Indian Minerals, Volume 60, No.

3 & 4
(July-December, 2006); pp. 119-136

TECTONIC DEFORMATION DUE TO 26 DECEMBER 2004

EARTHQUAKE — REVISITED IN ANDAMAN
ANSHUMAN ACHARYYA* AND SUJIT DASGUPTA
Geological Survey of India
27 Jawaharlal Nehru Road, Kolkata 700 016
*e-mail: anshuman_cal@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Tectonic deformation produced by the fault rupture of the great Sumatra-Andaman earthquake of 26
December 2004 shows zones of uplift and subsidence separated by neutral line (locale of zero vertical
displacement) in the Andaman Islands. The ground deformation pattern estimated during May 2005 has been
re-constrained on the basis of additional data collected in January 2006. A maximum uplift of 1.5 m to the west
of the neutral line is recorded at the west coast of North Andaman near Temple Sound while the westernmost
landmass of Middle Andaman exhibits uplift of 1.42 m and 1.3 m at Interview Island and South Reef Island
respectively. Areas of subsidence east of the neutral line register 0.70 m and 1.20 m in Chidiatapu and Chatham
areas of South Andaman respectively. In either side of the neutral line, signatures of post-seismic adjustment
are witnessed at places. As a consequence of post-seismic incremental diurnal rise of tidal water in an otherwise
domain of emergence, residual uplift of 0.50 m is estimated in Kalighat Jetty (North Andaman) in comparison
to +0.95 m estimated in May 2005. Likewise, diurnal fall in tide level is observed in the submergence domain at
Chidiatapu as a likely fallout of post-seismic relaxation. Inferred maximum slip at the trench in North Andaman
(~5.3 m) is comparable with that in South Andaman (~4.2 m), both being much less in comparison to 10-15m
estimated slip in Sumatra generating catastrophic tsunami waves. Two simple slip dislocation cartoons illustrate
160 km of locked interface of the rupture in North Andaman while in South Andaman it is 100 km from the
trench boundary. Geometry of Benioff zone in South Andaman demonstrates marginally higher dip with wider
accretionary prism than that in North Andaman.

INTRODUCTION clear in South Andaman (initially in and around Port

One of the largest shallow (» 30 km) interplate
thrust earthquakes occurred on 26 December 2004 at
the interface of the subducting Indian lithosphere
(Indian plate) and the overriding Burma plate. The
earthquake was so powerful that it altered the Earth’s
rotation and the energy radiated by seismic waves
was estimated to be 1.1 x 1018 J from P waves at 11
stations over a distance range of 45°-95° (Lay et al.,
2005). This megaseismic event triggered
unprecedented tsunamis that devastated coastal
regions of Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Sri Lanka,
India and Maldives. There was immediate ground
response of the earthquake resulting subsidence
followed by the surge of tsunami. Within 30 minutes
of the earthquake low-lying areas around Port Blair
became inundated/submerged. With restoration of
diurnal tidal cycle and removal of seiches, it became
Blair) that post-earthquake low-tide levels almost
match pre-quake high-tide levels. While considerable
area in the South Andaman (and also Katchal, Trincat,
Great Nicobar, etc. in Nicobar Islands) remained
submerged, sea level fell permanently in North- and
parts of Middle Andaman. The observed quasi-
permanent submergence (apparent rise in local sea
level) is a direct reflection of ground subsidence while
the ground emergence (apparent fall in local sea level)
is related to uplift. To assess the extent of emergence
and submergence, Geological Survey of India (GSI)
took up detail investigations in Andaman both by
remote sensing (Das et al., 2005, 2007) and by ground
survey during May 2005 (Ray and Acharyya, 2005,
2007). Subsequently several groups have worked
along Andaman – Sumatra arc (Subarya et al., 2006;
Meltzner et al., 2006; Tobita et al., 2006; Malik and
120 INDIAN MINERALS
Murty, 2006; Rajendran et al., 2007; Kayanne et al.,
2007) and record the spatial distribution of uplift
and subsidence.
One year after the mega-earthquake, additional
field surveys were undertaken in January 2006 to re-
assess the status of ground elevation in different
locations of Andaman Islands as well as to collect data
from locations not visited during May 2005. This
paper attempts to provide estimates of static vertical
uplift and subsidence from additional locations and
also to record the on going changes in inter- to post-
seismic period.
TECTONIC SETTING
The geologic and tectonic history of the region is
complex with the presence of various tectonic features
(Fig. 1a). The Andaman-Nicobar-Simeulue-Nias
Islands in the northeastern Indian Ocean are in the
midst of a unique tectonic setting constituting a nearly
2200-km-long trench slope break (marked by
curvilinear Sunda-Andaman trench) between the
Indian plate and the Burma / SE Asia plate, fore arc /
outer arc ridges(with accretionary prisms) and basin,
active volcanic inner arc of Barren-Narcondam and
back-arc basin with spreading ridge in the Andaman
sea (Fig.1b, after Dasgupta and Mukhopadhyay, 1993).
The packet of accretionary prism is partially exposed
in the Andaman-Nicobar-Nias Islands comprising
ophiolites, ultramafics and sediments. There are a
number of discrete and dismembered thrust-bounded
ophiolitic/sediment slabs. The dip of these easterly
dipping thrusts vary between 8º-10º in westernmost
part of Andaman Islands while it increases to 65º-70º
in the easternmost part of the Island (Pal et al., 2003).
Several fault system traverses the entire setting such
as the West Andaman Fault (WAF) in the Andaman
arc, the Semangko fault in Sumatra, the Sagaing fault
in Myanmar and the back-arc Andaman Spreading
Ridge (ASR) of Neogene age in the Andaman Sea.
Development of ASR relates to oblique convergence
of Indian plate at the SE Asian continental margin.
The effect of oblique plate convergence includes strike-
slip faulting parallel to trench formation of sliver plate,
back-arc extension, etc. (for detail coverage on the
topic see Curray, 2005; Dasgupta et al., 2003; Kamesh
Raju et al., 2004). Near Sumatra, subduction of Indian
plate below Sunda plate occurs at 40-50 mm/year while
oblique convergence near Andaman takes place at
about 14 mm/year.
The Burmese-Andaman arc constitutes an
important transitional link between the Himalayas and
the Western Pacific arc system characterised by varying
degree of seismic activity and volcanism. Active
subduction of the Indian lithosphere below the Burma
plate along the Sunda-Andaman trench is documented
by the presence of an east-dipping Benioff zone defined
by earthquakes up to focal depth of 250 km coupled
with characteristic volcanoes of Barren-Narcondam
having continuity in the continental-margin arc in
Sumatra.
PAST RECORDS OF STATIC VERTICAL
DISPLACEMENTS
Recorded for more than 100 years, thrust-related
tectonics in the convergent margin has a direct
manifestation in ground deformation in Andaman-
Nicobar Islands. Geological evidence galore showing
vertical ground movement around Andaman from
historical period. The earliest record could be of the
“very destructive and violent earthquake felt all over
Bengal, Arracan &c., chiefly or most severely in the
north part of the east coast of the Bay of Bengal” on
2nd April 1762 (Oldham, 1883). Both the features of
submergence and emergence were recorded in the
descriptions. (In Chittagong) “earth continued to sink
day by day little and little. Sixty squire miles said to
have been permanently submerged” whereas elevation
of the coast of Aracan was stated to have extended
“more than 100 miles in length”. Describing static
uplift from Cheduba (west coast of Myanmar) and Flat
Island (west coast off Middle Andaman, Fig.1a), the
record recounts, “The elevation was greatest about
the centre. At the Terribles it was 13 feet; at various
points of the north-west of Cheduba 22 feet,
diminishing to 9 feet at Foul Island at south. Men were
living at the time of Halsted’s visit who had fished over
the then dry land. A third elevated beach was traced
also on the west coast of Cheduba half way down on
Flat Island. Oysters were found adhering to a pinnacle
of rock, about 40 ft high, on a line about 13 ft above
the 2nd line of beach (that produced in 1766) which
was itself marked in a similar way”. Notwithstanding
the fact that Captain Halsted visited the area in 1841,
80 years after the event and chance of meeting
 TECTONIC DEFORMATION DUE TO 26 DECEMBER 2004 EARTHQUAKE — REVISITED IN ANDAMAN 121

Fig 1. (a) Tectonic map of the Andaman arc region (after Curray, 2005). Main shock epicentre, 26 December
2004 earthquake, shown by star in the right-hand diagram. B: Barren Volcanic Island; N: Narcondam
Volcanic Island; WAF: West Andaman Fault; ASR: Andaman Spreading Ridge; SFS: Sumatra Fault
System; SSF: Shan Scrap Fault; MPF: Mae Ping Fault; TPF: Three Pagodas Fault; RF: Ranong Fault;
KMF: Khlong Marui Fault. LA: Little Andaman, K: Katchal, Na: Nancowry, CN: Car Nicobar, LN: Little
Nicobar, GN: Great Nicobar, P: Preparis Island, SI: Simeulue, NI: Nias. Enlarged part of the archipelago
shows study area; asterisks with numbers are data sample sites (see also Table 1).

Fig 1. (b) Schematic section between X and Y (see Fig. 1a) across North Andaman Island illustrating
morphotectonic elements (after Dasgupta and Mukhopadhyay, 1993). Ocean depth and distance of
locations from trench are shown. The westernmost bathymetry low (also gravity low) defines probable
trench location east of which the Benioff zone starts developing. Outer arc ridge with accretionary
prism has the aerial exposure in the Andaman Island. X-Y line passes in between Barren and Narcondam
volcanoes of the inner arc.
122 INDIAN MINERALS
eyewitness was remote, the message the above note
conveys seems significant. The near- shore coastal
areas used for fishing was uplifted and became dry
land due to the 1762 event — a very similar
phenomenon was experienced in the 26 December
2004 Sumatra-Andaman mega-earthquake.
A few more historical records have been presented
by Bilham et al. (2005). Ancient expeditions noted
the shallowness of corals along the western islands
compared to the deep-water varieties farther west,
providing an early hint of the tectonic origin of the
Andaman Islands. The earthquake of Car Nicobar on
31 December 1881 (Oldham, 1884) with a slip of 2.7
m equivalent to Mw=7.9 earthquake (Ortiz and Bilham,
2003) gives a reliable record of ground movement.
The location of the 1881 rupture was sufficiently close
to Car Nicobar to have tilted the island, raising its
western edge 50 cm relative to its eastern shore. The
tsunami resulted in the flooding of stilt houses to the
base of their floors. Oldham (1884) described
widespread presence of old uplifted marine terraces, a
raised beach not more than 2-2.6 m above sea level,
throughout the coast of South Andaman. The beach,
the description narrated, “can be seen forming a
terrace, from a few yards to over a mile in width in
almost every bay”. At places Oldham noted a higher
terrace, 10-13 m above the lower one. The presence
of contemporaneous shells on those marine terraces
was mentioned by Gee (1926). Oldham also confirmed
simultaneous subsidence identifying the presence of a
drowned forest on the NE coast of Havelock Island,
40 km northeast of Port Blair.
Magnitude Mw 7.7 was assigned to the 26 June
1941 Andaman earthquake (Jhingran, 1953). Report
of subsidence (particularly forest) near (and north of)
Port Blair was consistent with the rupture terminating
near the western shoreline of the Andaman Islands.
Bilham et al. (2005) inferred a slip less than 3m on a
<50-km-wide and 150-km-long down-dip rupture for
the 1941 earthquake.
THE 26 DECEMBER 2004 EARTHQUAKE
The earthquake commenced on 00:58:53 GMT
(about 06-29 AM IST) near 3.3° N, 96.0° E at 30 km
depth. The Harvard CMT solution indicated that it was
predominantly a thrust faulting in a shallow NE-
dipping (8º) plane with a strike of 329º producing a
rupture length of 1300 km from northwestern Sumatra
to Andaman. The moment magnitude of Mw 9.1-9.3
is widely quoted and average slip of 7-10 m with
varying width of 240-160 km was modelled (Stein and
Okal, 2005; Lay et al., 2005). Study of the aftershock
zone defines the rupture area that extends from
Northern Sumatra to the Andaman Islands with
downdip width of fault rupture varying from 90 to 173
km. Focal mechanisms of the aftershocks suggest
predominant thrusting in the frontal arc and strike-slip
to normal faulting in the back-arc region (Dasgupta
et al., 2005).
Slow slip north of 9°N advocated by Bilham et al.
(2005) is consistent with the absence of strong
recognised tsunami phase at these latitudes. According
to their study aftershocks were not recorded in northern
regions for more than 80 minutes after the mainshock,
again suggestive of delayed slip in the neighbourhood
of Andaman Islands (10-14°N). Dasgupta et al. (2005)
calculated time lag of reaching first aftershock
following the mainshock at Little Andaman as 53min
49.55sec. The largest slip, about 13 to 25 m, was
located off Sumatra Island and the second largest slip,
up to 7 m, was shown near the Nicobar Islands (Fuji
and Satake, 2007). Based on ground deformation
estimates, Ray and Acharyya (2005) modelled a
maximum vertical slip of 6.3 m at the trench margin in
North Andaman. Dasgupta et al. (2005) described three
distinct rupture segments of 444, 469 and 386 km
length. It was suggested that seven unilaterally
propagating shocks along the mega-thrust were
probably not aftershocks sensu stricto, rather
sequentially triggered shocks each rupturing a small
segment of the fault. Kanamori (2006) also opined that
the rupture in the southernmost segment triggered the
rupture in the north. The rupture had the longest
instrumentally recorded duration (ca. 500 s). This
successive trigger and interaction of different parts of
the fault segment could be one of the causes for such a
great earthquake.
CO-SEISMIC TO POST-SEISMIC TECTONIC
DEFORMATIONS
Field survey was carried out (Ray and Acharyya,
2005, 2007) to estimate and map vertical ground
movement independent of seismological and GPS data
 TECTONIC DEFORMATION DUE TO 26 DECEMBER 2004 EARTHQUAKE — REVISITED IN ANDAMAN
in North, Middle and South Andaman Islands during
May 2005 combined with observations made in
January 2005. Estimate of ground movement was
worked out using pre- and post-earthquake sea level
at jetties, harbours, landing sites, tidal inlets, mangrove
forest, etc. as reliable reference data. Pattern of
coseismic vertical ground movement distribution was
brought out along with locus of a zone of no movement
(designated ‘neutral line’) which roughly trends N-S.
The area to the west of the neutral line displayed uplift
where the rise increases from the neutral line towards
the trench. From zero displacement at the neutral line
to a maximum of +1.2 m on land was estimated at
Paschimsagar in North Andaman. The ground to the
east of neutral line showed tectonic subsidence
increasing towards east. A maximum subsidence of –
1.2 m was estimated at Chatham in South Andaman.
Thus in the post-earthquake scenario, large areas of
mangrove swamps were found uplifted above the high
tide level with many tidal creeks in the inland thrown
above zone of tidal wave play. On the other hand
subsided areas including residential and agricultural
land, roads, jetties, etc. became zones of permanent
tidal play. The differential tectonic uplift in North
Andaman (0.3 m at the eastern coast of Kalipur
increasing to 1.2 m along same latitude at
Paschimsagar) was utilised to obtain maximum slip of
6.3 m further west at the trench margin. Similarly, width
of the rupture surface from trench margin to neutral
line (downward edge of the rupture surface) was
estimated at 143 km assuming 15º dip of the rupture
surface. Model for such simultaneous uplift and
subsidence in a convergent tectonic setting was also
presented (for details see Ray and Acharyya, 2005,
2007).
From measurements of coral microatolls and
Global Positioning System (GPS) stations, Briggs
et al. (2005) documented trench-parallel uplift on the
outer-arc islands above the rupture and subsidence
trough farther from the trench in the Sumatra Islands.
Uplift as high as 1.45 m has been recorded in the
northwestern flank of Simeulue Island that tapered
toward the southeast to zero. From measurement of
heads of coral microatolls around Simeulue Island,
Subarya et al. (2006) noted that pre-quake highest level
of survival (HLS) of corals to be systematically 0.2 to
1.5 m higher than the post-quake level of HLS, with
123
values rising towards the northwest. Using satellite
images (ASTER, SPOT, QUICKBIRD, etc.) they
further showed uplift of variable magnitude from
Simeulue to Preparis Island (Myanmar) over a distance
of 1,600 km along the trench and also described no
displacement ‘hinge line points’ in Andaman and
Simeulue Island. Tobita et al. (2006) advocated that
the method of using SAR data was more efficient for
investigating vertical displacements. A line 145 km
east of the trench was shown to separate western
uplifted zone from eastern subsided zone.
Based on satellite imagery and field measurements
of emerged coral microatolls, regions of uplift and
subsidence separated by a “pivot line” were
demonstrated by Meltzner et al. (2006). Uplift was
detected from middle of Simeulue Island (Sumatra) to
Preparis Island (Myanmar) while in Nicobar Islands
and west coast of Aceh province in Sumatra,
subsidence was recorded. Similar to the observation
of Ray and Acharyya (op cit.) in North Andaman, a
sharp uplift gradient was shown across Simeulue where
western tip emerged to the tune of 1.05 m and
southeastern part subsided. From the study of
mangrove forests, coral microatolls, mussels, etc.
Rajendran et al. (2007) estimated uplift of 1.0 m at
Avis Island (east of North Andaman), 0.5 m at
Mayabandar and 1.5 m at Interview Island. They also
recognised five older terraces in Interview Island and
dated corals (C14) from each terrace demonstrating
uplift rate. Kayanne et al. (2007) showed both
coseismic uplift and subsequent post-seismic
subsidence mainly from North Reef Island and
Interview Island. They explained biological signatures
(using Porites microatoll) presenting estimated uplift
of 1.3 m in North Reef Island. Post-seismic temporal
changes at Mayabandar estimated as 0.3 m of
subsidence from an initial uplift of 1.0 m within 2
months after the 26 December 2004 quake was
suggested. In a similar note Subarya et al. (2006)
suggested that postseismic slip took place within first
1.5 months of the mega-event.
FURTHER FINDS ON TECTONIC
DEFORMATION
Raised Marine Terraces
During our field campaign we identified marked
rise of marine terraces both from the west coast and
124 INDIAN MINERALS
east coast of North Andaman. Along the west coast
off Radhanagar (at Temple Sound, Location 2, Fig.1)
raised marine terraces, both old and new, are
conspicuous (Fig.2). There is a marked fall of high-
tide level (HTL) consequent with newly risen marine
terrace. The retreat of HTL results in newly accreted
25-m-wide beach and exposure of underlying old mud
flats (Fig.3). Near the southern part of debouchment
mouth of Radhanagar creek (Location 3, Fig.1a), sub-
aerial exposure of approximately 3 sq km of newly
emerged beach has taken place. The area, presently
converted to an extensive beach/sandbar, was easily
navigable before the earthquake. The difference of 1.5
m between pre- and post-earthquake HTL in the raised
terrace suggests an uplift of 1.5 m in the eastern part
of Temple Sound. The disposition of coral microatoll
and oyster bed at this location also provides
quantitative estimates of uplift (see next section).
Towards south of Casuarina bay (west of
Paschimsagar, Location 4, Fig.1a), there is notable
addition of emerged sandbar (Fig.4) on which
neodunes have stabilised. Remnant of wave ripples
on the sandbar carry telltale suggestion of wave action
regime before uplift. The area was totally navigable
before earthquake. Uplift to the tune of 1.3 m is
estimated similar to what estimated in May 2005 at
Paschimsagar. There is marked difference in the
peripheral outline of Rowe Island, off west coast of
North Andaman. Extended periphery of Rowe Island
is conspicuous due to uplift of land (Fig.5).
There are different levels of uplifted terraces in the
west coast of the Interview Island (Location 13, Fig.
1a). Two marine terraces having sharp break in slope
are discernible within a stretch of 50 m. The seaward
lower terrace was developed consequent upon 26
December 2004 earthquake. The pre-mega quake HTL
used to reach the top of the old marine terrace (as
informed by Forest officials) while post-quake HTL
touches base of the older terrace/top of the recent
terrace. The difference in elevation is 1.42 m, which
may be taken as an estimate for uplift in the west coast
of Interview Island.
Nature and type of ground movement along the
eastern coasts of North and Middle Andaman Islands
was discussed at length by Ray and Acharyya (op cit).
Successive terraces are observed in Karmatang beach
in the east coast of Middle Andaman (Location 18,
Fig.1a). There are two old terraces and one recent
terrace developed across the profile of the beach
complex at Karmatang. The old terraces are stable
with casuarinas and had a height of about 40 cm from
the level of intertidal flat. Pre-quake HTL used to reach
the old terrace. A new terrace/ berm of height 35 cm is
raised at a distance of 10-12 m from the old terrace
towards sea (Fig.6). According to local Forest officials,
there was no such terrace, berm or break-in-slope in
the beach before the 2004 earthquake and the beach
had a continuous profile in that part. The terrace in all
possibility was generated either by sudden uplift or
due to combination of erosion and uplift. As a result,
in the post-earthquake scenario the HTL never overtop
the newly risen terrace and remain at its base at spring
tides. In the nearby Rampur beach (Location 19,
Fig.1a) there is also a berm of 0.60 m height, which
exists since pre-2004 earthquake. During lowest tide
at Rampur, a beach of 11.5 m gets exposed along with
large expanse of old coral banks. We assign an uplift
of 0.20 m both for Karmatang and Rampur based on
difference in HTL.
Uplift of Coral Banks and Oyster beds
Coral survives only in clear seawater with typical
sunlight conditions and may thrive in shallow water
to a maximum depth of 48 m with optimal temperature
range of 23º-25ºC required for growth. Coral can
tolerate only a narrow range of salinity between 30
and 40 ppt. Shallow-water colonies are also known as
patch-reef community that survive in the depth range
of 3-6 m.
Daytime lowest low-tide level (LLTL) is the
optimum level of sea water above which no coral can
grow upward and survive. This optimum LLTL is
known as highest level of survival (HLS) of coral.
Upward growth of coral is thus limited by HLS (Taylor
et al., 1987; Zachariasen et al., 2000; Natawidjaja et
al., 2004 and references therein). Fluctuation in sea
level due to static ground movement has a direct
bearing in growth of coral. The HLS of coral is
therefore a guiding tool for measuring ground
movement. Coral provides natural records of sea-level
changes with sensitivity of 1cm. Coral microatolls
record magnitude of vertical deformation in
interseismic and post-seismic periods via the height
 TECTONIC DEFORMATION DUE TO 26 DECEMBER 2004 EARTHQUAKE — REVISITED IN ANDAMAN
Fig 2. Raised marine terrace in the beach at Temple
Sound, west coast off Radhanagar, North
Andaman. An exposed coral bank is seen in
the horizon (circled).
Fig 4. Tectonically uplifted sandbar above tidal play
domain near erstwhile confluence of
Kishorinagar creek and Casuarina Bay, west
coast of North Andaman. Neodunes developed
over the sandbar due to wind action.
difference of dead head / top of the coral microatoll
representing pre-earthquake HLS /LLTL and
prevailing HLS at the top of living coral (Fig.7; refer
Briggs et al., 2006 for details).
Uplift of fringing coral reefs accompanied by
siltation due to turbulent tsunami water caused
widespread death of coral colonies in Andaman
archipelago. Ramachandran et al. (2005) while
assessing tsunami-inflicted damage via satellite images
125
Fig 3. Marine terrace emerged due to 26 December
2004 earthquake as well as old terrace (dashed
line) at the background, at Temple Sound. Note
exposed mud flat due to emergence of the
beach.
Fig 5. Rowe Island at Casuarina Bay off west coast of
North Andaman; notable increase in the periph-
ery of the island as a result of uplift.
calculated about 41 to 100% damage of coral
ecosystem in coastal areas of Andaman-Nicobar.
Surges of tsunami ripped off sediments releasing silts,
pollutants, etc. and coral in shallow areas became
shrouded in debris. Following tsunami, extensive silt-
laden turbid waters for 10 days resulted deposition of
silt and mud on the reef area that led to choking and
death of the live coral reefs.
California-based Reef Check Foundation
126 INDIAN MINERALS
Fig 6. Raised terrace at Karmatang, east coast, Mid-
dle Andaman, displaying break-in-slope due to
2004 earthquake.
(www.reefcheck.org) on the basis of their survey in
Aceh Province in Sumatra, observed “the earthquake
damage to coral reefs was more severe than that caused
by the tsunami. Damage included uplifted reefs,
shattered beds of coral, and overturned coral colonies.
Several islands such as Simeulue were tilted, with one
end rising as much as 2 m while the other end
descending by a similar amount. This caused tens of
hectares of living coral reef to be raised above the
high-tide level and killed, while other reefs descended
into deeper water, altering the ecological zonation.
On land, the earthquakes and tsunami caused slope
failures and removed vegetation facilitating increased
erosion, sediment transport, and discharge during
rainy periods. A longer-term and more insidious type
of reef damage could occur if the observed turbidity
and sedimentation continue. In addition to inhibiting
coral settlement, sedimentation can directly injure and
kill adult corals” (Foster et al., 2006). We have
recorded similar trend of destruction of coral colony
in Interview and South Reef Islands.
In the Temple Sound coast west of North Andaman,
there is a clear retreat of sea from sandy coast (with
patches of rocky outcrop) exposing uplifted marine
terraces (already described in the earlier section) and
remarkable uplift of coral banks (Fig.8). The exposed
width of coral bank is about 400 m with <1º beach
slope. The colony comprises a variety of members
including lettuce coral (leaf-like plates), tube coral,
plate coral and brain coral. Since the HTL had retreated
for 300-400 m after the quake, high-tide water seldom
Fig 7. A simple sketch showing LLTL /HLS control for
upward limit of coral growth. Difference of dead
heads (top) and living heads of coral gives a
measure of ground movement in the simplest
situation.
reaches base of the corals (vertical height of 60-70
cm). There is an elevation difference of 1.0 m between
the dead coral head (must have been at HLS/ LTL in
pre-earthquake scenario) and post-quake HTL. The
average post-quake LTL is about 0.5 m below the post-
quake HTL. As such a conservative estimate would
put a total elevation difference of 1.5 m (1 + 0.5 m)
between the pre- and post-quake LTL suggesting net
uplift of 1.5 m.
Habitat tracking of tidewater-sensitive marine
biotic species has also been used for understanding
sea-level change in this sector. Shells of oyster need
stable substrate for growth at intertidal to subtidal
depths and may be used as sea-level indicators. Oyster
beds have usefully been used to demarcate old
strandlines, even in Indian mainland coast (Juyal et
al., 1995; Purnachandra Rao et al., 2003) marking high
seastrands. Ancient oyster beds preserved at elevations
above modern equivalents are commonly taken as
accurate indicators of the mid-Holocene sea-level high
strand (e.g. Beaman et al.,1994). In different parts of
Andaman Islands oyster barnacles are common both
over rock outcrops and on coral substrate. Oyster beds
are present on many abandoned fishing vessels,
mangrove stems and coastal structures. In the coast of
Temple Sound (Location 2, Fig.1a) we have noted two
varieties of oyster beds — on the rock substrate and
on pre-existing coral reef. This would give an
additional lead on the status of land uplift. Minimum
sea-level lifeline requirement of oysters is at higher
 TECTONIC DEFORMATION DUE TO 26 DECEMBER 2004 EARTHQUAKE — REVISITED IN ANDAMAN
Fig 8. Uplift of coral bank above tidal level of survival,
west coast of North Andaman (at Temple
Sound).
elevation than coral. We found a distinctive section
over a rock outcrop of red chert in the coast. This chert
acted as substrate for overlying coral colony (thickness
35 cm), which is again overlain by oyster bed (70 cm
thickness) (Fig. 9). The pre-earthquake HTL is
considered at the upper level of oyster bed whereas
the post-earthquake HTL evidently touches the base
of chert outcrop. Total height between pre- and post-
earthquake HTL is ~1.5 m. Thus taking recourse to
three-fold data from marine terrace uplift, uplift of coral
microatoll and oyster bed, a net uplift to the tune of
1.5 m may be assigned to the west coast of North
Andaman, at Temple Sound.
We also examined the corals exposed on Interview
Island, South Reef Island, Anderson Island and Bennett
Island. The estimates are recorded on a spring tide (new
moon, 29 January 2006) day. In the eastern coast of
Interview Island there is a landing jetty of Forest
Department (Location 11, Fig.1a). Difference of pre-
and post-quake HTL (confirmed by Mr. Sawbonny,
In-charge, Forest Camp) assign an uplift of 0.95 m at
the location. In the Interview Passage linear emerged
banks of corals in the fringing reefs as well as raised
mangrove colony above tidal lifeline is conspicuous
in the east coast of Interview Island. HTL used to
reach the sandy beach and mangrove forest during pre-
earthquake tides whereas HTL in post-earthquake
scenario is unable to overtop the emerged fringing coral
reef (Fig. 10). The newly emerged coral bank increased
the beach width by at least 30 m in the eastern coast.
127
Southernmost tip of Interview Island (known as Nancy
Point) is also rimmed by raised fringing coral reef. In
the west of Interview Island there is a spectacular rise
of ‘underwater rain forest’ of coral (Fig.11). Shoals
have been stabilised above and near the sea surface.
Extensive area (>300 m of intertidal width) of coral
colony is aerially exposed and remained so above
spring tide resulting in a colossal loss of coral colony.
Heads of the dead coral microatolls (Fig.12)
representing HLS (thus LTL) are at 20-35 cm above
the base of the atolls. In post-2004 scenario even the
HTL does not touch the base of the atoll. We recorded
the elevation difference between the coral’s pre-
earthquake HLS and average sea-water level at the site
during time of measurement that gives an estimate of
minimum uplift of ground. The sea-water retreated for
> 300m. This gives a difference of at least 1m between
the present-day sea front and top of dead coral heads.
In addition to that, Fig.13 shows dead head of
submerged corals 2 hours after high-tide time. Sensed
through the oar of the country boat and also visually
no living part of submerged corals is visible for at least
1m below sea level. Top of the coral heads are
markedly covered with silts and sediments; at some
places recast bivalves remained intact and embedded
over the coral. Death of coral colony with siltation
covering the top surface is presumably due to slurry
Fig 9. Rock outcrop of chert, west of North Andaman
at Temple Sound. Coral had grown over the top
of chert substrate. Oyster beds in turn developed
above the coral bed. Top of the oyster bed marks
pre-earthquake HTL. Post-quake spring HTL
touches base of the chert bed.
128 INDIAN MINERALS

fringing coral reef is noted (Fig.14). A raised marine

terrace comprising beach sand deposit of ~0.60 m is
uplifted possibly due to the quake. Here also fringing
coral reefs remain exposed even in spring tides. A total
uplift (raised terrace plus permanently upthrown coral

Fig 10. Exposed fringing reef along the east of coast

of Interview Island. Note retreat of sea from beach
showing water percolation caves in the limestone.
brought about by the tsunami. Coral colony even at or
below the present LTL (thus likely HLS) are largely
found to be dead. Since there is no visible living head Fig.12 Exposed and uplifted coral microatolls over a
of coral in the southwestern flank of Interview Island, large stretch of Interview Island.
it is felt unwise to estimate the vertical ground
bank) of 1.30 m is estimated at South Reef Island.
displacement via HLS of coral microatolls. Hence an
Peripheral coastal boundaries in both Anderson Island
estimate of 1.42 m of uplift based on the position of
and Bennette Island also show raised coral reefs. The
eastern coast of Bennette Island in the Interview
Passage (Location 12, Fig.1a) demonstrates rise of
fringing reefs with an estimated uplift of 0.90 m
(Fig.15). Interestingly, on rising above sea level, shoals

Fig 11. Vast areas of uplifted coral reef, southwestern

coast of Interview Island. Sea front retreated
for >300m after 26 December 2004.
spring HTL at the uplifted marine terrace seems more
appropriate at the southwestern flank (Location 13,
Fig.1a) of the Interview Island.
In the South Reef Island located south of Interview
Island (Location 14, Fig.1a), newly exposed beach with
Fig 13. Uplifted shoals of fringing coral reef, Interview
Island. Note dead heads of submerged coral
reef. The oar (red, measures 1.5 m) of the boat
was dipped into the sea to estimate depth of
live part of coral.
 TECTONIC DEFORMATION DUE TO 26 DECEMBER 2004 EARTHQUAKE — REVISITED IN ANDAMAN
Fig 14. Uplifted marine terrace and raised fringing reef
in South Reef Island.
are transformed into exclusive coral islands without
any connection to land part of any earlier island nearby.
There are also features showing enlargement of originally
smaller islands now expanded with stabilised coral banks.
At the Tugapur creek landing site (Location 16, Fig.1a) the
difference of LTL is estimated to be 0.80 m.
In addition to rise of coral banks due to the mega-
earthquake of 2004, old coral colonies are found in
different locations both in the east and west of the
Andaman Islands. Uplifted coral banks of past events
are observed in the west coast of Radhanagar and
Kishorinagar (Fig.16) as well as in the Interview Island.
In the east coast also near Aerial Bay, Mayabandar
(Pokadera) and Rampur, such pre-existing ancient
coral beds are common. In the Rampur coast, ancient
corals are characterised by peneplained white top,
without remains of corallite structure where tubes are
completely filled with cement material (Fig.17). These
ancient coral banks might have been uplifted either
during long interseismic periods or due to major
earthquake events prior to 2004.
Estimates of emergence and subsidence from other areas
During revisit to locations studied in May 2005
(Ray and Acharyya, 2005, 2007) some changes are
noted in January 2006. At a few locations previous
estimates have been duly revised incorporating post-
seismic relaxations. The areas where revisions are
made include Mayabandar, Kalighat jetty, Kalipur
beach, Aerial Bay, Austin Bridge, Chidiatapu, etc.
Most of the other previously visited areas do not show
any major changes (except minor ones of ± 5 cm; see
129
Fig 15. Bund of emerged coral reef at the fringe of
Bennette Island, in Interview passage.
Table 1). Around Radhanagar and Kishorinagar areas
(North Andaman) many smaller creeks dried up due
to co-seismic emergence and remained so even after
one year. There is remarkable uplift of mangrove
colony above tidal lifeline, culminating in dried up
mangrove forest, erosion of creek banks and complete
exposure of mangrove roots. Growth of land plants in
erstwhile mangrove forest is another indicator for loss
of salinity in the mangrove domain.
The uplift at Austin Bridge over Austin strait
(Location 15, Fig. 1a) was examined (Fig.18). The
exposed part of the iron piers of the bridge used to get
inundated in pre-2004 high tides. Dead barnacles
affixed to the pier provide revealing evidence for that.
The iron pillars had become completely rusted due to
aerial exposure after the earthquake as a consequence
of lowering of HTL for 60 cm. The uplift at this
location is thus estimated to be 0.60 m. In the east
coast of North Andaman at the Aerial Bay jetty,
Andaman Harbour Works maintain a tide pole gauge.
This provides an estimate of difference in berth level
of ships at the jetty (uplift with a difference from
+5.000 to +4.137 mark in the pole) indicating 0.863
m of uplift. However, this revised data is comparatively
rather high than the previous estimate during May
2005. Uplift at Mayabandar (Middle Andaman,
Location 17, Fig.1a), has been revised as 0.50 m in
comparison to the previous estimate of 0.15 m. It is
also revised in North Andaman at Kalighat jetty
(Location 8, Fig.1a) as 0.50 m (instead of previously
estimated 0.95 m), and at Kalipur beach (Location 6,
Fig.1) as 0.40 m against 0.20-0.40 m in May 2005.
130 INDIAN MINERALS
Fig 16. Part of old coral bank west coast of North
Andaman presumably uplifted in tectonic
movement much before 2004 event. Inset (left
hand top corner) shows coral turned white due
to aerial exposure with tubes completely filled
by secondary material.
Temporal changes in sea level in South Andaman
Island (near Chidiatapu) as well as from Middle
Andaman (Karmatang) and North Andaman (Kalighat)
may offer some insight into the changing tectonic
dynamics of the region in the post-seismic to early
interseismic period. In Kalighat jetty (emergence
domain in North Andaman), HTL has risen by 0.4-0.5
m since November 2005. Thus in comparison to
previous record of 0.95 m of uplift, residual uplift has
become 0.50 m. Similar trend in change in tidal level
is also obtained from the Forest Department officials
Fig 17. Old, peneplained, structureless coral bank in
Rampur beach, east coast of North Andaman.
Uplift of the bank took place before 2004 event.
at Karmatang (in otherwise emergence domain due to
2004 earthquake). The Forest Officials report that the
HTL that receded on 26 December 2004 was getting
raised from November 2005. A revised uplift of 0.05
m is estimated in the area. On the contrary at Chidiatapu
in the southernmost tip of South Andaman
(submergence domain due to the quake, Location 30,
Fig.1a), the lowest tide (LTL) is reportedly receding
in the post-seismic period. After the 2004 earthquake,
a new tide gauge is installed at Chidiatapu on
23.2.2005. The ‘0’ level of the gauge was fixed at the
lowest low tide that time. The highest HTL of 1.45m
is recorded at the gauge on 23.7.2005 (New Moon).
Since July 2005 lowest low water started reaching
lower than ‘0’ level of tide gauge and the HTL also
Fig 18. Pier of the Austin bridge on Austin strait,
between North and Middle Andaman Islands.
Left and right hands point at pre-earthquake
LTL and HTL respectively. Post-earthquake
HTL touches level of pre-earthquake LTL.
started receding. Residual submergence at Chidiatapu
is estimated to be 0.70m. In the subsidence domain in
Rutland Island (Location 31, Fig.1a) there is also a
change. Locals of Rutland Island report submergence
of 0.80 m in the area around Kalapahar and Aram Point
in comparison to 1m immediately after the quake. This
bears testimony to the ongoing crustal adjustments
even after one year in the Andaman archipelago. This
record is in contrast to what has been suggested by
Subarya et al. (2006) and Kayanne et al. (2007)
describing a quick crustal readjustment within first two
months (? by February 2005) of the mega-event.
 TECTONIC DEFORMATION DUE TO 26 DECEMBER 2004 EARTHQUAKE — REVISITED IN ANDAMAN 131

DISCUSSIONS telltale estimates for uplift or subsidence. However, in

Tectonic deformation in terms of vertical
component of slip has been re-assessed from different
locations of Andaman Islands during repeat survey in
January 2006. A contour map showing distribution of
static ground displacement based on revised data (see
Table 1) is presented (Fig.19; modified after Ray and
Acharyya, op cit). It may be mentioned that the exercise
adopted to estimate the uplift and subsidence at
different waterfront was not by precision geodetic
survey. Consecutive field records, berth levels of boats/
ships at jetties or landing sites, mangrove/ oyster/
barnacles-lifeline, top of dead coral heads in coral
microatolls, net rise in raised beaches, etc. provide
the absence of pre-/post-earthquake instrumental
measurements, there are uncertainties in the estimates
from ±5 cm to ±20 cm. Possible uncertainties for each
location are shown in Table 1. The differences
whatsoever between the 2005 and 2006 estimates are
also clear from the table. Since scope of taking data
was very insufficient and confined only in the
accessible part of the islands, the control of the contour
lines are based on limited data. The extrapolated
contours illustrate the broad regimes of uplift and
subsidence (Fig. 19). The zero contour line represents
zone of no displacement. While land subsidence took
place east of zero contour (contours with ‘-’ sign),
ground was uplifted west of it (contours with ‘+’ sign).

Fig 19. Static displacement contours in Andaman Islands (modified after Ray and Acharyya, 2005, 2007).
Contours are extrapolated on limited observation data in the Islands. ‘0’ contour denotes locale of zero
uplift whereas contours with plus signs in the west indicate uplift and contours carrying minus signs in
the east indicate subsidence. Numbers with asterisks correspond to locations described in Table 1. AA/
and BB/ are lines originating from trench margin to east of the archipelago along which depth section
and static slip dislocation is shown in Fig. 20.
132 INDIAN MINERALS

TABLE 1
UPLIFT (+) AND SUBSIDENCE (-) IN THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS MEASURED IN 2005 AND 2006
Location Location Longitud Latitude Uplift/ Uplift/ Change
Index Subsidence Subsidence
(m) in (m) in
2005 2006*
1 Landfall Island* 93.01 13.64 - +0.6 -
2 East of Temple Sound 92.88 13.43 - +1.5±0.2 -
3 Radhanagar 92.92 13.38 +1±0.2 +1± -
4 Paschimsagar near Casuariana bay 92.85 13.26 +1.2±0.2 +1.1±0.2 0.1±0.4
5 Aerial bay 93.02 13.27 +0.20±.05 +0.86±.1 0.66±.15
6 Kalipur 93.04 13.2 +0.30±0.05 +0.40±0.05 0.1±0.1
7 Kishorinagar 92.88 13.18 +1.2±0.5 +1±.05 0.1±.10
8 Kalighat jetty 92.96 13.12 +0.90±0.10 +0.5±0.1 0.4±0.20
9 Ramnagar 93.02 13.06 +0.40±0.05 +0.4±0.05 -
10 North Reef Island* 92.71 13.09 - +1.3 -
11 Forest Check Post, Interview Island 92.71 12.89 - +0.95± -
12 Bennette Island 92.71 12.83 - +0.9± -
13 Interview Island 92.65 12.83 - +1.42± -
14 South Reef Island 92.66 12.75 - 1.3± -
15 Austin bridge 92.81 12.88 +0.4±0.05 +0.6±0.05 0.2±0.10
16 Tugapur creek 92.79 12.81 - +0.8± -
17 Mayabandar 92.89 12.88 +0.10±0.05 +0.5±0.05 0.4±0.10
18 Karmatang 92.93 12.83 +0.15±0.05 +0.05±0.05 0.10±0.10
19 Rampur 92.94 12.79 +0.15±0.05 +0.05±0.05 0.10±0.10
20 Nimbudera, South of Cuthbert Bay 92.95 12.64 0 0± -
21 Panchawati 92.96 12.56 0 0± -
22 Nimbutala (Rangat) jetty 92.95 12.49 -0.2±0.10 -0.1±0.10 0.1±0.20
23 Bakultala 92.83 12.49 -0.05±0.05 -0.05±0.05 -
24 Uttara jetty 92.78 12.33 -0.2±0.10 -0.2±0.10 -
25 Nilambur jetty 92.75 12.17 -0.5±0.10 -0.5±0.10 -
26 Radhanagar (Havelock Island) 92.95 11.97 -0.2± - -
27 Ograbraj 92.66 11.66 -0.8±0.20 -0.7±0.10 0.1±0.30
28 Chatham 92.71 11.67 -1.2±0.10 -1.1±.05 0.1±0.15
29 Corbyn’s cove 92.73 11.62 -1.0±0.05 -1.0±0.05 -
30 Chidiyatapu 92.7 11.52 -0.75±0.05 -0.70±0.02 0.05±0.07
31 Wandoor -0.30±0.05 -0.10±0.05 0.20±0.10
32 Aram Point, Rutland Island 92.59 11.49 - -0.8±0.10 -
33 North Sentinel Island* 92.19 11.57 - +1.5 -

* Except for Locations 1,10,33.

Locations 5,6,8,15,17,18 are revisited in January 2006 and revised from that of Ray and Acharyya (2005).
Locations 2,11,12,13,14,16,32 not visited during May 2005 field campaign. Data for location 1 (Rajendran et
al., 2006), 10 (Kayanne et al., 2007) and 33 (Bilham et al., 2005) taken from published material.
 TECTONIC DEFORMATION DUE TO 26 DECEMBER 2004 EARTHQUAKE — REVISITED IN ANDAMAN
Estimates for Landfall, North Reef and North
Sentinel Islands are supplemented from published
material (reference at Table 1). Area west of neutral
line records highest uplift of 1.5 m at the west coast of
North Andaman near Temple Sound, while
westernmost landmass of Middle Andaman endures
uplift of 1.42 m and 1.30 m at Interview Island and
South Reef Island respectively. The contour line +1.5
m is construed in this study based on field observations.
Contours denoting +0.5 m and +1.0 m are revised based
mainly on data at Austin Bridge, Aerial Bay, Kalighat
and Mayabandar. Areas of subsidence occupy east of
the neutral line, registering 0.70 –1.20 m in Chidiatapu-
Chatham area of South Andaman respectively. The
neutral line represents downward edge of the locked
interface along the zone of subduction. Post-seismic
relaxation and interseismic readjustment are witnessed
from a few locations in Andaman. The sense of post-
seismic changes demonstrated as gradual rise of HTL
in the uplifted domains is recorded from places like
Kalighat (North Andaman) or Karmatang (Middle
Andaman). On the contrary, at Chidiatapu (South
Andaman) there was retreat of HTL from the erstwhile
subsidence domain. From the eyewitness accounts it
appears that the adjustment continued during July 2005
and December 2005. Thus the opinion of complete
crustal relaxation within first two months of the mega-
earthquake (as proposed by Subarya et al., 2006 and
Kayanne et al., 2007) does not match with the field data.
Simultaneous uplift and subsidence due to
coseismic fault rupture are known from subduction-
zone earthquakes. Uplift takes place above the rupture
zone up to the downdip edge of fault rupture (when
downdip edge projected in the surface coincides with
neutral line) while subsidence occurs between the
downdip edge of fault rupture and the volcanic arc
(Carver and McCalpin, 1996). The model for
coexisting uplift and subsidence in Andaman Islands
was already presented by Ray and Acharyya (op cit.).
In the present study we have refined the displacement
data with two important field features— raised marine
terrace and raised coral banks/microatolls.
In the tectonically emerged coastal terrains,
identification of pre- and post-earthquake HLS of coral
reef is a guiding tool for estimation of uplift (see Fig.
7 for a simple explanation). It appears difficult to
ascertain HLS of post-2004 earthquake everywhere
133
of the fringing reef colony unless live coral having the
same species of the dead and uplifted colony is
unequivocally spotted in the retreated seafront. We
have noted that coral colony in the fringing reefs
particularly in the Interview Island and South Reef
Island is dead even at or below present-day LTL or
HLS. This is largely because major part of coral colony
even below the depth of required post-quake HLS died
due to tsunami. Death of coral colony is caused by
siltation from the turbid sea. Tsunami surge, silt slurry
and uplift together played havoc to the coral colony. It
was difficult to get live coral even in otherwise
available depth of HLS. Estimates of uplift in Interview
Island is thus mainly deduced by height of HTL at old
and new marine terraces and further seconded from
the position of coral microatolls. Raised marine terraces
in Andaman are a reliable resource of estimation of
uplift. We tried to document the raised marine terraces
due to 2004 event and also recorded ancient terraces.
This suggests repeated ground movement in the area
including aseismic slip and interseismic movement.
Marine terraces documented by Rajendran et al. (2007)
in the Interview Island are indicative of total gamut of
tectonic movement in the plate interface but not the
episodic event of 26 December 2004 earthquake.
While the static displacement pattern has been
displayed through the contours (Fig.19) two
lithospheric sections across North and South Andaman
with superposition of vertical displacement are
attempted as cartoon-slip dislocation model (Fig.20)
along line AA/ and BB/ (Fig.19). Two depth sections
are prepared for AA/ and BB/ based on teleseismic
database (mb ³ 4.0) from January 1964 to December
2005. The database comprises ISC data up to 2002
and NEIC, USGS data from 2003 to 2005. The zone
of consideration of each depth section covers
earthquake events in a block of 1° latitude (about 100
km). The AA/ depth section contains 311 events having
depth range 0-219 km. There are 181 events before 26
December 2004 (few representative events shown as
squares in Fig. 20a) while the rest 130 events are from
post-26 December 2004 main shock (but includes
aftershocks) up to December 2005 (a few
representative events shown as triangles in Fig.20a).
Similarly in BB/ depth section (Fig. 20b) a total of 343
events are located within a depth range of 0-194 km.
This includes 263 events prior to 26 December 2004
earthquake and 80 events after the great earthquake.
134 INDIAN MINERALS

(a) (b)
Fig 20. Simple cartoons of static-slip dislocation along (a) AA/ in North Andaman and (b) BB/ in South Andaman
as shown in Fig.19. Lower part of figures illustrate depth section and geometry of Benioff zone based on
relocated aftershocks in a block of 1° latitude. Squares indicate events from 1964 till pre-26 December
2004 earthquake, while triangles indicate post-earthquake events (including aftershocks) up to the end
of 2005. Dots in the dislocation curve denote data points, solid lines refer to well-constrained segment,
dashed line stands for segments not supported by ground data. Position (0,0) of the graph represents
trench margin; numbers 4,5,31,33,29 are locations described in Table 1 (and also shown in Fig. 1(a) and
19). Location of ‘0’ is extrapolated from the “0” contour in Fig.19.
The events corresponding to lower/subducting plate axis) gives an estimate of likely maximum uplift of
(Indian plate) and upper/overriding plate (Burma plate) the rupture along that line. Inferred maximum slip at
along the Benioff zone are separated manually to the trench margin in North Andaman (~5.3 m) is little
construct the geometry of the Benioff zone. In AA/ higher along AA/ than that in South Andaman along
depth section most of the mega-earthquake related line BB/ (~4.2 m). However, both the values are
events (post-2004 events) are confined in the obviously lower than previous estimates in Andaman.
subducting lower plate while also in BB/ majority of It indicates an overall low range of slip in Andaman in
post-2004 events are localised in the lower plate. The comparison to slip inferred near Sumatra (10-15m) by
database has clearly redefined the outline of the Benioff several workers. Comparatively shorter tsunami run-
zone. The dip of the ‘shallow thrust zone’ (Savage, up height in Andaman is further seconded by low and
slow slip in the Andaman Islands.
1983) in the Benioff is higher in BB/ than in AA/.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the slip dislocation model along AA/ (upper part
of Fig.20a) we have ground displacement data (uplift) Drs. S. Sengupta and B. Chattopadhyay
at locations (4) and (5) with zero displacement (trace encouraged us in the field. A. Bhattacharya and B.
of neutral line) at A/. The downward edge of the locked Mukhopadhyay, Geodata & Database Division, CHQ
interface ends at A/ (160 km from the trench). Similarly are thanked for their help. Prof. Roger Bilham offered
useful comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript.
for BB/, uplift for location 33 and subsidence for
Constructive comments of an erudite reviewer and
locations 31 and 29 gives a good approximation of the
comments from the Editor’s desk are gratefully
displacement (uplift in the west and subsidence in the
acknowledged. Authors are indebted to the Forest
east) scenario. For BB/ the zero displacement is placed Department, Andaman-Nicobar Administration for the
100 km from the trench. support extended during visit to Interview Island and
The dislocation curve (upper part of Fig. 20a & b) South Reef Island. DST (A&N) is also thanked for
if extended to the position of trench margin (vertical help whenever required.
 TECTONIC DEFORMATION DUE TO 26 DECEMBER 2004 EARTHQUAKE — REVISITED IN ANDAMAN
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