WORLD PIPELINES

Volume 16 Number 12 - December 2016

DECEMBER 2016

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www.worldpipelines.com

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 52 77 83

Contents
WP_December_2016_77-82.indd 77 25/11/2016 10:02

WORLD PIPELINES | VOLUME 16 | NUMBER 12 | DECEMBER 2016

03. Guest comment WELDING

Ali Mirzaee-Sisan, Business Development Manager – Pipelines UK & West 52. Customising automated solutions
Africa, DNV GL. Louis Dicaire, AGT Robotics (Canada) and Ian McLaren, ESAB (England).
05. Pipeline news 57. Introducing induction heating
Recent news covering all aspects of the midstream oil and gas sector, such Steve Latvis, Miller Electric Mfg. Co., USA.
as Dakota Access, Trans Mountain and TANAP pipeline projects; proposed
transmission lines or pipelines scheduled for completion; and plenty of
contract news. COVER STORY
61. Innovation drives growth
REGIONAL REVIEW Nathan Muncaster, Polyguard Products, USA.
12. 2016: a challenging year?
Dr. Hooman Peimani provides a review of the oil and gas pipeline industry, PIPELINE STEELS
focusing on key projects, including Nord Stream 2, Dakota Access and the 67. Combating corrosion in aggressive environments
Trans Adriatic pipeline. Peter Stones, Sandvik, UK.

OFFSHORE TRENCHING & CONSTRUCTION

72. Solid as a rock
Martyn Campbell, Jee Ltd, UK.
77. To pre-trench or to post-trench?
Dr. Hooman
Peimani
provides a
review of
Peter Ivicevich and Tom Seeber, Atteris LLC, USA.
the oil and
gas pipeline
industry,
focusing on

PIPELINE MACHINERY REVIEW

key projects,
including
Nord Stream
2, Dakota
Access and

83. World Pipelines' quarterly pipeline machinery

the Trans
Adriatic
pipeline.

2016 focus featuring SICIM.

has been a difficult year for the global economy. Apart from a relatively small number of
countries having impressive or satisfactory economic performance, the overall economic
situation has been disappointing for many.
After years of recession and poor economic performance, Europe – a major energy
consumer – is still struggling to revitalise its economy. Brexit has not helped this project due to its psychological impact on the
future of the European Union (EU). However, this alone cannot be blamed for Europe’s dismal economy, at least not yet. It will
certainly be a different story once Britain’s breakaway is official to reveal the magnitude of its economic effect on the regional
grouping.

PAGE
Various European sanctions on Russia over Ukraine have surely had a negative impact on many European trading
economies, apart from reinforcing the recessionary power of a phenomenal decline in oil and gas prices on Russia’s energy

COMPRESSORS & TURBINES

export-driven economy.

12
The world’s largest energy consumer, Asia, has had its own economic challenges. They have partly arisen due to the
global slowdown but also because of its own difficulties. Structural barriers have prevented Japan from securing a sustainable
economic health since its so-called bubble burst of the early 1990s. This has kept the world’s third largest economy in a steady
state of poor economic performance, interrupted by short-lived, low rate recoveries, despite the relatively well performance of
its export sector. Additionally, Japan’s seemingly unstoppable shrinking population will decrease its energy demand.

12 13
87. Can you afford not to go digital?
Diego Comina, GE Oil & Gas, Italy.
WP_December_2016_12-19.indd 12 25/11/2016 09:57 WP_December_2016_12-19.indd 13 25/11/2016 09:57

93. Compressor lubrication: challenges and solutions

INTEGRITY & SENSING Ayman Ali, ExxonMobil, Czech Republic.
20. The eye in the sky
Jan Ridder, Sven van Haver and Marcel Kaufmann, Orbital Eye, the VALVES & PUMPS
Netherlands. 99. SEMPs – simple solutions
28. Dogs detecting gas leaks Amin Almasi.
Bart Wauterickx and Kristof Verwaest, The Sniffers, Belgium.
33. Drawing a line in the sand
Marc Laing, NEL, UK.
SEASON's
PIPELINE REHAB & RETROFIT
37. Getting to grips with pipe repairs
GREETINGS
Ray Martinez, RAM-100, USA.
41. Replace or repair?
Elaine Maruca, The Pipe Line Development Company (PLIDCO), USA.
45. Reasons and remedies for a pipeline seam rupture
WORLD PIPELINES

A. K. Tewari and S. S. Gupta, Indian Oil Corporation Ltd., India. Volume 16 Number 12 - December 2016
DECEMBER 2016

ON THIS MONTH'S COVER Reader enquiries [www.worldpipelines.com]

Polyguard is very proud to celebrate 24 years of unbroken sales expansion, and

would like to express its gratitude for all of its customers’ loyalty in the
ISSN 1472-7390

approximately 30 countries using Polyguard products worldwide. Pictured on the

cover is a pipeline rehabilitation image of an RD-6 pipeline coating application in the
US. The RD-6 coating system has been used in the US since 1988.
Polyguard. Innovation Based. Employee Owned. Expect More.

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www.worldpipelines.com

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Member of ABC Audit Bureau of Circulations
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or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. All views expressed in this
journal are those of the respective contributors and are not necessarily the opinions of the publisher, neither do the publishers endorse any of the claims made in WP_December_2016_OFC_02.indd 1 24/11/2016 10:20

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Pipelines UK & West Africa, DNV GL
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Guest
Comment
I
ncreasing efficiency and cost reduction are
phrases synonymous with operators’
objectives since the oil price crash in 2014.
There’s no doubt the subsequent turmoil
has had a huge impact on the entire oil and
gas business, and will have a lasting influence
on the future of integrated pipeline design
processes and operations.
The once maligned buzzwords
‘standardisation’ and ‘digitalisation’ are now
seen as key components to streamline and
improve work processes, such as design,
pipeline installation and operation, as well as
increase predictability and transparency for
the supply chain. Over-conservatism of design
approaches is now being challenged, which
will result in the revision of codes, standards
and recommended
practices. This would
ultimately improve COLLABORATION
quality, as the ACROSS THE
processes will then be
more streamlined with
INDUSTRY IS KEY
clearer requirements. FOR A SUSTAINABLE
However, this ‘new PIPELINE SECTOR
normal’ will take some
time to fully embed in
the psyche of the pipelines sector.
The rise of digitalisation is already
influencing data management and the
efficiency to be gained could be significant.
Customers are increasingly expecting much
shorter delivery times and information that is
dynamic and up-to-date. In the future, the
industry will be able to manage greater
volumes of data, as well as maximising the
value of this data by making sense of its
diversity and complexity. New opportunities
will emerge, based on new possibilities in
combined monitoring, advanced inspection
and sensor technology. The future could bring
cognitive technologies where smart data
management and intelligent learning from
existing pipelines will lead to improved design
criteria. This digital drive would help increase
confidence in an asset’s condition and reduce
the risk to the buyer, seller or investor.
While the industry can benefit from
increasing computational power, unbalanced
automation may increase the risk of losing the
best engineering practices. Pipeline basic
knowledge and decision gates are, and always
will be, controlled by good engineering
practices and previous project experience. In
some parts of the world, the lack of
competent engineers and basic pipeline
knowledge is still creating huge challenges.
Pipelines traverse continents and oceans,
making them vulnerable to various risks
including environments, cyber attacks, terrorist
attacks, and third-party interference. Third-
party interference has been one of the largest
threats to pipelines in some locations and has
been blamed for lost production. Illegal
tapping of pipelines is a global problem that
costs operators millions of dollars per year
and poses a high risk to safety, the
environment and company reputation.
Analysts predict that global gas consumption
will grow and that political instability and
supply diversification will encourage new
global pipeline routes to reduce uncertainties
in the market.
Currently, new pipeline projects are being
designed and constructed to supply more
natural gas to Europe, namely TAP, TANAP and
Nord Stream 2. There are also major pipeline
projects planned via Russia to the East, as well
as from central Asia to China, Middle East to
India, and Africa to
Europe.
Less susceptible to
oil price fluctuations
and global politics,
product pipelines
within each country’s
national borders have
to be built and
operated efficiently.
The growth of this segment is governed by
local demand and the condition of the
internal infrastructure. In developing countries,
under-invested pipeline infrastructure will
require outlay to continue their local supply
and possible connection to neighbouring
countries.
Collaboration across the industry is key
for a sustainable pipeline sector. Pipeline
operators have valuable information about
pipelines in operation, which can be
harnessed to provide better predictive tools.
This can be facilitated by industry forums
where owners and operators share
information for mutual benefit. Ongoing
innovation in design, installation and
operation of pipelines is critical to drive the
pipeline industry forward and ensure the
upcoming advances, such as new composite
materials, control and instrumentation tools,
unmanned inspection vehicles and repair
systems that help deliver the operators’
objectives and requirements.
The pipeline industry has not been
immune from the negative impact of the oil
price crash. Though the oil price remains
relatively low, the market is more stable than
before and the industry is adapting to the ‘new
normal’. The metamorphosis from ’reducing
cost’ to ‘adding value’ is gaining strength and
momentum. Despite the uncertainties, DNV
GL’s combined capability in onshore and
offshore pipelines is supporting the pipeline
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World News
Recap on the Dakota Access pipeline project
Recently, the infamous Dakota Access pipeline project has
been repeatedly making headlines. The following provides
an update on the project’s current status.
In early November, the final phase of Energy Transfer
Partners’ (ETP) Dakota Access pipeline was scheduled to
begin. Although federal regulators had not said the line was
allowed to proceed, the company stated it would not slow
down construction.
After the announcement and despite an abundance of
opposition from environmentalists and Native American
groups (most notably the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, who
argue that the line could permanently contaminate its water
source, the Missouri River, and desecrate sacred sites), API
decided to question the Obama Administration about the
project: “It defies logic that the Obama Administration
would ignore the rule of law by unilaterally delaying this
critical infrastructure that would create American jobs and
benefit American consumers.”
Then, on 16 November, ETP and Sunoco Logistics
Partners, L.P. stated that both companies had made two
related court filings. Both were seeking a judgment,
declaring that ETP would have the legal right-of-way to
build, complete and operate the Dakota Access pipeline
without further action from the Army Corps of Engineers.
However, protesters are remaining optimistic and are
determined to stop construction. In a series of
demonstrations against the pipeline on 21 November, an
estimated 400 protesters mounted the Backwater Bridge in
attempt to force their way past police. A line of police
turned the protesters back.
The Backwater Bridge has been long-blockaded due to
the pipeline’s construction. It was closed when activists
clashed with police in October, which resulted in two
trucks being set on fire and prompted authorities to forcibly
shut down a protesters encampment nearby.
While the Morton County sheriff’s office described the
clash as a “riot” and claimed that one arrest had been made,
protesters stated that authorities used tear gas, rubber
bullets and a water cannon in below-freezing temperatures.
The police themselves claimed the protesters hurled rocks,
striking one officer, and fired burning logs from slingshots.
Finally, by a majority vote, the US Commission on Civil
Rights issued an official statement on 23 November
regarding the pipeline.
Commission Chair, Martin R. Castro, stated: “The issue is
not just about the pipeline alone, but rather it is about the
entire relationship between the US and sovereign Indian
Nations, their rights, traditions and religious beliefs. As we
prepare our civil rights report on this relationship, we call
on Congress to make it a priority to address the problems
in Indian country by holding its own hearings to hear from
Native leaders about the unmet needs and unmet promises
owed to Native Americans by the US.”
It is expected that mixed discussions on the project will
continue indefinitely.
Trans Mountain to be approved soon?
Canadian Prime Minister, Justin Trudeau, has announced environmental
measures that must be taken on Kinder Morgan’s Trans Mountain pipeline
expansion project. Trudeau has been investing heavily in marine protection
and greener infrastructure as a way of transporting Canadian energy in a
safe and environmentally-friendly manner.
The Liberal government, who intends to aid Alberta’s struggling
economy by transporting its oilsands bitumen to Asian markets via a British
Columbian port, must make a decision on the pipeline project by
19 December.
The project is objected by many. On 16 November, Coquitlam – Port
Coquitlam MP, Ron McKinnon, wrote to Jim Carr, Natural Resources Minister:
“[The tripling pipeline capacity to its Burnaby terminal] is detrimental to
British Columbia and the project should not proceed.”
Vancouver Mayor, Gregor Robertson, also wants the project rejected,
stating: “The proactive way to prevent massive impact from an oil spill on
British Columbia’s south coast is to not approve [Trans Mountain]. I strongly
urge the federal government to reject Kinder Morgan’s pipeline proposal.”
Nevertheless, the government seems to be preparing for approval.
Ed Greenspon, President of the Public Policy Forum, noted: “The Prime
Minister has been consistent in saying climate policies and energy
development can co-exist. Middle class jobs are top of his agenda and he
won’t leave Alberta out in the cold. He’s taken risks before and looks ready
to take some flack here.”
FERC decision on PennEast to be delayed by months
The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission’s (FERC) decision on PennEast’s
plans for a pipeline will be delayed by at least two months. The company’s
ongoing efforts to obtain agency approval for its planned natural gas
pipeline have also been delayed with this recent FERC announcement.
A final report regarding the potential environmental impacts that could
occur as a result of the construction and operation of the proposed 118 mile
pipeline was expected to be submitted before 16 December. However, the
report is now expected on 17 February. Once received, the FERC is expected
to approve or deny the pipeline after reviewing the final report.
The delay will give PennEast time to submit additional information
regarding 33 route modifications that were announced in September. The
company announced the pipeline project in August 2014 and wants to begin
construction next year.
FERC also sent PennEast a request for 46 sets of new data and asked for
over 30 corrections to the pipeline application. The company has 20 days to
comply with the request.
Opponents to the pipeline viewed the delay as a small victory. However,
a spokeswoman for PennEast, Patricia Kornick, stated that the company still
anticipates that the pipeline will be operational sometime in 2018.
“This delay, on top of all the other delays, is one small victory after
another,” said Jeff Tittel, Director of the N.J. Sierra Club. “It gives us an
opportunity to get more opposition to this pipeline.”
“Building energy infrastructure is a multi-year process, so an extra
60 days is not surprising,” Kornick said. She added that PennEast will provide
the additional information on the 33 route modifications. Of the
modifications, 26 are in Pennsylvania.
The route changes were filed after the initial public comment period,
which concluded on the draft environmental impact statement. This did not
allow for public input on the route changes.
DECEMBER 2016 / World Pipelines 5
IN BRIEF
North America
TransCanada’s Keystone XL pipeline
expansion project, previously vetoed by
President Obama, could now be revived
by the newly elected Donald Trump.
The 1197 mile, US$8 billion pipeline
would transport crude oil from
Canadian oilsands to US Gulf Coat
refineries. It is predicted that the
project would also create
approximately 9000 jobs as well as a
US$3 billion boost to the US economy.
India
A gas leak from Hindustan Petroleum
Corporation Limited’s (HPCL) under-
construction Mangalore-Hassan-
Mysore-Sollur LPG pipeline was
recently reported. Since reporting the
leak, the police have advised residents
to evacuate to safer areas, whilst fire
tenders have been hosing water at the
leak to reduce the vapours being
emitted.
Malaysia
Malaysian Prime Minister, Najib Razak,
has stated that Malaysia is considering
the possibility of participating in the
construction of the 33 billion m3/y
Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India
(TAPI) gas pipeline. Malaysia has been a
long-term trading partner with
Turkmenistan, so there is a reasonable
prospect of the country being involved
in the project.
Australia
The offshore and onshore sections of
the Ichthys LNG 890 km gas export
pipeline have been safely welded
together. Joining the two pipeline
sections – 882 km offshore and 8 km
onshore – means that the pipeline is
ready to deliver gas from the offshore
Ichthys field to the project’s onshore
facilities at Bladin Point near Darwin for
processing.
Norway
The latest element of Nord Stream’s
repair preparedness strategy, a subsea
pipeline repair clamp, has reached its
destined storage facilities in Haugesund
(Norway). The clamp was produced by
Oil States Industries.
6 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
World News
Court stops pipeline developer
from conducting surveys
The West Virginia Supreme Court has
refused to allow Mountain Valley Pipeline
LLC (MVP) to survey landowners’ property
without their permission. At a recent
hearing, the court ruled in favour of a couple
who objected to pipeline surveyors
accessing their property. The ruling will
prevent MVP from using the domain to build
on private land.
Justices ruled that West Virginia’s eminent
domain laws apply to projects that have a
public use. However, the Mountain Valley
pipeline does not specifically benefit West
Virginia as the natural gas will not necessarily
be used in the state.
The court case originated in 2015 when
the couple – who own 185 acres of land
along the proposed pipeline route –
objected to requests by an MVP agent to
conduct surveys. In August 2015, Robert Irons,
a Monroe County Circuit Court Judge, ruled
that the company failed to prove that the
pipe would have sufficient public benefit.
Thus, he ruled that MVP could not justify
entering private property without owners’
permission.
MVP has since appealed, arguing that the
survey work would not be invasive and that
the pipeline would benefit locals. However,
many believe that it would largely only
benefit the company and its investors.
The company now plans to use federal
law to access to the property it needs to
survey and build the pipeline through a
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)
certification, which it has requested.
Progress being made on the IP pipeline project
The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural
Resources of Pakistan is hoping to resume
negotiations with Iran for laying a gas
pipeline between the two countries. The
ministry is looking to reduce its gas import
price by continuing negotiations on the Iran-
Pakistan (IP) gas pipeline. However, it requires
the green light from the Economic
Co-ordination Committee (ECC) to do so.
Managing Director of Pakistan’s Inter
State Gas Systems (ISGS), Mobin Saulat, is
reported to have said that the China
Petroleum Pipeline Bureau (CPPB), which is
currently engaged in the Gwadar-Nawabshah
LNG terminal and pipeline project, has
shown interest in working on the unbuilt
portion of the IP gas pipeline.
Potential gas pipeline between
Turkey and Israel
According to Israel’s Minister of National
Infrastructures, Energy and Water Resources,
Yuval Steinitz, representatives from Israel’s
Foreign Ministry and its Department of
Energy attended a meeting with Turkish
officials to discuss the construction of a gas
pipeline between the two countries. This
follows earlier meetings, held in October.
The talks considered a framework
agreement between the two countries and
both called for a pipeline to be laid by
April 2017. However, it is believed that the
completion date of the agreement is likely to
be deferred.
Turkish and Israeli companies are now
discussing the possibility of the gas pipeline
being built to transport natural gas supplies
from the Leviathan gas field off the coast of
Israel.
Following talks with his Turkish
counterpart, Berat Albayrak, Steinitz
highlighted: “What we decided is to
immediately establish a dialogue between
our two governments [...] in order to examine
the possibility and the feasibility of such a
project [building an offshore pipeline to
pump Israeli gas to Turkish and other
European consumers].”
Diplomatic ties between Turkey and
Israel deteriorated after Israel raided a
Turkish flotilla that was trying to breach
Israel’s blockade of the Hamas-controlled
Gaza Strip in 2010. This was a deadly
occurrence that soured relations before the
two countries signed a reconciliation
agreement in June.
The project is likely to be executed by
CPPB as part of a government to government
arrangement.
Saulat highlighted: “We are working with
China Petroleum Pipeline Bureau on the
Gwadar LNG pipeline and it is willing to
connect remaining portion of the pipeline
from Gwadar to the Iranian border.”
He also noted that Pakistan was facing a
gas shortage, and that the LNG terminal and
pipeline project would help secure energy
security.
The final construction phase of the IP
pipeline was inaugurated on 11 March 2013.
However, Pakistan has fallen short of
constructing the 700 km part of the pipeline
on its territory.
130 Since 1883 - Over 130 Years Service to Industry 130
Events DIARY
World News
Over half of TANAP to be Amberjack extends pipeline
23 - 25 January 2017 complete by end 2016 system
European Gas Conference Construction of the Trans Anatolian gas Amberjack Pipeline Company LLC has
Vienna, Austria pipeline project (TANAP) has begun and is recently announced the completion of a
http://www.europeangas-conference. expected to be 55% complete by the end debottleneck project. The project installed a
com/ of the year, according to Turkey’s Minister 33 mile, 24 in. pipeline segment from the
of Energy and Natural Resources, Berat Green Canyon block 19 platform (GC-19) to
14 - 18 February 2017 Albayrak. the South Timbalier block 301 (ST-301) area.
Pipe Line Contractors Association The pipeline is expected to serve as a The pipeline is designed to connect existing
Scottsdale, USA
new alternative for energy supplies to infrastructure and expand the capacity to
Europe, which (alongside TurkStream) will Fourchon.
http://www.plca.org/
allow Turkey to become gas trade centre. In addition, it routes the existing
The minister also noted that Turkey, Amberjack 20 in. pipeline segment from
22 - 24 February 2017 being located close to the energy-rich GC-19 directly to the Ship Sho block 332A
AOG 2017 regions (such as the Caspian Sea region, (SS-332A) platform via the Jackalope 20 in.
Perth, Australia the Middle East and Central Asia), is pipeline.
http://aogexpo.com.au/ moving in the direction of becoming an The debottleneck project increased the
energy hub and diversifying its energy GC-19’s off-take capacity by 60%. From GC-19,
sources. shippers can remain on the Amberjack
27 February - 2 March 2017
TANAP is expected to transport gas pipeline system to the Mars pipeline or the
PPIM
from Azerbaijan’s Shah Deniz field to the Chevron pipeline to Empire, or connect to
Houston, USA western borders of Turkey. Its length is set other pipelines, such as Poseidon, CHOPS and
http://www.clarion.org/ppim/ppim17/ to be 1800 km with the initial capacity of Eugene Island.
index.php
16 billion m3, and gas is expected to be Moreover, pipeline and platform facility
delivered to Turkey in 2018. TANAP is a design and construction work was completed
26 - 30 March 2017 priority for the EU as it is expected to by a blended SPLC and CPL team, each
NACE Corrosion enhance the continent’s energy security responsible for different aspects of the
New Orleans, USA and diversify its gas supply routes. project. This project required an extensive
http://nacecorrosion.org/ Around 6 billion m3 of gas will be saturated diving campaign, with over 170 days
delivered to Turkey, with the remaining of safe diving with no unscheduled downtime
volume being supplied to Europe. to the existing Amberjack system.
28 - 30 March 2017
TANAP shareholders are SOCAR (58%),
StocExpo 2017 BOTAS (30%) and BP (12%).
Rotterdam, the Netherlands
http://www.easyfairs.com/
stocexpo-rotterdam-2017/stocexpo- Bulgaria and Romania open a News Highlights
rotterdam-2017/ new pipeline
In attempt to reduce their dependence
4 - 6 April 2017 on Russian natural gas, Bulgaria and
The Pipeline + Energy Expo Romania have recently opened a new gas
Tulsa, USA pipeline.
http://www.pipelineenergyexpo.com/ Originally, Gazprom’s South Stream
index.html pipeline would have transported natural
gas to Bulgaria and central Europe via the
4 - 7 April 2017 Black Sea. However, the project was
Gastech Japan 2017 cancelled in 2014 due to conflict with the
European Union.
Chiba-city, Japan ➤➤ Sempra sets back
The 25 km natural gas interconnector
http://www.gastechevent.com/ Southern Gas Pipeline project
pipeline will run beneath the Danube
River and can be operated in either ➤➤ Trump’s shift in US trade
9 - 13 April 2017 direction. In turn, this allows European gas policy will affect Canada
NASTT’s 2017 No-Dig Show to be imported to Bulgaria, as opposed to ➤➤ Gazprom supplied with
Washington D.C., USA Russian gas. innovative and reliable pipe
http://nodigshow.com/ The pipeline can hold a maximum of products
1.5 billion m3/y of natural gas and the ➤➤ Thanksgiving DAPL protests
capacity of gas flowing in the other
direction is 500 million m3/y.

8 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016 To read more about the articles go to

www.worldpipelines.com
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protection for the
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 Contract News
Project management contract for Baltic Connector
pipeline
Technology, engineering and project management company, Neste
Jacobs, and Baltic Connector, a state-owned company, have signed a
contract regarding project management services for the Baltic
Connector gas pipeline between Finland and Estonia.
Neste Jacobs will work as an owner’s engineer in the integrated
project management team. The project enables the interconnection
and integration of the Baltic and Finnish gas markets to the EU’s
internal energy markets. The Baltic Connector pipeline will increase
maintenance reliability and energy security in the whole area.
The project will include the construction of a 150 km long
bi-directional gas transmission pipeline, from which 80 km will be
constructed offshore subsea between Paldiski (Estonia) and Inkoo
(Finland) and two onshore gas transmission pipelines to Finland and
in Estonia. The project will also include construction of a gas
metering station and two compressor stations to Inkoo and Paldiski.
The project will start in November 2016 and is estimated to be
finished in December 2019. The transfer capacity of the completed
pipeline will be 7.2 million m3/d.
“We are delighted to be chosen as the project management
services partner for the Baltic Connector project as we have been
involved in building the whole natural gas infrastructure in Finland
from the very beginning. Neste Jacobs has a solid track record in
providing owner’s engineering and project management services for
hydrocarbon and bio-industries including our vast experience from
many LNG terminal projects,” said Jarmo Suominen, Managing
Director, Neste Jacobs Oy.
“The selection of a partner was based on competitive bidding
and Neste Jacobs proved to be the strongest bidder for this project.
We look forward to successful co-operation with Neste Jacobs’ team
and believe that having a reliable and experienced partner will assist
in keeping the deadline and budget of the project,” said Herkko Plit,
President and CEO, Baltic Connector Oy.
Sempra Energy pulls out of pipeline deal
Sempra Energy has recently announced that it has pulled out of a
bid to buy a 50% stake in a US$5 billion pipeline project in Peru.
The company stated: “Negotiations have terminated without an
agreement. Despite significant efforts, the Peruvian government
expressed its inability to provide necessary assurances that the
concession would not be cancelled due to alleged legal violations
by the seller or its affiliates. As a consequence, a fundamental
condition that was required for us to consider entering into a final
and binding agreement was not satisfied.”
The company’s statement centred on Peruvian President, Pedro
Kuczynski, refusing to strip an anti-corruption clause that would
allow Sempra to seize the project from the pipeline’s current owner
– Odebrecht – if it was found to have broken any laws.
The pipeline in question is called the Gasoducto del Sur. It is
700 miles long and is currently one of the largest Latin American
infrastructure projects.
This announcement is the latest setback for Odebrecht as it
faces approximately US$2.1 billion in fines. It has also left the
pipeline’s junior partners – Grana y Montero and Enagas –
attempting to save the project.
10 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
Compressor trains ordered for Mexican pipeline
project
Dresser-Rand – part of the Siemens Power and Gas Division –
has recently received an order to supply five gas turbine-driven
compressor trains for two pipelines in Mexico, for Mexican
project developer Fermaca Enterprises (Fermaca).
The compressor trains are expected to be commissioned in
the winter 2017. Moreover, both stations are scheduled to begin
commercial operation in early 2018. Each compressor train
consists of an STC-SV single shaft compressor, driven by a
Siemens SGT-400 gas turbine.
The equipment will provide compression power for a
1500 km pipeline that will transport natural gas from the north
to the centre of the country, where it will feed several new,
high efficiency power plants and the local industry.
Two of the trains will be installed at a pipeline station in La
Laguna. The other three will be part of a pipeline compressor
station in Villa de Reyes. This order follows the El Encino-La
Laguna pipeline project, which was successfully completed with
Fermaca and has given new impetus to the Mexican oil and gas
industry.
“We are pleased to be selected as the compression solution
supplier for this strategically important pipeline project in a
highly competitive market,” said Christopher Rossi, CEO of the
Dresser-Rand business.
“The choice of technology and, more importantly, supplier
selection are critical elements for Fermaca’s success and
resilience,” said Dr. Raul Monteforte, Chief Development Officer
of Fermaca.
Crude joint venture between Sunoco and
ExxonMobil
Sunoco Logistics Partners L.P. has announced a strategic joint
venture with ExxonMobil, in which the companies will form
Permian Express Partners LLC to combine certain of their key
crude oil logistics assets.
Sunoco Logistics will contribute its Permian Express 1,
Permian Express 2 and Permian Longview and Louisiana Access
pipelines. ExxonMobil will contribute its Longview to Louisiana
and Pegasus pipelines, Hawkins gathering system, an idle
pipeline in southern Oklahoma and its Patoka (Illinois) terminal.
This joint venture establishes a stronger crude oil logistics
network to meet market demand, provides additional take-away
opportunities for shippers, and expands ExxonMobil’s options to
supply its network of refineries. Concurrent with the transaction,
ExxonMobil and its affiliates will enter into a preferred provider
agreement with the joint venture. Sunoco Logistics will be the
majority owner and operator of the joint venture’s assets.
“This combination of certain strategic crude oil assets,
together with our existing and recently acquired Midland Basin
assets, greatly enhances our service capabilities for the Permian
Basin, one of the most prolific shale areas with incredible
growth opportunities. We expect to achieve significantly
greater long-term accretion as domestic crude oil production
grows over time,” said Michael J. Hennigan, President and Chief
Executive Officer of Sunoco Logistics.
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12
 Dr. Hooman
Peimani
provides a
review of
the oil and
gas pipeline
industry,
focusing on
key projects,
including
Nord Stream
2, Dakota
Access and
the Trans
Adriatic
pipeline.

2016
has been a difficult year for the global economy. Apart from a relatively small number of
countries having impressive or satisfactory economic performance, the overall economic
situation has been disappointing for many.
After years of recession and poor economic performance, Europe – a major energy
consumer – is still struggling to revitalise its economy. Brexit has not helped this project due to its psychological impact on the
future of the European Union (EU). However, this alone cannot be blamed for Europe’s dismal economy, at least not yet. It will
certainly be a different story once Britain’s breakaway is official to reveal the magnitude of its economic effect on the regional
grouping.
Various European sanctions on Russia over Ukraine have surely had a negative impact on many European trading
economies, apart from reinforcing the recessionary power of a phenomenal decline in oil and gas prices on Russia’s energy
export-driven economy.
The world’s largest energy consumer, Asia, has had its own economic challenges. They have partly arisen due to the
global slowdown but also because of its own difficulties. Structural barriers have prevented Japan from securing a sustainable
economic health since its so-called bubble burst of the early 1990s. This has kept the world’s third largest economy in a steady
state of poor economic performance, interrupted by short-lived, low rate recoveries, despite the relatively good performance
of its export sector. Additionally, Japan’s seemingly unstoppable shrinking population will decrease its energy demand.

13
 As the world’s largest energy consuming country and second
largest economy, China has expanded its global market, while its
domestic one is still far below its potential. Its economic miracle
since 1978 has primarily benefited its southern provinces – for
example Fujian, Guangzhou and major cities such as Shanghai,
Tianjin and Beijing – covering approximately 400 million Chinese
citizens. However, by and large, the rest of the country is still
lagging behind. Beijing’s ongoing efforts to expand the reach of
its market economy and foster the growth of China’s middle class
will take approximately another two decades to bear fruits. China’s
still impressive GDP growth rate is lowering in order to reduce its
projected energy consumption.
Asia’s energy exporting countries have been severely affected,
with oil prices more than halving and gas prices lowering
amidst wars and sanctions that are worsening their economies.
The energy rich and oil/gas exporting Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan,
Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Persian Gulf countries have suffered
extensively from such price decline.
Meanwhile, years of sanctions on Iran, of which the
majority are still in place, and almost four decades of economic
mismanagement have further deteriorated the country’s economy,
despite last year’s nuclear agreement. Civil wars and expanding
terrorist activities in Yemen, Iraq and Syria have been a major
factor behind their devastated economies.
Africa has had more than its fair share of the global economic
slowdown. Along with the mentioned price decline, its more
prosperous northern oil/gas exporters have suffered from growing
civil war and expanding terrorism in south Sudan, Libya and Egypt
spilling over to a varying degree to its other African Arab states,
including energy exporting Algeria. In its non-Arab southern part,
small economies – such as Tanzania – show relatively better
economic performance compared to some of their neighbours.
However, the large ones are not in this league. Energy exporting
Nigeria is reaping the results of its economic mismanagement and
years of civil war in its Delta region, to whose decline militant
groups are contributing greatly. The continent’s most economically
developed country, South Africa, also has its own major economic
challenges.
As a whole, the Americas’ economy is not doing well –
excluding a few countries, such as the US. While it has registered
positive GDP growth rates, these are still not major ones.
Canada’s economic recovery has been less impressive. Energy
has had a positive effect on the American economy by offering
domestically produced cheap fuels (particularly shale oil and
gas) and decreasing the cost of imported ones. However, due to
lowering oil and gas prices, energy has negatively affected Canada’s
economy, which has sharply reduced its revenues and prompted
a recession in its largest oil and gas producer, Alberta Province.
Other continental energy exporters have also suffered the same
problem, namely Mexico, Venezuela and Ecuador.
The difficult economic realities have been manifested in
a slowdown in the global energy industry and thus pipeline
activities. Major pipeline projects planned under different
economic assumptions now seem unrealistic. A clear example is
Gazprom’s West Route gas pipeline for exporting Russian gas to
China for 30 years. China’s slower than projected economic growth
has stalled this project.
14 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
Another example is TransCanada’s Keystone XL pipeline for
exporting 830 000 bpd of Canadian oilsands-based oil from
Alberta’s Hardisty to Nebraska’s Steele City, which emerged when
former President George W. Bush was in office. The project
was rejected by President Obama on environmental grounds,
which prompted TransCanada to file a lawsuit against the US
government in June 2016. The project’s rejection was primarily
due to the US’s increase in domestic oil production, its lessening
need for imported oil (including piped oil from Canada),
alongside environmental concerns.
Political factors have certainly affected some major pipeline
projects, such as Turkish Stream – the substitute for Gazprom’s
South Stream that was shelved by Moscow in 2014 due to
Brussels’ opposition. The pipeline, whose construction was
expected to begin in 2016, was suspended because of worsening
ties between Turkey and Russia that were escalated by Ankara’s
shooting down of a Russian military aircraft in November 2015.
However, the countries are reviving their ties, particularly since
July’s failed Turkish coup. Economic and energy considerations
have, however, undermined Brussels’ opposition to Gazprom’s
Nord Stream 2 for strategic reasons as the project’s EU
beneficiaries still are keen on its construction.
Current major pipeline projects are discussed in light of
these realities and energy demand in the predictable future. It
is worth mentioning that Asia has remained the major scene for
pipeline projects, despite the specified difficulties. Moreover, gas
pipelines have dominated global projects.
Asia
The East Route gas pipeline
The East Route gas pipeline’s construction to sharply reduce
China’s more expensive LNG imports is well underway. Set for
operation by 2018, the largest joint undertaking of China and
Russia is part of their US$400 billion contract of 2014, to develop
Russia’s east Siberian gas fields in Irkutsk and Yakutia in order
to feed China with 38 billion m3/y of Russian gas for 30 years
through two separate pipeline systems, linked at a border point.
As a joint venture of CNPC and Gazprom (approximately
4000 km; 52 in.; 61 billion m3/y), Russia’s Power of Siberia gas
transmission pipeline system is being built along the eastern
Siberia-Pacific Ocean oil pipeline’s route to connect the
mentioned gas production centres to the Russian port of
Vladivostok. Planned to go online in late 2017, construction of its
first leg (3200 km Yakutia-Khabarovsk-Vladivostok line) began on
1 September 2014 in Yakutsk. This is to be followed by its second
leg (800 km Irkutsk region-Yakutia) on a yet to be announced
date.
Starting on 30 June 2015 near Heihe in China’s Heilongjiang
Province that borders Russia, CNPC is constructing the East
Route gas pipeline’s Chinese system, with construction costing at
least US$20 billion. With northern, southern and central sections,
it consists of a 3170 km pipeline, auxiliary underground gas
storages and an existing 1800 km pipeline that passes through six
Chinese provinces (Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Hebei, Shandong
and Jiangsu), the Inner Mongolia Autonomous region, Tianjin and
Shanghai.
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 According to Gazprom, the East Route gas pipeline’s
construction had two major milestones. On 25 June, Alexey Miller
(Chairman of Gazprom’s Management Committee) and Wang Yilin
(Chairman of CNPC’s Board of Directors) signed a Memorandum
of Understanding in Beijing on constructing underground gas
storage and gas-fired power generation facilities followed by
their 4 September signing of an engineering, procurement and
construction contract for the crossing under the Amur River within
the cross-border section of the Power of Siberia pipeline.
The Central Asian gas pipeline system
The Central Asian gas pipeline system is Central Asia’s largest
pipeline system, consisting of four lines whose capacity will
increase to 85 billion m3 in 2018, when its Line D (1000 km; 48 in.,
30 billion m3/y) is scheduled to reach its full export capacity. Its
two parallel lines, Lines A and B (each 1830 km; 42 in.; combined
30 billion m3/y), became operational in December 2009 and
October 2010, respectively. Crossing the Kazakh-Chinese border at
the border pass of Horgos in China’s Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous
region, they link Turkmenistan’s gas fields to southern Kazakhstan
through Uzbekistan. Line C (1830 km; 48 in.) became operational
in May 2014 to add 25 billion m3/y to the Central Asian pipeline
system’s capacity. Starting on the Turkmenistan-Uzbekistan border,
the pipeline runs through Kazakhstan and ends in Xinjiang.
Line D’s construction began in September 2014 in Tajikistan’s
Roudaki district, to link Turkmenistan’s gas centres across
Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan to China. However, the
construction of its Uzbek and Kyrgyz sections have been delayed
with no specified reason. This has made its scheduled completion
in 2016 unrealistic.
The West Route gas pipeline
Also known as the Power of Siberia II, the fate of Gazprom’s
30 billion m3/y West Route gas pipeline is unknown. Originally
scheduled to start in 2015 and go online in 2019, its construction is
pending a Chinese-Russian agreement. China’s lowering economic
growth rate has decreased its projected future gas demand
to question the need for the pipeline, or at least its capacity.
However, the two sides have continued negotiations for its
construction. As reported by TASS on 30 August, Deputy Chief
Executive of Gazprom, Alexander Medvedev, stated that “positive
assessment” of the ongoing negotiations and the contract required
for its construction “depends on volumes, rather than on the
price.”
Iran-Oman gas pipeline
After years of uncertainty about its construction due to Iran being
under various sanctions, the plan for the Iran-Oman pipeline is
on track. Following Iran’s nuclear deal of last year, Iran and Oman
announced in September 2015 the project’s planned operational
date of late 2017. They signed a contract in 2013 for exporting
28 million m3/d of gas to Oman for 25 years for a total value of
US$60 billion. As reported by Iran’s Fars News Agency in April,
the Iranian Offshore Engineering and Construction Company will
construct the pipeline that is to be buried under the seabed at an
estimated cost of US$1.5 billion.
Almost a third of Iranian gas will be liquefied in Oman’s
Qalhat plant for Iran’s LNG exports, leaving the rest for Oman’s
domestic consumption. In August, Oman’s Minister of Oil and
16 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
Gas, Mohammed bin Hamad al-Rumhy, announced his country’s
agreement with Iran for changing the route and design of the
176 km pipeline as a necessity to ensure it avoids UAE waters and
plunging the pipeline from the agreed roughly 300 m to nearly
1000 m below the seabed. Apart from allowing Iranian LNG
exports when its own liquefaction project has been delayed, the
project’s importance lies in signifying Iran removing sanction-
generated barriers, opening the gate for realising other stalled
projects, such as the Iran-Pakistan gas pipeline.
Europe
Nord Stream 2
Nord Stream 2 seems to be moving forward, despite strong
opposition from the EU and the US for strategic reasons and
cooling ties with Russia over a range of issues, particularly
regarding Ukraine and Syria. The EU’s explicit opposition to
increasing its membership’s dependence on Russia for energy
imports and the clearly stated opposition of 10 EU countries
(Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the Czech Republic, Greece,
Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania and Slovakia) in November 2015 have so
far failed to stop the project.
Nord Stream 2 surfaced on 4 September 2015 when Austria’s
OMV, Germany’s E.ON and BASF/Wintershall, France’s ENGIE
and Royal Dutch Shell signed an agreement with Gazprom to
double the Nord Stream gas pipeline system’s current capacity
(55 billion m3/y) by 2019 through constructing a new pipeline
system.
Despite opposition, Gazprom expects the pipeline’s
commissioning before late 2019, as reflected in its 18 May
announcement regarding the geophysical surveys’ completion for
Nord Stream 2’s subsea section and the continuity of the required
“geotechnical investigations.” Detailed surveying is planned to
be conducted along the pipeline route “in the near future.” As
reported by Gazprom on 8 July, Nord Stream 2 AG “finalised its
international tender process for the concrete weight coating
and storing of pipes. Pipe deliveries to concrete weight coating
facilities were planned to begin in September 2016, with the
concrete weight coating process commencing at the beginning of
2017.”
The project mirrors the existing Nord Stream. Therefore, it
will export 55 billion m3/y of Russian gas to Germany via twin
offshore pipelines (each 27.5 billion m3/y; 1200 km) buried under
the Baltic Sea’s seabed. The pipeline’s mentioned specifics aside,
the significance of Nord Stream 2 is its continuity with the
heavyweight EU countries ignoring Brussels’ opposition in favour
of their national interests, while helping Russia consolidate its
supplying role to the EU.
Trans Adriatic pipeline
Construction of the Trans Adriatic pipeline (TAP) has continued
uninterrupted since it began in Greece on 19 May. It emerged
in the previous decade not as an alternative to Nabucco, but a
separate pipeline for transferring Azerbaijan’s Shah Deniz 2 gas to
Europe. However, it was eventually developed into a competing
project as there was no market for both pipelines due to the EU’s
declining future gas demand. This reality promoted the Shah Deniz
consortium selecting it on 28 June 2013 as its only export pipeline
(878 km) to the EU with Brussels’ blessing, which designated it as
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 an EU Project of Common Interest. The pipeline will help meet
the EU’s gas requirements, diversify its suppliers and decrease its
reliance on Russian gas.
The connecting Trans Anatolian pipeline (1850 km;
16 billion m3/y) will feed the TAP with 10 billion m3/y of Shah
Deniz 2 gas. Its remaining gas (6 billion m3) will be consumed in
Turkey. The pipeline’s initial annual capacity could be increased
to 20 billion m3 by adding two compressor stations, provided the
availability of supply and demand while the pipeline’s ‘physical
reverse flow’ feature will allow gas from Italy to be diverted to
south east Europe, if necessary.
The TAP consists of onshore and offshore segments that cross
northern Greece, Albania and the Adriatic Sea to come ashore
in southern Italy. Its onshore section (approximately 773 km;
48 in.) starts near Kipoi on the Turkish-Greek border, which is its
connecting point with the Trans Anatolian pipeline. The TAP will
continue onshore and cross northern Greece, to extend east to
west through Albania, to the Adriatic coast. Its Greece, Albania
and Italy parts are 550 km, 215 km and 8 km, respectively. Its
offshore section (105 km; 36 in.) begins near Fier (Albania) to cross
the Adriatic Sea and link with Italy’s gas transportation network in
its Puglia region. In April, Saipem S.p.A was selected as the main
contractor for its offshore construction. The TAP’s shareholders
are BP (20%), SOCAR (20%), Snam S.p.A. (20%), Fluxys (19%), Enagás
(16%) and Axpo (5%).
Canada
Keystone XL pipeline
TransCanada is challenging President Obama’s November 2015
rejection of its proposed Keystone XL to increase Canada’s oil
exports of Alberta’s oilsands fields to the neighbouring US as
he denied a required Presidential Permit. Attempting to recover
US$15 billion in claimed damages, on 6 January, TransCanada
announced that it had taken legal action under the North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and was initiating
“constitutional litigation against the US Administration.” In June,
the corporation moved forward with a lawsuit against the US
under the NAFTA.
USA
Dakota Access pipeline
The fate of the Dakota Access pipeline (DAPL) is unclear. Set to
go online in 4Q16, its construction began in May. It was halted
in September due to opposition from local Native people, who
were backed by the federal government due to the pipeline’s
alleged threat to the Natives’ water supply and the risks facing
their cultural heritage. Despite a federal judge’s ruling in the
DAPL’s favour on 9 September, the federal government stated
that it was halting pipeline work on federal land near Lake Oahe
until it “can determine whether it will need to reconsider any of
its previous decisions.” The pipeline (US$3.7 billion; 570 000 bpd;
1900 km; 30 in.) will connect North Dakota’s Bakken and Three
Forks oil production areas to a terminus in Patoka (Illinois) to
transport around 470 000 bpd of light sweet crude oil.
Roadrunner gas transmission pipeline
In March, ONEOK Partners completed the first phase (321 km) of
West Texas’s Roadrunner gas transmission pipeline that connects
18 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
its WesTex natural gas pipeline system near Coyanosa (Texas) to
a new international US-Mexico border crossing connection near
San Elizario (Texas). Providing 170 million ft3/d of gas to markets
in Mexico and El Paso (Texas), this phase is designed to increase
the capacity of the company’s gas pipeline infrastructure in west
Texas and help supply “Mexico’s rapidly expanding natural gas
markets by connecting them with US producers in the Permian
Basin,” according to ONEOK Partners’ President and CEO, Terry K.
Spencer.
Being a 50-50 joint venture with Mexico City-based Fermaca,
its ongoing second phase will increase the pipeline’s capacity to
570 million ft3/d in 1Q17 to be followed by its final phase, which
will push its total capacity to 640 million ft3/d in 2019.
Mexico
Tula-Villa de Reyes pipeline
In April, Mexico’s Comision Federal de Electricidad awarded
TransCanada the contract for building, owning and operating
the Tula-Villa de Reyes pipeline (US$550 million; 420 km; 36 in.)
for transporting gas from Tula (Hidalgo) to Villa de Reyes (San
Luis Potosi) to fuel power-generation facilities in Central Mexico.
Set for completion in early 2018, the pipeline will connect to
TransCanada’s Tamazunchale and Tuxpan-Tula pipelines. It will
complement TransCanada’s pipeline network in Mexico and
further its “strategy of owning and operating highly contracted
and regulated assets that generate stable and predictable earnings
and cash flow streams,” according to TransCanada’s President and
CEO, Russ Girling.
Africa
Horn of Africa pipeline
Ethiopia and Djibouti are moving forward with plans for
construction of the Horn of Africa pipeline (US$1.55 billion;
550 km; 20 in.; 240 000 bpd). In the absence of an announced
date, reports suggest that its construction is to begin before mid
2017 to connect the Djiboutian ports via Dire Dawa (Ethiopia) to
a fuel depot in Awash (Ethiopia) to transport diesel, petrol and
jet fuel. This is a joint venture between Black Rhino Group and
South African-based Mining, Oil & Gas Services Ltd. Planned for
completion in three years, the project will include an import
storage facility (950 000 bpd) in Damerjog (Djibouti) linked to a
storage terminal in Awash.
Cyprus-Egypt gas pipeline
On 8 September, a preliminary agreement was reached between
Cyprus and Egypt for the construction of a subsea gas pipeline
between the countries. The pipeline will transport gas from
Cyprus to Egypt to enter its grid or be used in its LNG facilities.
Egypt has been facing growing domestic demand to opt for
imports, while maintaining its export capability. The recently
discovered offshore gas reserves in Cyprus’ Mediterranean Sea
exclusive economic zone (e.g. the Aphrodite field) has prompted
it to seek export markers for its excess production. Egypt has also
found such offshore reserves (e.g. Zohr field) to be developed for
meeting its domestic need, while also aiming at turning itself into
a regional gas hub by importing Cypriot gas. This was stressed
by Egyptian Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources, Tarek
El-Molla, upon signing the agreement.
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 THE EYE
IN THE SKY

20
 ipeline satellite imagery
operators to provide pipeline
are operators with a continuous
responsible for the safe source of information
transport of hazardous in order to monitor and
materials through Jan Ridder, manage their assets from
transmission pipelines. Sven van Haver and space.

Since pipeline failures can Marcel Kaufmann, Failures in transmission
cause severe damage to Orbital Eye, the pipelines are high impact
people, infrastructure, and Netherlands, explore how events. In Europe, most
both the natural and built the use of radar satellites transmission pipelines are
environment, operators can assist pipeline operators buried at a depth of 1 - 1.5 m.
are concerned with with pipe inspection and The main cause of failures
monitoring the integrity locating potential third- in transmission pipelines is
of their pipelines on party interferences. third-party interferences
a regular, or even (TPIs). Examples of TPIs
continuous, basis. for buried pipelines are
This article discusses excavations, deep ploughing,
the use of radar construction

21
activities, informal settlements and city encroachments.
Major TPIs for aboveground pipelines are construction
activities, informal settlements, vandalism and city
encroachments.
Helicopter surveys
In order to minimise the threats caused by TPIs, pipeline
companies survey their pipeline routes regularly, using
Figure 1. A mobile device using the PIMSyS app that is showing the pipeline
route (green line), a TPI notification detected by PIMSyS (orange placeholder) and
helicopter reports (red rotor blades).
Figure 2. As Figure 1, but with an extra layer displaying the affected area as
detected by PIMSyS as a heatmap.
22 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
helicopters as a mitigating measure. The frequency of these
surveys depends on the risk profile of the pipeline route.
Typically, the helicopters fly at an altitude of 300 ft and
a speed of approximately 200 km/h. However, generally,
these helicopter surveys have a number of drawbacks. Bad
weather conditions can give low visibility or make helicopter
flights impossible altogether. Other drawbacks include
safety concerns, noise, emissions and the relatively high
costs associated with helicopter surveys.
As a result, pipeline operators require other
information sources, which could replace or
reduce their need for helicopter surveys.
Radar satellites
To detect threats to the integrity of
transmission pipelines, a new method that
uses data acquired by radar satellites has
been developed by Orbital Eye. The service
– named PIMSyS – uses images acquired by
one of the European Copernicus programme’s
Earth observation (EO) satellites, named
Sentinel-1A.
Radar satellites operate day and night,
in all weather conditions and regardless
of cloud coverage. A major advantage of
Sentinel-1A over commercial radar satellites
is that all of the data it acquires is available
for free. The satellite orbits the Earth at an
altitude of 693 km and has a repeat cycle of
12 days.
Sentinel-1A is part of a constellation
of two satellites. The second satellite,
Sentinel-1B, became operational in October
2016. Together, the two Sentinels will revisit
each place on Earth every six days.
Evidence-based inspection
PIMSyS is deployed to clients as a cloud
service. The service supports pipeline
operators by providing additional information
about possible TPI threats to their pipeline
infrastructure. To use PIMSyS, the PIMSyS
application must be installed onto a tablet
or desktop computer. PIMSyS facilitates
evidence-based inspection by supporting the
optimisation of scheduling inspections by
providing information about the location of
potential TPI threats.
Potential threats are identified through
coherent change detection based on
amplitude and phase information in two
radar images of the same area that are
acquired successively in time. To avoid false
positives, the changes that are observed are
then evaluated and filtered according to
the probability of being a relevant change
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 A cloud service
PIMSyS is offered to clients as a
cloud service. Part of this cloud
service, but hidden for clients,
is a fully automated processing
chain for radar data from
Sentinel-1 and other satellites.
The chain automatically detects
new satellite images available
for areas with monitored
pipeline systems. The images
are automatically downloaded
and processed such that TPI
reports are generated by
comparing the images acquired
for the same area. The TPI
reports that are not in the
vicinity of the pipeline are
filtered out to reduce storage
and transfer. All remaining TPI
reports are sent to the PIMSyS
server, which is part of the
cloud infrastructure.
The PIMSyS server supports
Figure 3. Photo taken by a helicopter of the affected area displayed in Figure 2. the display of geographic
maps, locations of pipeline
systems (including valves, CP
objects and stations), detected TPI reports, helicopter reports,
planned third-party activity reports and vehicle investigation
reports. All of this information can be further combined with
information about landowners and municipalities. Additionally,
the PIMSyS server supports business processes for the
management of the reports.
To access this information and execute the workflows
of the business processes, pipeline operators only have to
connect the PIMSyS app on their mobile device or desktop
computer to the PIMSyS cloud environment.

Figure 4. Left: farmland with events related to agricultural
activities and other activities near the pipeline (indicated by
the red arrow). Right: events related to agricultural activities
have been automatically classified and removed.
in reality. PIMSyS can be complementary to or even
completely replace current surveying methods.
Figure 1 shows a screenshot of a mobile device with
the PIMSyS app. The green line displays the pipeline route.
The orange placeholder depicts a TPI threat as detected
by PIMSyS. The red rotor blades indicate that for these
locations helicopter reports are also available. In Figure 2,
the affected area as detected by PIMSyS is displayed as a
heatmap. Finally, Figure 3 is a photograph taken from one
of the helicopter reports.
Validation project
PIMSyS was validated during an eight month project executed
along with a pipeline operator. During this project, the
identified threats were compared to the results of helicopter
surveys. The validation project was executed in 2014 - 2015
in an area measuring 30 km by 50 km in the Netherlands. The
original plan was to utilise Sentinel-1 data for this project.
However, Sentinel-1 was not yet operational at this time.
Therefore, a commercial satellite, TerraSAR-X, was used
instead. The total length of the pipeline route monitored
during the project was approximately 238 km, with a total
pipeline length of approximately 366 km as some routes
contained more than one pipeline. For the eight month period,
six satellite images were available. These were acquired at
intervals varying from 22 to 66 days.
For this time period, all reports of helicopter surveys
(with a surveying frequency of once per three weeks) were

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 also provided by the pipeline operator. Moreover, a
list of all locations in the vicinity of the pipeline route
(within 50 m) where third-party excavation activities were
planned and approved was made available.
The pipeline company selected four locations where
they had planned activities during the validation project.
For these four locations, the detected changes showed a
perfect match with the actual start and end dates of the
activities. However, the locations represented no more
than approximately 1 - 2 km of the total pipeline route.
For that reason, a statistical analysis was made for the
entire validation period and the total project area. This
analysis proved a strong correlation between the results
and other activities executed by the pipeline company
for the extension and maintenance of their pipeline
system.
Correlation with planned TPIs
For approximately 90 km of pipeline route, the correlation
was investigated between detected TPI threats, the
results of the helicopter surveys and planned third-
party excavation activities. In the Netherlands, planned
third-party excavations are registered through a central
mandatory system known as KLIC. During the validation
project, the helicopter and PIMSyS detected events at 152
unique locations. For 80 of the 152 locations (53%) there
was information available via a helicopter report and for
134 of 152 locations (88%) information was available via
PIMSyS. Table 1 shows the number of locations for which
a certain combination of data sources was available. For
example, only 4.6% of the 152 locations were covered by
all available information sources. In 7.2% of the locations, a
helicopter report matched a KLIC registration (the sum of
the number of locations in rows ‘Helicopter + Satellites +
KLIC’ and ‘Helicopter + KLIC’ in Table 1).
Similarly, the correlation between KLIC and PIMSyS
was 23.7%. One of the reasons for the relatively
low correlation is that most third-party excavation
registrations are active for only a short period of time (of
up to two weeks) while the surveying frequency is once
every three weeks for helicopters and 22 to 66 days for
the satellite images available for this study.
Table 1. Distribution of TPI events for the 152 locations
TPI detected by Helicopter: Percentage
number of of locations
locations (%)
Helicopter + PIMSyS + KLIC 7 4.6
Helicopter + PIMSyS 55 36.2
Helicopter + KLIC 4 2.6
PIMSyS + KLIC - -
Helicopter 14 9.2
PIMSyS - -
TOTAL 80 52.6
26 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
Further interpretation
There are 14 helicopter reports for locations that were not
detected by PIMSyS. Analysis of these 14 reports showed that
10 reports were related to short-lived events that most likely
both started and ended in the period between two satellite
images. In addition, two helicopter reports showed no
activity (false alarms) and two showed longer-lived activities
that were not detected with PIMSyS. Of the 43 locations that
were only reported by PIMSyS, 33 were related to a major
pipeline extension activity that was executed by the pipeline
company. The helicopter did not report these events, even
though the helicopter observer is instructed to report also
the activities of the pipeline company itself.
In conclusion, the correlation between the KLIC-
registration and PIMSyS was approximately three times higher
than the helicopter reports. Furthermore, 88% of all locations
were detected in total. This demonstrates that PIMSyS
was reliable and provided the pipeline operators with a
valuable source of additional information for monitoring and
managing their pipelines.
New developments
PIMSyS has been offered to the market since October 2015
and it is 100% OPEX-based. Currently, PIMSyS monitors over
3000 km pipeline route on a commercial basis. However,
Orbital Eye expects this number to grow to over 15 000 km in
the near future.
Since PIMSyS is a new, disruptive technology, there is still
room for further improvement. For example, Orbital Eye is
executing research and development that is aimed at a more
refined automatic classification of detected TPIs, to further
reduce false alarms.
In the Netherlands, transmission pipelines are frequently
buried in farmland. PIMSyS detects agricultural activities,
such as ploughing and harvesting. Pipeline operators have
told Orbital Eye that they would appreciate PIMSyS to
detect events like ploughing and harvesting, as heavy
equipment moves over their pipelines, causing an elevated
risk. However, since operators cannot prevent farming, they
have requested that Orbital Eye automatically classifies
these events as agricultural. Recently, Orbital Eye has
developed a technology that is capable of conducting this
automatic classification.
The image on the left of Figure 4
visualises the location of the buried
PIMSyS: Percentage pipeline (green line) and events detected
number of of locations by PIMSyS. These events are caused by
locations (%)
agricultural activities and other activities
7 4.6 close to the pipeline (indicated by the
55 36.2 red arrow). In the image on the right of
- - Figure 4, these agricultural activities have
29 19.1 been automatic classified and removed
- -
from the image. This leaves events related
to other activities close to the pipe
43 28.3
and related to activities at the yards of
134 88.2
individual farm houses showing.
 Bart Wauterickx and Kristof Verwaest,
The Sniffers, Belgium, outline an alternative way
of detecting leaks in pipelines.

Dogs d
etecting
GAS LE
AKS
 ipeline network managers apply a

P multitude of tactics in order to manage

the integrity of their assets. Alongside
detecting techniques that use measuring
equipment, assessing the network using sniffing
dogs has unique advantages and should be used in
parallel.

Limitations of modern techniques

Transportation and distribution of liquids and gases
through pipelines is the best multimodal method.
However, although pipelines are the safest means of
energy transportation, they also pose challenges for
pipeline network operators.
After a series of accidents in various parts of
the world, proper risk assessments of a pipeline
network is essential to ensure safe operation of
assets. The two main reasons for incidents and
disruption of continuous supply are excavation
damage to the pipeline and corrosion of steel
pipes. The overall goal of the pipeline industry is to
achieve zero leakage.
As a strategy to minimise the occurrence
of these two key physical threats and to avoid
personal injuries and transportation disruption, a
combination of external and internal inspection and
detection tactics have been put in place. Intelligent
pigging, inspections on foot, by car or from the
air (helicopter, plane, satellite), and continuous

29
measuring systems have major limitations when applied in
practice.
Looking at the mass balance approach, intelligent pigging,
fibre optic cables and sensing technology, underground
pipeline systems tend not to be designed to use these
techniques and adaptation requires huge investments or setup
costs.
Moreover, underground pipeline systems that are able to
use these leak detection techniques have limits that are often
mentioned in barrels per day and leave too much room for
errors. In turn, this causes a high risk of pollution and increases
soil remediation costs by up to millions of dollars each week.
With these technical limitations and high environmental and
economical threats, it is still inevitable that the pipeline market
raises the demand for a different and more effective approach
Figure 1. The Sniffers’ dog searching for a gas leak.
Figure 2. Executing an annual leak detection survey.
Figure 3. A dog detecting a leak.
30 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
to detecting leaks in an economic, fast and efficient way. One
answer to this challenge lies in specially trained sniffer dogs.
Minimising environmental impact
Carefully selected and trained dogs have the ability to detect
specific smells. The sensitive nose of sniffers dogs along with
a lengthy and thorough training journey makes it possible
to search for leaks on underground pipelines using dogs in
industrial circumstances. A focused training programme delivers
sniffing dogs for specific smells.
The high sensitivity of the nose of sniffing dogs is
unmatched compared to available measuring instruments.
The parts per million detection level of equipment limits
the detection of small leaks on underground pipelines. Dogs’
sniffing ability of up to parts per billion, however, makes it
possible to identify tiny gas or oil leaks in a pipeline. In practice,
months before a propagating leak is detected with industrial
leak survey equipment, a dog sniffing survey would already have
identified the leak. Pipeline managers can immediately repair
small leaks before important environmental damage or serious
safety exposure would take place.
Almost all underground pipelines are accessible for sniffing
dogs; a dog’s mobility brings its nose above pipelines in rural
areas, through woods, crossing mountains and through fields
with dense vegetation. Many measuring instruments cannot be
used in these circumstances at an acceptable pace.
The Sniffers has developed this sniffing dog capability
to a best high class level. A comparative study on a German
propylene pipeline running through agricultural corn fields,
from Cologne to Dormhagen (Germany), was evaluated by TüV
Nord to confirm the effectiveness of the dogs. Soon after, The
Sniffers received official certification for the dogs and handlers’
working method.
A similar recognition for The Sniffers’ dogs took place
during an innovation workshop for Belgian pipeline companies,
the Ministry of Economic Affairs and a neutral notified body.
A comparative test was organised to reveal the added value of
sniffing dogs. Two situations were tested: dogs tracking down
gas leaks in industrial environments (production, pump and/or
measuring station) and dogs tracking simulated leaks of products
(ethylene, propylene and butane) on different types of terrain
with a depth of over 1 m. In both circumstances, The Sniffers’
dogs could detect these leaks and simulations much faster than
technological equipment. All aspects of the sniffing process; the
selection and training of the dogs, the practices of the handlers,
the quality assurance approach, the work preparation and the
continued focus on results are all critical to ensure a reliable
and economical sniffing survey of an underground pipeline.
Case studies
A pipeline challenge in France happened to be the ideal setting
for leak detection with sniffing dogs. The Sniffers was engaged
to inspect an 800 km section of underground ethylene pipelines
in France. Two teams of trained sniffing dogs and their handlers
screened the pipeline through the rural landscape. With the
pipeline running through the Alps, the teams encountered
mountains of 1200 m, rivers, paddocks containing bulls, barbed
wire fences, suburban areas, private properties, highways and
railways across the four month survey.
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 During the survey, a mobile application, ‘Perseus’, was intensively used to track
the walking position and the pipeline location in order to register a qualitative
description of the status of the armature along the pipeline and report urgently
required actions. The Sniffers developed this application, which focuses on the
efficiency of inspection activities and helps dog handlers to communicate the
observations made in the field in a transparent way to the pipeline manager.
In 2012, a pipeline incident in Germany sparked intense discussions regarding
approaches to pipe leakages. Where traditional leak detection techniques and
systems have shown to be unable to detect leakages at an early stage, future leak
detection strategies require small leakage detection capabilities. Until now, these
tiny leaks fell under the radar, having important financial and environmental
impacts.
A case study comparing leak detection dogs to other existing techniques
has demonstrated the technical capabilities of the dogs. When it comes to
evaluation of the necessary investment, precise leak detection methods with
equipment require measurements underground and exactly above the pipeline
to meet the higher demands. This method requires manpower to localise the
pipeline, drill holes at least every metre, do the leak detection at least every
metre and for the additional logistical support. This complex approach to meet
future legislation allows for progress of only a few hundred metres per day.
Dogs have the same detection capacity, even from a distance, and require only
one handler with a dog to have a progress of multiple kilometres per day. This
positions dogs as future legislation proof within a realistic financial budget.

Effective detection of illegal tapping

In certain countries and regions, illegal pipeline tapping is popular and
widespread. Even in western countries, theft of pipeline product still occurs.
Recent examples in the UK and Belgium indicate that pipeline managers
should be cautious. Aside from the financial consequences of illegal tapping,
the integrity of the pipeline and the increased risk to a smooth operation is
detrimental for pipeline operators.
In some cases, a loss of pressure in the pipeline is detected. In other
situations, the mass balance does not give a clear answer on the loss of product.
However, in all cases, the position of the illegal tap along the pipeline is very
difficult to locate.
Loss of pressure on a pipeline network in Georgia was a first indication of
a potential illegal tapping. Several kilometres of underground pipeline in non-
residential areas, and so without any permanent observation, nourished the
suspicion of an illegal tap. As a first measure, the pipeline manager checked the
network every day by guards on horses. However, no single visual indication
of fraudulent activity was observed. The Sniffers were requested to screen the
suspicious network over a distance of 20 km.
Two teams, each consisting of one sniffing dog and its handler, surveyed the
underground pipeline during a two week project. Supported by armed guards,
a specific location in an open area, without any buildings or trees close by, was
identified by both dogs. What seemed an impossible location was monitored
during night hours. Detection of the exact location of this illegal tap was a
breakthrough for the pipeline manager to avoid financial losses and the increased
risk to the integrity of the underground network.

The dogs
With broad experience in the field of emission measurement and leak detection
in underground pipelines, The Sniffers has been able to extend its capabilities
using the natural abilities of dogs. The sensitive nose of well selected and trained
dogs, along with a well-developed and certified process, makes it possible to lift
the bar of leak detection. Due to the parts per billion detection level, very small
leaks can now be detected, giving network managers an early signal for action.
Using this sniffing dogs detection capability saves money, avoids environmental
damages and increases the overall integrity of the network.
DRAWING
A LINE IN
THE SAND
Marc Laing, NEL,

S
UK, explains how and was once dismissed by the oil and gas industry as it only
computational represented a small fractional percentage of flow from wells.
However, as many fields are maturing, sand production levels
fluid dynamics is are increasing. Moreover, as new fields are developed, they
an effective way tend to exemplify more difficult conditions, such as higher pressures,
of combatting temperatures and sand levels. Consequently, sand production is of
sand erosion increasing concern as the industry is now more aware of the severe
damage caused by sand particles. Therefore, the presence of sand in
and enhancing many well flow streams is now well documented.
pipeline The oil and gas production stream can be highly erosive due to
performance. entrained sand particles within fluids. Because of this, sand erosion
costs the oil and gas industry billions of dollars annually. Due to
increased wear and maintenance downtime, the costs manifest as
cutbacks in production, unplanned shutdowns or failures of equipment,
with possible loss of containment and environmental damage.
Therefore, it is important that the presence of sand is anticipated
so that the installed pipelines are able to cope with it. The pipeline
industry must, therefore, consider the risk of potential sand erosion
seriously, while ensuring that it is using validated equipment that is fit
for purpose.

Erosion velocity
The size of sand particles varies from as little as 15 - 30 μm (fine), to
180 - 250 μm (moderate), up to 450 - 600 μm (large), with each well and
field having its own characteristic.
While the sand present in the flow may only represent a relatively
small percentage of the overall components, if it is moving in the
piping system at high velocity, it can cause significant erosive damage
or penetrate the wall or body. Ultimately, this could lead to loss of
containment, which is a very serious risk. The velocity of fluid in a pipe
may range from 5 m/sec. to over 100 m/sec. and as sand particles
erode to a power law of the fluid velocity, the damage dramatically
increases at high speed.
Moreover, if particles become entrained within equipment, this
can cause the operating torque to increase significantly or even cause
the equipment to seize. Likewise, if particles build up in a valve cavity,

33

Figure 1. CFD model showing erosion on a choke valve.
Figure 2. Convergent section of a Venturi meter that has been
eroded by sand.
the valve may not close and seal, causing operational issues.
Particularly vulnerable areas include bends within piping systems,
where there is severe turbulence and high local velocities.
One option for operators has been to install sandscreens
downhole so that larger sand particles are retained while also
allowing a reasonable flow of fluid. However, the smaller grains of
typically less than 60 μm will still get through and these can cause
erosive damage, albeit at a slower rate.
A downside of installing sandscreens is that they can
sometimes block and fail. Therefore, since sand cannot be
completely eliminated, the only realistic option is to make the
equipment ‘sand tolerant’. Inevitably, this makes equipment more
expensive as stronger materials must be used, with pipeline walls
made thicker. For fields with moderate or high levels of sand, in
the long-term an investment in this more expensive sand tolerant
equipment will pay dividends due to its extended lifetime,
increased reliability and lower risk.
The validation answer
For pipelines that are susceptible to sand erosion, how
can operators be assured of the equipment’s performance
and integrity? Validation, also known as type testing and
qualification testing, is increasingly becoming the answer for both
manufacturers and operators. A number of ISO standards and API
specifications include such tests and procedures, as well as some
manufacturers and operators having their own procedures.
Rather than relying solely on their own equipment/product
capability claims, manufacturers are finding that independent
evidence (as part of the verification process) delivers a competitive
edge. This is because it assures purchasers that the product
34 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
does indeed perform in a certain way under particularly arduous
conditions and is, therefore, often more reliable.
However, operators face a complex problem: not only are
equipment designs and technologies evolving in advance of an
appropriate standard, every field that they develop will have
different attributes. For example, in a field with six wells, each well
will have a slightly different production characteristic.
For new equipment where there is no relevant standard, the
first step is to ask which standard is similar or closest to being
applicable (if any) before assessing whether that standard can be
used as a basis for forming a tailor-made test programme. This
needs to be done by collaboration between the operator, who
understands the specific conditions under which the equipment
will operate; the manufacturer, who understands its product’s
make up and tolerances; and the test authority, which has a
significant amount of experience in developing tests for a variety
of equipment and conditions. Consequently, such equipment is
often not tested to a specific existing standard. Instead, it is tested
using a recognised best practice approach.
The importance of verification testing equipment that may be
subject to erosive conditions is becoming increasingly evident as
the industry experiences more loss of integrity or leak incidents.
For example, high profile incidents, such as the Deepwater Horizon
disaster, mean that the performance of production equipment
is now under greater scrutiny – particularly if it is located in
an erosive environment. As a consequence, rigorous testing to
demonstrate the equipment’s performance is now increasingly
becoming part of the delivery process.
Assuring accuracy
For regulatory, fiscal and allocation flow metering requirements,
operators are responsible for ensuring that their flowmeter
readings are accurate. However, depending on a meter’s location,
upstream or downstream of the separator, particle erosion
may have a significant adverse impact on the meter’s accuracy,
reliability and body integrity.
Upstream of the separator, sand particles are likely to be in the
flow stream all of the time, with the sand concentration varying
throughout the life of the well. Flowmeters located downstream
of the separator are likely to receive flow streams that are
relatively free of sand particles, depending upon the effectiveness
of the separator in trapping and removing sand particles. However,
whenever there is a production upset in the separator, sand
particles could pass through the flowmeters and this could cause
significant meter errors.
Erosion testing
NEL has undertaken a wide range of erosive flow tests on
components and equipment in both sand/water and gas/sand
flow regimes. Erosion tests have shown that there are different
areas of wear within pipes and equipment depending on a number
of factors. These factors include local geometry and shape of the
flow path, the fluid/particle velocity, sand concentration, particle
size, shape and hardness. Moreover, different flow regimes, such as
gas/sand, liquid/sand and gas/liquid/sand, have different erosive
flow patterns and wear characteristics.
The flow path also influences significantly where erosion
occurs in equipment. For example, sudden expansion or
contraction, bends or a series of bends where rapid changes
in velocity or direction often have significant adverse erosion
 implications. Particle velocity dominates erosion and erosion rates.
Typically, doubling the particle fluid velocity gives a sixfold increase
in erosion rate.
A model solution
By knowing how particulate flows and erosion affect pipeline
performance, its design and future performance may be improved.
By optimising pipeline selection and configuration, this results in
improved reliability and service life. Planned inspections, calibrations
and maintenance procedures can also be suitably optimised,
resulting in a sizeable reduction in operating costs and downtime.
To further understand how pipelines will perform under erosive
flow conditions, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) erosion
modelling can be used. Such erosion modelling is often used as part
of the design phase to help anticipate how equipment will perform
and enable erosion hot spots to be identified. CFD offers engineers
the ability to understand and predict how sand will behave and
where erosion occurs. It allows them to more effectively design
systems, identify vulnerabilities, schedule inspection/maintenance
and to prevent unplanned shutdown. CFD erosion modelling,
therefore, provides an invaluable tool in the pipeline development
phase to assist designers in identifying critical erosion areas. It also
allows them to undertake design changes that will help to minimise
erosion levels.
To simulate erosion, the fluid flow is modelled using a ‘clean
fluid’, typically in combination with a discrete phase model (DPM),
which is used to model the trajectories of individual sand particles
as they move through a pipe. This combination model can then
be used to capture the velocity and impact angle of sand particles
as they impinge upon pipe walls. Using an empirical erosion
model, the rate of erosion at each location in the pipe can also be
calculated. However, when the complexity of pipeline systems and
the conditions that exist are considered (particularly those that are
laid subsea), the need for validation when modelling is even more
apparent if it is to be used as the basis for designing such systems.
CFD erosion modelling techniques are still evolving. Therefore,
results cannot be relied upon in isolation without undertaking
physical erosion tests to validate the CFD model. The power of
CFD for such applications comes from the added value that can
be gained when used in conjunction with physical testing. Physical
testing offers the validation needed for CFD, which, in turn, provides
the ability to test outside the operational capability of the test
facility.
Your partner for:
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While physical testing is usually expensive, CFD offers a
more cost-effective alternative that allows engineers to quickly
experiment and review how a range of operating conditions will
affect the performance and longevity of a pipeline system.
Through subsequent examination and measurement of
erosion levels, the test data can be compared with the CFD
erosion model test predictions. The model can be adjusted if
required. In NEL’s experience, erosion tests often identify critical
erosion areas or hotspots that the CFD modelling does not
reasonably predict in terms of location or the level of erosion.
The ‘adjusted’ CFD model can then be used to estimate erosion
levels at field operating conditions with greater confidence and it
can also predict wearlife.
Furthermore, the use of a validated CFD analysis provides
the means to ‘virtually’ dissect a system to examine how erosive
wear has affected each component. This information may then
be used to further optimise pipeline system design, helping to
predict erosive wear and schedule more effective shutdowns and
maintenance.
However, one consideration is that erosion modelling is
highly sensitive to different geometries, conditions and model
setup. DPM is also highly complex. As erosion modelling is
difficult to perform effectively, the likelihood of uncertainty and
error is increased. NEL is currently in the early stages of launching
a joint industry project, aimed at improving understanding and
modelling techniques for erosion in multiphase systems in order
to combat this issue. The company hopes that this project will
improve erosion predictions through empirical testing in wet
gas and multiphase systems, which could potentially extend the
safe operating life of expensive components. This means less
downtime for the operator and less capital expenditure.
Of course, it will always be difficult to stop erosion.
Operators and manufacturers must learn how to minimise
or control the level of erosion through effective product
development and use of appropriate materials. Importantly,
erosion testing, in conjunction with CFD erosion modelling,
can be used to predict the lifetime of a product. In turn, this
enables a planned maintenance programme to be put in place
so that equipment can be replaced or refurbished before failure.
As unplanned shutdowns are a major expenditure –which
companies want to avoid at all costs – this approach allows
operators to plan in advance and anticipate the lifetime costs of
the pipelines for better budgetary control.
| sales@the-sniffers.com
 GETTING
TO GRIPS
WITH
PIPE
REPAIRS
Ray Martinez, RAM-100, USA, explains
how maintaining a good network
with readily available information
can help companies propose effective
and project-specific pipeline repair
solutions.

T
ime and the consequences of ageing, unfortunate
accidents or events, economic and climate changes,
increased safety requirements and measures, and
continually improving techniques and tools to identify
anomalies and defects on pipelines are just a few reasons
and concepts that have a direct relationship with repair and
rehabilitation services, technologies and solutions in today’s
market. With several providers available, an operator has to
keep up to date in order to make informed decisions and select
the most effective solution in each situation.
Code and design compliance, speed of installation,
guarantees, material specifications, certifications, manufacturing
experience, lead times and availability are components that
could lead a client when selecting a solution and provider.
However, the type, source and impact of the defect often

37

Figure 1. Installation of RAMFILL-B+RE sleeve over RAMFILL
NM composite wrap.
Figure 2. Welding application on RAMFILL-B+RE.
carries much of the weight during this decision making process.
As a result, if a company is looking to undertake a routine
maintenance job, it is likely that multiple providers will be in
the evaluation mix. However, when a leaking defect is identified
in a high consequence area, the evaluation options are reduced
to providers that have an appropriate prompt response
solution.
RAM-100 offers specialised services for standard and
custom designed steel sleeves. The company also provides
a proprietary formula epoxy coating for protection against
corrosion and mechanical damages, making it a provider of
maintenance for routine and emergency pipeline repair and
rehabilitation projects.
When evaluating providers of pipeline repair solutions,
finding a company with experience and industry knowledge,
along with knowledge about the type of defect and its impact
on operations, is of utmost importance. RAM-100 is directly
engaged in the development of solutions for corrosion
problems, working directly with field crews, contractors,
client representatives, engineers and colleagues, and by self-
performing on multiple projects with design, installation,
inspection and quality control services. This practice has
allowed RAM-100 to gain first-hand experience of the different
situations faced by pipeline operators. The company can then
work with them to develop appropriate and custom solutions.
38 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
Case study
An effective case that illustrates the close interaction between
RAM-100 and its clients is shown in the images featured
within this article, from the proposed design (including field
measurements) to the final installation of a special design steel
sleeve. The identified anomaly was a defective split sleeve. Due
to the size and operation of the pipeline, a double measure
was required to ensure a proper solution.
The first step was to have a clear understanding of the
requirements in the field. Engineering staff performed a field
survey, which included pictures and sketches of the situation
to ensure that they had a complete understanding. The team
proceeded with the engineering and design of the proposed
sleeve. Once the solution was approved by the client,
manufacturing of the sleeve proceeded, through measurement
and cutting of the steel plate, to rolling and verifying all shapes
and cuts before being delivered to the field.
The installation included a RAMFILL NM sleeve, covering
the defective split sleeve in its entirety with an overlap to
the sides to provide a complete coverage of the area. All
annular space within the split sleeve were filled with RAMFILL
epoxy paste. The next layer of protection was given a custom
designed Type B RAMFILL-B+RE sleeve. This included an
enlarged section in the body of the sleeve to allow enough
space for the shape of the split sleeve to be covered by
the RAMFILL-B+RE sleeve. The design included concentric
reductions to ensure an exact fit over the outside diameter
of the pipeline. The field crew proceeded to complete the
installation by application of longitudinal welds, followed by
radial welds according to codes and specifications. To fill the
annular space between pipe and sleeve, RAMFILL epoxy resin in
liquid presentation was injected through integrated couplings in
the sleeve. After welding caps to the couplings and performing
non-destructive tests to ensure a complete sealed installation
had been performed, a final layer of protection was applied
with 40 mils of RAM-100 epoxy coating.
Two-part epoxy coating
With the opportunity to participate in pipeline maintenance
projects with PEMEX in Mexico, RAM-100 developed a
proprietary formula for a two-part epoxy coating. With
excellent results in standard tests for this type of coating and
ease of installation, the company’s coating became the leader
of coating protection in the country for pipeline repair jobs.
The coating is applied in all kinds of pipeline projects, from a
patch job to a full re-coating of hundreds of miles of pipeline,
including sea-ground-air interphases, weld joints and to protect
and repair metal and concrete structures.
Furthermore, RAM-100 developed its own solution for
composite wraps, leveraging on the properties of the coating
formula to mix and work with high strength synthetic mesh.
As needs continue to rise, so has the company’s product
catalogue. It has since added standard, full circumference steel
sleeves and patented designs with enlarged diameters in order
to accommodate and reinforce girth welds. More recently,
‘pumpkin’ or ‘boiler-type’ pressure containment sleeves with
enlarged diameters and concentric reductions, and special
design sleeves to immobilise illegal taps.
 STATS GROUP
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Figure 3. Coating application on RAMFILL-B+RE.
Pipeline repair and rehabilitation projects can vary from
simple or standard, to unique and complex situations. One
job might require a small composite wrap to repair a corroded
section of pipeline, while a different job could involve sealing
a leak, installing multiple composite wraps and, potentially,
some half sole Type A sleeves welded together. This can be
encapsulated with a Type B pumpkin-style sleeve, all without
shutting down the operations. As explained in this article,
the situations as well as the solutions vary. Not only a safe
provider is required, but just as importantly, a contractor is
needed to do a correct installation. A sound contractor will
know its codes, maintain up to date certifications and follow
PRECISION PIPE HANDLING.
WHATEVER THE CONDITIONS.
DECKHAND® Pipe Handling System
Now available from CRC-Evans, the DECKHAND® Pipe Handling System
by LaValley Industries allows precision pipe handling and placement
without the need for a ground crew in the vicinity of moving pipe.
DECKHAND can be mounted to any brand of excavator, with interchangeable
grab arms safely and securely lifting and moving pipe. Achieve 360° pipe
handling—whatever the conditions—with DECKHAND.
CRC-Evans.com
standards and regulations to ensure a safe repair job. With a
well-researched product and a solid reputation for installation
services, a pipeline operator can effectively manage and reduce
the risk associated with the integrity of its pipelines.
Across the world, several organisations have been formed
to set codes and normativity for the design and safety aspects
of pipelines. Using these, guidelines and regulations that cover
most (if not all) of the repair solutions available have spurred.
With conferences gathering innovative and creative minds
to discuss the benefits and opportunities of each solution,
advantages and disadvantages are well documented and readily
accessible via the internet. With just a few clicks, one can find
white papers, manuals, specifications and other documents
that relate to the repair of pipelines. It is recommended that
pipeline companies consult with the industry’s authorities
or governing bodies and conduct appropriate research with
reputable organisations about the products and solutions that
are available before selecting one for a repair job.
RAM-100 maintains appropriate and up to date
certifications for all of its manufacturing processes – including
the required tests, operations and staff involved. The company
provides effective solutions by gathering as much information
as possible about the project in order to propose a unique
solution, a corresponding quote and any additional information
that could be useful to the client when making a firm decision.
Its ISO-certified processes begin from the inspection of the
manufacturing material through production and quality control,
to final delivery.
REPLACE
OR REPAIR
Elaine Maruca,
The Pipe Line
Development
Company

P
(PLIDCO), USA,
ipelines are the fastest, easiest and safest way
explores why of transporting liquids in large quantities across
long distances. Operators of these pipelines
pipelines may
have a responsibility to keep the lines in a good
need replacing working condition in order to prevent leaks. However,
if there is a problem, operators also have a duty to fix
or repairing it quickly and efficiently. While this may sound simple,
there are many options for maintaining and repairing
and how these pipelines, and making the right choice is imperative.
procedures can
be approached.

41
What causes a pipeline to need repairing or
replacing?
There are many reasons why a pipeline needs to be repaired
or a section of it replaced. These reasons can be broken
down into five key categories: vandalism, corrosion (internal
and external), nature (weather and temperature), material
failure (gaskets and welds) and accidents (boat anchors and
construction equipment). The above reasons can cause holes,
cracks, thinning walls, dents, weak joints and, in the worst
cases, a rupture. The question that then arises is: what is the
best way to fix these problems?
Replace it
If the damaged area is large, then a section of the pipeline may
need to be replaced. Rafi Haviv, Ashgar Tech Ltd., explained
how a section of a 16 in. line was replaced using The Pipe
Line Development Company’s (PLIDCO) Weld+Ends and
Clamp+Rings. The pipeline was inspected by a smart pig, which
suggested that a 900 m section was showing signs of heavy
internal corrosion.
Haviv said: “The line was shut down, the corroded section
was cut out and the new section of pipe was put into place.
Weld+Ends were used to join the pipe and Clamp+Rings to
handle the high hydrostatic and dynamic forces that would
Figure 1. A 16 in. PLIDCO Weld+End and Clamp+Rings.
Figure 2. A 4 in. 300 Class PLIDCO Flange Repair+Ring
stopping a leak.
42 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
occur in that specific application once flow resumed in the
line.”
With the line back in operation, the Weld+Ends were
welded to the line and the Clamp+Rings were removed,
cleaned and put back in stock for future use.
PLIDCO’s Clamp+Rings can also handle thermal and
external forces, which were not relevant in that case. Shutting
down the line is usually the final choice as this causes
large costs to be incurred while the pipe is down. However,
sometimes this is the only safe choice.
Repair it
External and internal corrosion can cause wall thinning on a
pipeline. This defect can be repaired rather than the line being
replaced on some occasions. Many products are available for
this fix, including wraps and Sole+Mates, which are designed
to reinforce non-leaking, weakened pipelines. Longitudinal
butt welding is required for all applications and back-up strips
are furnished. For pressure containing applications, the sleeve
must be fully seal welded to the pipeline using circumferential
fillet welds. Reinforcing the pipe before a leak occurs is,
arguably, the best case scenario for the operator.
Leaks caused as a result of vandalism have, unfortunately,
become a common occurrence. Bud Zanders, Chief Engineer
at PLIDCO, explained: “Depending on working pressure and
size, bullet holes in a pipeline can be quickly plugged with a
PLIDCO Smith+Clamp.”
This fitting can be used for pit holes. The pilot pin directs
the sealing cone into the hole and, after the force screw is
tightened, the leak is stopped. A Weld+Cap can be welded
over the clamp to make repairs permanent.
Illegal tapping is another form of vandalism that is
currently causing losses of millions of dollars in operations
across the world. The company’s Tap+Enclosures come in
three variations, each used for different needs. These fittings
have a domed section that fits over the illegal tap and can
be welded onto the line while it is operating for a permanent
repair. Fittings for this type of repair are custom made for each
application.
Gaskets are weak spots on flanges and tend to leak over
time. They can be fixed in two ways. One approach for repair
is by using a Flange Repair+Ring. This is the method by which
the 4 in. 300 Class flanges shown in Figure 2 were fixed on a
rig in the Gulf of Mexico.
The product fits over the leaking flanges to create a seal
around the circumference. Sealant is injected into the button-
head fittings, which creates a complete seal around the
existing flange studs and nuts. This fitting can also be kept in
stock for immediate repair needs.
A Flange Repair Split+Sleeve is commonly used on flanges
that are misaligned or have a leaking gasket, which was the
case in Riohacha, Colombia (Figure 3). This offshore installation
took seven hours from start to finish. Sealant is not needed
on a Flange Repair Split+Sleeve as long as elastomer packing
can be used. This sleeve seals on the pipe beyond the flange
welds with the ability to cover a wide variety of flange types
and classes.
 Weather cannot be controlled and, as a result, can cause
storm damage to offshore lines. Riser pipelines on the ocean
floor are prone to damage due to storms. One example of
replacing these is with the Power+Grip connector. Using this
connector means that welding is not required and there is
minimal pipe end preparation. It has a double row of packing
with a test port to prove seal integrity before pressurising the
line. The connector accepts external loading and the seal and
grip actuations work independently. This fitting grips the pipe
and has less chance of being compromised during a storm.
Accidental damage can be caused by numerous factors.
Pete Haburt, PLIDCO’s International Business Development
Manager, gives an example: “A 48 in. line was hit by a ship’s
anchor off the coast of Iraq, which caused deformation and
a crack that leaked. It was repaired by a 48 in. PLIDCO Bellied
Clamp+Sleeve.”
Figure 3. A 24 in. 600 Class PLIDCO Flange Repair
This fitting differs from the Split+Sleeve as it is designed Split+Sleeve.
to grip the outside wall of the pipe, which counteracts end-
pull and axial stresses that are often encountered in offshore
installations. It also does not require welding. be welded while the line is in service, which saves both time
Welds tend to develop leaks from several types of and money. There are several variations of the Split+Sleeve
anomalies. This is one of the most common causes of pipe including tees, ells, crosses and fittings with bellies, all of
leaks and can be repaired using the Split+Sleeve. These sleeves which are based on the same general sealing principal.
can be used to either temporarily or permanently repair both Having repair fittings is the best case scenario. However,
onshore or offshore leaks. The leak is stopped when the fitting that is not always feasible. Therefore, knowing what product
is bolted on the line. For a permanent repair, the fitting can to use and who to contact is imperative.

Making the world a cleaner place...

One pipeline at a time.™

Tel:281-351-2749
Fax:281-351-4658 distributors
Toll Free:800-578-7436 wanted
Email:Sales@pigsunlimited.com
 12TH PIPELINE TECHNOLOGY CONFERENCE
2-4 MAY 2017, BERLIN, GERMANY
Europe's biggest pipeline conference & exhibition

 600+ DELEGATES  50+ DIFFERENT NATIONS

 60+ EXHIBITORS  DELEGATIONS FROM 50+ DIFFERENT
PIPELINE OPERATORS

delegates from 52 countries attended ptc 2016

AATS
Euro Institute for Information
and Technology Transfer

www.pipeline-conference.com
A. K. Tewari
and S. S. Gupta,
Indian Oil Corporation Ltd., India,
discuss various aspects of pipeline failure,
ILI and repair strategies that are adopted to
ensure a safe operation.

REASONS AND I ndian Oil Corporation Ltd. (IOCL) is the

largest commercial establishment in India.

REMEDIES FOR
It operates 11 out of 23 refineries in India
and nearly 11 900 km of pipeline spread
across the country. During the last financial
year, its pipeline network transported

A PIPELINE
over 75 million t of crude oil and refined
petroleum products. The network ranges
from 8 - 48 in. dia. and are laid both onshore
and offshore. The network is currently under
expansion and another 6000 km of pipelines
are at various stages of implementation.

SEAM RUPTURE
The majority of its crude oil pipelines
are laid between the shore and refineries
passing across the country, sometimes over a
distance exceeding 1000 km.

45
 Figure 1. Image a) SEM of first burst. Image b) SEM of second burst. In both cases, fatigue striations were observed at the origin of
fracture (i.e. at inner surface). Further propagation was almost in a brittle manner with no evidence of plastic deformation. This sort
of rapid failure occurs when the wall thickness is reduced in order to take internal pressure.

Table 1. Details of failures

The line was initially commissioned for
the petroleum product service. However,
Serial Date Chainage Nearest Operating External Type of
number (km) discharge pressure at coating failure during the market change in 2006, IOCL
station discharge converted the pipeline into a crude service.
(km) point (kg/cm3) At the time of conversion, the originating
1 25 January 1019.75 1018 73 CTE Seam point was shifted to a new location
2014 rupture (approximately 60 km away) and a new
2 12 March 663.40 656 74 3LPE Seam 77 km long, 28 in. dia. section was added to
2014 rupture the existing line.
3 29 September 1029.60 1018 60 CTE Seam Upon commissioning, the entire line
2014 rupture was cathodically protected and no serious
4 1 January 666.45 656 60 3LPE Seam incidences of coating failure were reported.
2016 rupture During 2012, a magnetic flux leakage-based
MAOP = 74.80 kg/cm3 (MFL) inline inspection (ILI) survey was
carried out over the whole pipeline. The
ILI reports did not indicate any serious
One such crude oil pipeline, which was otherwise anomalies, and the pipeline was more or less free from
healthy, suddenly reported cases of pipeline seam rupture a external or internal corrosion metal loss. The majority
at regular intervals. The ruptures were reported from two of dents reported in the survey were less than 2% OD.
out of eight sections of the pipeline. Altogether, four A couple of dents with a depth exceeding 2% in OD
incidences of seam rupture were reported; two in section were covered with a Type B sleeve. As part of a routine
six and two in section eight. The other sections were free maintenance programme, cleaning pigging is conducted
from any incidents. every month. The quantity of muck received was
approximately 20 - 25 kg and was mostly waxy in nature.
The pipeline
The pipeline in question was a 22 in. dia. pipeline made Failures
of API 5L-X65 grade double submerged arc welded The first seam rupture was reported in January 2014.
(DSAW) pipes, with longitudinal seam orientation. At the During the same year, there were two other failures;
failure locations, the thickness of the pipe was 0.25 in. again, seam ruptures. While the first failure was in section
(6.35 mm). It was built between 1994 and 1995, and was eight, the second failure was in section six, approximately
commissioned in 1996. 400 km away from the first failure. Interestingly, both
A precommissioning hydrotest was carried out at of these failures were identical in nearly every aspect.
a specified minimum yield strength (SMYS) of 90% Then, after a period of lull, a third failure occurred in
(65 000 psi), corresponding to a pressure of 93.5 kg/cm2 section eight, exactly similar to the other failures. Finally,
with a holding period of 24 hrs. The pipeline has 900 km in January 2016, a fourth rupture took place, this time in
of three layer side extruded polyethylene (3LPE) external section six after a gap of nearly 18 months. All ruptures
coatings and 200 km of coal tar enamel (CTE) coatings. were identical and failure morphology was almost same.

46 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016

Table 1 shows how the failures took place, despite lowering of the
(MAOP) pressure by 20% in each of the two sections.
IOCL assigned an investigation team as soon as the first failure
occurred. The initial approach to the investigation focused on the
possible effects of the crude being transported. The reason for this
was the absence of any signs of corrosion or mechanical damage at the
failure spot. The material properties of the pipe and sound portion of
the seam weld revealed no abnormality and were well within the limits
specified in API 5L on which the specification of the pipe was mostly
based. However, the second failure – where the pipes were sourced
from a different manufacturer – further added to the complexity. At this
stage, IOCL decided to hire external expert agencies to undertake the
investigation with the in-house team. In both section six and eight, a
rupture took place even despite reducing the MAOP by 20%. The current
operating stress levels at sections six and eight are in the regions of
45 - 46% SMYS.

Investigations and findings

A large investigation programme was launched to find the cause of
failure and identify the appropriate remedial action. The investigation
team consisted of three expert groups and one in-house team.
The expert group began their work by considering the following
findings of the in-house team:
)) Absence of any signs of corrosion from both external and internal
sides at the failure spots.

)) No signs of mechanical damage were observed at the failure spots.

)) No abnormalities in the coating were observed and pipe to soil

potential (PSP) values indicated healthy protection levels (-1.1v to
-1.2v) as per NACE-defined criteria.

)) Soil samples did not indicate any abnormality; absence of any MIC
activity.

)) Specification of crude oil transported within permissible limits with

regards to H2S (<10 ppm in liquid phase), CO2, water content etc.

)) There was a single long facture without any branching.

)) Cracks had initiated from the internal side of the DSAW seam – the
seam opening was nearly 1 m in all cases and almost equal opening on
either side of the supposed crack initiation point.

The above considerations were common for all failure sites.

Findings
The expert groups carried out a detailed mechanical and metallurgical
analysis as a part of the investigation.
The analysis showed that typical beach marks related to fatigue
failure were clearly visible in three cases. Therefore, operational fatigue
seems to have played an important role in the failures. Cyclic loading was
a common phenomenon in the pipe.
However, the group thought that pressure cycling or fatigue stress
could only be a contributory factor. The hardness profile of the fractured
area, as well as the associated heat affected zone (HAZ), was within
the normal range of Rc 22 in all four cases. This, along with absence of
cracks, virtually ruled out the possibility of stress corrosion cracks. The
crude pumped though the pipeline had H2S (in liquid phase) limits well
within 10 ppm.

Figure 2. Wall thickness vs internal pressure. The maximum
pressure the pipe can withstand varies with wall thickness.
Failures indicate that the cross section of pipe at the failed
location was reduced from the initial 6.4 - 5.7 mm to 4.6 -
3.7 mm. This reduction is not due to corrosion, but due to
fatigue crack growth.
Figure 3. Weld misalignment between outer and inner weld
bid.
Figure 4. Weld anomaly in the inner weld bid.
These observations led to the examination of
the quality of DSAW from the presence of any
manufacturing defects that could play a key role in
initiating the crack and lowering fatigue life.
Mechanical fatigue
Fatigue cracking is a mechanical form of degradation
that occurs when a component is exposed to cyclical
48 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
stresses for an extended period, often resulting in
sudden, unexpected failure. In liquid pipelines, pressure
variations resulting from shutdowns and other reasons
may cause cyclic loading.
Fatigue cracks usually appear on the surface, at
notches or stress raisers under cyclic loading. For LSAW
pipes, the following may reduce fatigue life:
)) The stress raisers or notches could be undercut.
)) Lack of fusion (LOF).
)) Mechanical groove, corrosion groove, weld
mismatch etc.
Cracks nucleating from a surface stress
concentration will typically have beach marks or
striations. In this case, scanning electron microscope
(SEM) analysis of the first and second failures indicate
striations (Figure 1). Fatigue due to operating pressure
variations initiated cracks at the weld inner surface.
This may be because of a minor undercut near the weld
toe. The pipe specifications did not include N5 notch
criteria (for offline UT examination of the weld). Hence,
such undercut or notch-like features may have remained
in the pipe, which became the initiation point or origin
for the fatigue crack.
Once the crack propagated, the pipe’s wall thickness
and load bearing capacity began to gradually reduce
(Figure 2).
Brittle fracture
Brittle fracture is the sudden rapid fracture under stress
(residual or applied) where the material exhibits little
or no evidence of ductility or plastic deformation.
Pipes fail in brittle manner only when the charpy
impact value is low, a crack or other stress raiser is
present, and the applied stresses are high. Cracks will
typically be straight, non-branching and largely devoid
of any associated plastic deformation.
The agency’s report indicated charpy impact
values of 26 - 29 J. This marginally meets the API 5L
requirement of 27 J. All three fractured samples indicate
a straight cracking and cleavage type with hardly any
plastic deformation.
The expert team also examined the following
possibilities of an environmental assisted cracking of
the pipe.
Stress corrosion cracking
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a form of
environmentally assisted cracking wherein small cracks
lengthen and deepen slowly over a period of years.
SCC may be present on a pipe for years without causing
problems. However, once a crack becomes large enough,
the pipeline could leak or rupture. Three conditions
must be present for SCC to occur:
)) Microstructure – all commonly used line pipe steels
are susceptible, though susceptibility may increase
 Cathodic

FarwestCorrosion.com
with tensile strength. Thus, in the present case, the grade of steel used
Protection &
being X-65 makes it ‘low’ vulnerable.
Corrosion
Control
)) Environment – soil with alternating wet-dry conditions. SCC can occur
in almost any soil. Therefore, most pipelines are vulnerable.

)) Stress levels – susceptibility to SCC increases with stress level; weld

toes, rock dents are conducive for SCC.
Solutions
When compared with the conditions at the pipeline burst sites, the
following observations can be made:
)) The coating was intact and crack initiation was from the inside, rather C.P. Anodes
than from the pipe’s external surface.

)) CTE (pipeline section eight) may favour high pH SCC and 3LPE coating
Power Supplies
(pipeline section six) may favour low pH SCC, provided that cathodic
shielding effect exists. Test Stations
)) Microstructure at SAW welds favours low pH SCC.
Cable & Splicing
)) Stress should be greater than 60% SMYS. For the two initial failures, the
pipeline was operating above 60% SMYS. However, for the third and
fourth failures, the pipeline was below 60% SMYS. High pH SCC tends
Instrumentation
to occur within 16 km from the discharge in gas pipelines (owing to
temperature and pressure effect). Reference
Electrodes
Therefore, the factors favouring both high pH SCC and low pH SCC
co-exist in the pipeline bursts. However, with the surface location being
internal, low or high pH SCC is unlikely.
Anode Backfill
Furthermore, SCC in pipelines will have a number of small cracks with
branches. All failed pipe samples showed only a single crack without any Remote
branches or secondary cracks. Monitoring
SCC is possible from an internal environment, but such effects are
possible only if CO2 dissolved water is present. Such conditions would
appear at the bottom of the pipe, not the top where failure occurred. Coatings
In the present case, all four ruptured pipe seams were in the segment
between the 9 o’clock and 3 o’clock position. It was concluded that ‘SCC Isolators
does not appear to be among the causes of failure of the pipeline’.
However, the feasibility of sulphide stress cracking (SSC) was also
Inspection
examined, but the expert team found that the hardness profile of the
fracture surface in all four cases were well below the limits set in API 5L Equipment
Annexure-H 45th edition, which states: “Pipe for sour service shall have
maximum hardness value of 250 HV-10 or 99.5 HRB or 22 HRC. It is also
C.P. Installation
to be noted that weld cap hardness can be up to maximum 275 HV10 or
26.4 HRC.”
Having examined all of the feasible reasons for failure, the expert and C.P. Engineering
in-house group focused on anomalies in the DSAW longitudinal seam.
Among various weld defects, the LOF is one that behaves like a crack and
should be evaluated like one. Therefore, it was decided to concentrate And More...
primarily on LOF being present in the DSAW seam and to look at other
weld defects, such as porosity, later.
Any LOF beyond the permissible limits set in API 5L should have been
detected at the manufacturing stage. Yet, the specification used to procure
the pipes did not include N5 notch detection, which might have resulted 9 Locations
Across the USA
some LOF being inherently present in the weld seam. The investigating
www.

team also indicated that such LOF might have experienced growth during
the intervening period of 18 years due to cyclic loading, and reached the
critical size corresponding to the wall thickness of 0.25 in. (6.35 mm) and
888-532-7937
operating pressure (at the time of failure) resulting in seam ruptures.
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 Further investigations have begun, and preliminary observations
indicate that the above apprehensions could be true. Figures 3 and 4
suggest that there is considerable misalignment between internal and
external SAW. There was no mention of a permissible limit of such
misalignment in the pipe specification used during procurement.
However, a limit of 3 mm was introduced in all IOCL’s pipe specifcation,
in line with the current edition of API 5L.
Such significant misalignment has the potential to cause weld
anomalies like LOF. Figure 4 indicates one such weld defect found in the
good portion of the failed pipe (fourth failure). This further confirms
the possibility of LOF being the key actor in all the failures. Yet, other
anomalies in the weld could also be responsible alone or in combination
to lower the fatigue life of the pipe. The expert group’s findings are as
followed:
)) Pipe material conforms to API 5LX 65.

)) Magnitude of residual stress is insignificant.

)) Base metal possesses good fracture toughness value (JIC).

)) The regions adjacent to rupture that didn’t fail reveal the presence of
pre-existing defects – LOF.

)) Failure attributed to the growth of pre-existing defect caused by

fatigue.

These findings raise further questions: how many weld anomalies

could be present? How long will it take for such anomalies to grow
to critical length corresponding to the MAOP? Is it possible to go to
a MAOP of 74 kg/cm2 with reasonable length of a failure free period?
Should new operating pressure limits be defined, at which the pipeline
can be safely operated for a considerable length of time?
To identify how many weld anomalies could be present in the
pipeline, IOCL decided to carry out inspection with a UT shear wave-
based ILI tool that is capable of detecting and reporting all crack and
crack-like anomalies in the weld within a limit of 2 mm depth and 30 mm
length. The ILI indicated the presence of around 45 crack-like anomalies
in the weld and a HAZ area spread over the entire pipeline. Anomalies
are already repaired with Type B sleeves.
As a precautionary measure, IOCL is also replacing a stretch
of downstream pipe in section six and eight, where failures were
experienced. Keeping in mind the limitation of ILI tools as well as
the feasibility of growth of anomalies that falls below the detection
threshold of ILI tools, IOCL has decided to carry out ILI surveys once
every three years. At present, IOCL is awaiting the expert agency’s final
report.

Conclusion
Cases of pipeline weld rupture are not rare; literature available in the
public domain indicates that such failures have taken place previously in
Canada and the USA. In such cases, operators had to either reduce the
operating stress level (causing loss of throughput) or replace the affected
sections of the pipeline. IOCL believes the present pipe specifications
and limits need to be reviewed by the industry with regards to the
quality and levels of inspection, especially for welds at the pipe
fabrication stage at mills. Having conducted the ILI run with UT shear
wave tool, IOCL feels that there is still scope for improvement as far as
reliability of detection is concerned.
 T O M I S I N G
C U S
 Louis Dicaire, AGT Robotics
(Canada) and Ian McLaren, ESAB
(England), highlight new solutions for
low volume, high mix automation for
pipe fabrication.

T O M AT E D
U
A TIONS
SOLU

A
utomated welding, plasma cutting and plasma gouging
has been historically limited to high volume applications.
Traditionally, trajectories are programmed offline or with a
teach pendant, and programming could easily take 10 - 30 hrs
per part. If part dimensions change, such as the diameter or wall thickness of a pipe, the part
will then require a new programme. Primarily because of programming time, robots were only used in
applications where costs could be disbursed over a high volume of parts.
Today, new advances in programming software, vision systems and 3D laser scanning now combine to enable
profitable automated solutions for low volume, high mix part fabrication. Originally developed for welding structural

53
steel I-beams, the technology is also suitable for welding
unique pipe sections, elbows and flanges, such as those
associated with a river crossing or compressor station.
While unique, a pipe or elbow has a notion of ‘family’
in its dimensions shape. A Canadian fabricator of pipe
elbows for petrochemical applications provided a good
demonstration of self-learning robotic technology. In this
case, the part had four primary parameters: material thickness,
radius, diameter and chamfer (bevel).
The fabricator received two forged elbow halves
(imagine a piece of macaroni split in half lengthwise) from
its supplier. To fit the parts together, the fabricator had to
spend 25 - 100 hrs grinding, trial fitting and more grinding to
Figure 1. A 3D scanner emits a laser line to confirm part
position prior to welding.
Figure 2. By working with an integrator who partners with a
welding and plasma process expert, end-users can obtain the
best automation solution possible.
Figure 3. Pipe that needs back-gouging is a good candidate for
self-learning technology because it has notion of family; the
pipe will have a length, diameter, wall thickness and gouge
depth.
54 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
match the two halves of this high alloy part. The fabricator
originally sought a robotic grinder to reduce labour effort.
What it really needed, however, was a self-learning robotic
plasma cutting system; a solution that would reduce the weld
preparation time from dozens of hours to 45 min.
In this solution, each half of the elbow is placed open
side up on a turntable and clamped in place, so it does
not move (e.g. no precise fixtures). The robot picks up a 3D
scanner and scans both halves before the software generates
a perfect cutting path, checking the cut paths with a virtual
fit. The robot sets down the scanner, picks up the plasma
torch and cuts using a path that is generated specifically for
those two halves. Finally, the robot picks up a grinding tool
for de-burring and surface preparation.
The entire process takes just 45 min. Not only does the
fabricator reduce labour costs, it can free labour for other
tasks, address labour shortage issues and even reduce delivery
time, thus being more responsive to its customers.
3D laser scanning
Instead of manually programming a robot trajectory,
companies like the Canadian fabricator can produce a
trajectory by using a combination of automated technologies
without programming knowledge. Ideally, a fabricator’s
customer supplies a CAD file with embedded part dimensions
and welding data. From the CAD file, next generation software
can extract the necessary information to generate a trajectory.
Unfortunately, many situations are not ideal, and the
customer cannot supply much beyond a blueprint. In that
case, creating a robot trajectory starts with 3D laser scanning,
a technology poised to revolutionise the welding industry.
Continuing with the elbow as an example, a fabricator
would start by placing the part on a work surface, such as
a conveyor tray or turntable that feeds a robot work cell.
The scanner, which can be held by the robot or placed
on a gantry, then projects a beam of laser light onto the
component and moves along the length of (and/or around)
the components. Sensor cameras record the changing shape
and distance of the laser lines so that the scanning system
can then generate ‘point clouds’. Based on tens or hundreds
of thousands of measurements per second, 3D scanners can
measure parts with tolerances as tight as 0.02 in. in shop floor
conditions.
While different systems use different technologies, they
all achieve basically the same end: a point cloud from which
a software package can then generate a highly accurate CAD
model of a part’s exact size, shape and surface geometry.
Even when a fabricator’s customer provides CAD files with
embedded part dimensions and welding data, a low volume,
high mix robotic welding system will use 3D laser scanning to
detect and compensate for part imperfections or irregularities
(such as a distorted pipe). In addition, they can detect
situations where a human welder accidentally tack welded a
component a fraction of an inch in the wrong direction. By
automatically accommodating for unpredictable deviations,
3D scanners – in conjunction with robot trajectory software –
can nearly eliminate one of the larger causes of weld rejects
in robotic applications.

Figure 4. The fabricator of this pipe cuts weld preparation time
from over 25 hrs to just 45 min. by using self-learning robotic
technology to plasma cut instead of grind the pipe edge.
Taking the technology one step further, the 3D scanner can
scan the entire work area to prevent accidental collisions of
the robot arm. In summary, the robot is aware of everything in
its work environment.
The system
Knowing what and where to weld differs greatly from know
how to write good welding procedures. When customers do
not provide procedures, software programs are now available
that can extract information from an expert system and apply
it to a 3D scanned joint. An expert system stores information
from previous jobs (or contains a database programmed by a
welding engineer) to contain welding procedures for specific
joints. The system continues to learn as new jobs are added.
As good as an expert system is, note that a welding
engineer experienced with robotics can almost always improve
speed, quality and consistency by adjusting torch angles, wire
stick out, contact-tip-to-work distance and other welding
parameters.
Productivity and payback
In 20 years of conducting arc-on time studies, the leader
of ESAB’s Value Added Engineering (VAE) team consistently
p l a n t a n d m a c h i n e t e c h n i q u e s
confirms that a good welding operator using the GMAW
process averages 17 - 20% arc-on time. In a fully optimised
robotic application, the arc-on time averages 55 - 65%. Part
of the increase comes from the fact that robots do not need
to take physical breaks, aside from scheduled maintenance.
However, most of the increase comes by designing a robotic
work cell with multiple work zones. When possible, cells also
use multiple robot arms and positioners/fixtures that allow
for part loading/unloading on one side, while the robots
welded on the other side.
Keep in mind that a robotic work cell costs the same,
whether it operates for one, two or three shifts. Thus,
while acquisition costs remain static, companies that run
two or three shifts amplify their return on investment and
significantly increase cash flow by selling six to nine times
more product.
Qualifying candidates
Of course, not every component with a family notion of parts
is a good candidate. One key for successful automation is to
choose components that are truly well suited for the process.
One of the authors refers to this as avoiding the Winnebago
motor home effect: a motor home does not handle as well as
a car and it also has no big backyard like a house, so do not be
disappointed in the results when you try to combine the two.
Secondly, consider modifying component designs
(if allowable) to enhance them. Small changes with big
consequences should provide sufficient motivation to engage
with an automation integrator. Even if a company has robotic
and/or welding engineers on staff, those resources will not
likely have the breadth or depth of experience of companies
who deliver turnkey solutions every day.
As welding industry trends indicate, the business model
for automation works most effectively when it combines
companies who excel at robotics and motion (integrators)
with companies who excel at welding (the major welding
equipment and technology providers). Put another way, it is
easy to be good at several things. However, being excellent
requires focus.
ns
x p e c t a t io
L if t y o u r e
h e best !
i t h t
Work w
www.elite-lifting.com
Schoenbeck GmbH & Co. KG • Germany
www.schoenbeck-maschinen.de • info@schoenbeck-maschinen.de
Tel. +49 5721 99 44 39-26 • Fax +49 5721 99 44 39-23
 Steve Latvis, Miller Electric Mfg. Co., USA,
introduces induction heating and explains how it is being
used in the pipeline industry.
INTRODUCING
INDUCTION
HEATING
INDUCTION
I
n recent
years, induction heating has
been used successfully in
many major transmission pipeline
projects across the world. Among
its benefits, induction provides
great consistency in heating, faster
time to temperature of the part,
ease of use and safety in operation.
The benefits of induction
heating can help transmission
pipeline contractors to meet
code and quality requirements
and complete projects faster –
whether it is
the construction of
a new pipeline or the repair or
maintenance of existing in-service
transmission lines.
Despite the growing
awareness and use of induction,
questions may still exist about
the technology and how it can be
used. This article answers some of
those questions, with information
on best practices in thermocouple
placement and the use of
induction for coating preheat,
among other topics.
57
Induction on transmission pipelines
A key element affecting weld quality in pipeline applications
is uniform preheat temperature in the weld zone, if required
by procedure. Maintaining the pipe’s prescribed temperature
throughout the weld ensures that the joint achieves its required
strength and hardness, and minimises the risk of delayed hydrogen
cracking.
When preheating and stress relieving of parts is necessary,
there are several heating methods that can be used. Some
methods can present challenges. Therefore, it is important to
choose one that offers flexibility in order to meet a wide range of
heating requirements, while also meeting quality and productivity
needs.
Induction heating – a power source-driven heating process
that quickly brings a part to the required temperature and
maintains this – offers advantages in safety, quality and efficiency
that are not found in other heating methods.
Induction heating systems quickly heat conductive metals
by inducing current into the part. Induction does not rely on a
heating element or flame to transfer heat. Instead, an alternating
current passes through the heating device, creating a magnetic
field around it. As the magnetic field passes through the
conductive workpiece, it creates eddy currents within the part.
Figure 1. Induction heating completes applications that
typically require hours in minutes.
Figure 2. Proper thermocouple placement is critical for
achieving the desired temperature levels when using induction
heating.
58 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
The resistance of the metal fights against the flow of the
eddy currents, in turn generating heat in the part. By heating from
within, the part becomes its own heating element. This makes
induction very efficient since little heat is lost in the process.
Applications that typically require hours to heat can be
completed in minutes by utilising induction heating and the
different liquid-cooled, air-cooled and rolling options. Induction
heating systems can use various components to induce heat,
depending on part size and geometry.
In transmission pipeline welding, delayed hydrogen induced
cracking in the weld zone is a significant concern. Since induction
heating provides more uniform heating throughout the part, it is
an efficient technology for helping to minimise the risk of delayed
hydrogen cracking. Following some setup and best practices tips
can help to ensure success when using induction heating for
transmission pipeline applications.
Thermocouple placement and use
With open flame heating, temperatures are monitored manually
using temperature crayons. However, induction heating systems
have a built in heat controller to monitor temperatures using
feedback from thermocouples mounted on the piece. The
thermocouple feedback to the machine controls its power in
order to prevent overheating.
This makes thermocouple placement critical to achieving the
desired temperature levels when using induction heating. It is
important to note that some applications may need to go above
the desired setpoint temperature in order to achieve the proper
temperature at the root of the weld.
For example, if the induction heating mechanism – whether
it be coils or blankets – is not centred over the weld zone but
is instead placed on either side of the zone, the operator must
heat the area to a temperature that is higher than the minimum
preheat requirement. In turn, this will ensure the correct heat is
reached in the weld zone.
For best results, thermocouples should be placed underneath
the blanket. This prevents overheating and potential damage to
the induction heating coil. Also, the thermocouple should be
placed underneath the blanket coils rather than under the middle
of the blanket, which is actually a cooler area. This helps ensure
accuracy in temperature readings.
In addition, the probes should be placed flat against the
pipe and positioned against bare steel for the most accurate
temperature readings. This is due to the fact that pipe coatings act
as an insulator. Therefore, placing the probe where there is thick
coating could result in temperature readings that are less than the
actual temperature of the steel.
Using thermocouple feedback is also helpful in applications
where a certain temperature must be maintained throughout the
welding process.
Using induction with coated pipes
When completing transmission pipeline repair projects that
require cutouts and tie-ins, there is often a need to reapply
coating to protect the pipe from corrosion. In these applications,
many materials that are often used in the industry will not cure
properly if the steel is not warmed up to a certain temperature
level.
Induction heating is an effective option in these cases.
Air-cooled blankets can be used to heat up zones of the pipe.
 Spreading the blankets apart can create a wide area of heated
steel so that the epoxy coating can be applied with the necessary
temperature for proper curing.
Benefits for welding pipe segments
In applications that require welding pipe segments to valves, the
benefits of induction heating can minimise the risk of damaging
seals and valves, a common issue that can occur when using open
flame heating.
In fact, several pipeline companies have specified the use of
induction heating for preheating in welding applications involving
a pipe segment and a valve. Since valve ends are typically much
heavier steel compared to the pipe itself, there is a risk of causing
damage to the valve seals when using flame.
Induction provides a much more localised heat that can be
directed to a specific area of the part. Again, this helps prevent
damage.
Transmission pipeline projects also typically require
construction or maintenance and repair work on pumping stations
and compressor stations. These stations – often located every few
miles along the pipeline – use smaller diameter pipe, as well as
parts with varying geometries, such as elbows and flanges.
Since induction heating systems offer varying accessories,
by including air-cooled blankets and liquid-cooled coils, they
can accommodate the wide range of part and pipe sizes, and
geometries that may be encountered inside the fence of a
compressor or pump station. The ability to use one machine
for varied needs provides additional flexibility for pipeline
contractors.
Via Strada Mantovana,18 – 26864 – Ospedaletto Lodigiano (LO) ITALY
Phone: +39 037786811 – Fax: +39 037786977 – e-mail: info@opus-srl.it
www.opus-srl.it
Completing projects on in-service pipes
Repair or maintenance welding projects are often required
on in-service transmission pipelines. In these situations, it is
difficult to properly heat the steel with an open flame because
the product running through the pipe has a heat sink effect,
pulling the heat from the steel.
In these applications, induction heating can efficiently
meet the necessary preheating requirements to help minimise
the risk of hydrogen issues, without needing to stop the flow
of oil or natural gas through the pipe.
Research from the Pipeline Research Council International
(PRCI) supports the use of induction heating for welding
projects on in-service pipelines.
A flexible heating solution
Induction heating systems offer various types and styles of
component to induce heat in parts. Therefore, induction
is a flexible option for many applications, part sizes and
geometries.
In transmission pipeline welding, induction heating is being
successfully used for preheating in new construction projects
and repair and maintenance work. Ultimately, this provides
process, inventory and labour benefits that offer contractors
quantifiable results.
Essentially, induction heating is a feasible option that
provides significant benefits, including more consistent heating,
faster time to temperature and improved safety. As a result,
projects can be completed faster, without impacting quality or
operator safety.
INNOVATION
DRIVES
GROWTH

Nathan Muncaster,
Polyguard Products,
USA, emphasises the
need for innovation and
differentiation in the oil and
gas pipeline industry.

F
ounded as a
manufacturer of buried
pipeline coatings in 1953,
Polyguard Products is
proud to celebrate 24 years
of unbroken company sales
expansion. To clarify, this means
that since 1992, the company’s
total sales have always been
greater than the prior year. This
is a point of extreme pride
for the owners of Polyguard, a
company that is 100% employee
owned. The company is also
proud of the fact that it has
recently purchased another
production facility, which
means that while the company

61
 from the competition.
This may be by
adapting current or
previous products,
using market research
to allow a company
to target its audience’s
needs or by tailoring
innovations from other
sectors to suit and
benefit your industry.
Often, people
are accustomed
to standardisation.
When faced with
something unfamiliar,
a first instinct may
be to disregard it as
non-compliant or
negative. However,
as stated above, the
root of innovation is
to improve existing
designs or design a
Figure 1. Polyguard RD-6 installed on a rehabilitated pipe. more efficient and/or
more effective way of
achieving an objective
retains its original plants, Polyguard will more than double or function. People should not be afraid of change.
its manufacturing capacity. This will, in turn, accommodate Without embracing the unfamiliar, we would not have the
its current and projected future growth. computers, televisions and automobiles we have today.
Innovation and differentiation have played a crucial Therefore, by criticising or labelling something as non-
role in the company’s near quarter of a century of standardised and disregarding it for this reason, one could
uninterrupted expansion. The company believes that staff miss the whole point of progression in technology, which
motivation and being diversified across multiple industry has been the reason for the technologies that we now
sectors is important, as these allow Polyguard to consider deem ‘normal’ and use across several industries. A closed
and work towards the innovation it hopes to achieve. view could cause individuals, companies or even industries
Alongside and because of a consideration of the above, to fall behind.
continuous expansion over the years exemplifies the
calibre of the products that Polyguard produces. Oil and gas industry
Polyguard’s longevity in numerous markets and the While differentiation is a key part of Polyguard’s strategy
loyalty displayed by its customers has allowed the across the spectrum of the industries it services, this
company to receive feedback and adapt its products article is focused on the oil and gas sector. More
according to the wants and needs of the industry. One specifically, this piece will explore the RD-6 coating
aspect of Polyguard’s growth has been retaining its system, which is used greatly in the industry. The RD-6
network of existing customers while acquiring more every coating system improved upon traditional multi-layer
year. This has allowed for its continual success, for which polyethylene tape systems, which were launched over
the company is grateful. half a century ago. They were designed to be a new
pipeline coating, with an emphasis on mechanical damage
Differentiation resistance since the pipeline segments would often be
Sometimes, in the mind and hands of someone unfamiliar wrapped in one location before being transported to
with products from Polyguard, the company’s innovations another. In the 1960s, transport methods could even
can be dismissed and/or viewed negatively because they involve transfer between continents via a combination
are somewhat different from what that individual or of boat, truck and train movements. Thus, the design
company may be accustomed to. premise of the multi-layer polyethylene tape system was
However, in any graduate business school, students to attempt to survive or minimise the damage sustained
are taught that one of the fundamental keys to success during transportation, based on previous experiences and
is having the ability to differentiate products or services feedback.

62 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016

 The only welding system capable of

FOR THEEIN
ULTIMACTTION
GMAW, PGMAW,
PRODUWELD
AND BILITY
REPEATA
FCAW, RMD, GTAW
 For pipe sizes of 4 inch and above
 Bluetooth downloading capability and
weld monitoring that records every
second of welding
 Windows-based software

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Figure 2. Polyguard RD-6 installed on new pipe.
However, technological innovation that occurred
at the beginning of the 1980s saw the introduction
of fusion-bonded epoxy coating systems. This was
followed quickly by the three-layer polyolefin coating
systems, which were much more capable of resisting
transportation damage, as well as being much more
effective at asset protection. Thus, in most cases,
conventional tape systems became classified as a
rehabilitation coating or field applied coating. Despite
this switch, the design did not change and the properties
were not significantly enhanced for over 50 years.
To put this into perspective, imagine if you drove
to work today in an automobile from the 1960s, used
a 1960s typewriter at work and relaxed at home with a
1960s television while everything around you continued
to advance. Thought provoking indeed.
In the American market, multi-layer polyethylene tape
systems became associated with failures and essentially
died out from the oil and gas market quickly. Their use
64 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
has also been prohibited by regulations on
buried oil and gas pipelines for a number of
years. This shift began in the mid 1980s and
became problematic for Polyguard, as those
systems were what it manufactured at the
time. In order to remain in the American
buried pipe coating market, Polyguard
invested time and money, spending
approximately two years researching and
designing the RD-6 coating system. This is a
mono-layer polypropylene coating system
that is characterised by far higher adhesion
and tensile strength and enhanced shear
stress resistance. The coating is proven not
to shield cathodic protection in case of
a disbond and water ingress between the
coating system and the metal if adequate
cathodic protection is used. The first
applications of the RD-6 in the US were in
1988.
To date, Polyguard has a loyal customer
base that has allowed the company to
install and apply many millions of square
metres of coatings. This highlights the
importance of adapting alongside changes
and new technologies as well as the
effectiveness of the coating, even today.
If there is still scepticism after reading
this article, Polyguard’s financial results
demonstrate its success and confidence in
its products.
Conclusion
Innovation is key in all industries.
Moreover, industries should embrace
the advancements of other sectors as
they can benefit from each other. Can you imagine a
world without innovative companies that drive change?
Instead of being able to read this oil and gas related
article in digital format, perhaps on a tablet, you would
almost certainly be reading a printed hard copy without
advancements in information technology. Distribution
of content would certainly be more costly and less
instantaneous. Therefore, you may not have even been
able to read this at all if it weren’t for other companies
that innovated in communications and media technology.
Innovation is constantly changing our world and, with
proper analysis, should be welcomed in all industries. At
times, there can be a tendency to resist technological
advancements since change requires effort and open-
mindedness. Every individual faces the same challenge
of ensuring that it is open to a number of different
concepts. However, if 24 years of uninterrupted sales
expansion is any measure of market feedback, Polyguard
can consider its focus on innovation to be validated.
 PERFORMANCE
AT WORK.

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© 2016 Caterpillar. All Rights Reserved. CAT, CATERPILLAR, BUILT FOR IT, their respective logos, “Caterpillar Yellow,” the “Power Edge” trade dress as well as corporate and product identity used herein, are trademarks of Caterpillar and may not be used without permission.
 INSPIRING TRENCHLESS TECHNOLOGIES

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The development and introduction of hyper duplex
stainless steel has brought about a number of
benefits, explains Peter Stones, Sandvik, UK.

Combating corrosion
in a g g r e s s i v e
environments

S
uper duplex stainless steel, particularly in UNS S32750, is a
popular choice for demanding flowline and pipeline applications.
However, with the introduction of hyper duplex stainless
steels and the development of complementary welding
consumables, over-alloyed filler metals are being increasingly used to
combat corrosion when welding in aggressive environments, where the
corrosion resistance of super duplex stainless steels is stretched.
Sandvik 27.7.5.L filler metal is a hyper duplex, austenitic ferritic
stainless steel that is specifically developed for welding hyper duplex
steel. Sandvik SAF 2707 HD is used in the oil and gas industry for
welding super duplex pipe joints and on the repair of existing in situ
joints, which have been the subject of corrosion.
An indication of a material’s resistance to corrosion is its pitting
resistance equivalent (PRE) number. The higher the PRE number, the
greater the material’s resistance to pitting corrosion. In the case of
Sandvik SAF 2707 HD, the PRE number is a minimum of 48, giving it
excellent resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion.

67
 Now well established, the hyper duplex grade has excellent
resistance to: pitting and crevice corrosion, stress corrosion
cracking (SCC) in chloride containing environments, erosion
corrosion and excellent corrosion fatigue properties. It provides
high resistance to general corrosion in acidic environments,
extremely high mechanical strength and good weldability. All of
the above are qualities that make it ideal for application in the
oil and gas industry.
Alongside the development process of the steel grade, a
duplex filler wire was researched, tested and introduced to
complement the material. While Sandvik 27.7.5.L was developed
specifically for welding UNS S32707, it is finding increasing use
in the oil and gas industry and has been applied successfully by
pipeline manufacturers for welding super duplex pipelines and
producing a mechanically stronger joint with greater corrosion
resistance.

Figure 1. Filler material testing at Sandvik’s welding research

Chemical composition
facility. In terms of weld metal characteristics, the balanced material
grade Sandvik 27.7.5.L gives an austenitic ferritic (duplex)
microstructure with approximately 60 - 70% ferrite measured,
according to ASTM E562. The chemical composition is shown
in Table 1.
Another benefit of the material is that it provides increased
mechanical strength in the weld with improved yield, tensile
and impact strengths over the standard recommended super
duplex welding wire. The mechanical properties of Sandvik
27.7.5.L are shown in Table 2.
When used to weld super duplex flow pipes, the filler
material allows for the reduction of repair rates during
pipeline production. This is because finite element analysis
is not required for weld metal of matching strength and the
acceptance criteria can be less conservative.
The high pitting resistance of the material makes it suitable
for root pass welding on super duplex stainless steel grades,
especially when the risk of pitting corrosion is critical or when
mixed shield gases cannot be used.
Figure 2. Use of hyper duplex filler material on a pipeline joint. The filler material delivers strong over alloyed weldment
for both spooled pipelines and individual straight length pipes
of up to 30 m. The latter are loaded on board installation ships
Table 1. Chemical composition (nominal) % of the hyper duplex
and welded together on arrival at their destination. In both
welding wire
cases, use of the hyper duplex filler material has resulted in an
C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Co N
increased number of successful non-destructive tests (NDTs)
≤0.02 0.3 1.0 ≤0.02 ≤0.015 27 6.5 5 1 0.4
and weld inspections. This is true both onshore and at sea,
where costly failure rates and the standard grades used in the
Duplex development weld process have all but been eliminated.
The second generation of super duplex corrosive resistant alloys Subsea pipeline manufacturers have used Sandvik 27.7.5.L
were developed in the 1990s and quickly found widespread use in in weld root passes as it has much higher mechanical and
the oil and gas industry. corrosion properties than super duplex stainless steels.
The continued success of super duplex grades was not only It also has higher resistance to hydrogen induced stress
due to its corrosion resistance capabilities and high mechanical cracking (HISC) compared to super duplex stainless steels
strength, but also its good weldability and the properties of the and higher resistance to aggressively sour environments.
filler material. Austenitic reformation in the heat affected zone (HAZ) is
Ongoing research and development work at Sandvik in good, giving the welded joint excellent toughness, strength
the 2000s led to the introduction of a new grade in this group and corrosion resistance. Its use has enabled welds to
of alloys – Sandvik SAF 2707 HD (UNS S32707). This grade is consistently pass the highly demanding ASTM G48 corrosion
particularly suited to aggressive, acidic and chloride containing test at 40˚C (104˚F), where previously pass rates of around
environments. The grade is classified as hyper duplex. 50% were achieved.

68 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016

 The filler metal can be advantageously used for 13% Cr
flow pipes. Its high strength allows for a significant reduction in
repair rates during pipeline production as finite element analysis
is not required for weld metal of matching strength and the
acceptance criteria can be less conservative.
Equally, the hyper duplex filler material is being increasingly
used for pipeline repairs as a direct result of the material’s high
pitting resistance. Where existing joint welds have been the
subject of corrosion attacks after thorough cleaning of the
affected area and removal of corrosion products, Sandvik 27.7.5.L
can be used as a filler material to repair the joint. It also provides
an increased resistance to subsequent corrosion attacks.
For pipelines, the welding wire is used in mainline, tie-in,
repairs and fabrication welding to produce a stronger, more
corrosion resistant joint, in what is really over alloying to achieve
the best possible results.
Of course, both terrain and environment play a large part
in the process as they have a significant bearing on the finished
weld. The dry conditions of the desert and the conditions at sea
bring their own problems for welding repairs.

Pitting and crevice corrosion

Figure 3. Typical formation of pitting corrosion on a pipeline.
Pitting and crevice corrosion of stainless steel is primarily
determined by the level of chromium, molybdenum and
nitrogen in the material’s chemical composition. Manufacturing
and fabrication practices, such as welding, are also of vital
importance for the actual performance in service of the material.
As earlier mentioned, the parameter for comparing the
resistance to pitting in chloride environments is the material’s
PRE number. The higher the PRE number the greater the level of
resistance the material has to pitting, which can lead to eventual
failure. The PRE number is defined as:

PRE = %Cr + 3.3 x %Mo + 16 x %N

In comparison to Sandvik SAF 2707, the PRE number of super

duplex SAF 2507 is 42.5. Both are significantly higher values than
other duplex steels of the 25Cr type that are not super duplex,
such as UNS S31260 25Cr3Mo0.2N, which has a minimum PRE
number of 33.

Figure 4. Critical pitting temperature measured in modified
G48A and ‘green death’ test solutions. The critical crevice
corrosion temperature was obtained in testing with a crevice
specified in the MTI-2 procedure.
Testing
Pitting corrosion – when corrosion attacks are localised to small
areas on the steel’s surface, which create pits and eventually
holes in the metal – can be more detrimental to stainless steel
components than general corrosion. The phenomenon often
remains undetected until severe damage has been caused. Exact
testing procedures are specified in the ASTM G48 standard,
one of the most severe pitting and crevice corrosion tests
applied to stainless steel, which exposes test specimens to 6%
FeCl3 solution, also known as ferric chloride, with and without
crevices.
Resulting data defines the critical pitting temperature (CPT)
of hyper duplex stainless steel as 97.5˚C (207.5˚F). This is a
significant improvement on the corresponding 80˚C (176˚F) CPT
of super duplex materials.

Table 2. Mechanical properties of the welding wire Sandvik 27.7.5.L

Conclusion
Temperature Yield Tensile Elongation Hardness Impact The introduction of hyper duplex stainless steel for service
˚C (˚F) strength strength % (HV10) strength,
Rp0.2 – – MPa Charpy
in highly corrosive conditions led to the development of
MPa (ksi) (ksi) test – J a purpose-developed austenitic ferritic filler material for
(ft-lbs) welding. Today, use of that material is helping to improve the
20 (68) 690 (100) 890 (129) 25 ≤350 190 (140) mechanical strength and corrosion resistance of super duplex
-30 (-22) - - - - 106 (78)
pipelines, as well as significantly easing pipe joining work
that is carried out at sea. With nearly 100% improvement in
-50 (-58) - - - - 58 (43)
positive weld tests and inspections, the UNS S32707 filler
-60 (-76) - - - - 47 (35)
material is contributing significantly to combating corrosion in
*Rp0.2 corresponds to 0.2% offset yield strength.
aggressive environments.

70 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016

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A ROCK
SOLID AS

Martyn Campbell, Jee Ltd, UK, discusses how to optimise rock berm design.
R
ocks are often placed over subsea pipelines or
cables to achieve stability. While various grades
of rock are used to weigh down and shield the
pipeline. However, the same key questions arise in
all operations of this kind. How much rock is required? What
size of rock is needed? And what is the optimum size of the
rock berm?
It is important to investigate these questions as, due to the
large quantities of rock required, a small improvement in berm
design can significantly reduce the cost of remediation.
The forces experienced by pipelines, cables, umbilicals
or by any other structure on the seabed due to tides, waves
and currents, are often underestimated. Structures can be
piled, suction anchored or bolted to the seabed relatively
cost-effectively considering the localised area in which the
stabilisation measures are required. However, both pipelines
and cables present a different challenge; to achieve stability
along its length, a significant amount of intervention may be
needed.
To achieve stability and protection, trenching pipelines in
sandy soils is often a preferred solution. Achieving stability on
rockier seabed – where trenching is more difficult – opens the
door for alternative methods. While rock cutters can be used

73

Figure 1. Inputs to the probabilistic approach.
Figure 2. Illustration of rock berm volume saving.
to cut through rocky seabed to achieve the desired trench,
these are slow, expensive and typically only used for short
sections of route, where deviating around such challenging
terrain is not an option.
Rock dumping (or more appropriately rock placement) can
provide the necessary stabilisation for pipelines along routes
where trenching is not feasible. When rock is placed over the
pipe/cable, it creates a berm. The rock shields the pipeline/
cable from environmental forces and protects from third-party
interaction, such as dropped objects or fishing equipment.
Rock berm design typically includes safety factors and
conservative approaches, which can often result in inefficient
and over-engineered designs.
Jee Ltd has carried out numerous studies on rock berm
design, not only to ensure that stability is achieved, but also
to minimise the quantity of rock needed. In turn, this saves
money and reduces the impact on the environment.
Case study
The following case study concerns the stability of a
subsea cable using rock berms. However, the principles and
methodologies used here also apply to stabilising subsea
pipelines in the midstream oil and gas industry.
Jee was approached by a client who intended to stabilise
a power cable using a rock berm along its length. The client
had obtained quotes from suppliers and Jee was asked to
review and evaluate the quotes before showing whether the
cable could be safely protected using smaller quantities of
rock to minimise the wastage of rock that falls outside of the
size specifications. Both of these studies would save the client
money.
Jee used a probabilistic approach in order to determine the
optimum rock berm solution. This involved using the equation
for shields parameter (also called the shields criterion or
shields number) to determine whether the berm was stable
for the range of rock sizes. The shields parameter is the
74 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
ratio of applied shear stress to weight. It is used to calculate
the initiation of the motion of sediment in a fluid flow.
The probabilistic approach also took wave height, current
velocity, rock size distribution and slope angle into account, as
illustrated in Figure 1.
A rock particle size distribution was provided by the
quarry, showing the probability of the possible sizes of
supplied rock in a given sample. The distribution is a typical
bell-type curve, showing the likelihood of the rock meeting
the specified D50 value (median sieve diameter). As a result,
simply using the D50 value in rock berm calculations does not
account for those rocks that are above and below this value.
To account for this, Jee approached the problem using its
Monte Carlo technique. The company used random number
sampling of inputs to arrive at a general solution, made
accurate by the high number of calculations completed.
Random numbers were generated to obtain a rock particle size
from the rock particle size probability spectrum, which could
then be used to find the associated shield’s parameter. This
was then compared to the critical shield’s parameter, beyond
which failure of the berm would occur. This calculation
cycle was repeated a million times using Jee’s Monte Carlo
calculation tool.
The purpose of this exercise was to obtain a probability
of failure, which is defined by the ratio of the number of
simulations where the rock particle is unstable to the total
number of simulations. The probability of failure can then be
used with consequences from DNV-RP-J301 to determine risk.
The results of the study showed that the probability of
failure was relatively insensitive to the berm slope. Therefore,
the slope angle could theoretically be increased, while
reducing the berm width to, in turn, reduce overall rock
volume. The minimum size of rock could also potentially be
reduced, meaning that less rock was wasted. The acceptance
of the probability of failure for each of these solutions was
ultimately down to the client.
The berm height proposed by the suppliers in their tenders
could also be safely reduced. In this case, there was no need
to offer protection from third-party interaction. Therefore, the
berm height was only designed for the stability of the rock
berm. For the berm to interlock, the height needs to be three
times larger than the average rock size. Using this approach
and the reduced berm width, a significant quantity of rock
could be removed from the design.
Consideration was also given to the constructability of the
berm as the height and length reduces, and the slope angle
changes. What can be achieved in theory using calculations
within a design office is often not achievable during site
conditions once the operation is underway.
There also needs to be a consideration of the design life
of the berm. Third-party threats may be acceptable now but
could become a concern if fishing or shipping activity in the
region increases. Any CAPEX savings achieved by reducing the
rock volume at this stage may be negated if the rock dump
vessel needs to be mobilised to increase the rock berm height
and mitigate against these risks.
The berm top width has no real impact on the
performance of the berm. It is really a function of the
 installation tolerance of the rock placement vessel. A 1 m
width is typically reasonable and Jee accepted the proposed
dimension from the installation contractor.
Studies such as this not only save money, they also
minimise impacts on the environment. The rock is quarried
and purchased by volume using a specified D50. However,
smaller rocks that are considered unsuitable for the rock
berm are discarded. These smaller rocks take up valuable
space on the vessel and would simply be washed away. The
rock distribution from the quarry also needs to be carefully
considered. It may be skewed such that a higher proportion
of smaller diameter rocks are included in the distribution.
From an environmental perspective, reducing the amount
of rock placed on the seabed and increasing utilisation of
the quarried rock has obvious benefits. The footprint of
any installation on the seabed should be minimised where
possible, such that marine habitats are undisturbed and the
natural topology of the seabed is preserved. The need to
decommission at the end of the asset’s life is also a major
consideration.
The make-up of the rock berm itself usually consists of
smaller diameter rock at the base and around the pipeline/
cable. It is built up using larger rock sizes as the berm gets
further up and away from the pipe/cable. This is done to
minimise the risk of damage to the pipeline/cable and
ensure berm stability. This construction method requires
multiple passes of the rock dump vessel and the use of
an eyeball ROV or other visual surveying device for each
pass. This ensures that the rock has been placed accurately
and to the required depth. A final post-lay survey is
carried out to show that the rock berm specification has
been achieved. It is clear that a reduction in the rock
berm volume benefits not only the price of rock quantity
but also the vessel costs if the number of passes can be
reduced.
Considering that the responsibility for the construction
of the rock berm such that it meets the required
specifications is held by the installation contractor,
understandably, there will be conservatisms in the original
berm design to account for factors of safety, difficulties
during installation and other unforeseen events. Numerical
modelling techniques, such as the one carried out by Jee,
are not aimed at increasing the risk held by the installation
contractor as costs would inevitably rise as a result, negating
the savings made by the modelling. The studies are aimed
at reducing conservatism by developing understanding and
managing risks in a better way. The study concluded with
a summary presentation to the client and the preferred
supplier, sharing Jee’s findings and taking account of the
concerns and limitations faced by the installation contractor.
By working together on the berm design, an effective
solution was achieved using the analytical and engineering
skills from Jee alongside the operational experience of the
installation contractor.

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 To pre-trench
or to post-trench?
Peter Ivicevich and Tom Seeber, Atteris LLC, USA, consider the benefits and
drawbacks of both pre-trenching and post-trenching in subsea environments.

A
subsea pipeline engineer will, at times,
conclude that placing a pipeline in a trench
will stabilise or otherwise protect the pipe.
The next decision is then whether to lay
the pipeline into a prepared trench or to lower it into
the seabed after its installation. So, to pre-trench
or to post-trench? That is the question. This article
will discuss the factors affecting this specific design
element.
Subsea pipeline engineering design typically
requires that the pipeline remains stable on the seabed
during hydrodynamic loading events, such as cyclic
tidal currents or direct wave and current loading

Figure 1. Pipeline post-trenching plough.

77
during storms. This may require a zero movement acceptance
criterion or that some displacement is allowed, provided that
pipeline stresses remain within acceptable limits. By default,
the pipeline self-weight makes a significant contribution to
stability. This is known as ‘primary stabilisation’. Through the
use of concrete weight coating, the pipeline’s self-weight
can be significantly increased up to a limit, depending on
pipeline diameter, water depth and pipeline installation vessel
capability. If the pipeline’s overall self-weight is insufficient
for providing the minimum level of stability that is required,
additional measures must be taken. These measures are
commonly known as ‘secondary stabilisation’. The most
common forms of secondary stabilisation include:
)) Gravity anchors, such as concrete or steel structures.
)) Drilled or grouted anchors (rock bolts).
)) Rock berms.
)) Trenching and backfilling.
When taking overall pipeline stability into consideration,
pipeline engineers are typically constrained by an existing
design basis that has previously framed the problem. The
pipeline diameter and wall thickness will, most likely, have
already been selected – driven by flow assurance and integrity
requirements. Pipeline coatings for corrosion and impact
protection may have already been specified. It is also likely
that a coarse pipeline route or corridor has been selected.
As with many engineering challenges, the best solution
for stabilisation is likely to be an iteractive one. In particular,
the pipeline route may significantly influence the trenching
options that are available. Likewise, the pipeline’s self-weight
will determine the degree of secondary stabilisation that is
required. The pipeline’s mechanical design and final route
should be considered in a careful trade-off against the cost
of secondary stabilisation, including trenching. There may be
benefit in making modifications to the pipeline’s mechanical
design or route to facilitate the final trenching design or to
mitigate the requirement.
When a trench is required, the pipeline engineer has
the option to cover it with engineered backfill or to leave
Figure 2. The Jumbo TSHD is typically used for pre-trenching.
78 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
the trench open. An open trench will improve stability to a
degree and may achieve clear water requirements, if necessary.
However, backfill will provide much greater stabilisation
influence and has the added advantage of a mechanical barrier
between the pipeline and potential external impacts, such
as dropped objects, anchor drag or vessel grounding. Trench
backfill material can be as simple as the side cast spoil from
the trenching operation or it may be taken from a ‘borrow
ground’ nearby. If better mechanical protection is required
(such as in or near a shipping lane) quarry rock material can
be used. It is also possible to determine whether the trench
will naturally backfill over time, due to the action of mobile
seabed sediments.
The depth of the trench will be determined by items
such as scour and liquefaction of the backfill material,
regional seabed scour, depth of cover required for mechanical
protection, clear water requirements and survey accuracy. Pre-
trenching is also used to remove high points in the seabed that
cause pipeline free spans. In these cases, the depth will be
proportional to the acceptable curvature of the pipeline.
The pipeline engineer must consider the geotechnical
conditions of the seabed, ambient seastate conditions and
water depth in respect of the capabilities and limitations of
the range of available pre- and post-trenching equipment.
These factors, along with the pipeline diameter, its submerged
weight and the depth of cover requirements, will influence
the decision to select either a pre or post-trenching method.
The primary criteria to be used in the selection process will
typically be cost, schedule and risk. In most cases, trenching
is used in combination with other secondary stabilisation or
protection methods, such as rock dumping.
Pre and post-trenching equipment available in the offshore
industry are vastly different. Post-trenching equipment is
typically towed or self-driven along the pipeline, supported
from the surface by a vessel and tends not to be limited to
specific water depths. Options for post-trenching include the
following:
)) A pipeline plough can be towed along the pipeline,
displacing seabed material in the path of the plough such
that the pipeline is lowered into a carved trench. Multiple
passes can be applied to achieve the design depth. The
displaced seabed material will be heaved into windrows
alongside the trench. Backfill ploughs are sometimes
used to push the seabed material in these windrows back
over the pipeline. Pipeline ploughs are commonly used in
unconsolidated seabed materials (sands, silts and clays).
There have also been cases where ploughs have been used
successfully in stiff clays and very weak rocks.
)) A mechanical trencher travels along the pipeline using
chainsaw-style or rotary blade type attachments to cut
seabed material away from beneath the pipeline. The
cuttings may be side cast. Mechanical trenching tools
are usually self-driven. These types of trenchers have the
capacity to trench harder seabeds, comprising weak to
moderately strong rock. The ability to successfully trench
harder seabeds typically decreases when pipeline diameter
(trench depth and width) increases.
)) Jetting tools use hydraulic action to wash away or liquefy
seabed material and lower the pipeline into the seabed.
Guided by the pipeline, they may be surface towed.
Multiple high velocity jet nozzles provide the erosive or
liquefying action.
)) Mass flow dredgers use hydraulic erosion but will
typically use one or two high flowrate turbines to propel
large volumes of water beneath or around the pipeline,
displacing the seabed material in order to create a trench.
Pre-trenching methods include the traditional dredging
techniques that have been developed by the civil maritime
industry.
)) Backhoe dredgers on spudded pontoons or anchored
barges, can typically work up to approximately 20 m water
depth. They may side cast, spoil or bring it to the surface
for transport to a spoil ground.
)) Clamshell dredgers, operated from a crane or derrick, are
only limited in depth by the length of cable available.
)) Cutter suction dredgers use a rotary cutting tool combined
with a dredge pump to suck cuttings into barges. They use
a combination of anchors and spuds for positioning and
reaction force. They are limited in depth by the length of
the cutter arm, which is typically a maximum of 35 m.
)) Trailing suction hopper dredgers deploy an articulated
dredge pipe to the seabed, where a drag head uses jets
and mechanical action to loosen sediments before they
are sucked into the vessel’s hopper. The spoil can then be
transported to a spoil ground for dumping. The largest
trailers avaliable can dredge in waterdepths exceeding
100 m.
)) Mass flow dredgers can also be utilised for pre-trenching.
)) Mechanical trenching tools can be used for pre-trenching,
provided they have a steering and positioning system.
)) Drilling and blasting rigs can be used to pre-fragment rock
prior to dredging with backhoe or clamshell dredgers.
One of the most significant site conditions influencing
trenching will be the geotechnical properties of the seabed.
It is critical for all trenching operations that a sound
understanding of the seabed conditions is gained prior to
trench design. A thorough geophysical and geotechnical survey
is required to ensure that sufficient information is gathered.
Survey and sampling techniques that may be used include:
Figure 3. Sand backfill design.
80 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
)) Bathymetry and side scan sonar surveys.
)) Geophysical surveys, such as seismic refraction and
reflection.
)) CPTs and SPTs.
)) Core sampling, including logging.
)) Surface samples from drop cores/grabs.
Geophysical data should always be calibrated with
geotechnical samples. The extent and amount of sampling
may be governed by the quality of existing knowledge of the
area and confidence in the known conditions. Seabed material
and rock samples should be tested in a suitable laboratory for
engineering properties. Care should be taken to ensure that
the investigation is conducted to a sufficient depth for the
trenching campaign, which may be over 3 m below the seabed.
Once all of the data is gathered and processed, a geological
engineering model can be prepared that will be a primary
input to the trenchability assessment.
In general, the geotechnical properties of the seabed can
be classified into two main categories; soils and rock.
Unconsolidated sediments, such as silts, sands and muds,
lend themselves well to post-trenching with jetting or mass
flow tools. These sediments will tend to self back fill over the
pipeline after a trenching tool passes. However, they are often
unfavourable materials for pre-trenching, given that the trench
sides will not be stable and the trench will not stay open long
enough to lay the pipeline.
It is imperative to check that the pipeline specific gravity
is higher than the liquefied sediment. Otherwise it will float
up out of the trench, if liquefaction of the backfill material is
likely to occur. If this cannot be achieved then the required
depth of cover will need to be defined through analysis. The
backfill material properties will need to be specified, including
parameters (such as PSD) and fines content. This has been
successfully achieved on several of the recent mega projects
in Australia for pipeline diameters up to 44 in. The design of
a large diameter pipeline in a pre-dredged trench of limited
depth, backfilled with sand, has proven to be cost-effective.
Soil cohesion has a significant influence on trenchability.
Stiff and sticky clays do not respond well to hydraulic action
alone. Ploughing can also be difficult. Since mechanical
methods are more effective, this limits post-trenching options
to a mechanical tool. Pre-trenching in clays can be performed
by backhoes and clamshells, trailers and cutters. However,
care must be taken when transporting clay in hoppers since, if
allowed to consolidate, clay can be difficult
to bottom dump.
Non-cohesive sediments are perhaps
the most versatile. If they are not cemented
or over consolidated, jetting tools, mass
flow and ploughs may work. These post-
trenching options will be sensitive to
variations in soil conditions. Therefore, a
high level of confidence in the uniformity
of the seabed is needed. Mechanical
tools will be less sensitive. Non-cohesive
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sediments can also maintain a trench wall that opens up pre-
trenching options. Backhoes, clamshells and trailers are ideal
for these conditions and they can handle variations such as
cohesive or cemented sections.
Rock seabeds require mechanical action in order to
be trenchable. This limits post-trenching to a mechanical
‘rock trencher’. These tools can, however, be unreliable in
variable conditions and they are not proven for very strong
rock for medium to large diameter pipelines. Rock trenchers
are typically more suited to smaller pipeline diameters and
umbilicals. Pre-trenching can be achieved with backhoes and
cutters in weak to moderate rocks. Some trailer dredges have
drag heads with rotating cutters or rip heads that are capable
of dredging weak rock or highly fractured rock. Strong rock
must be pre-fragmented by drilling and blasting, prior to
dredging with a backhoe or clamshell. As a result, trenching in
strong rock is limited to water depths of under approximately
30 m.
Ambient seastate is another important consideration.
Floating equipment – such as backhoes, cutters and trailers –
will be more sensitive to wave action than self driven post-
trenching tools that are only connected to the surface via
umbilicals. In particular, long period swells can cause problems
for barges and pontoons. In shallow water, breaking waves and
tidal range must be accounted for. Ambient seastate data is
particularly important for dredging equipment, which requires
spuds to operate.
It is also necessary to consider the environmental value of
the marine habitat in the vicinity of trenching. Interaction with
the seabed will invariably stir up fine sediments and suspend
them in the water column, causing turbidity. The amount of
turbidity that is generated will be heavily influenced by the
trenching method used. Jetting and other hydraulic methods
mobilise a large amount of fines close to the seabed. Dredgers
with hoppers may overflow excess water at the surface,
depositing fines into the water.
It is possible to dredge without overflow, but this limits
productivity. The expected turbidity plume can be modelled
to predict the effects on marine life and, if necessary, changes
can be made to the planned dredging method. During
trenching works, monitors at sensitive sites can be used to
compare turbidity to the naturally occurring levels. It may be
possible to relocate a dredge to another part of the trench
Figure 4. Typical pre-trench design profile with geotechnical
data.
82 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
in order to manage the plume. In general, the more mobile
dredgers (such as trailers and post-trenching tools) will
produce a long, thin plume as they travel. This is compared
to a large, wide plume when the dredging equipment is
stationary and overflowing (such as a cutter suction dredger).
Techniques are available to limit the impact. However, they
typically require a very friendly seastate and limited tidal
currents.
Commercial considerations will also have a large bearing
on the trenching method. One advantage of pre-trenching is
that pipeline secondary stabilisation can predominantly be
moved off the critical path for pipeline startup. Trenching can
be unpredictable, depending upon the level of certainty of the
geotechnical conditions. Pre-trenching is one way of managing
geotechnical risk.
It is essential to consider a contingency for the case
when trenching fails. This may be having a more aggressive
trenching method in reserve or switching to a rock dump or a
gravity based design. If the pipeline has already been laid and
the post-trenching technique does not perform as expected,
fall back options are more limited than in a pre-trenching
scenario.
Other than maintaining a clear water depth for other
users of the sea, pipeline integrity tends to be the main
purpose of trenching a pipeline. It is necessary to ensure
that the trenching operation does not introduce more risk
than it mitigates. Trench acceptance should be performed by
a competent pipeline engineer to ensure that the pipeline
freespans occurring in the trench are within acceptable
limits. The final pipeline geometry needs to be analysed for
operational load cases.
In cases where backfill material is placed on the pipeline,
the potential for mechanical damage should be considered.
Quarry rock material or rogue rocks dredged from borrow
areas can impact the pipeline and its capacity. Therefore,
coatings should be assessed. Likewise, post-trenching tools
will make contact with the pipeline and should be checked to
ensure no damage has been made to the coating. The decision
may be made to hydrotest the pipeline prior to backfill to
ensure that the pipeline is accessible for a repair. Conversely,
it may be required to gauge and test the pipeline once
backfilling is complete to confirm pipeline integrity.
Conclusion
It is evident that the decision whether to pre-trench or post-
trench will be different in every case. A careful assessment
of conditions along the route is necessary to arrive at the
optimal solution. Route selection should take trenchability
of the seabed into account if secondary stabilisation or
additional external impact protection is a requirement. In
most cases, it will be necessary to assess several options
before a clear winner emerges. The design requirements and
construction methods will influence each other and iterations
can be expected. The design method must be process driven
and avoid unjustified bias from the beginning. Likewise,
each assumption should be tested as enhanced site data is
received.
 PIPELINE MACHINERY
focus

World Pipelines’ quarterly

pipeline machinery focus,
featuring SICIM.

S
ICIM’s GPL980 of 294 kW. This engine respects the environmental
SICIM, Italy pipelayer has
recently been
regulations set by the European Community’s Tier 4
Final and the US EPA, aligning it with SICIM’s aim for an
enhanced, enhanced consideration of the environment.
with safety, quality, Moreover, the GPL980 includes special transmission
flexibility and the components that are suitable for use with biodegradable
environment as lubricants. This piece will briefly introduce and explore
the key focuses the advantages of the new features of the GPL980
driving its development. At present, 16 of the first GPL980 pipelayer.
pipelayers are currently being used to lay 500 km of 56 in. The pipelayer takes advantage of its modularity,
pipe for the Trans Anatolian pipeline (TANAP) project in which allows its components to be stored inside standard
Turkey. containers. This allows for effective transportation across
The development of the GPL980 pipelayer highlights the world. It reduces fare costs – averaging at between
SICIM’s continuing attention to the design of pipeline 65 - 80% of the standard charge – and gives the pipelayer
equipment in order to meet ever-challenging objectives greater reactivity in order to ensure that mobilisation
effectively and reliably. In addition to the innovative schedules are shorter and more contingent.
technical abilities of the previous version, the model The GPL980 has a lifting capacity of 98 t. However, it
includes an added ecological feature. It is equipped with can also be moved with ease using standard trailers. This
a Caterpillar C9.3 engine that develops a maximum power allows the pipelayer to reach all locations (regardless of

83
 PIPELINE MACHINERY focus

The software that

is included provides a
sophisticated safety system
with sound and visual
alarms (green, yellow and
red lights warn the various
steps), along with hazardous
operation blocks. This results
in a multiple control status,
making the equipment
extremely safe.
Different boom
configurations are
programmed for specific
applications. The system
automatically detects the
boom length and elaborates
the pertinent loading
diagram. A visible side control
system allows the supervisor
to continuously check the
load that each piece of
equipment supports, when
required. It also ensures a
The GPL980 Tier 4 pipelayer. balanced and safe lowering-in
operation.
The main controls of
the boom operation and the
undercarriage are provided
using ergonomic joysticks
that are positioned in
close and safe reach of the
operator.
The pipelayer includes
a hydraulic system that
allows operators to easily
perform specific and limited
movements of boom and
hook. This makes adjustments
simple and allows for
simultaneity of operations,
even where the work load is
heavy.
terrain and conditions) with greater ease and to avoid the The drive system allows for easy and punctual control of the
requirement of having a specific heavy load transport permit. equipment in any condition of use, even the most difficult. All of
When it comes to maintenance checks or repairs, the the mechanical parts were designed to operate with completely
modularity of the components makes it easier and quicker biodegradable lubricants to, therefore, allow the equipment to
to replace or repair parts. be used in any type of environment. In turn, this prevents all
The pipelayer’s stability is controlled by an advanced potential contaminations.
electronic anti-tipping system. Through continuous The roll-over protection structure and falling over
monitoring, the system constantly informs and interacts protection systems were designed such that they can be quickly
with the operator, with reference to the preset limits for transformed into a comfortable and quiet cabin that is equipped
performances and utilisation modalities. Moreover, a 7 in. with all of the required devices in extreme climatic conditions.
monitor visually provides real time loading percentage Due to onsite experiences and using feedback from working
versus the maximum lifting capacity, the weight and the crews about their requirements, it was possible to customise the
distance of the load from the international reference GPL980, which SICIM believes has raised the standards of safety,
lifting point of the pipelayer. quality, performance and production during operations.

84
DESIGN
BUILD
CONNECT
Jan De Nul Group offers specialized services for the
installation of subsea structures for oil, gas and renewable
energy industries. They comprise seabed preparation,
trenching, stabilization and ballasting and can be related
to subsea pipelines, cables, umbilicals, foundations or
platforms. In addition, Jan De Nul Group also installs cables
and umbilicals for these three offshore industries. These
types of services are offered on an EPC basis and are always
tailor-made to the client’s specific wishes.

www.jandenul.com follow us on
 For more information visit
NASTT's No-Dig Show &
nodigshow.com
For more information visit ISTT's 35th International No-Dig&
For more information visit NASTT's No-Dig Show
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INDUSTRY EXHIBITS NETWORKING EVENTS TECHNICAL PAPERS

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See what NASTT’s No-Dig Show can do for you. Plan your experience.
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 Can you afford not to go
DIGITAL?
With the industry’s focus on
costs, pipeline companies will
have to implement digital
technologies, Diego Comina,
GE Oil & Gas, Italy, predicts.
T
he global oil and gas industry is facing price
pressures that have been almost unparalleled over
the past three decades. Hundreds of billions of
dollars of proven oil and natural gas reserves have
been written off, primarily due to production costs being
greater than the market value.
In the face of this challenge, GE Oil & Gas
is seeking to help customers and operators
optimise their operations, eliminate the
downtime they suffer and maximise the
value gained from CAPEX and OPEX in
order to help their wider bottom lines.
This requires radical modern thinking.
Minimal squeezes on ‘business as
usual’ approaches will not cut it. The
oil and gas industry needs a bold new
vision to unlock hidden value and
unprecedented productivity gains from
the reservoir to the refinery. This is
something that the digital revolution can
enable.
87

Figure 1. An oil and gas pipeline.
Technology allows us to connect machines, data and
people like never before to improve performance and
processes in a safe and secure way across the full stream of
operations and extraction. Over the next five to 10 years,
the key to success for companies across the industry will be
investing in the right digital technology at the right time.
Pipelines are no exception. In fact, arguably, they
are at the heart of the digital industrial transformation.
Particularly as global pipeline infrastructure grows 3 - 4%
per year, regulatory requirements continue to intensify and
over US$40 billion is spent on expanding and maintaining
pipeline networks annually.1
Critical productivity issues that GE Oil & Gas regularly
heard from operators varied. However, it was clear that
pipelines held – and still hold – significant scope for cost
and efficiency improvements. From limited leak detection
compromising asset integrity, to ageing infrastructure
hindering operations and increasing maintenance costs,
operators have long been searching for new answers. Many
problems had a common central theme: how to improve
visibility, monitoring and optimisation of assets in order to
reduce downtime while ensuring safety and keeping costs
down.
88 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
This is the company’s starting
point in digital industrial pipelines.
The company believes that its
solutions, particularly those powered
by the Predix platform, have the
potential to improve efficiency. Its
technology has been shown to sustain
and considerably increase reliability
by up to 3%, optimise maintenance
costs by up to 20% and increase
throughput by up to 2%.
To make these gains, some of
the key issues had to be addressed
when developing new technology and
approaches.
Reliability and downtime
By integrating service maintenance
regimes and practices and seizing
opportunities, such as remote tuning
and advanced analytics, oil and gas
companies can significantly improve
the reliability of operations and
machinery. They can also enhance
decision making that increases uptime,
cost-efficiency and productivity.
GE Oil & Gas’ technology can
give companies data and oversight
across a full plant and its constituent
parts, taking an agnostic approach to
equipment manufacturers. Innovative
solutions, such as asset performance
management on Predix, uses sensors,
connectivity, data and analytics to
allow operators with technical expertise to monitor the
output and performance of a facility’s machines from a
single interface. This capability has manifold benefits. For
example, the significant level of detail it provides allows
companies to identify issues before they become problems.
An occasional loose seal, a misplaced blade or a little
corrosion somewhere in the line are all relatively minor
issues. However, each can have enormous impacts. Equally,
through optimising the flow and quality of information to
plant operators and by providing a holistic view of what is
happening at any given time, the data also allows operators
to avoid ‘trips’.
The equipment itself is, of course, also vital to improving
efficiency. GE Oil & Gas’ gas turbines are a good example
of how the company has managed to act decisively
on reliability, with the PGT25 family being particularly
efficient. These aeroderivative gas turbines are assembled
on a rigid, lightweight base plate with extensive use of
standard components, preassembled and tested to minimise
onsite assembly time. Easy maintainability is one of the
key features: the gas generator and low pressure turbine
(cartridge) can both be easily and quickly removed and
replaced, in order to minimise downtime.
 The company is also implementing new digital
technologies for sourcing, project management and factory
operations, with the aim of streaming its own operations.
For example, in its Florence facility, a real time scheduler
takes information from the ERP system and tracks changes
to dynamically schedule work. This improves output and
quickly addresses changing challenges.
Expensive and intrusive maintenance
GE Oil & Gas is focused on ensuring that its newest
equipment minimises the need for expensive and intrusive
maintenance (both planned or unplanned), with the aim
of shifting requirements onto large maintenance projects
at specific junctures and milestones. Products such as the
company’s integrated motor-driven compressor – which
has a single casing for compressor and motor, no gearbox,
no lube oil system, no external motor cooling system and
no seal gas system – have simplified the mechanics of
machinery, thereby reducing maintenance requirements.
The company’s latest gas turbine – the NovaLT16 – also
reduces complexity. It combines key advances in design and
materials to generate mechanical efficiency of up to 37%
higher for pipeline compression, power generation and oil
and gas plant compression, along with lowered emissions
over a wide operating range. It is equipped with integrated
monitoring and diagnostics, sensors and remote tuning
capability. Importantly, this means that there is no need for
seasonal DLN mapping.
By way of example, in November 2015, a NovaLT16 was
slid in and mechanically connected in just three hours.
While an additional 20 hrs are estimated for site alignment
and wiring, this shows that not only do these innovations
and developments reduce maintenance requirements, they
also improve warehouse management by reducing the need
for expensive and space consuming replacement stock and
spare parts.
Leakage
Leakages cause environmental, efficiency and safety issues
for pipelines. They can occur for a variety of reasons, from
natural damage, to corrosion, to tampering. Therefore, it is
critical to optimise systems, reduce leakage and improve
fuel consumption, which is why the annual global oil and
gas pipeline leak detection market is projected to cross
US$1.8 billion in 2020.
One such technology GE Oil & Gas has developed is
the Flexflow compressor. The compressor can adapt more
easily to varying operating conditions due to its liners,
which can easily be swapped around. This makes processes
much more cost-effective than swapping full cylinders. The
cylinders can also ‘flex’ up or down in diameter using liners.
Smart pigs are another key innovation; robotic
inspection devices that travel up and down pipelines
measuring the condition of the pipe wall and seeking any
problems or defects. A pipeline engineer uses the data
gathered by smart pigs to help identify potential threats to
the pipeline and determines the most effective course of
90 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
action. This technology is at the core of the service offered
by PII Pipeline Solutions, a joint venture between GE Oil
& Gas and Al Shaheen. To date, GE Oil & Gas’ pigs have
inspected over 750 000 miles (1.2 million km) of pipeline
and the company has issued 18 000 reports to clients, with
over 120 million pipeline anomalies correctly identified
– many benign but with some being more threatening.
Ensuring the integrity of pipelines is critical to reducing
and containing leakage. Moreover, pigs are a crucial
technologies that collect the data that helps to predict
potential problems before they become physical problems.
What’s next?
These innovations already allow significant savings to be
made by operators. However, the continuous evolution of
cloud technology, big data, analytics, machine learning and
the convergence of IT/OT continues to pave the way for
further improvements in productivity.
GE Oil & Gas continues to help customers identify and
seize opportunities in order to tackle the challenges of
ageing infrastructures and limited budgets. The company’s
long-term vision is that its digital solutions will go beyond
equipment, driving system wide improvements across
plants, facilities and oilfields.
Over the coming years, the company predicts that the
industry will be defined by companies that have taken
advantage of the digital revolution in order to evolve.
Intelligent pipeline solutions
Safety and efficiency mean that information and data on
assets must increasingly be digital, reliable and connected.
GE Oil & Gas has recognised this and has, therefore, been
working with customers to develop asset performance
management solutions that deliver performance and
integrity benefits in both piping stations and pipelines.
With this in mind, the company also developed a
leading intelligent pipeline, which collects data and applies
software to help operators manage their full network
alongside Accenture. Columbia Pipeline Group, which is
strategically located within the Marcellus and Utica shale
areas – was the first company to deploy the technology.
It now has near real time data on over 15 000 miles of
interstate pipelines, including monitoring threats, improved
risk management and extended situational awareness.
The solution integrates data from multiple sources
including geographic information systems (GIS), work
management system, and one call system, as well as
external sources, such as NOAA and USGS. Data such as
pipeline attributes, risk scores, inline inspection findings,
planned assessments, HCA locations, leak history,
emergency valve location, precipitation and fault lines
can be acquired. A set of filters and layers allow users to
examine data in different ways to quickly locate areas of
interest and evaluate threats or remediation measures.
References
1. Douglas Westwood market reports, FERC, CIA World Factbook.
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 COMPRESSOR
LUBRICATION:
challenges and solutions

C
Ayman
ompressors are used in E x xonMo  Ali,
almost every pipeline. Repub bil, Czech
l
Since compressed the cha ic, outlines
air is an important
compre l l enges
energy transfer medium, air ssor lu facing
the pip b rica
compressors must work reliably
eline in tion in
for the efficient operation of and off dust
plants and machinery in many ers som ry
industrial areas, including pipelines. solutio e
Lubrication has a significant influence
n s .
on the behaviour of compressors and their
reliability. This article will consider the challenges facing
compressor lubrication, with a particular focus on rotary
screw compressors and the importance of selecting the
right compressor lubricant that ensures reliable, economical
and safe operation.

93
The role of compressors
Air as a resource is safe, flexible, clean and convenient.
Therefore, air compressors have been used in the industry
for over 100 years and have evolved into highly reliable
pieces of equipment, which are almost indispensable
in many of the applications they serve. Moreover, air
compressors play an important role in a range of industries,
such as chemical process and heating, ventilation and air
conditioning (HVAC). Onshore and offshore rigs typically
have several compressors doing various essential duties.
Rig air compressors supply air for pneumatic controls
throughout the rig. In the case of floating rigs, compressors
are used to transfer air from supply ships. Other
compressors are used to fill storage tanks that supply the
air needed to start large diesel engines and generators on
rigs when power is unavailable.
Compressors come in a variety of types and sizes.
The most common types that are in use today are
reciprocating, rotary screw and rotary vane, or ‘positive
displacement’ compressors. These increase the pressure
of the air by reducing its volume, while rotary centrifugal
is a dynamic compressor that depends on transfer of
energy from a rotating impeller to the air. They are further
specified by the number of compression stages, cooling
method (air, water, oil), drive method (motor, engine, steam
turbine) and lubrication. Each type requires a lubricant that
is specific to its application.
Figure 1. ExxonMobil SHC Rarus Series air compressor.
94 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
Demands on compressor oils
Proper attention to the lubricant selection can extend
the life of the wearing parts for several years. A high
quality industrial air compressor lubricant for pipelines
can perform many tasks and can prevent maintenance
problems from occurring. It should be able to minimise
friction and wear, remove compression heat, work as a
sealant to prevent or reduce gas leakage between seal
faces and close clearances, shield important parts without
causing sludge or deposits and protect the unit’s internal
parts from rusting and corrosion.
To satisfy these requirements, high performance air
compressor oils must have:
)) Oxidation and thermal stability.
)) Low evaporation and coking tendency.
)) Low foaming.
)) Good air release.
)) High rust and corrosion protection.
)) Effective ageing stability.
)) Viscosity – the viscosity requirements vary considerably
depending on the type, size and location of the
compressor.
)) Good anti-wear performance for the protection of
timing gears where fitted.
)) Low pour point – the temperature below which
the oil is virtually solid. A typical requirement is a
pour point at least -12˚C below the lowest start up
temperature.
)) Stability – the oil must resist the tendency to form
lacquers and sludge.
)) High flash point for safety reasons.
)) Good demulsibility – the oil must be able
to separate quickly and completely from the
condensate derived from humidity in the air.
Challenges for compressor lubrication
In recent years, the technology used to generate
compressed air has been enhanced. As a result, greater
demands are now placed on air compressor oils.
Operators expect long equipment service intervals and,
thus, longer life of compressor lubricants.
Oil temperatures have risen alongside the reduction
in oil volumes. Temperature and ageing resistance of
a compressor oil are of particular importance due to
safety and product life considerations. If a compressor
operates on a temperature that is too high for too long,
the oil will form a thin layer of deposits on the entire
inside of the compressor (piping, compressor element,
oil cooler). The oil cooler will not be able to cool the
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oil as effectively as it used to, resulting in even higher
temperatures and, eventually, an automatic shutdown of
the compressor.
The high viscosity index of the Mobil Rarus SHC 1020
Series of compressor oils, for example, ensures effective
lubrication at high temperatures. These oils, primarily
intended for the lubrication of severe duty rotary screw
and vane air compressors, are particularly suited to
pipeline operations in the oil and gas sector as these are
subjected to high final compression temperatures and
where extended oil drain intervals are required. Their high
resistance to oxidation and thermal degradation entails
reduced coking deposits, longer oil life, improved filter life
and lower maintenance costs. They also provide effective
anti-wear and corrosion protection, which enhances
equipment life and performance.
The way lubricating oil is transported to the right
lubrication points may also pose challenges. For example,
in pressure lubrication that is used for medium and
large sized compressors (especially those with high final
pressures and capacities), a risk is posed by large amounts
of condensation water collecting in the crankcase as a
result of unsuitable operating conditions and lack of
attention. The oil then floats on a layer of water. In the
worst case scenario, the oil pump becomes a water pump,
having serious results for the compressor.
Figure 2. ExxonMobil SHC screw compressor.
96 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
Lubricating rotary screw compressors
Rotary screw compressors work on the principle of air
filling the void between two helical mated screws and their
housing. As the two helical screws are turned, the volume
is reduced. This results in an increase of air pressure.
Most rotary screw compressors inject oil into the
bearing and compression area. The reasons are for cooling,
lubrication, and creating a seal between screws and the
housing wall to reduce internal leakage. Subsequent to
the compression cycle, the oil and air must be separated
before the air can be used by the air system.
Some rotary screw compressors are flooded by
lubricant, others operate with dry screws. When wet,
properly cooled oil is required to help absorb the heat of
compression, lubricate the rotors and provide sealing. Oil
to air or water to air heat exchangers help to ensure a cool
oil supply and minimise carbon deposits on compressor
components. Dry screw compressors simply require proper
lubrication of the bearings.
Improving the bottom line
Frequent oil changes (every three months), filters and
replacement of spare parts of the rotary screw air cooled
compressor have proven to be costly to an oil well drilling
company in Egypt. In order to reach the optimum drain
interval and reduce operating costs, the plant operators
have replaced a competitor’s oil with
synthetic Mobil Rarus SHC 1026 and
started to monitor the used oil through
‘Signum Used Oil Analysis’. As a result,
the plant has reduced maintenance
costs related to spare parts replacement,
saving US$31 900 through extended filter
and oil life. The oil drain intervals have
extended to six months. Overheating
and unscheduled downtime have
been avoided, and the overall plant
productivity has increased due to
reduced downtime.
Conclusion
In the oil and gas pipelines market
specifically, contaminated or hot intake
air can impair compressor performance
and increase maintenance costs.
Moisture, dust and other contaminants
are also harmful to compressors and
can build up on internal components,
potentially causing premature wear and
reducing compressor capacity. Changes
in ambient temperature, oil injection
and removal also affect the work of
compressors. Therefore, using the
correct lubricant with the right qualities
is crucial for the reliable and efficient
operation of oil and gas plants and
machinery.
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 asi
Amin Almthe
explains dern
use of moged
submer tor
o
electric mfor
pump s
eline
today’s ptip ns.
applica io

SEMPs –
simple solutions
S
ubmerged electric motor pumps (SEMPs) are
advanced. Their modern pump designs can eliminate
seal systems and lubrication oil systems, both of
which tend to be major reasons for unscheduled
pump shutdowns. SEMPs can also remove the need for
coupling, long shafts and the issues associated with these.
Moreover, they are compact and lightweight pump options,
mostly offering 50% smaller sizes and 40% lower weight
compared to conventional pumps. These are all great
benefits for some pipeline applications, which make SEMPs
simple and robust solutions for many pipeline pumping
services.

99
SEMPs
Conventional pump designs, where the electric motor
is external to the pump and the shaft is relatively long,
have presented many difficulties for different pipeline
applications.
Historically, there have been several complaints
regarding misalignment in many pipeline services. A
good solution might be combining the driver and the
pump, meaning that there would be no shaft extension.
In other words, the electric motor should be submerged
in the pumped liquid, along with the pump. The nature
of many liquids has made this SEMP design possible. Of
course, it might not be simple and/or cost-effective for
some corrosive and difficult liquids. In these applications,
conventional pumps might be used. However, for many
pipeline services, SEMPs are feasible, reliable and safe.
Many pipeline applications are liquid hydrocarbons,
which are dielectric liquids. This means that both the
electrical cables and the motor itself can be safely
submerged and surrounded by the pumped liquid. For
many of these, liquid pumping – the removal of oxygen –
can and should be achieved. Therefore, there would be no
potential of fire, even in cases of internal failure.
With major safety and reliability advantages compared
to their external motor counterparts, SEMPs have begun
to replace many conventional external motor pumps.
SEMPs do not need a shaft to penetrate the pump casing,
thus eliminating mechanical seals. Another advantage is
elimination of the lubrication oil system since the bearings
are lubricated with the pumped liquid. Additionally, by
integrating the pump and motor into a single unit with a
common shaft, coupling and alignment issues are removed.
Advanced electric motors
The key advanced component of modern submerged
pumps is the electric motor, which allows for submerged
operation. These are usually part of a three phase, squirrel
cage induction design and require special designs. The
stator is fabricated from suitable materials with proper
coatings and protections. For instance, for clean liquid
hydrocarbons, the stator can be fabricated from silicon
iron laminations and form-wound copper windings (or
random-wound copper windings). The windings are
protected with a specially designed coating to remove
air pockets during the curing process and to provide
effective protection. In commonly used clean liquid
hydrocarbons, an epoxy insulation can be applied via a
vacuum impregnation process. For other applications,
different coatings and methods can be used. For example,
special protection is needed for dirty or difficult liquids.
The same is true for the electric motor rotors. For clean
liquid hydrocarbons, the rotor can be made of silicon iron
laminations and completed with aluminium alloy bars
between the two specially designed aluminium alloy end
caps.
An important consideration is the stresses induced in
the rotor bars as the rotor is cooled or heated to pumped
liquid temperatures. The differential thermal expansion or
100 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
contraction properties of materials – such as aluminium
alloy bars, silicon iron laminations – should be carefully
considered for a successful motor design.
For many pipeline cases, the submerged electric
motor designs can offer better safety compared to
conventional electric motors. By mounting the electric
motor on a common shaft with the pump hydraulics,
the entire unit is submerged and the motor ‘air gap’ gets
filled with the pumped liquid. This eliminates the need
for a mechanical seal and its potential leakage hazard.
Also, with the electric motor submerged in the pumped
liquid, it is isolated from the atmosphere in an oxygen free
environment. A lack of oxygen means the electric motor
is not located in a hazardous area, thereby negating the
complex requirements of hazardous area certifications.
Theoretically, motors can range from 5 kW to 5 MW,
or sometimes more, with voltages ranging from 380 V up
to 6.6 kV, or even more. The electric motor can be 2, 4,
6 or 8 poles with variable speed operation, via a variable
frequency drive (VFD), commonly specified and used for
medium and large submerged motor pumps. Ultimately,
the compact and lightweight nature of submerged motor
pumps provides great advantages.
Special bearings
Bearings are an important component in the design,
operation and reliability of any submerged electric
motor pumps. They used specially designed rolling
element bearings, lubricated by pumped liquid. In general,
lubrication oil systems have been a major concern for
many pumps of various sizes. It is beneficial to eliminate
such a system and use advanced methods of the
lubrication by the pumped liquid.
Submerged motor pumps usually use pumped liquid
lubricated open cage-style rolling element bearings. A
small portion of the pumped liquid is routed through the
bearings to both cool and lubricate it.
Recent developments have led to the use of deep
groove radial ball bearings for many submerged motor
pumps. Old fashioned rolling element bearings were made
from either low alloy steel or high carbon stainless steel
materials. Modern bearings are made from special ceramic
materials and have sophisticated hybrid designs, with
properly matched material pairs. An example was a hybrid
material bearing featuring silicon nitride (Si3N4) ceramic
balls. The hard ceramic balls, mated to the properly
selected and specially designed alloy steel raceways, have
resulted in a ‘self-healing’ effect in some applications. The
balls continuously burnish the raceways to maintain a high
quality finish and to limit surface damage from different
sources, such as debris and dirt. Hybrid bearings are more
tolerant of low viscosity liquids (nearly all pumped liquids)
and have improved wear resistance and fatigue life. This
has led to their increased use in recent years, which is
important since all rolling element bearings have limited
life. It is critical to use proper materials and designs to
extend this limited life beyond the conventional three to
five year limit, under the worst conditions. Such advanced
 IPLOCA - We go to great
lengths for the industry

50 years providing value to members through a forum for sharing ideas, th

engaging the industry and its stakeholders, facilitating business opportunities
and promoting the highest standards in the pipeline industry.
• Unique Networking Opportunities • Construction Innovation & Awards
• HSE Promotion & Awards • Industry-specific Workshops
Anniversary
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International Pipe Line & Offshore
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hybrid ceramic bearings are extremely important for
modern submerged motor pumps.
Thrust balancing vs thrust bearings
Extensive testing showed that thrust or angular contact
bearings did not hold up well using the lubrication with the
pumped liquid for many reasons. The main reason was due
to the low viscosity of commonly pumped liquid, such as
liquid hydrocarbons, which are nearly always less viscious
than lubrication oil. Relatively intense heat added to the
pumped liquid due to friction from an axial load would
vaporise the liquid and the bearings would fail very quickly.
Using the pumped liquid to lubricate the thrust bearing,
under thrust loads, could not provide a sufficient film layer
between the rolling element and the contact surface. This
led to a short life of the thrust bearings.
The poor performance of thrust bearings lubricated
by pumped liquids has resulted in the need for other
means to balance the axial thrust loads. All SEMP designs
have adopted some form of hydraulic balance system to
accomplish this. The older designs used the technology
derived from overhung barrel type pumps, namely a balance
disk or drum located at the top of the pump. The early
submerged motor pumps that use these traditional designs
experienced difficulty in eliminating the net thrust load
over the entire operating range.
In an advanced thrust balancing system, balance disk/
drum at the top of the pump is not used. Instead, thrust
balancing is usually transferred to the last stage impeller
and achieved via the incorporation of two orifices in
series; a fixed radial orifice and a variable axial orifice. The
fixed orifice is most often created by an offset wear ring
at the upper shroud of the impeller, while the variable
orifice is usually achieved with a stationary thrust plate, in
conjunction with an axial ‘floating’ rotating assembly. This
arrangement, or similar modern designs, have proved to be
reliable for long-term operation.
Submerged pump applications and
challenges
Parallel operation is an important topic for any pipeline
pumping system. This is also extremely important for
submerged motor pumps. In many pipeline applications,
submerged motors should be installed and operated in
parallel. The discharge lines are usually connected to a
common line, but each pump should have its own discharge
control valve, as well as a bypass or ‘kick-back’ line to
allow proper starting and operation. Discharge control is
important to allow for proper start-up when operating
several pumps in parallel.
In many applications of submerged motor pumps, it
is critical to recognise proper venting. This is particularly
important for high power submerged motor pumps of
above approximately 500 kW with relatively high motor
power. Many problems with submerged motor pumps,
particularly those in relatively high power or medium/high
102 World Pipelines / DECEMBER 2016
pressures, have been attributed to poor vent system design.
Operators must take care of any heated pumped liquid or
generated vapour. Vent lines should always be rising as they
leave the pump and provide good venting back to a low
pressure space.
Condition monitoring and reliability
The reliability of critical submerged motor pumps is
extremely important. Some submerged motor pumps in
important pipeline services operate continuously for long
periods of time. Therefore, good condition monitoring is
the key for reliable operation.
Like any other pumps, submerged motor pumps
require proper condition monitoring. They can also have
monitoring systems installed to trend vibration.
Many submerged motor pumps have been installed in a
vessel casing, known as suction vessel. For vessel-mounted
submerged pumps, the accelerometer can be mounted, for
example, outside of the suction vessel on the shell of the
head plate. While not as sensitive as a pump casing mount,
it can be effective for vibration trend monitoring. As an
indication, for all submerged pumps, two accelerometers
per bearing have been specified. In other words, two
accelerometers on pump casing close to each bearing.
As many submerged pumps have three bearings, this
translates to a total of six accelerometers, each pair close
to each bearing. As for any pump arrangement, there have
been some difficulties in the installation and location of
accelerometers for the lower bearings. Many manufacturers
do not install the lower pair of accelerometers. Another
key topic is the keyphasor, as it can help to correlate
the measured vibration to the pump rotation. These are
complicated topics that should be considered for each
submerged pump, case by case.
Other important condition monitoring tools include
monitoring of electric motor amperage, the pump
operation (flow, pressure, temperature) and other operation
parameters. For example, if motor amperages are checked
regularly and trended against one another, the performance
of the motor and, consequently, the pump can be verified.
Over time, any apparent deterioration in performance tends
to be an indication that the unit is in need of some repairs
or even a major overhaul. Pumps should be protected
with at least overcurrent and undercurrent relays in the
electrical system, connected to the motor power input.
A loss in amperage may indicate loss of suction pressure
(cavitation), while an increase in amperage may indicate a
mechanical problem or a problem with the electrical wiring
into the motor. A typical system will contain protection
for low suction pressure, low liquid level and low or out of
specification flow or pressure.
One of the best ways to monitor submerged motor
pumps is to simply use the trending capabilities of different
available data; the data and information from vibration
monitoring, electric motor monitoring (amperage) and the
pump operation (flow, pressure, temperature), combined.
 PIPE LINE CONTRACTORS ASSOCIATION
The Pipe Line Contractors Association was established in 1948 and negotiates labor agree-
ments, encourages safe practices in pipeline construction and seeks the resolution of problems
common to all those in the industry.

The purposes of this Association are as follows:

(a) To make membership in the Association a reasonable assurance to the public of the skill, integrity
and responsibility of its members.
(b) To maintain the standards of the pipeline contracting business at the level
necessitated by its quasi-professional character and to establish members of the Association in the
public mind as contractors who fulfill obligations in good faith.
(c) To promote more cordial and cooperative relations among pipeline contractors and between pipeline
contractors and those with whom they deal or have c ontact.
(d) To encourage efficiency among pipeline contractors and their employees.
(e) To seek correction of injurious, discriminatory or unfair business methods practiced by or against
pipeline contractors.
(f) To eliminate as far as possible the occurrence of injury and death to pipeline
contracting employees.

For more information on the Association or membership opportunities,

please visit our Web site at:

www.plca.org

1700 Pacific Avenue, Suite 4100 • Dallas, Texas 75201 • Ph: 214.969.2700 • Fax: 214.969.2705
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