PART – A - Ancient India

PART – B - Medieval India

PART – C - Modern India History
PART – D – India After Independence
PART – E - Art and Culture
PART – F – World History
 PART - A

Ancient India
 Section 1 → Ice Age + Indus Valley Civilization + Vedic Period

▪ Paleolithic age, Mesolithic Age, Neolithic Age, Chalcolithic Age

▪ Indus Valley Civilization
▪ Early Vedic Period (1500 – 1000 BC)
▪ Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 BC)

Section 2 → Jainism + Buddhism + Vedic Period + Rise of Magadha

▪ Jainism & Buddhism – Cause of Origin

▪ Jainism
▪ Buddhism
▪ Mahajanapadas & Rise of Magadha

Section 3 → Persian & Greek Invasion + Mauryan Empire + Post Mauryan India +
Foreign Invasion on India

▪ Iranian (Persian) & Macedonian (Greek) Invasion

▪ Mauryan Empire (321 – 184 BC)
▪ Post Mauryan India: Sungas Dynasty, Satavahanas
▪ Foreign invasion of NW India: Shakas, Parthians, Kushanas
▪
Section 4 → Sangam Age + Gupta Empire + Harshavardhana + Chalukya &
Pallavas

▪ Sangam Age: 300 – 600 AD

▪ Cheras, Cholas & Pandyas
▪ Gupta Empire (400 – 600 AD)
▪ Harshavardhana (606 – 647 AD)
▪ Chalukya of Badami, Pallavas, Pandyas
 Paleolithic age, Mesolithic Age, Neolithic Age, Chalcolithic Age

Quaternary Age

Evolution of its crust shows four stages, 4th stage being Quaternary, which comprises of:
▪ Pleistocene (20 Lakh – 10000 years)
▪ Holocene (10000 – Present)

Pleistocene Age

▪ Roughly dressed stone tools

▪ Crude chipping
▪ No knowledge of Cultivation
▪ Solely living on hunting
▪ Lived in rock-shelters

“Also known as Paleolithic age or Ice age or Old Stone Age & divided into 3 ages”

▪ 5 Lakh – 50000 BC
Early/ Lower Paleolithic
Age ▪ Tools → Cleavers, Choppers, Axes

▪ 50000 – 40000 BC
Middle Paleolithic Age ▪ Flakes Tools → Blades, Pointers, Borers & Scrapers

▪ 40000 – 10000 BC
▪ Climate became comparatively warm
▪ Marked the appearance of new flint industries
Upper Paleolithic Age ▪ Men of modern types ( Homo-sapiens)

Bhimbetka Rock Shelters

▪ Bhimbetka rock shelters are located in Raisen District of Madhya Pradesh, 45 km south of Bhopal
at the southern edge of the Vindhyachal hills.
▪ These served as shelters for Paleolithic age man for more than 1 lakh years.
▪ This is the most exclusive Paleolithic site in India which contains the rock carvings and paintings.
▪ These paintings belong to the Paleolithic, Mesolithic ages, Chalcolithic, earlyhistoric and even
medieval times.

Bhimbetka is a World heritage Site. Please note that it was earlier considered to be a Buddhist site and
was later recognized as Paleolithic site by Vishnu Shridhar Wakankar who is now also called “father
of rock art in India “. Bhimbetka Rock shelters were included in the world heritage list in 1970

Holocene: Mesolithic Age (9000 – 4000 BC)

▪ Marked by phenomenal changes in climate as climate became comparatively warm & dry which
brought significant changes in flora & fauna and made it possible for humans to move to new areas.
▪ Characteristic tools of this Age: Microliths
▪ Transitional Phase between Paleolithic & Neolithic Age
▪ People mostly lived on Hunting, Fishing & Food gathering; At later stage also domesticated
animals
▪ Rock Paintings from Paleolithic & Mesolithic age have been found at Bhimbetka caves ( Painted
birds, animals & humans)

Holocene: Neolithic Age (5000 – 1800 BC)

▪ Earliest farming communities → Characterized by cultivation of plants & domestication of animals

▪ Earliest evident of Neolithic culture have been found at Mehragarh on bank of river Bolan
(Baluchistan) 7000 BC showing beginning of agriculture & domestication of animals.
▪ Pottery 1st appeared in this phase → Black burnished ware + Course Grey ware pottery for cooking
▪ Important Places : Gufkral ( Cave of Potters) & Burzahom ( Place of Birch)
▪ Dog burial with the master → Special feature of Burzahom

Holocene: Chalcolithic Age (1800 – 1000 BC)

▪ Marked by use of copper → 1st metal used in India

▪ Cultivation & cattle rearing along with established the knowledge of crop rotation (@ Inamgaon) ,
▪ Knowledge of Irrigation & Harvesting
▪ Excavation reveals structures like Granaries, Embankment & Fortification
▪ Mud houses made of mud in circular & rectangular pattern along with mud chulha
▪ Culture was limited from Udaipur to Malwa & Maharashtra
▪ Famous Pottery of this age → Black on Red ware

Indus Valley Civilization (2900 – 1700 BC)

▪ Indus valley civilization is older than chalcolithic culture but was far more developed
▪ Marked the beginning of Bronze age civilization

Sights of Indus Valley Civilization

Early (Pre Harappan) Mature (Harappan) Late Phase (Post Harappan)

Harappa (Pakistan @ Ravi)

Mohenjodaro (Pakistan @
Indus)

Chanhudaro (Pakistan @ Indus)

Sutkagendor (Pakistan)

Sukotada (Gujrat)

Lothal (Gujrat @ Bhogava)

Kalibangan (Rajasthan @
Kalibangan Ghaggar)
 Banawali Banawali (Hissar @Ghaggar)

Rakhigarhi Rakhigarhi (Hissar @Ghaggar) Rakhigarhi

Dholavira Dholavira (Kutch) Dholavira

Bhagwanpura

Manda (Jammu),
Chandigarh,Shangol (Punjab),
Daulatpur,Mitthal (Haryana),
AlamgirpurHulas (West UP)

Developments in Indus Valley Civilization

▪ Citadel / Acropolis at cities for member of ruling class (west side) & brick houses below citadel in
town for commoners
▪ Remarkable grid system of roads → Roads cutting at right angle to each other
▪ Large scale use of burnt bricks & total absence of stone buildings
▪ Remarkable underground drainage system connecting all houses & streets covered by bricks / stone
slabs
▪ Agriculture technology was well developed (But no use of ploughshare) : Wheat, Rice, Barley,
Peas etc. + Domesticated large scale of animals
▪ Cotton was 1st produced by Indus people hence Greeks called it Sindon which is derived from
Sindh
▪ Harappan were 1st to produce silver in the world + wore gold, silver & beads Jewelry
▪ Practiced boat making, seal making, Bronze smith, Weavers etc.
▪ Granaries & seals show Harappan carried on considerable trade but only through Barter system
▪ No temples has been found at any of the site hence can be said that it was ruled by merchants not
priests
▪ Worshiped Goddess Earth, Pipal Tree, Pashupati Mahadeva & Animals (Bull / Unicorn Rhino)
▪ 1st to invent the art of writing – Right to left – (Pictographic only → Not deciphered so far)
▪ Used weights for trade (Mostly in multiple of 16) & Bronze made marked sticks for measurements
▪ Were expert in Potter’s wheel & pottery making
▪ Their greatest artistic creation was ” Seals”
▪ Mostly limestone was used for sculptures.
▪
 Early Vedic Period (1500 – 1000 BC)

Advent of Aryans Aryans means of high birth

Age of Rig Veda Vedas means to know – Superior knowledge

▪ Aryans were generally referred to people who spoke Indo- Aryan language (Sanskrit)
▪ Society was mainly male dominated; women were treated with dignity and honour
▪ Early life in this period seems to be mainly pastoral with agriculture being the secondary
occupation
▪ Domesticated horses to ride

Rig Veda

▪ Earliest text of Indo European language

▪ Contains prayers offered to Agni, Indra, Mitra, Varuna & other gods
▪ Consists of 10 mandalas or books with 2 – 7 being the earliest one called family books & 1 and 10
being the latest editions
▪ 3rd Mandal consists of Gayatri mantra (Composed by viswamitra to offer prayer to solar deity
Savitri)
▪ Many things in common with Avesta (oldest Iranian text – Zorasterism)

Advent of Aryans

▪ Aryans called Indus valley “Sapt Sindavah” i.e. land of 7 rivers with river Indus (Sindhu) most
mentioned in Rig Veda
▪ Saraswati (Naditarna) is mentioned as the holiest river in Rig Veda, named after Harakwati
(Hemland river) in south Afganistan
▪ Aryans appeared in subcontinent around 1500 B.C. & came into conflict with its inhabitants Dasas
& Dasyus

Dasas: Mentioned in ancient Iranian literature hence may be early Aryans

Dasyus: Possibly original inhabitants of the country & possibly worshipped Phallus (Lingam)
▪ Aryan chief who overpowered them was called Trasadasyu , generally soft towards Dasas but
hostile towards Dasyus (Term Dasyuhatya is repeatedly mentioned in Rig Veda)
▪ Aryans succeeded everywhere because they possessed chariot driven by horses & possibly with
coats of mail & better armory → Introduced these things for the 1st time in west Asia & India
▪ Aryans were divided into 5 tribes called Panchajana mainly, along with other tribes → Most
powerful ones were Bharatas of Tritsu Family supported by Viswamitra

Battle of 10 Kings fought at River Parushni (Ravi):

▪ Bharat ruling clan was opposed by host of 10 chiefs (5 aryans & 5 non aryans) supported by
Vashishta
▪ Bharat clan emerged victorious & subsequently joined hand with Purus (Most powerful defeated
tribe) & formed a new ruling tribe called kurus

Bharatvansa is named after tribe Bharata & 1st mentioned in Rig Veda

Early Vedic Period

▪ Agriculture was well known to pre aryans & ploughshare is 1st mentioned in early part of Rig Veda
▪ But agriculture was perhaps used to produce fodder only → Predominantly pastoral people with
cattle rearing as main occupation
▪ Most of the wars were fought for the sake of cows as the term for war in Rig Veda is Gavishthi i.e.
search for cows (Hence cows seems to have been most important wealth)
▪ Gifts were made to priests in form of cows & women slaves → Not in form of land
▪ Rig Veda mentions several artisans namely Carpenters, Chariot makers, weavers, Leather workers,
Potters etc. along with term Ayas used for copper or Bronze which shows metal working was well
known
▪ Aryans or Vedic people mainly relied on land routes as the word samundra mentioned in Rig veda
mainly denotes a collection of water

Rig Vedic term Meaning

Gau Cow

Gavishti Search for Cows

Gopati Raja or chief, protector of cows

 Godhuli Measure of time

Duhitr Daughter or one who milks the cows

Gomat wealthy man who owned many cattle

Administration in Rig Vedic Period

▪ Tribal chief at the center (Rajan)

▪ King was known as Gopaljanya i.e. protector of its people & cows
▪ King was assisted by Purohits, Senani & Gramanis
▪ King did not exercise unlimited power & worked in reckon with tribal organization
▪ King’s position was hereditary (but could be removed from power if found weak and inefficient or
cruel).

Rig Vedic Assemblies & administrative division

▪ Several assemblies such as Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata & Gana are mentioned in Rig Veda & even
women were allowed to attend Sabha & Vidhata assemblies.
▪ Two most important assemblies were Sabha & Samiti as even kings & chiefs showed eagerness to
win their support
▪ No introduction of taxes & offerings (Known as Bali) were made voluntarily by people
▪ Aryan tribes was known as Jana ( Janapada or territory is not used even once in Rig Veda as
Territory / Kingdom was not established)
▪ Jana was divided into Group of villages called Vis (Headed by Vrajapati),

▪ Vis was further divided into Grama or small tribal units meant for fighting (Headed by Graminis),

▪ Grama was further divided into Kulas (Family) headed by Kulapa

▪ When Grama clashed with each other then it caused samgrama or war
▪ Kinship was the basis of social structure & a man was identified by the clan he belongs to

Societal Practices & Divisions

▪ Rig veda speaks of Arya varna (Aryans) & Das varna (Non Aryans), where possibly the distinction
was on the basis of colour
▪ Society was patriarchal & people prayed to God mainly for brave sons & Cattles.
▪ Practice of Levirate (Man marrying to Brother’s widow) & widow remarriage was prevalent with
no mention of sati system or Child marriage as marriageable age mentioned in Rig Veda is 16- 17
Years
▪ Women poets in Rig Veda peiord : Apala, Vishwavara, Ghosa & Lopamudra
▪ Tribal Society was divided into 3 groups mainly Warrior, priest & People with 4 th division called
shudra appeared towards end of Rig vedic period (1st time in 10th book of Rig Veda)
▪ Conquered Dasas & Dasyus were treated as slaves or Shudra by Aryans for domestic work purpose
▪ Main pottery of this period is OCP (ochre coloured pottery)

Early Vedic Gods

No Idol Worship

Indra Warlord / Raingod / Purandara / Breaker of forts

Fire god & intermediary b/w God & peopleMarriages were solemnize in his
Agni presenceDestroyed germs & dirt hence was considered pure\

Varuna Personified as water & supposed to keep natural order in line

Soma God of plants, & an intoxicating drink somras named after it

Marut Personified as storm

Aditi Goddess of eternity

Usha Appearance of dawn Not so Prominent in Rig veda

Other gods were Prithvi, Vayu etc. Mainly Nature gods

▪ Gods were invited to take partake of sacrifices made by whole tribe (Jana)
▪ Sacrifices mainly consists of Vegetables, Barley etc. (No rituals or sacrificial formulae were used).
▪ Yajna (sacrifice) was performed along with chanting of Vedic hymns.
▪ People poured ghee (clarified butter) and other ingredients into the fire to invoke the blessings of
gods.
▪ Jana mainly asked for Praja (Children), Pashu (Cattle), Food, Wealth, health etc.
▪ Eating of cows meat was strictly prohibited as cow was considered as a sacred animal
▪
Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 BC)

▪ Advent of Iron Age

▪ Origin of Sam Veda, Yajur Veda & Atharva Veda
▪ Composition of Samhitas, Brahmanas & Upanishads
▪ Marked by invention of PGW (Painted grey ware) for bowls & dishes

Samhitas: Collection of Vedic hymns & Mantras

Sama Veda

▪ Book of chants
▪ Origin of Indian music
▪ For recitation, prayers of Rig Veda were set to tunes
▪ Modified collection is known as Sama Veda

Yajur Veda

▪ Contains hymns & rituals, sacrifices, Royal ceremonies

▪ Rajsuya & Vajpeya mentioned for the 1st time
▪ Written in verse and prose form

Atharva Veda

▪ Origin of Indian medicine

▪ Contains formulae, charms & spells to ward off evil & diseases
▪ Composed by a non-aryan

According to Satapatha Brahamana Rig veda, Sama Veda & Yajur veda constitutes Traya Veda &
were composed by Aryans

Brahamanas
▪ Prose commentaries of all four Vedas
▪ 18 in number
▪ Most important is Satapatha Brahamanas
▪ Full of ritualistic formulae & explains social and religious meaning of rituals & sacrifices

Aranyakas

▪ Forest books → Composed in forests

▪ Were meant to study in forests
▪ Describes the lifestyle of Sanyasis in forests

Developments in Later Vedic Period

▪ Satapatha brahamanas refers to expansion of Aryans into eastern Gangetic plains i.e. Aryans
expanded from Punjab to whole of Uttar Pradesh covered by Ganga – Yamuna Doab
▪ Soon Kuru occupied upper portion of the doab along with Delhi & set up their capital at Hastinapur
▪ Kurus coalesced with Panchalas who occupied middle portion of the doab
▪ This era marks the famous Mahabharata war at land of Kurus i.e. Kurukshetra
▪ In later Vedic times, people hardly knew the use of burnt bricks as mud structures have been
discovered at Hastinapur
▪ From traditions we learnt that Hastinapur was thoroughly flooded and remnant of Kuru clan moved
to Kaushambi near Allahabad.

Later Vedic people succeeded in their second phase of expansion because of use of iron weapons &
horse drawn chariots (Around 1000 BC iron appeared in Dharwar district of Karnataka & at Gandhar)

▪ Iron was called shyama or Krishana Aya (Black metal)

▪ Agriculture was now chief means of livelihood with rice & wheat main crops along with the use of
wooden ploughshare → Predominantly pastoral society became agricultural
▪ For the 1st time Vedic people came to be acquainted with Rice & called it Vrihi (in Vedic text
recommended in Vedic rituals)

Later Vedic Period Crops Name

 Wheat Godhuma

Barley Yava

Rice Vrihi

Sugarcane Ikshu

▪ Famous pottery of this age was ‘Painted Grey Ware’ and ‘Northern Black Polished Ware.
▪ Term Rashtra (Territory) appeared for the 1st time in this period

Famous King’s ceremony of this age:

▪ Rajasuya Sacrifice: Supposed to confer supreme power on him (To impress/influence people)
▪ Vajapeya: Chariot race in which royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinmen
▪ Ashvamedha: Unquestioned control over area on which royal horse ran uninterrupted

Later Vedic Period Administration

▪ Popular assemblies lost their importance & royal power increased at their cost (Vidhata completely
disappeared)
▪ Sabha & Samiti continued to hold their ground but women were no longer permitted to sit on sabha
& it was now dominated by nobles & brahamanas
▪ Collection of taxes and tributes became common & responsibility for the same lied with officer
called “Sangrihitri”
▪ Even now king did not maintain a standing army & tribal units were mustered at the time of war

Societal Division in Later Vedic period

▪ Later Vedic period was divided into four vernas:

 Brahamanas Kshatriyas / Rajanas Vaishyas Shudras

▪ Growing practice of sacrifice greatly added to power of brahamanas

▪ Vaishyas were placed in the category of Dvija or Twice born and regarded as only tribute payers;
on which Kshatriyas & Brahamans lived
▪ All 3 higher vernas shared one common feature : Upanayana or investiture with sacred thread
according to Vedic mantras
▪ Shudras were deprived of sacred thread ceremony & recitation of Gayatri Mantra
▪ Certain sections of the artisans such as Rathkaras / Chariot makers enjoyed a higher status & were
entitled to sacred thread ceremony

According to Aitareya Brahmana,

▪ In relation with prince, Brahamana is described as seeker of livelihood & acceptor of gifts but
removable at will
▪ A vaishya is tribute payer, meant for being beaten & oppressed at will
▪ Shudras as servant of another & meant for being beaten & made to work at will by another
 Institution of Gotra appeared in later Vedic times, literally it mean cow pen i.e. a place where cattle
belonging to whole clan are kept, but in due time it signified as descent from a common ancestors. No
marriage could take place between persons belonging to same Gotra or having the same lineage.

Later Vedic period refers to 3 divisions of India viz.

▪ Aryavrata (Northern India )

▪ Madhyadesha (Central India)
▪ Dakshinpatha ( Southern India)

Later Vedic period mentions 4 Ashrams

▪ Brahamchari → For Student

▪ Grihastha → For householder
▪ Vanaprastha → Hermit (a stage of gradual detachment)
▪ Sanyasin / Ascetic → Who renounced the world fully

Not applicable to women & people of lower varnas

Gods of Later Vedic Period

▪ Two outstanding Rig Vedic gods Indra & Agni lost their former importance & Prajapati (The
creator) came to occupy the supreme position along with Rudra (The destroyer) & Vishnu
(Protector of people)
▪ Pushans (Supposed to look after cattles) became god of Shudras although in Rig Veda cattle rearing
was primary occupation of Aryans

Asvins Protector of agriculture (Killer the rats)

To fix a place where a new home could

Savitri be built

Surya Remove Demons

▪ Signs of Idolatry appeared in later Vedic times & mode of worship changed considerably as
sacrifices became far more important than mere prayers along with formulae(Mantras) carefully
pronounced by sacrifier
▪ Sacrifier was known as Yajamana (Performer of Yajna) & Guests were known as Goghna (Fed on
cattle) →Sacrifices involved killing of animals at large scale especially cattles
▪ These formulae, Rituals & sacrifices were invented & elaborated by priests called brahamanas who
claimed monopoly of priestly knowledge but still territory was not given as gifts in post Vedic
period

Status of Women in later Vedic period

Status of women declined as primarily pastoral society now became agricultural & women which in
pastoral time worked neck to neck with men for fetching milk & all, begin doing all household chores,
with men going to plough the field & grow grains
▪ Deprived to attend assemblies
▪ Deprived of education
▪ Deprived of Upanayana ceremony
▪ Child marriage became common
▪ Purdah and sati was not prevalent

Upanishads
▪ Towards the end of Vedic period around 600 BC, a strong reaction against priestly domination,
cults & rituals began especially in lands of Panchalas & Videha & upanishads were compiled.
▪ Upanishads were mainly philosophical texts criticizing the rituals & laid stress on Right belief &
Right knowledge of self-i.e. Relation of Atman with Brahma should be properly understood
▪ Upanishads describes dialogues between guru & shishya and were probably written by Kshatriyas
▪ Brahma emerged as supreme entity in Upanishads comparable to powerful kings of the era
▪ Upanishads followed principle of Jnana i.e.

1. True knowledge for peace

2. Changelessness, Indestructibility & immortality of soul
3. Salvation
 End of Later Vedic Period marked the beginning of territorial kingdoms such as Panchala Janapada,
Koshala Janapada etc. & wars were not fought only for cattles but also for territory.

Jainism & Buddhism: Cause of Origin

Ritualistic Dominion of Brahamanas

▪ Kshatriya reacted strongly against the ritualistic dominion of brahamanas & vernas based on birth.
▪ Verdhaman Mahavira & Gautama Buddha both belonged to Kshatriya clan & disputed the
authority of brahamanas.
Rise of new Agriculture Economy

▪ Real reason was rise of new agriculture economy in north India which was based on iron
ploughshare
▪ Required the use of bullocks & cattles & could not flourish without animal husbandry.
▪ But Vedic practices of killing cattles in sacrifice led to decimation of cattle wealth, against which
both Jainism & Buddhism spoke & propagated the idea of ahimsa.

Punch Marked Coins

Earliest coins belonged to 500 BC & are known as punch marked coins, 1st used by Vaishyas /
Traders. Use of punch marked coins facilitated trade & commerce, which added to importance of
Vaishyas as such. Vaishyas were ranked 3rd in verna system & were eager to improve their position,
hence extended generous support to Buddhism & Jainism along with the following reasons:
▪ Both were not biased towards any verna system
▪ Both Preached the gospel of non-violence, which would put an end to the war b/w kingdoms &
consequently will promote trade & commerce
▪ Brahmanical law book “Dharamsutras” decried lending money on interest & a person who live on
interest were not held in esteem by them, hence they were eager to improve their position.

New Way of life

A strong reaction by common people against use of coins, private properties, new dwellings, new
dresses, new system of transport & luxury; Hence common people yearned to go back to primitive
ways of life hence supported Buddhism & Jainism which
▪ preferred simple, Puritan & ascetic living & asked people to forgo all good things in life
▪ were not allowed to touch gold & silver & were to accept as much to keep their body & soul
together

Jainism
▪ Jainism is of ancient origin & believed to have 24 Tirthankaras / Great teachers in their religion
▪ 1st one was Rishabdev (Born in Ayodhya) who is said to have laid the foundation of orderly human
society & realised that the source of Jaina philosophy was Adinath.
▪ 23rd was Parshavnath (Born in Varanasi) & Last and 24th was Vardhamana Mahavira (Born 540 BC
at Kundangrama near Vaishali)

Vardhamana Mahavira

Father Sidhhartha Head of Jnatrika Clan

Sister of Lichchhavi chief chetaka, whose

Mother Trishla daughter married to Bimbisara

Mahavira’s family was connected to royal family of Magadha

▪ In search of truth Mahavira abandoned the world at the age of 30 & became ascetic & medicated
for 12 years practicing austerities.
▪ In 13th year, at the age of 42, he attained Kaivalya (Juan) under Sal tree at Timbhikagrama
▪ Kaivalya → One who conquered misery & happiness → And because of this conquest he is known
as Mahavira or great hero or jina (the conqueror) & his followers Jainas
▪ He propagated religion for 30 years & passed away at the age of 72 at Pavapuri near Rajgir
 3 principles of Jainism → Triratnas

▪ Right faith (believe in teachings & wisdom of Mahavira)

▪ Right Knowledge (Acceptance of theory that there is no god & world has been existing without a
creator & all objects possess a soul)
▪ Right conduct (Refers to observance of 5 great vows)

1. Ahimsa
2. Satya
3. Asteya (Not to steal)
4. Parigraha (Not to acquire property)
5. Brahamcharya (observe continence / not to led immoral life → added by Mahavira)

Teaching of Jainism

▪ Rejected the authority of Vedas & objected to Vedic rituals & sacrifices
▪ Even practice of agriculture was considered sinful as it caused injury to earth, worms & animals
▪ Doctrine of ascetism & renunciation was carried to great lengths by practice of starvation, Nudity
& other form of self-tortures (Penance for all sins committed)
▪ Although Parvanath (23rd Teacher) asked people to cover their upper & lower body part but
Mahavira asked them to discard cloths altogether ( Extreme austerity)
▪ Mahavira did not condemn Verna system as Buddhism did as according to Mahavira , a person
born in higher or lower verna is the consequences of the sins of past life & through penance &
meritorious life they can attain liberation
▪ Jainism mainly aimed at freedom of Individual from worldly bonds

Twelve small vows (anuvrats) of Jainism

Five anuvrats

1. avoiding injury to mobile beings which have two or more senses or desisting from deliberate acts of
violence
2. truthfulness to avoid false statements out of extreme affection for someone or out of hatred for
someone
3. refraining from taking anything not given
4. desisting from sexual relationship with anyone other than one’s spouse
5. voluntarily limiting the possession of all forms of assets

The Seven supplementaries

1. refraining from movement beyond a limited area

2. restricting a movement to even a more limited area
3. refraining from wanton destruction of the environmentby thought, word or deed
4. keeping aloof from a sinful conduct for a set period of time (observing samayik)
5. fasting on sacred days and observing special restrictions at secluded places
6. limiting the use of consumable and non-consumable goods
7. Sharing your food or resources with guests or wandering ascetics.

Spread of Jainism

▪ Admitted both women and shudras in its order of followers

▪ Used prakrit (common language) for preaching instead of sanskrit
▪ 200 years after the death of Mahavira, there was a serious famine in Ganga valley. Many Jain
followers led by Chandragupta Maurya & Bhadrabahu left for south (Karnataka) & rest stayed back
under the leadership of Sthalbahu. Emmigrants spread Jainism in south India.
▪ Meanwhile Sthalbahu changed the code of conduct for the monks which led to division of Jainism
into 2 sects Swetambars (White clad / Northerners) & Digambars ( Naked / Sky Clad / Southerners)
▪ 1st Jain council was held at Pataliputra led by Sthalbahu & 2nd was held at Valabhi where 12 Anagas
of Swetambars were finally compiled
 Contribution of Jainism

▪ 1st serious attempt to mitigate evil of verna system & ritualistic vedic system
▪ Adoption of Prakrit by Jainas helped in its growth & many regional languages grew out of Prakrit
especially Shauraseni, out of which Marathi grew
▪ Jainas composed earliest important work in “ Apabhramsha” & prepared its 1st grammar
▪ Jainism also contributed to the growth of Kannada
▪ Basadis → Jains Monastic establishments
▪ Jainism religious literature is written in “Ardhamagadhi” & text were finally compiled at Valabhi
(Gujrat)

Buddhism

▪ Founded by Gautam Buddha (Original Name → Siddhartha)

▪ Born in 563 BC at Lumbini in Nepal near Kapilavastu (As a kshatriya in Shakya clan)
▪ Parents → Suddhodhana & Mahamaya
▪ Left Home at the age of 29 in search of truth & did intense penance & meditation
▪ Attained Nirvana under a Pipal tree at Bodh Gaya & henceforth known as Buddha (The enlightened
one)
▪ Delivered his 1st sermon at Sarnath (Banaras) & died at the age of 80 at Kushinagar (U.P)

Noble truth by Buddha

▪ World is full of sorrow

▪ People suffer on account of desires
▪ If desires are conquered, Nirvana can be achieved i.e. free from cycle of birth & death & which can
be done by following 8 fold path (ashtangika marga):

Right Understanding Right Determination Right Speech Right Action

Right livelihood Right Exercise Right Mindfulness Right Medication

 Tri Ratnas of Buddhism

▪ Budhha (The enlightened)

▪ Dhamma ( Doctrine of Buddhism)
▪ Sangha (Order of Buddhism)

Teachings by Buddha

▪ Budhha was a practical reformer & did not believe in soul or god or metaphysical world &
concerned himself with the worldly problems
▪ Suggested that a person should avoid excess of both, Luxury & Austerity & prescribed a middle
path
▪ Laid great emphasis on Karma (Varna based on action not on birth) & Ahimsa
▪ Opposed varna system & laid down the principle of social equality

Spread of Buddhism

▪ Buddhism had 2 kinds of disciples – Monks (Bhikshus) & Lay worshippers (Upasikas)
▪ Monks were organised into sangha for the purpose of spread of Buddhist teachings
▪ Membership was open to all, Male or female without any cast distinction, but every member had to
take vow of continence, poverty & faith (Penance to achieve liberation )
▪ Use of Pali language also contributed to the spread of Buddhism
 Buddhist Text

Tripitakas → All written in Pali Language

▪ Sutta-pitaka

▪ Vinaya-pitaka
▪ Abhidhamma-pitaka

Contribution of Buddhism

▪ Slaves & debtors couldn’t join sangha rule helped moneylenders & richer sections of society
▪ Earliest Budhhist text “ Suttanipata” pleads for protection of cattles & helped to prevent their
decimation
▪ Taught people to put reason in everything & pleaded for logic instead of superstitions hence
promoted rationalism in people
▪ Promoted education through residential universities like Valabhi, Nalanda & Vikramshila
▪ Formed Hybrid Sanskrit by mixture of Pali & Sanskrit

Cause of Decline

▪ Revival of Brahmanism & rise of Bhagavatism

▪ Use of Sanskrit instead of Pali from 4th Buddhist council (Around 100 AD)
▪ After birth of Mahayana, Practice of Idol worship, Huge offerings & donations became common &
led to the deterioration of moral standards
▪ Attack of Hunas (Around 500 – 600 AD) & Attack of Turkish invaders (1200 AD) destroyed major
Buddhist Monasteries
▪ Brahamana ruler Pushyamitra have said to persecuted Buddhists
▪ Shaivite Shashanka have said to cut the original Bodhi tree at Bodhgaya

Buddhist Councils

1st Council @ Rajgir

▪ Was held immediately after the death of Buddha at Saptaparni cave in which the unwritten
teachings of Buddha were penned down after his death.
▪ Held at Rajgir under the patronage of Ajatashatru under the chairmanship of Mahakashyap
▪ Ananda composed Suttapitaka (Buddha’s Teachings) & Upali composed Vinaypitaka ( Monastic
code for Buddhism)

2nd Council @ Vaishali

▪ Was held approx. 100 years after the death of Buddha under the patronage of King Kalasoka under
the chairmanship of Sabakami
▪ Mainly due to 10 disputed points under Vinaypitaka (Monastic codes of Buddhism)

3rd Council @ Patliputra

▪ Held under the patronage of Ashoka under the chairmanship of Mogliputra tissa
▪ Compilation of Abhidhamma pitaka took place (Philosophical exposition of Budhhism)
▪ Budhhism preached & Propagated by Ashoka is known as Hinyana

4th Council @ Kashmir

▪ Held under the patronage of Kanishka under the chairmanship of Vasumitra

▪ Resulted in division of Buddhism into Hinyana & Mahayana
▪ Asvaghosa participated in this council & all the deliberations were made in Sanskrit

Origin of Mahayana Buddhism

▪ Monks around beginning of Christian era started to accept huge cash & donations & even started
accepting non-vegetarian foreigners in Sangha
▪ Monks became more lax in day to day life, started accepting gold & silver, started eating non-veg
food & started wearing elaborated robes
▪ Disciples even deserted religious order of Sangha & resumed their householder’s life; Started using
Sanskrit instead of Pali & started worshipping statues of Buddha & started practicing rituals instead
of his symbols.
▪ This new kind of Buddhism was known as Mahayana (Greater vehicle) & Hinyana (Lesser
vehicle); the former believed in image worship, rituals and Bodhisattvas, (incarnations of Buddha)
while the latter continued the practices of the earlier Buddhism.

Mahayana Hinyana

Individual as center & firm to letter of Buddhist Sangha as center & firm to essence of
 teachings Buddhist teaching

Scriptures written in sanskrit are sutra, in Angas Scriptures written in Pali as Pitakas

Salvation by work & Believed in Karmas Salvation by faith & Believed in karma

Strives after his own salvation Concerned with the salvation of others

Mahajanapadas & Rise of Magadha

Mahajanapadas

Budhhist literature Angutara Nikaya gives a list of 16 great kingdoms or Mahajanapadas in the
begining of 6th century B.C
Major reason of the formation of Janapadas was use of Iron tools for agricultural & military purposes
In course of time small or weak kingdoms either submitted to stronger rulers or got eliminated. Finally
in 6th century BC only 4 major kingdoms survived:
▪ Vatsa

▪ Avanti
▪ Magadha
▪ Kosala

Vatsa

▪ Shifted kuru clan with capital Kaushambi

▪ Most powerful ruler was Udayana
▪ After his death Vatsa was annexed to Avanti

Avanti

▪ Most important ruler was Pradyota

▪ Patronized Buddhism
▪ Finally was annexed to Magadha

Kosala
▪ Most famous ruler was Prasenjit whose sister was married to Bimbisara
▪ Prasenjit gave Kasi as dowry to Magadha
▪ After his death Kosala became part of Magadha

Magadha

▪ Most powerful kingdom of north India & founded by Jarasangha

▪ Famous rulers were

1. Bimbisara, Ajatashatru →(Haryankas)

2. Shishunaga
3. Nandas

Mahajanapadas Capital

Kamboja Rajpura

Gandhar Taxila

Surasena Mathura

Matsya Virat

Vatsa Kaushambi

Chedis Shuktimati

Kasi Varanasi
Mahajanapadas Capital

Avanti Ujjain & Mahismati

Kuru Hatinapur & Indraprastha

Panchala Kampilya & Ahichattra

Kosala Ayodhya & Sravasti

Mallas Pava & Kusinagar

Vajjis Vaishali

Anga Champa

Magadha Rajgir

Asmaka Potana
 Rise of Magadha

Bimbisara (546 – 494 BC)

▪ Contemporary of both Buddhism & jainism + Set up his capital at Rajgir (Known as Girivraja)
▪ Strengthened his position by marriage alliances (Kosala, lichhavi (Vaishali) & madra clan
(Punjab))
▪ Acquired Anga under the viceroyality of Ajatashatru (Born of Lachhavi Princess)
▪ Fought with Pradyota of Avanti but later became friends

Ajatashatru

▪ Killed his father & succeeded to the throne

▪ Fought with Kosala & Vaishali (Lichhavis – destroyed it in 16 years) & won both war
▪ Embraced buddhism & led the foundation for 1st Budhhist council at Rajgir

Udayin

▪ Succesor of Ajatashatru + Founded new capital at Pataliputra

▪ His death marked the end of Haryanka dynasty

Shishunagas

▪ Temporary shifted the capital to Vaishali

▪ Defeated Avanti & bought end to 100 year old rivalry
▪ Transferred capital from Vaishali to Patliputra

Mahapadmananda

▪ Known as Ekarat (sole king who destroy others)

▪ Conquered Kalinga & bought image of Jina as trophy
▪ Hathigumpha inscription of kharavela King (Kalinga) refers to conquest of Kalinga by Nandas

Dhanananda
▪ Last ruler of Nanda dynasty
▪ During his reign, Alexander invaded India but did not move ahead to east (Nanda’s Power)
▪ Chandragupta Maurya & Kautilya overthrew him as oppressive way of tax collection was already
resented by people

Cause of Magadha’s Success

▪ Advantageous geographical position & rich iron ores of Rajgir

▪ Capitals: Rajgir (Surrounded by 5 hills) + Patliputra (Surrounded by Ganga, Gandhak, Son &
Ghagra river → True Jaladurga)
▪ Magadha → 1st used elephants in war against enemies

Iranian (Persian) & Macedonian (Greek) Invasion

Persian Invasion (550 BC)

▪ Contemporary to reign of Bimbisara, Persian attacked N-W front of India & Magadha continued to
rise in N-E & Central-north in India
▪ In N-W front of India, several small provinces like Kamboja, Gandhara & Madra did not have a
political unity & continuously fought with each other
▪ Archaemadian ruler of Iran, Cyprus took advantage of this political disunity & invaded west front
of India.
▪ All Indian tribes west of Indus River submitted to him including Gandhar
▪ Darius 1, Grandson of Cyprus conquered Indus valley as a whole & annexed Punjab & Sindh (N W
India)
▪ Xerxes, Successor of Darius, employed Indian infantry & cavalry in war against Greece but got
defeated & hence could not move forward in India. However, control of Persians over India
slackened only after Alexander’s invasion on India
 Effects of Persian Invasion

▪ Impetus to Indo Iranian commerce & trade, which finally became the ground for Alexander’s
invasion
▪ Use of Kharoshti script bought by Iranian gain popularity in N-W India & some inscription of
Ashoka (250 BC) are written in this language (derived from Aramaic script, written from right to
left)
▪ Influence of Persian art in India, Particularly monolithic pillars , & sculptures found on them along
with inscriptions

Alexander’s Invasion (327 BC)

After 2 centuries of Persian invasion, Alexander from Macedonia invaded India. Alexander conquered
minor Asia along with Iraq & Iran and from Iran he marched into India
▪ Alexander conquered whole of Persia by defeating Darius 3 in battle of Arabela (330 BC).
▪ Herodotus, Father of history, wrote that fabulous wealth of India attracted Alexander & moreover
his interest in Geographical enquiry & love of natural history urged him to invade India
▪ Alexander believed that on eastern side of India lies continuation of the sea & hence by conquering
India, he would conquer eastern boundary of the world
▪ After conquest of Iran, he marched into India through Khyber pass 327 BC & crossed Indus in 326
BC.
▪ Ambhi, the ruler of taxila readily submitted to him but Porus whose kingdom lay between Jhelum
& Chenab refused to submit to Alexander

Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum)

▪ Although Porus had a vast army & fought bravely, but he lost to Alexander
▪ Alexander, impressed by the bravery of Indian prince reinstated him to his throne and made him his
ally

Then he advanced as far as river Beas, he wanted to move further but war weary, diseased, Hot
weather of India & 10 year of continuous fighting led to the refusal of Greek soldiers to move further
(Refusal also came because of the enormous power of Nandas of Magadha). Hence, Alexander
divided his conquered territories into 3 Parts & placed them under 3 Greek governors.

Effect of Alexander’s Invasion

▪ 1st contact b/w Europe & India paved the way for increased trade & commerce
▪ Encouraged political unification of India under Mauryas

Alexander’s authority in Indus valley was short lived because of expansion of Mauryan Empire under
Chandragupta maurya

Mauryan Empire (321 – 184 BC)

 Literary Sources

Kautilya’s Arthshashtra

▪ Written in Sanskrit by Chanakya / Kautilya / Vishnugupta / Indian Machiavelli

▪ Contains 15 books & 180 chapters; with main theme divided into 3 parts

1. King & his council and departments of government

2. Civil & criminal law
3. Diplomacy of war

Vishakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa

▪ A drama in Sanskrit written during Gupta’s period

▪ Describes how Chandragupta maurya with the help of Kautilya overthrew Nandas
▪ Gives socio – economic picture of condition under mauryas

Megasthene’s Indica

▪ Megasthene was a Greek ambassador in court of Chandragupta maurya

▪ His book is survived in fragments & provides detail about mauryan administration & military
organization, particularly of capital city (Patliputra)

Ceylonese Chronicles

▪ Ceylonese chronicles “Dipavamsa & Mahavamsa” throw light on Ashoka’s role in spreading
Buddhism in Srilanka

Edicts of Ashoka

▪ Inscriptions of Ashoka were 1st deciphered by James Princep in 1837

▪ Brahmi scripts were used for writing edicts, particularly Pali & Prakrit.
▪ In N-W India Ashoka’s inscriptions were also found in Kharosti script
▪ Name Ashoka occurs only in few minor edicts (Maski & Girnar) (In karnataka & Madhya pradesh),
rest at all places edicts mention him as “Devampriya Priyadasi” → Dear to Gods
▪ Famous Sanchi Stupa & Sarnath Pillar constitutes to Ashoka’s rein
 Chandragupta Maurya

▪ Founded Mauryan Empire by defeating Nandas with the help of Kautilya

▪ In 305 BC, he marched against Selucus Nikator (Alexanders general controlling NW India) &
defeated him.
▪ A treaty was signed, according to which, Selucus gave Chandragupta eastern Afganisthan,
Baluchistan & area west of Indus & in return Chandragupta gifted 500 elephants to Selucus &
married his daughter.
▪ Megasthenes was sent to Mauryan court as a Greek ambassador
▪ Greek writer Justin (Who wrote epitome) called Chandragupta “Sandrocottus”

Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life & stepped down from the throne in favour
of his son Bindusara & went to Mysore along with Jain monks led by Bhadrabagu & starved himself
to death

Bindusara

▪ Was called “Amitragatha” → Slayer of enemies by the Greeks

▪ Conquered Deccan upto Mysore
▪ Nikator’s successor Antichus 1 replaced Megasthenes with Deimachus as a Greek ambassador at
mauryan court under Bindusara’s Patronage
▪ Bindusara appointed Ashoka as the governor of Ujjain

Ashoka

▪ Victorious war with Kalinga was the most important event of Ashoka’s reign & its effect on
Ashoka has been described by Ashoka himself in rock edict 13
▪ As an effect of kalinga war, Ashoka embraced Budhhism under the influence of Buddhist monk
“Upagupta / Mogaliputra Tissa”
▪ Abandoned policy of physical conquest in favour of policy of cultural conquest (Bherigosha
replaced by Dhammagosa) as mentioned on rock pillar 13
▪ Appointed a class of administrative officers known as “Rajukas” vested with the power of
rewarding & punishing people, wherever necessary
▪ Set up a very high ideal for himself as Paternal Kingship (Father of all)
 Ashoka & Buddhism

▪ Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism was gradual not immediate as he first became a sakya upasaka
(Lay disciple) & 2 ½ years later became a bikshu (Monk) & gave up hunting
▪ Constituted Dhamma yatras to Sarnath, Bodhh Gaya etc. & appointed special officers called
Dhamma Mahamantras to propagate Dhamma among various social groups
▪ Sent his son Mahendra & daughter Sangamitra to Srilanka who planted branches of original Bodhi
tree there
▪ Convened 3rd Buddhist council at patliputra to strengthen sangha

Ashoka’s dhamma was to preserve the social order & held that if people behaved well they would
achieve heaven. He never said they would attain Nirvana which was the primary aim of Buddhism.
Hence, his teachings were intended to maintain social order on the basis of tolerance & does not
seems to have preached any sectarian path
 Ashoka’s Dhamma as mentioned in his various edicts may be summoned as follows:

▪ Service to father & mother, Reverence to teachers, Practice of ahimsa & love of truth
▪ Prohibition of animal sacrifices & slaughter, Prohibition of festive gathering for meaningless rituals
▪ Humane treatment of servants by the masters & prisoners by the governmental officials
▪ Courtesy to relations & liberty to Brahamanas with tolerance towards all religious sects
▪ Conquest through Dhamma instead of war
▪ Kandhar inscription speaks of success of his policies as hunters & fisherman gave up hunting &
killing & began practicing agriculture
▪ Ashoka’s death was followed by division of Mauryan Empire into 2 parts Western & Eastern.
▪ Western part was collapsed by Bactrian invasion & Eastern part last king was assassinated by
Pushyamitra Sunga

Mauryan Administration

Central Government

▪ Monarchy was supported by Kautilya however he did not stand for royal absolutism & advocated
king to take advice of his ministry in running the administration
▪ A council of ministers called mantriparishad assisted the king in administration matters ( COM
consisted of Purohit, Mahamantri, Senapati & Yuvraj )
▪ Civil servants known as “amatyas” were appointed to look after day to day administration & their
selection method was given by Kautilya

Revenue Department

▪ “Samharta”, the chief of revenue department was incharge of collection of all revenues of the
department
▪ “Sannidhata”, Chief custodian of state treasury & store house

Commerce & Industry

▪ Commerce & industry (Custom duties, Foreign affairs, Weight & measure etc) was controlled by
officers known as “Adhyakshas”

Judiciary
▪ Judicial chief justice of Supreme Court at capital in mauryan times was known as “Dharmadhikari”

▪ Subordinate courts were under Amatyas & jails under appointed officers

Provincial & Local administration

Mauryan Empire was divided into 4 provinces with capitals at:

1. Taxila
2. Ujjain
3. Suvarnagiri
4. Kalinga
Provincial governors were appointed from the royal family
▪ District administration was under the charge of “Rajukas”, who in turn were assisted by “Yuktas”
or subordinate officials
▪ Village administration was in hand of “Gramani “ & his official supervisors called “Gopa” (Head
of 10 – 15 villages)

Art & Architecture

▪ Use of stone to make monuments started in time of Ashoka

▪ Highly polished, monolithic, slightly tapering rock pillars & highly polished caves (for monks)
▪ Sarnath Pillar: 4 lions standing back to back with small lion, elephant, bull & horse in circle
▪ Barabar hills near Bodh Gaya were presented to Ajivikas by Ashoka & his son Dasratha forms
wonderful piece of mauryan architecture
▪ Introduction of burnt bricks to make structures & ring wells along with use of spoked wheel for the
1sttime after Indus valley civilization
▪ Abundance of pottery NBPW & punch marked coins were found of Mauryan era
▪ May be art of making steel started & spread by Mauryas

Cause of fall of Mauryan Empire

▪ Ashoka’s pro Buddhist policies along with prohibition of sacrifices & rituals antagonized
Brahamanas who brought about a revolution led by Pushyamitra Sunga
▪ Weak successors, Partition of empire, administrative abuses by Dustamatyas (Heavy taxex) after
Ashoka’s reign led to the fall of empire
▪ Widespread use of iron led to formation of new kingdoms & neglection of N-W front by Mauryan
also led to their downfall
▪ Chinese ruler “Shih-Huang-Ti” constructed great wall of China to prevent its border against
sythians who were an Iranian equestrian tribe, but Mauryan did not do any such thing
▪ Pushyamitra sunga (Brahamana) killed last Mauryan emperor Brihadratha publicly & persecuted
Buddhists and restarted Vedic rituals & sacrifices.
▪
Post Mauryan India: Sungas Dynasty, Satavahanas

Post Mauryan India

After Ashoka’s death, his successors were not able to keep the vast Mauryan kingdom intact.
Provinces started declaring independence. N-W India slipped out of Mauryan control & a series of
foreign invasion affected this region.
▪ Kalinga declared its independence & in further south Satavahanas declared their independent rule
▪ As a result, the Mauryan empire was confined to Gangetic valley & soon replaced by Sunga
dynasty

Sungas Dynasty

▪ Founder of Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga, who was commander in chief under the
Mauryas.
▪ He assasinated the last Mauryan ruler & claimed the throne
▪ After the invasion from Bactrian Greeks from N-W, Greeks advanced upto Patliputra & occupied it
for some time but Pusyamitra sunga reclaimed it.
▪ He also fought against Kharvela of Kalinga who invaded N- India
▪ Pushyamitra was a staunch follower of Brahamanism & persecuter of Budhhists, however he
patronised buddhist art & during his reign Buddhist monuments of Bharut (HP) & Sanchi were
renovated
▪ After death of Pushyamitra, his son Agnimitra became the ruler
▪ The last Sunga ruler was Devabhuti, Who was murdered by his own minister Vasudeva Kanva,
Founder of Kanva dynasty.
▪ Kanva dynasty ruler for approx 45 years & then Supplanted by Satavahanas & few time later came
Gupta’s at Magadha

Effect of Sunga’s

Defended Gangetic valley from foreign invaders, revived brahamanism, vaishnavism, horse sacrifice
& use of Sanskrit language. Hence, Sunga rule was a brilliant anticipation of golden age of Guptas
 Satavahanas

▪ In deccan, Satavahanas established their independent rule after the decline of Mauryas.
▪ Their rule lasted for 450 years & were known as Andhras
▪ Capital → Paithan/ Pratisthan on the river Godavari
▪ Founder of Satavahana dynasty was Simuka. He was succeeded by Krishna, who extended his
kingdom to west uptill Nashik
▪ Greatest ruler of Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satkarni.

1. Called himself the only Brahamana.

2. Called himself the only Brahamana.
3. Nashik & Nanaghad inscriptions throw light on achievements of Gautamiputra satkarni
4. Patronised Brahamanism yet gave donations to Buddhists

▪ He was succeeded by his son Vashishtaputra Pulamayi who issued coins with the inscription of
images of ships which shows naval power & maritime trade of Satavahanas
▪ Last great ruler of this dynasty was Yajna sri Satkarni, who recovered Malwa & northern coast of
konkan from Shaka rulers (which was captured by Rudradaman before)

Satavahana period saw an extensive growth in overseas trade. Satavahana administration was almost
same as Mauryans as District were called Aharas & officials Amatyas & Mahamantras.
Administration of rural areas was placed under Gaulmika who was head of military regiment
 Satavahanas → Official Language (Prakrit)

▪ Issued Silver coins → Karshpanas + Issued Lead coins → For Trade

▪ West Port → Kalyani + East Port → Gandakasela + Ganjam
▪ Started Practice of giving Tax free Villages to Brahamanas & Monks
▪ Satavahana Kingdom had 3 grades of feudatories

1. Raja → Sole right to strike coin

2. Mahabhoja
3. Senapati

▪ Revived Brahamanism along with practice of Aswamegha & Rajasuya sacrifices

▪ Kataka + Skandhvaras → Military Regiments as administrative center for kings at wartime
▪ Nagargunaconda + Amravati → Important Seats for Buddhists (Mahayana)
▪ Satavahanas formed many Chaityas (Temples – Most famous is Karle in West Deccan) & Viharas
(Residents for monk)
▪ Gathasattasai / Saptasati → Attributed to Satavahana king Hala
▪ Satavahanas were succeeded by Ikshvakus

Foreign invasion of NW India: Shakas, Parthians, Kushanas

Foreign invasion of NW India

▪ Bactrians & Parthians (Iranians) became independent from Syrian (Greek) rule around 300 BC
▪ Around 200 BC, B.C. Demetrius, the Greek ruler of Bactria invaded Afganistan & Punjab &
occupied them.
▪ From Taxila he sent his 2 commanders, Appolodotus & Menander for further conquest
▪ Appolodotus conquered Sindh & marched upto Ujjain
▪ Menander extended his rule upto Mathura & from there attempted to capture Patliputra, but was
stopped by Vasumitra (Grandson of Pusyamitra Sunga)
▪ Menander, also called Milinda, formed his capital at Sakala (Sialcot) & took great interest in
Buddhism. His dialogues with Buddhist monk Nagsena were compiled in Pali work “Milindpanho”
or questions of Milinda.
▪ Milinda, finally embraced Buddhism under Buddhist monk Nagarjuna
▪ A Greek ambassador, Heliodorus, became vaishnavite (Vasudev worshiper mainly) & erected
‘Garuna Pillar’ at Besnagar (Vidisa) – MP
▪ Indo-Greeks were 1st to issue gold coins in India

Shakas (Iranian Sythians)

▪ Greeks were followed by scythians (Shakas) who controlled much larger area of India then Greek
did. There were 5 branches of Shakas in 5 different directions in India & Afghanistan.
▪ Most famous Shaka ruler in India was Rudradaman 1 who ruled not only Sindh but also
considerable part of Gujrat, Konkan, Malwa & Kathiawar.
▪ Rudradaman 1 is famous in history for his repair work of Sudarshana lake at Kathiawar & for
issuing 1stever long inscription in chase Sanskrit whose he was a lover of
 Around 57 B.C, we hear of a king of Ujjain who fought effectively against Shakas & emerged
victorious, He called himself ‘Vikramaditya’, by whose name an era Vikram Samvat is reckoned.
Henceforth, vikramaditya became a coveted title & whosoever achieved anything great adopted this
title.

Parthians (Pahlavas)

▪ Parthians (Iranians) overthrew Shakas from Taxila around 1st century

▪ Most famous Parthian king was Gondopherens, in whose reign St. Thomas is said to have visited
India for propagation of Christianity.

Kushanas

▪ Branch of Yuchis or Tocharians tribe from north central Asia basically from neighbourhood of
China
▪ They 1st occupied Bactria or North Afghanistan, displacing Shakas & then gradually moved upto
Kabul valley & seized Gandhara by crossing Hindukush range, replacing rule of Greeks &
Parthians from these areas.
▪ Finally they setup their authority over lower Indus basin & Greater part of Ganga basin
▪ Founder of Kushana dynasty was Kadphises 1 who issued coins in Kabul valley in his name.
▪ His son Kadphises 2 issued gold coins with high sounding titles like “ Lord of whole world “ &
spread his kingdom to the east as far as Mathura

kanishka (78 – 120 AD)

▪ Most important ruler of Kushana dynasty & founder of Shaka era (Starts from 78 AD) used by GOI
▪ He was not only a great conqueror but also extended his whole hearted patronage to Buddhism
▪ He extended Kushana empire upto lower Indus basin (Malwa) & eastward till Magadha in India &
setup his capital at Peshawar (Purushaputra)
▪ Kanishka issued a high number of gold coins with high purity & embraced Buddhism whole
heartedly.
▪ However his coin exhibit images of not only Buddha but also of Greek & Hindu gods which
reflects that he was tolerant towards other religions
▪ He was a great patron of art & Sanskrit & held 4th Buddhist council at Kashmir, where doctrine of
Mahayana form of Buddhism were finalised
▪ He patronised many Buddhist scholars like Asvagosha (who wrote saundarananda &
Budhhacharita → Both in Sanskrit), Nagarjuna & Vasumitra
▪ He also patronised famous physician of Indian history Charka who wrote “ Charaksamhita”
▪ Last important Kushana ruler was Vasudeva who was worshipper of Shiva
 Impact of central Asian Contact

▪ Typical pottery of this age became red ware pottery, Plain & polished
▪ Shakas – Kushanas introduced better cavalry & use of riding horses on large scale along with use
of turban, tunic, trousers & longcoats
▪ Kushanas were the 1st ruler in India to issue gold coins on wide scale & controlled major part of silk
trade
▪ Kushanas adopted pompous titles as King of Kings & were called Sons of god like Asoka was
called Dear to gods

Gandhara School of Art

▪ Real patrons of this art were Shaka –Kushana rulers, esp. kanishka
▪ This art was a blend of India & Graeco-Roman elements (Mainly in Buddha sculptures) with main
theme Mahayanism or new form of Buddhism
▪ Extensive use of Stucco + Terracotta in small quantity

Mathura School of Art

▪ Famous for headless erect statue of kanishka with his name inscribed below
▪ Produced Buddha sculptures exhibiting spiritual feeling on his face which was absent in Gandhara
school of art
▪ Also produced stone images of Mahavira, Shiva & Vishnu along with their consorts Parvati &
Lakshmi. Also carved out female figures of Yakshini & Apsara beautifully
▪ Extensive use of Red Sandstone

Sangam Age: 300 – 600 AD

Sangam Age: 300 – 600 AD

▪ Assembly of poets
▪ Mainly patronized by Pandayas

Divided in 2 parts
 ▪ 18 major works ( Melkannakku)
▪ Mainly on Aham (Love) & Puram (Valor)
▪ 10 Idylls ( Pattuppattu)
▪ 8 Anthrologies (Ettutogai)
Narrative

▪ 18 minor works (Kikanakku)

▪ Philosophical, Moral & ethical message
Didactic ▪ Encloses Tirukkural – Bible of Tamils (Written by Thiruvallur)

Twin Tamil Epics

Silappadikaram

▪ Brightest Jewel anklet of Tamil literature

▪ Love story of Kovalam + Madhavi (Dancer) over his wife Kannagi
▪ Written by Elango Adigal

Manimekalai

▪ Story of adventures of daughter born of Kovalam & Madhavi

▪ Written by Sattanur

Narrative text

▪ Works of heroics poetry in which heroes are glorified

▪ Perpetual wars & cattle raids are frequently mentioned
▪ This text shows traces of early megalithic life &that early Tamil people were mainly
pastoral →Lived basically on hunting & fishing although cultivated rice
▪ Megalithic people believed that when a hero dies he is reduced to stones which remind us of circle
of stones on the graves of megalithic people.
▪ It may have led to practice of raising “Hero stone known as Virarkal” in honour of heroes died
fighting
▪ This text also gives us idea about military & administrative system along with trade & commerce of
south Indian people

Didactic Text

▪ Work of Brahamana written in Prakrit – Sanskrit language

▪ Mainly prescribing code of conduct for king & other social classes

Tolkkappiyam → Earliest of Tamil literature which deals with grammer & poetics on political &
socio economic conditions of that period

Cheras, Cholas & Pandyas

“During Sangam age south India was ruled by 3 dynasties namely Cheras, Cholas & Pandyas”

Cheras (Keralaputras)
 Capital → Vanji Seaports → Muziri & Tondi Emblem → Bow

▪ Roman Temple of Augustus (Later destroyed by Tipu)

▪ Greatest Ruler: Senguttuvan (Red/Good Chera)
▪ Trade: Pepper (Yavanpriya) + Jackfruit with Romans

Cholas (Cholamandam)

Emblem → Tiger Chief crop → Paddy

▪ Greatest Ruler: Karikala → Founded Puhar (Kaveripatanam) → Capital on river Kaveri

▪ Seaport → Puhar (became center of commerce & trade)
▪ Uraipur: Chief Political Center Famous for Cotton trade

Pandyas

Emblem → Carp Chief crop → Paddy

▪ Founded by a woman king

▪ Patronized Sangam assembly at capital Madurai
▪ Famous for its pearls trade
 Imp. Features of 3 kingdoms

▪ Major Revenue Source: Agriculture + Trade (Custom duty) + Warbooty

▪ Main influence of Brahamans → (Sacrifices + Dakshina) Prominent
▪ Primary Deity → Seyon / Murugan / Known as Subramaniyam in medieval times along with other
gods worshipped were Vishnu & Indra

Ruling class Arasar

Lowest class Kadaisiyar

Military captains Enadi

Rich Peasants Vellasem

Agricultural labours Pariyars (who worked in animal skin)

▪ Artisans were organized in Shrenis acc. to work which had judicial power over them & can issue
loans to workers.
▪ Chief exports were Cotton fabric, Pepper (Yavanpriya), Ivory, Cardamom, Pearl, Cinnamon &
Precious stones & chief imports were Gold, Horses, sweet wines & Coins (Gold & Silver)
▪ In north, Mathura was famous for a special kind of cloth called “Shataka”

Gupta Empire (400 – 600 AD)

▪ On ruins of Kushan Empire rose Gupta Empire

▪ Constituted majority of UP & Bihar
▪ Main center of power at Prayag (Allahabad)
▪ Founder of Gupta Dynasty was Sri- gupta
▪ Srigupta was succeeded by Ghatochkacha
▪ Both of them were called Maharaja

Chandragupta 1

▪ 1st to be called as Maharajadhiraja (Great king of kings)

▪ Married Lichchhavi princess which gave him strength & prestige
▪ Considered to be founder of Gupta era as a mark of his ascension
▪ Mehraulli iron pillar inscriptions mentions his extensive quests

Samundragupta

▪ Known as greatest ruler of Gupta dynasty & Napolean of India

▪ Was opposite of Asoka & delighted in military conquest.
▪ Inscriptions of his military conquest are mentioned (in sanskrit with Nagari script) on same
Allahabad pillar which carries inscriptions of peace loving Asoka
▪ Samundragupta never knew any defeat & conquered east till Assam, west till eastern Afganistan,
North till Kashmir & south till Tamilnadu
▪ Was a lover of art & literature, Self-proficient in music & poetry, hence called Kaviraja
▪ Patronised many poets & scholars along with famous Harisena
▪ Was an ardent follower of vaishnavism but tolerant to other religions
 Chandragupta 2 (Chandragupta Vikramaditya)

▪ His reign saw high watermark of Gupta Empire

▪ Extended his empire by military conquests & marriage alliances
▪ Defeated Shakas in Malwa & Gujrat & conquered western sea port, henceforth, Ujjain became
2ndcapital of Guptas, 1st being Prayag
▪ His exploits as Chandra has been mentioned on Qutub iron pillar Delhi
▪ His reign at Ujjain court saw numerous scholars including “Kalidasa & Amarsimha”
▪ It was his reign under which chinese pilgrimage Fa-hsien / Fahien (399-414 AD) visited India
 Fall of Gupta Empire

▪ Due to invasion of Hunas from central Asia

▪ Due to rise of Yashodharman in Malwa
▪ Due to dissention within the royal family & weak rulers
▪ The later Gupta’s embraced Buddhismwhile their predecessors were staunch Hindus.

Gupta’s Administration

▪ Unlike Mauryas, Guptas assumed titles like parmeshwara, Maharajadhiraja & Paramabhattaraka
▪ Provinces in Gupta’s period were known as Bhuktis & provincial governors Uparikas
▪ King maintained close contacts with provincial administration through a class of officials called
“Kumaramatyas” & “Ayuktas”
▪ Provinces were divided into districts Vishayas under charge of Vishayapati
▪ All foreign affairs were looked after by foreign affair minister known as “Sandivigraha”
▪ Villagers were subjected to forced labour called Vishti for serving royal army & officials

Religion & Social Culture

▪ Brahamans formed the top ladder & receive numerous gifts

▪ Brahamanism reigned supreme during Gupta period & had 2 branches mainly, Vaishnavism &
Shaivism, with former more prevalent (Bhagavatism)
▪ Fahien accounts shows a decline of Budhhism in Gangetic valley but a few budhhist monks like
Vasubandhu were patronised by Gupta kings

Art & Culture

▪ Gupta age is called golden age of India in field of art, science & literature
▪ Nagara & Dravidian styles of art evolved during this period
▪ Delhi iron pillar, 7 ½ feet Buddha statue & Deogarh temple are finest example of Gupta art
▪ Mural paintings of Ajanta, which mainly depicted life stories of Buddha as in Jtaka stories belong
to this period (Paintings at Sigiria in Srilanka are influenced by Ajanta paintings)
 Literature

▪ Sanskrit became primary language in Gupta period

▪ Ramayana & Mahabharata were compiled during this period

Abhigyanshakuntalam, MalvikagnimitramVikramorvasiya,
Kalidasa KumarsambhavaRaghuvamsa, Ritusamhara, Meghaduta

Vishakadatta Mudrarakshash & Devi – Chandraguptam

Vishnusharma Panchtantra stories

Sudraka Mrich – chakatika (Little clay art or toy cart)

Amarsimha Amarkosha (Lexicon in sanskrit)

Dandin Kavyadarsa & Desa – kumarcharita

Science & Technology

Aryabhatta Aryabhatiyam , Suryasidhhanta

Panch sidhhanta (5 astronomical system)Brihadsamhita,

Varahmitra Brihadjataka (Astrology)

Vagbhata Ashtangasamgraha (Summary of 8 branches of Medicine)

Great Medical Trio of Ancient India → Charaka, Susruta & Vagbhata

Harshavardhana (606 – 647 AD)

▪ After Gupta’s decline, Harshavardhana, a ruler of Thanesar, Haryana extended his authority over
all fiduciaries
▪ Harshavardhana made Kannauj his capital & seat of power & became last great Hindu ruler of
North India
▪ In his early life, Harsha was devoted to Shiva but later he became an ardent Mahayana Buddhist
under the influence of Chinese pilgrim Huan Tsang

Kannauj Assembly → Harsha organised a Kannauj assembly to honour Chinese pilgrim Huan Tsang
where he explained doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism & claimed his superiority over others

Prayag Assembly → 2nd Mahayana Buddhism assembly by Harsha, marked by great charity of Harsha
where he even gave up his cloths as charity

Revenue collection during Harsha’s period was divided into 4 parts namely
1. For kings
2. For Scholars
3. For officials
4. For Religious purposes

Banskhera inscriptions contains sign & conquest of Harshavardhana

 Huan Tsang Account

▪ Book → Si – Yu – Ki and Biography → Hui – Li

▪ Prevalent dowry & Sati system with no system of widow remarriage
▪ Sudras were known as agriculturist
▪ Trade declined & less issuance of coins
▪ Grants of land gained popularity
▪ Thieves at state were met with extreme punishments

Literary Sources

Banabhatta Harshacharita , Kadambari

Harshavardhana Ratnavali, Nagananda, Priyadarsika

▪ Harsha patronised Nalanda university (Mahayana type mostly), which attained international
reputation as a center of learning during his reign
▪ At Valabhi lied Hinyana form of Buddhism Institution
▪ Nalanda (Giver of knowledge) name was founded by Kumargupta – 1 in Gupta period

Chalukya, Pallava, Pandyas

▪ 600 AD: 3 Main Kingdoms in South: Chalukya (Badami); Pallava (Kanchi); Pandyas (Madurai)
▪ Primary Language : Sanskrit
▪ Rise of agrarian economy + No megaliths + Decline in trade
▪ Numerous grants were made to Brahamanas
▪ Marked by beginning of construction of stone temple of Vishnu & Shiva
▪ Jainism was confined to Maharashtra

Chalukyas of Badami

▪ Northern Maharashtra → Vakatas (Brahamanas) Succeded Satavahanas

▪ Vakatas were Succeeded by Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi)
▪ Chalukyas of Badami claimed their descendent from Moon/Manu/Brahma
▪ Capital → Badami (Vatapi) at Bijapur (Karnataka)
Greatest Ruler → Pulakeshin 2

▪ Aihole inscription by Ravikriti in sanskrit

▪ Defeated Harshas Army advancing in Deccan on banks of Narmada

Architecture by Chalukyas

▪ Developed Deccan/ Vesara style Temples

▪ Developed Papanatha & Virupaksha @ Pattadakal (City of famous 10 temples)

Pallavas

▪ Eastern Peninsula → Ikshvakus (Suryavansh) Succeeded Satavahans

▪ Ikshvakus were succeeded by Pallavas
▪ Pallavas were called “ Creeper/ Tondai / Robbers)
▪ Capital → Kanchipuram
▪ Conflict with kadambas (Founded by Mayurasharman : Capital → Vaijayanti)
 Great Pallava Ruler → Narasimhavarman

▪ Defeated Pulakeshin 2
▪ Occupied Vatapi & entitled Vatapikonda
▪ Founded Port city of Mahabalipuram (Now Mamallapuram)

Pallavas Dravidian Style Temples

7 Ratha temple Mahabalipuram Rock cut

Shore Temple Mahabalipuram Free standing

Vaikuntha Perumal Mahabalipuram Free standing

Kailashnath Temple Kanchipuram Free standing

Conflict with Kalbhras

▪ Pallavas, Chalukyas & Kadambas → All 3 were brahamans

▪ Followed brahamanism with vedic sacrifices
▪ Made numerous land grants to Brahamanas
Kalbhras Patronised Buddhism & Buddhist monasteries
Land grants to brahamanas led to revolt of Kalbhras mainly to put an end to Brahamadeya right to
Brahamanas

Rural Structure

Generally 3 types of villages, namely Ur, Sabha & Nagaram

Inhabited by peasants who held their land in common & village headman collected
Ur tax & paid on everyone’s behalf

Sabha Brahamdeya or land granted to Brahamanas (Agrahara villages)

Nagaram Inhabited by merchants & traders

In Chalukya kingdom rural affairs were managed by village elders known as “Mahajana”