic capacitive elements
of the network and frequency dependence of the gain of the active device. An
explanation of the drop in gain for the transformer-coupled system requires a basic
understanding of “transformer action” and the transformer equivalent circuit. For the
moment, let us say that it is simply due to the “shorting effect” (across the input terminals
of the transformer) of the magnetizing inductive reactance at low frequencies
(XL _ 2fL). The gain must obviously be zero at f _ 0 since at this point there is no
longer a changing flux established through the core to induce a secondary or output
voltage. As indicated in Fig. 11.4, the high-frequency response is controlled primarily
by the stray capacitance between the turns of the primary and secondary wind-
500 Chapter 11 BJT and JFET Frequency Response
f
EXAMPLE 11.7
ings. For the direct-coupled amplifier, there are no coupling or bypass capacitors to
cause a drop in gain at low frequencies. As the figure indicates, it is a flat response
to the upper cutoff frequency, which is determined by either the parasitic capacitances
of the circuit or the frequency dependence of the gain of the active device.
For each system of Fig. 11.4, there is a band of frequencies in which the magnitude
of the gain is either equal or relatively close to the midband value. To fix the
frequency boundaries of relatively high gain, 0.707Avmid was chosen to be the gain at
the cutoff levels. The corresponding frequencies f1 and f2 are generally called the corner,
cutoff, band, break, or half-power frequencies. The multiplier 0.707 was chosen
because at this level the output power is half the midband power output, that is, at
midfrequencies,
Pomid _ _
_V
R
2
o
o_
___
_Avm
R
id
o
Vi_2
_
and at the half-power frequencies,
PoHPF _ _
_0.707
R
A
o
vmid
Vi_2
__ 0.5 _
_Avm
R
id
o
Vi_2
_
11.4 General Frequency Considerations 501

f
Figure 11.4 Gain versus frequency: (a) RC-coupled amplifiers; (b) transformercoupled
amplifiers; (c) direct-coupled amplifiers.
10 f1 100 10,000 100,000 f2 1 MHz 10 MHz f (log scale)
A
mid
A
0.707
1
1000
and PoHPF _ 0.5Pomid (11.16)
The bandwidth (or passband) of each system is determined by f1 and f2, that is,
bandwidth (BW) _ f2 _ f1 (11.17)
For applications of a communications nature (audio, video), a decibel plot of the
voltage gain versus frequency is more useful than that appearing in Fig. 11.4. Before
obtaining the logarithmic plot, however, the curve is generally normalized as shown
in Fig. 11.5. In this figure, the gain at each frequency is divided by the midband value.
Obviously, the midband value is then 1 as indicated. At the half-power frequencies,
the resulting level is 0.707 _ 1/_2_. A decibel plot can now be obtained by applying
Eq. (11.12) in the following manner:
_A
A
vm
v
id

__dB _ 20 log10 _A
A
vm
v
id

_ (11.18)
502 Chapter 11 BJT and JFET Frequency Response
f
At midband frequencies, 20 log10 1 _ 0, and at the cutoff frequencies, 20 log10
1/_2___3 dB. Both values are clearly indicated in the resulting decibel plot of Fig.
11.6. The smaller the fraction ratio, the more negative the decibel level.
For the greater part of the discussion to follow, a decibel plot will be made only
for the low- and high-frequency regions. Keep Fig. 11.6 in mind, therefore, to permit
a visualization of the broad system response.
It should be understood that most amplifiers introduce a 180° phase shift between
input and output signals. This fact must now be expanded to indicate that this is the
case only in the midband region. At low frequencies, there is a phase shift such that
Vo lags Vi by an increased angle. At high frequencies, the phase shift will drop below
180°. Figure 11.7 is a standard phase plot for an RC-coupled amplifier.
Figure 11.5 Normalized gain versus frequency plot.
10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1 MHz 10 MHz
f1 f2 f (log scale)
A
mid
A
(dB)
0 dB
3 dB
6 dB
9 dB
12 dB
Figure 11.6 Decibel plot of the normalized gain versus frequency plot of Fig. 11.5.
f1 f
1
AVo/Vi
0.707
0Applying the proper logarithmic relationship results in
Gv _ 20 log10 _AvT_ _ 20 log10 _Av1_ _ 20 log10 _Av2_
_ 20 log10 _Av3_ _ _ 20 log10 _Avn_ (dB) (11.14)
In words, the equation states that the decibel gain of a cascaded system is simply the
sum of the decibel gains of each stage, that is,
Gv _ Gv1 _ Gv2 _ Gv3 _ _ Gvn dB (11.15)
In an effort to develop some association between dB levels and voltage gains,
Table 11.2 was developed. First note that a gain of 2 results in a dB level of _6 dB
while a drop to _12
_ results in a _6-dB level. A change in Vo/Vi from 1 to 10, 10 to 100,
or 100 to 1000 results in the same 20-dB change in level. When Vo _ Vi, Vo/Vi _ 1
and the dB level is 0. At a very high gain of 1000, the dB level is 60, while at the
much higher gain of 10,000, the dB level is 80 dB, an increase of only 20 dB—a result
of the logarithmic relationship. Table 11.2 clearly reveals that voltage gains of
50 dB or higher should immediately be recognized as being quite high.
Find the magnitude gain corresponding to a decibel gain of 100.
Solution
By Eq. (11.10),
GdB _ 10 log10 _
P
P
2
1_
_ 100 dB log10 _
P
P
2
1_
_ 10
so that
_
P
P
2
1_
_ 1010 _ 10,000,000,000
This example clearly demonstrates the range of decibel values to be expected from
practical devices. Certainly, a future calculation giving a decibel result in the neighborhood
of 100 should be questioned immediately.
The input power to a device is 10,000 W at a voltage of 1000 V. The output power
is 500 W, while the output impedance is 20 _.
(a) Find the power gain in decibels.
(b) Find the voltage gain in decibels.
(c) Explain why parts (a) and (b) agree or disagree.
Solution
(a) GdB _ 10 log10 _
P
P
o
i_
_ 10 log10 _
5
1
0
0
0
k
W
W_
_ 10 log10 _2
1
0___10 log10 20
__10(1.301)__13.01 dB
(b) Gv _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
_ 20 log10 _
_
10
P_
0
R_
0_
_ 20 log10 _
_(_5_0
1
0_
00
W_
0
)
V
( _2_0_ _ _)_
_
_ 20 log10 _1
1
0
0
0
0
0_
_ 20 log10 _1
1
0___20 log10 10__20 dB
(c) Ri _ _
V
P
i
i
2
___
(
1
1
0
k
k
V
W
)2
__ _
1
1
0
0
6
4_
_ 100 _ _ Ro _ 20 _
11.3 Decibels 499

f
EXAMPLE 11.5
EXAMPLE 11.6
TABLE 11.2
Voltage Gain,
Vo/Vi dB Level
0.5 _6
0.707 _3
10
26
10 20
40 32
100 40
1000 60
10,000 80
etc.
An amplifier rated at 40-W output is connected to a 10-_ speaker.
(a) Calculate the input power required for full power output if the power gain is
25 dB.
(b) Calculate the input voltage for rated output if the amplifier voltage gain is 40 dB.
Solution
(a) Eq. (11.10): 25 _ 10 log10_
40
P
W
i_
Pi __anti
4
lo
0
g
W
(2.5) ___
3.1
4
6
0
_
W
102 _
__
4
3
0
1
W
6_
_ 126.5 mW
(b) Gv _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
40 _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
_
V
V
o
i_
_ antilog 2 _ 100
Vo ___P_R ___(4_0_W)_(_1_0_V_) _ 20 V
Vi _ _1
V
0
o
0_
__
2
1
0
00
V_
_ 0.2 V _ 200 mV
11.4 GENERAL FREQUENCY
CONSIDERATIONS
The frequency of the applied signal can have a pronounced effect on the response of
a single-stage or multistage network. The analysis thus far has been for the midfrequency
spectrum. At low frequencies, we shall find that the coupling and bypass capacitors
can no longer be replaced by the short-circuit approximation because of the
increase in reactance of these elements. The frequency-dependent parameters of the
small-signal equivalent circuits and the stray capacitive elements associated with the
active device and the network will limit the high-frequency response of the system.
An increase in the number of stages of a cascaded system will also limit both the
high- and low-frequency responses.
The magnitudes of the gain response curves of an RC-coupled, direct-coupled,
and transformer-coupled amplifier system are provided in Fig. 11.4. Note that the horizontal
scale is a logarithmic scale to permit a plot extending from the low- to the
high-frequency regions. For each plot, a low-, high-, and mid-frequency region has
been defined. In addition, the primary reasons for the drop in gain at low and high
frequencies have also been indicated within the parentheses. For the RC-coupled amplifier,
the drop at low frequencies is due to the increasing reactance of CC, Cs, or CE,
while its upper frequency limit is determined by either the parasitic capacitive elements
of the network and frequency dependence of the gain of the active device. An
explanation of the drop in gain for the transformer-coupled system requires a basic
understanding of “transformer action” and the transformer equivalent circuit. For the
moment, let us say that it is simply due to the “shorting effect” (across the input terminals
of the transformer) of the magnetizing inductive reactance at low frequencies
(XL _ 2fL). The gain must obviously be zero at f _ 0 since at this point there is no
longer a changing flux established through the core to induce a secondary or output
voltage. As indicated in Fig. 11.4, the high-frequency response is controlled primarily
by the stray capacitance between the turns of the primary and secondary wind-
500 Chapter 11 BJT and JFET Frequency Response
f
EXAMPLE 11.7
ings. For the direct-coupled amplifier, there are no coupling or bypass capacitors to
cause a drop in gain at low frequencies. As the figure indicates, it is a flat response
to the upper cutoff frequency, which is determined by either the parasitic capacitances
of the circuit or the frequency dependence of the gain of the active device.
For each system of Fig. 11.4, there is a band of frequencies in which the magnitude
of the gain is either equal or relatively close to the midband value. To fix the
frequency boundaries of relatively high gain, 0.707Avmid was chosen to be the gain at
the cutoff levels. The corresponding frequencies f1 and f2 are generally called the corner,
cutoff, band, break, or half-power frequencies. The multiplier 0.707 was chosen
because at this level the output power is half the midband power output, that is, at
midfrequencies,
Pomid _ _
_V
R
2
o
o_
___
_Avm
R
id
o
Vi_2
_
and at the half-power frequencies,
PoHPF _ _
_0.707
R
A
o
vmid
Vi_2
__ 0.5 _
_Avm
R
id
o
Vi_2
_
11.4 General Frequency Considerations 501

f
Figure 11.4 Gain versus frequency: (a) RC-coupled amplifiers; (b) transformercoupled
amplifiers; (c) direct-coupled amplifiers.
10 f1 100 10,000 100,000 f2 1 MHz 10 MHz f (log scale)
A
mid
A
0.707
1
1000
and PoHPF _ 0.5Pomid (11.16)
The bandwidth (or passband) of each system is determined by f1 and f2, that is,
bandwidth (BW) _ f2 _ f1 (11.17)
For applications of a communications nature (audio, video), a decibel plot of the
voltage gain versus frequency is more useful than that appearing in Fig. 11.4. Before
obtaining the logarithmic plot, however, the curve is generally normalized as shown
in Fig. 11.5. In this figure, the gain at each frequency is divided by the midband value.
Obviously, the midband value is then 1 as indicated. At the half-power frequencies,
the resulting level is 0.707 _ 1/_2_. A decibel plot can now be obtained by applying
Eq. (11.12) in the following manner:
_A
A
vm
v
id

__dB _ 20 log10 _A
A
vm
v
id

_ (11.18)
502 Chapter 11 BJT and JFET Frequency Response
f
At midband frequencies, 20 log10 1 _ 0, and at the cutoff frequencies, 20 log10
1/_2___3 dB. Both values are clearly indicated in the resulting decibel plot of Fig.
11.6. The smaller the fraction ratio, the more negative the decibel level.
For the greater part of the discussion to follow, a decibel plot will be made only
for the low- and high-frequency regions. Keep Fig. 11.6 in mind, therefore, to permit
a visualization of the broad system response.
It should be understood that most amplifiers introduce a 180° phase shift between
input and output signals. This fact must now be expanded to indicate that this is the
case only in the midband region. At low frequencies, there is a phase shift such that
Vo lags Vi by an increased angle. At high frequencies, the phase shift will drop below
180°. Figure 11.7 is a standard phase plot for an RC-coupled amplifier.
Figure 11.5 Normalized gain versus frequency plot.
10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1 MHz 10 MHz
f1 f2 f (log scale)
A
mid
A
(dB)
0 dB
3 dB
6 dB
9 dB
12 dB
Figure 11.6 Decibel plot of the normalized gain versus frequency plot of Fig. 11.5.
f1 f
1
AVo/Vi
0.707
0Applying the proper logarithmic relationship results in
Gv _ 20 log10 _AvT_ _ 20 log10 _Av1_ _ 20 log10 _Av2_
_ 20 log10 _Av3_ _ _ 20 log10 _Avn_ (dB) (11.14)
In words, the equation states that the decibel gain of a cascaded system is simply the
sum of the decibel gains of each stage, that is,
Gv _ Gv1 _ Gv2 _ Gv3 _ _ Gvn dB (11.15)
In an effort to develop some association between dB levels and voltage gains,
Table 11.2 was developed. First note that a gain of 2 results in a dB level of _6 dB
while a drop to _12
_ results in a _6-dB level. A change in Vo/Vi from 1 to 10, 10 to 100,
or 100 to 1000 results in the same 20-dB change in level. When Vo _ Vi, Vo/Vi _ 1
and the dB level is 0. At a very high gain of 1000, the dB level is 60, while at the
much higher gain of 10,000, the dB level is 80 dB, an increase of only 20 dB—a result
of the logarithmic relationship. Table 11.2 clearly reveals that voltage gains of
50 dB or higher should immediately be recognized as being quite high.
Find the magnitude gain corresponding to a decibel gain of 100.
Solution
By Eq. (11.10),
GdB _ 10 log10 _
P
P
2
1_
_ 100 dB log10 _
P
P
2
1_
_ 10
so that
_
P
P
2
1_
_ 1010 _ 10,000,000,000
This example clearly demonstrates the range of decibel values to be expected from
practical devices. Certainly, a future calculation giving a decibel result in the neighborhood
of 100 should be questioned immediately.
The input power to a device is 10,000 W at a voltage of 1000 V. The output power
is 500 W, while the output impedance is 20 _.
(a) Find the power gain in decibels.
(b) Find the voltage gain in decibels.
(c) Explain why parts (a) and (b) agree or disagree.
Solution
(a) GdB _ 10 log10 _
P
P
o
i_
_ 10 log10 _
5
1
0
0
0
k
W
W_
_ 10 log10 _2
1
0___10 log10 20
__10(1.301)__13.01 dB
(b) Gv _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
_ 20 log10 _
_
10
P_
0
R_
0_
_ 20 log10 _
_(_5_0
1
0_
00
W_
0
)
V
( _2_0_ _ _)_
_
_ 20 log10 _1
1
0
0
0
0
0_
_ 20 log10 _1
1
0___20 log10 10__20 dB
(c) Ri _ _
V
P
i
i
2
___
(
1
1
0
k
k
V
W
)2
__ _
1
1
0
0
6
4_
_ 100 _ _ Ro _ 20 _
11.3 Decibels 499

f
EXAMPLE 11.5
EXAMPLE 11.6
TABLE 11.2
Voltage Gain,
Vo/Vi dB Level
0.5 _6
0.707 _3
10
26
10 20
40 32
100 40
1000 60
10,000 80
etc.
An amplifier rated at 40-W output is connected to a 10-_ speaker.
(a) Calculate the input power required for full power output if the power gain is
25 dB.
(b) Calculate the input voltage for rated output if the amplifier voltage gain is 40 dB.
Solution
(a) Eq. (11.10): 25 _ 10 log10_
40
P
W
i_
Pi __anti
4
lo
0
g
W
(2.5) ___
3.1
4
6
0
_
W
102 _
__
4
3
0
1
W
6_
_ 126.5 mW
(b) Gv _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
40 _ 20 log10 _
V
V
o
i_
_
V
V
o
i_
_ antilog 2 _ 100
Vo ___P_R ___(4_0_W)_(_1_0_V_) _ 20 V
Vi _ _1
V
0
o
0_
__
2
1
0
00
V_
_ 0.2 V _ 200 mV
11.4 GENERAL FREQUENCY
CONSIDERATIONS
The frequency of the applied signal can have a pronounced effect on the response of
a single-stage or multistage network. The analysis thus far has been for the midfrequency
spectrum. At low frequencies, we shall find that the coupling and bypass capacitors
can no longer be replaced by the short-circuit approximation because of the
increase in reactance of these elements. The frequency-dependent parameters of the
small-signal equivalent circuits and the stray capacitive elements associated with the
active device and the network will limit the high-frequency response of the system.
An increase in the number of stages of a cascaded system will also limit both the
high- and low-frequency responses.
The magnitudes of the gain response curves of an RC-coupled, direct-coupled,
and transformer-coupled amplifier system are provided in Fig. 11.4. Note that the horizontal
scale is a logarithmic scale to permit a plot extending from the low- to the
high-frequency regions. For each plot, a low-, high-, and mid-frequency region has
been defined. In addition, the primary reasons for the drop in gain at low and high
frequencies have also been indicated within the parentheses. For the RC-coupled amplifier,
the drop at low frequencies is due to the increasing reactance of CC, Cs, or CE,
while its upper frequency limit is determined by either the parasitic capacitive elements
of the network and frequency dependence of the gain of the active device. An
explanation of the drop in gain for the transformer-coupled system requires a basic
understanding of “transformer action” and the transformer equivalent circuit. For the
moment, let us say that it is simply due to the “shorting effect” (across the input terminals
of the transformer) of the magnetizing inductive reactance at low frequencies
(XL _ 2fL). The gain must obviously be zero at f _ 0 since at this point there is no
longer a changing flux established through the core to induce a secondary or output
voltage. As indicated in Fig. 11.4, the high-frequency response is controlled primarily
by the stray capacitance between the turns of the primary and secondary wind-
500 Chapter 11 BJT and JFET Frequency Response
f
EXAMPLE 11.7
ings. For the direct-coupled amplifier, there are no coupling or bypass capacitors to
cause a drop in gain at low frequencies. As the figure indicates, it is a flat response
to the upper cutoff frequency, which is determined by either the parasitic capacitances
of the circuit or the frequency dependence of the gain of the active device.
For each system of Fig. 11.4, there is a band of frequencies in which the magnitude
of the gain is either equal or relatively close to the midband value. To fix the
frequency boundaries of relatively high gain, 0.707Avmid was chosen to be the gain at
the cutoff levels. The corresponding frequencies f1 and f2 are generally called the corner,
cutoff, band, break, or half-power frequencies. The multiplier 0.707 was chosen
because at this level the output power is half the midband power output, that is, at
midfrequencies,
Pomid _ _
_V
R
2
o
o_
___
_Avm
R
id
o
Vi_2
_
and at the half-power frequencies,
PoHPF _ _
_0.707
R
A
o
vmid
Vi_2
__ 0.5 _
_Avm
R
id
o
Vi_2
_
11.4 General Frequency Considerations 501

f
Figure 11.4 Gain versus frequency: (a) RC-coupled amplifiers; (b) transformercoupled
amplifiers; (c) direct-coupled amplifiers.
10 f1 100 10,000 100,000 f2 1 MHz 10 MHz f (log scale)
A
mid
A
0.707
1
1000
and PoHPF _ 0.5Pomid (11.16)
The bandwidth (or passband) of each system is determined by f1 and f2, that is,
bandwidth (BW) _ f2 _ f1 (11.17)
For applications of a communications nature (audio, video), a decibel plot of the
voltage gain versus frequency is more useful than that appearing in Fig. 11.4. Before
obtaining the logarithmic plot, however, the curve is generally normalized as shown
in Fig. 11.5. In this figure, the gain at each frequency is divided by the midband value.
Obviously, the midband value is then 1 as indicated. At the half-power frequencies,
the resulting level is 0.707 _ 1/_2_. A decibel plot can now be obtained by applying
Eq. (11.12) in the following manner:
_A
A
vm
v
id

__dB _ 20 log10 _A
A
vm
v
id

_ (11.18)
502 Chapter 11 BJT and JFET Frequency Response
f
At midband frequencies, 20 log10 1 _ 0, and at the cutoff frequencies, 20 log10
1/_2___3 dB. Both values are clearly indicated in the resulting decibel plot of Fig.
11.6. The smaller the fraction ratio, the more negative the decibel level.
For the greater part of the discussion to follow, a decibel plot will be made only
for the low- and high-frequency regions. Keep Fig. 11.6 in mind, therefore, to permit
a visualization of the broad system response.
It should be understood that most amplifiers introduce a 180° phase shift between
input and output signals. This fact must now be expanded to indicate that this is the
case only in the midband region. At low frequencies, there is a phase shift such that
Vo lags Vi by an increased angle. At high frequencies, the phase shift will drop below
180°. Figure 11.7 is a standard phase plot for an RC-coupled amplifier.
Figure 11.5 Normalized gain versus frequency plot.
10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1 MHz 10 MHz
f1 f2 f (log scale)
A
mid
A
(dB)
0 dB
3 dB
6 dB
9 dB
12 dB
Figure 11.6 Decibel plot of the normalized gain versus frequency plot of Fig. 11.5.
f1 f
1
AVo/Vi
0.707
0