Book 2 Module 1

CATEGORY B1 B2 B3
MATHEMATICS 2

Licence By Post

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AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
CONTENTS

Page

Indices and powers 1

Algebra 4
Bracketed terms 10
Quadratic equations 13
Linear equations 19
Simultaneous equations 22
Common logarithms 24
Other numbering systems 31
The decimal system 31
The binary system 32
The octal system 39
The hexadecimal system 40
The BCD system 41
Geometry 45
Graphs 48
Plane trigonometry 58
Polar co-ordinates 64
Revision questions 66
Graph paper 70
Appendix - Syllabus 71
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

This book is written to the category B EASA Part 66 licensed engineer’s syllabus
difficulty level and the same comments apply to this book as to book 1. You should
read and understand it all. If you are not sure of any point then read that section
again.

When dealing with geometry it may be easier to understand if you try drawing each
construction yourself. You will need a rule, pencil, paper, rubber (erasure), set square
and drawing compass. Would not suggest spending money on these items so if they
are not readily to hand then do not do the drawings yourself – but make sure you
understand the methods as explained in the text.

Reference to any scientists is for information only and details need not be
remembered.
 INDICES & POWERS

In previous work on areas and volumes in book 1 it was shown that 3 × 3 = 32

and 2 × 2 × 2 = 23. You may remember that the small digit is called the index and
the number to which the index is attached is called the base.

The index is the power to which the base is to be raised and indicates the number of
times the base is multiplied by itself.

There are six basic laws that relate to indices. Note that these laws only apply to
indices with the same base. The six laws are:

(1) xa × xb = xa+b For example x4 × x3 = x7

(2) xa ÷ xb = xa-b For example x3 ÷ x2 = x1 or simply x
(3) (xa)b = xaxb = xab For example (x3)2 = x6
1 1
(4) = x-a For example = x -2
xa x 2

a 3
(5) xb = b
xa For example x 2 = 2
x3
(6) x0 = 1 Anything raised to the power of zero equals 1.
For example, a0 = 1 and 20 = 1.

x2
The reason for this can be seen when you consider . Using the second law,
x2
x2
x2(-2)=xo, however we know that = 1, hence xo=1.
x2

One of the uses of indices is to simplify expressions. Study the following examples.

Example 1. x2y3z × xy2z2

= x(2+1)y(3+2)z(1+2)

= x3y5z3

x 2 y3 z5
Example 2.
x y3z 2

= x(2-1)y(3-3)z(5-2)

= x1y0z3

= xz3

-1-
Example 3. Simplify x2.√y × √x.3√y2 Note:
1 2
= x 2y ½ x x ½ y
2
3 +
2 3
7
= x2½ y 6

3+ 4
=
5 7 6
= x 2y 6

7
=
2
x 5 .6 y 7 =
6

Example 4. Simplify (x5)½ (y2)4

5
= x 2 .y 8

23 × 25
Example 5. Simplify 24 × 2

23+5−4−1
=

= 23

2
 10 2 × 10 3 
Example 6. Simplify  5 
 10 ÷ 10
4


2
 105 
=  1 
 10 

= (105-1)2

= 108

(46) 3
Example 7. Solve for x: 4=
(32) 2 x

(46 x 46 x 46 = 97336) and (32 x 32 = 1024) so,

4 = 97336
1024 x

4 x 1024 = 97336
x

-2-
 4 x 1024 = 1 inverting both sides of the equation:
97336 x

97336 = x
4 x 1024

x = 97336 = 23 approximately.
4096

Activity 1

1. Simplify

(a) x5 × x3
(b) a8 ÷ a4

x4 y2 z
2. Simplify
x 2 yz 3

3. Express the following with a positive index.

(a) y-3
1
(b)
x -2

4. Express the following as fractional indices.

(a) 3
a5
(b) x3
1
(c)
x

5. Simplify the problems below to a single index, and hence solve.

25 × 2 3
(a)
2 × 22
23
(b)
23
2
 10 4 × 1012 
(c)  6 
9 
 10 × 10 

-3-
 Answers to Activity 1

1. (a) x8
(b) a4

x2 y
2.
z2

1
3. (a)
y3
(b) x2
5
4. (a) a3
3
(b) x2
x− 2
1
(c)

5. (a) 25 (=32)
(b) 20 (=1)
(c) 102 (100)

ALGEBRA

In the mensuration section of this module we used letters instead of words to produce
equations that provided a general expression for the required area or volume. For
example, the area of a rectangle (A) is equal to the breadth (b) multiplied by the depth
(d). Written algebraically A = b × d provides a general expression into which any
positive value of breadth and depth can be substituted and the area thus determined.
Algebra is a field of mathematics that deals with the relationships of numbers using
general terms. Equations formed using this method are called ‘algebraic equations’
and below are some examples. As they stand, they cannot be solved, as this would
require additional information such as the value of x, y, t, W etc.

(i) 2x + 3y = 7

(ii) s = ut + ½at2

W
(iii) E= (V2 – u2)
2g

VR
(iv) R=
E-V

Within the same problem, ‘like’ terms will carry the same value, so each ‘t’ in equation
(ii) has the same value and each V has the same value in equation (iv) etc.

-4-
Numbers such as ‘2’ [part of 2x in equation (i) for example] are called coefficients, so
‘3’ is the coefficient of y, in the same equation.

The laws and signs that were adopted for arithmetic are also applicable when dealing
with algebraic expressions, as we will see.

Often, given a general algebraic expression, a particular solution is required by

allocating numerical values to each symbol. For example:

1. Find the value of 3xy – 2xz + x2yz

Where x = 2, y = 4 and z = 1

Substituting the numbers for the symbols:

(3 × 2 × 4) – (2 × 2 × 1) + (22 × 4 × 1)

= 24 – 4 + 16

= 36

2. Find the value of 7y(x + 2z)

When x = 3, y = 2 and z = 4
= (7 × 2)(3 + 2 × 4)
= 14(3 + 8)
= 154
As we know, different units cannot be added together (or subtracted), so, for example
a unit of mass (the kilogram) cannot be added to, or subtracted from, a unit of length
(metres). Only those of the same unit can be added or subtracted. Likewise with
algebraic expressions, only like symbols can be added together or subtracted apart.

Thus, 2x + 4x + 3y – y
= 6x + 2y (adding the x’s and y’s separately)
and 5p + 7q – p + 6q
= 4p + 13q (adding the p’s and q’s separately)

However, multiplication does combine symbols.

Hence 2x × 3y × x = 6x2y

With division, only like symbols may be cancelled as shown below.

8x × x × y ÷ 2x
4
8x 2 y 8 x 2 y
= =
2x 1 2x

= 4xy

-5-
In this last example, a procedure known as ‘cancelling’ is applied. This is used to
simplify the expression.
12 3
In arithmetic a fraction such as can be simplified by cancelling to . Since
16 4
12 3 × 4 3
= =
16 4 × 4 4

Applying this process to the following example:

12 x 2 y 3 z
=
36 x y 2 z 2

12 × x × x × y × y × y × z
=
36 × x × y × y × z × z
3

xy
=
3z
Notice the cancelling of as many of the like symbols as possible. Cancelling may also
be applied to bracketed terms, provided the contents of the brackets are identical ie:
s(x + y)
t (x + y)
s(x + y)
=
t(x + y)
s
=
t
Thus, to simplify the expression x +2(3x + x) – 6x ÷ 2x
6x
= x + 2(4x) –
2x
= x + 8x – 3
= 9x – 3
which may be written as 3(3x – 1) since 3 is common to both terms.

Check out the above by multiplying the 3x – 1 by 3. 3 times 3x equals 9x and 3 times
1 equals 3.

A note on cancelling. You can only cancel across a times or division sign and cannot
cancel across a plus or minus sign. For example you cannot cancel anything in the
following equation:
5y – 2x
5y

but you can on the following equation:

5y x 2x = 2x
5y

-6-
When dealing with the addition and subtraction of fractions in arithmetic, you will
2 1
remember, it is necessary to have a common denominator, thus when adding to
3 5
a common denominator of 3 x 5 (=15) is used. Note the multiplication of the initial
denominators ensures that a common denominator is obtained.

2 1
Thus +
3 5
2 × 5 1× 3
= +
3 × 5 5 × 3
10 3
= +
15 15
10 + 3 13
= =
15 15

In algebra, fractions are dealt with in a similar way.

2 1
Example 1. +
x y

The common denominator is x × y = xy

2 × y 1 × x
= +
x × y y × x
2y x
= +
xy xy
2y + x
=
xy
1 1
Example 2. Express + as a single fraction.
R1 R 2
Common denominator = R1 x R2 = R1R2
1× R 2 1× R 1
= +
R1 × R 2 R 2 × R1
R2 R1
= +
R 1R 2 R 1R 2
R 2 + R1
=
R 1R 2
3 2
Example 3. Express + − 5 as a single fraction.
a2 a

-7-
 Common denominator is a2 (already incorporates a).

3 2× a 5× a2
= + -
a 2 a × a 1× a 2
3 2a 5a 2
= + - 2
a2 a2 a
3 + 2a - 5a 2
=
a2

Example 4. Express the following as a single fraction.

x-2 x-3
-
3 2
Common denominator is 3 x 2 (= 6)

(x - 2 ) × 2 (x - 3 ) × 3
= -
3 × 2 2 × 3
2(x - 2 ) 3(x - 3 )
= -
6 6
2(x - 2 ) - 3(x - 3 )
=
6
2 x - 4 - 3x + 9
=
6
5-x
=
6
(Note the multiplication of the minus 3 to the minus 3 in the term –3(x – 3) to produce
plus 9).

This section has covered a lot of ground, so to check your progress try activity 2.

blank

-8-
Activity 2

1. Find the value of:

(a) 2x + 3xyz – 5zy, when x = 2, y = 3 and z = 1.

5
(b) xy – yz – z, when x = 3, y = 4 and z = -1.
3

xy + ab + 5x
(c) , when x = 2, y = 3, a = 4 and b = 5.
yb - xa + 2

2. Simplify the following expressions:

(a) 38p – 20q – 12p – 8q + 14q

(b) x + 2y – 3z + 2x – y + 3z

xyz
(c)
5x 2 y 3 z 4

(d) 2(3x – 2y) + 2y – y – 6

(e) 7y + 3 – (2x + 4) + 2x

3. Write each of the following as a single fraction.

5 2
(a) +
x y
2 3
(b) 2
+ + 2
x x
5x y
(c) -
8y z
a -1 a - 2
(d) -
3 4

blank

-9-
Answers to Activity 2

1. (a) 7
(b) 25
(c) 4

2. (a) 26p – 14q

(b) 3x + y
(c) 1
5xy2z3
(d) 6x – 3y – 6
(e) 7y – 1

3. (a) 5y + 2x
xy

(b) 2 + 3x + 2x2
x2

(c) 5xz – 8y2

8yz

(d) a+2
12

BRACKETED TERMS

As we have seen the bracket is a useful device for grouping terms or quantities,
however, care must be exercised when removing brackets.

Consider a rectangle with sides of 5 and 3 units respectively (figure 1). The area is the
product of the two sides ie 5 x 3 = 15.

Fig. 1 RECTANGLE - 1

If however, the sides are expressed as (3 + 2) and (2 + 1), then the area would still be
obtained from their product, but to achieve this a particular sequence of operations
would be required.

- 10 -
 Fig. 2 RECTANGLE - 2

Multiplying the sides together may be written as:

(3 + 2)(2 + 1)

The sequence to multiply these two brackets together would be (1, 2, 3, and 4) as shown
below:

Sequence 1 2 3 4
(3 x 2) + (3 x 1) + (2 x 2) + (2 x 1)

= 6 + 3 + 4 + 2

= 15

If the sides of the rectangle are now expressed in algebraic form as shown in figure 3,
(x + 4)(x + 2), the removal of the brackets would still require the same sequence to be
followed.

Fig. 3 RECTANGLE - 3

- 11 -
Sequence 1 2 3 4
(x x x) + (x x 2) + (4 x x) + (4 x 2)

= x2 + 2x + 4x + 8

= x2 + 6x + 8 (collecting like terms)

Example 1. Multiply (x – 3) by (x – 7)

= (x – 3)(x – 7)
= x2 – 7x – 3x +21
= x2 – 10x + 21
Example 2. Multiply (2x – 5) by (4x + 3)

= (2x – 5)(4x + 3)
= 8x2 + 6x – 20x – 15
= 8x2 – 14x – 15
Example 3. Remove the brackets from (3y – 7)(2y – 2)

= 6y2 – 6y – 14y + 14
= 6y2 – 20y + 14

Activity 3

1. Multiply the following bracketed terms together, collecting like terms.

(a) (7x + 4)(2x + 3)

(b) (2x – 1)(2x + 1)
(c) (3y – 2)(2y – 4)

2. Remove the brackets:

(a) (2x – 5)(2x + 5)

(b) (3x – y)(2x – y)
(c) (5x + 3)(3x + y)

- 12 -
 Answers to Activity 3

1. (a) 14x2 + 29x + 12

(b) 4x2 – 1
(c) 6y2 – 16y + 8

2. (a) 4x2 – 25
(b) 6x2 – 5xy + y2
(c) 15x2 + 5xy + 9x + 3y

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

These are called second degree equations and effectively are equations where the
unknown variable is raised to a second power eg x is raised to x2.

It is unlikely that the CAA will ask questions on the actual solving of these equations
as the time allowed per multi choice question is too small. However, the term ‘second
degree equations’ does appear in the EASA Part 1 Module 1 syllabus so we have, at
least, to know something about quadratic equations.

The simplest quadratic equation is y = x2, but quadratic equations are usually written
in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 and usually have two solutions (called roots). A quadratic
equation can be solved using any of 5 methods:

* By factorising.
* By the use of an equation.
* Graphically.
* Taking roots.
* Completing the square.

We will deal with the first three.

Factorising

The multiplication of bracketed terms is fairly straightforward provided the rules are
followed (as shown above). For solving quadratic equations, however the reverse
process is used. This is not so routine, and may require a trial and error approach.

Consider the example of (x + 4)(x + 2). Multiplying the brackets together gives:

x2 + 2x + 4x + 8

= x2 + 6x + 8

- 13 -
To return the term to the original pair of brackets it is necessary to first start with a
pair of empty brackets: ( )( ). Consider the expression x2 + 6x + 8. The first term
is x2 and this is the product of x and x, so an x must be placed in each of the brackets
thus:
(x )(x )

The last term is 8 and this can be obtained either from the product of 8 x 1 or 4 x 2,
but only the sum combination of 4 and 2 will provide 6, the value of the middle term.
So, inserting 4 and 2 into the bracketed pair gives:

(x 4)(x 2)

As every term in x2 + 6x + 8 is positive there are no complications with sign allocation

so both the 4 and 2 will be positive.

ie, (x + 4)(x + 2)

To ensure that factorising has been carried out correctly it is important to multiply
the brackets out to see if we get the original expression x2 + 6x + 8. Try this for
yourself.

The above process is known as ‘factorisation’ with the quadratic expression

x2 + 6x + 8 being factorised into (x + 4)(x + 2). Note that it is a trail and error method
and if the first bracketed pair does not work out then another pair must be tried.

Example 1. Factorise x2 + 8x + 15

= (x )(x )

15 is obtained from the product of 15 x 1 or 5 x 3, but only the sum of 5

and 3 will give 8, thus the solution is:

= (x + 5)(x + 3)

Example 2. Factorise x2 – 9x + 14

= (x 7)(x 2)

For the product of 7 and 2 to be +14 and their sum to be –9, both
must be negative, ie

(x – 7)(x – 2)

Example 3. Factorise x2 – x – 12

= (x 4)(x 3)

4 and 3 are chosen since their product is twelve and their sum is
–1 if considered as –4 and +3. Note that it is the larger of the two
quantities which takes the sign of the middle term of the original
quadratic, ie (x – 4)(x + 3)

- 14 -
Example 4. Factorise 6x2 – x – 15

This example is more complicated that the preceding ones, and

can only be tackled by trial and error. This is because 15 may be
formed by the product of 15 × 1, or 5 × 3, and that 6x2 may be
formed by the product of 6x and x or 3x and 2x. This leads to
many combinations.

ie, (6x )(x )

or (3x )(2x )

with ( 15)( 1)
or ( 3)( 5)

Here the solution is (2x + 3)(3x – 5) but there is no easy path to

factorise such a quadratic equation.

Example 5. Factorise x2 – 9

This is a special type of quadratic and should be recognised as

being ‘the difference between two squares’. Factorising such an
expression is relatively easy and needs only the root of the
number part to be found. It should be noted however that the
signs associated with these roots must be positive and negative as
shown below.

(x – 3)(x + 3)

Activity 4

Factorise the following:

(a) x2 – 9x + 20

(b) x2 – 9x – 22

(c) x2 – 25

(d) 6x2 –22x + 12

Answers to activity 4

(a) (x – 4)(x – 5)
(b) (x – 11)(x + 2)
(c) (x – 5)(x + 5)
(d) (2x – 6)(3x – 2)

- 15 -
Solving Quadratics using an Equation

To save time in factorising by trail and error a formula can be used. This formula is
based on the standard form of the quadratic equation:

ax2 + bx + c = 0

The values of the coefficients a, b and c are substituted in the equation:

− b ± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a

and the equation is worked out to find the value of x . Remember, to solve a quadratic
equation using this formula the quadratic must be in standard form, ie:
(ax + bx + c = 0). This is probably the best method for solving quadratic equations.

Consider the quadratic equation x2 – 10x + 16 = 0

Factorising the Left Hand Side (LHS) of the equation gives:

(x – 8)(x – 2) = 0

It follows that either x – 8 = 0 from which x = 8

or x – 2 = 0 from which x = 2

so the solution to x2 – 10x + 16 = 0

is x = +8 or +2

Using the equation

− b ± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a

Substituting the values of the coefficients (1, –10 and 16) in the equation gives:

10 ± (−10) 2 − 4 × 1 × 16
x=
2 ×1

(Note that when substituting –10 for the –b in the equation the two minuses become a
plus, so it becomes plus 10.)

10 ± 100 − 64
x=
2

10 ± 36
x=
2

- 16 -
 10 ± 6
x=
2

x = 10 – 6 or 10 + 6
2 2

x= 4 or 16
2 2

x=2 or x=8

Activity 5

Solve the following quadratics using the formula method.

(a) x2 – 16x + 39 = 0
(b) x2 – 10x + 24 = 0
(c) x2 + 15x + 36 = 0

Answers to Activity 5

(a) x = +13 or +3
(b) x = +6 or +4
(c) x = –3 or –12

Solving Quadratics Graphically

Carried out by making the equation equal to y (just put a ‘y’ in place of the zero) and
plotting a graph of x against y in the equation. Assume several values for x and for
each value substitute it in the equation and work out the value for y. Make up a table
of values of x and y and plot x against y on the graph. Join up all these points and a
curved plot will result. The curve will be parabolic in shape. Where the curve cuts the
y axis at y = 0, this is the solutions or roots to the equation.

Example: Find the roots of the equation x2 – 8x + 15 = 0.

1. Change to: x2 – 8x + 15 = y

2. Make up table for values of x from (say) 1 to 7 and calculate

corresponding values of y using the equation.

- 17 -
 x x2 -8x +15 Y
1 1 -8 +15 8
2 4 -16 +15 3
3 9 -24 +15 0
4 16 -32 +15 -1
5 25 -40 +15 0
6 36 -48 +15 3
7 49 -56 +15 8

4. Mark points on graph of each value of x against the corresponding value

of y, that is:

x y
1 8
2 3
3 0
4 -1
5 0
6 3
7 8

5. Plot graph by carefully joining marked points free-hand with a smooth

curved line (as shown below).

Fig. 4 GRAPH OF x2 – 8x + 15 = y

The solution to the equation x2 – 8x + 15 = 0 is where the curve cuts the

y axis at y = 0. That is x = 3 and x = 5.

- 18 -
 LINEAR EQUATIONS

All equations are statements that show equality between two expressions, for example
1m = 1000mm (one side is equal to the other). Equations may be thought of as a
simple beam balance with the fulcrum of the balance situated at the equals sign (=).

If balance is to be maintained, and a weight is removed from one side of the beam the
same weight must be removed from the other (at the same distance from the fulcrum).
If the weight is doubled (× 2) on one side of the beam then they must be doubled on
the other. The equals sign (=) is important so that what is done to one side must be
done to the other.

Like a beam balance, anything may be done to one side of the equation, provided that
exactly the same is done to the other side, so that equilibrium is maintained.

Examples of linear equations are 7 – x = 21 and 5x – 6 = 20.

Notice that linear equations contain x (or any other symbol) raised only to the power
of 1 (ie x1). The index is almost never written. Higher powers such as x2, x3 etc, do not
occur in linear equations. The standard form of the linear equation is y = mx + c. If y
is plotted against x on a graph (the same procedure being followed as shown above
with quadratic equations) then the result will be a straight line. Hence the term Linear
Equation.

Linear equations are also known as ‘equations of the first degree’ or just ‘simple
equations’. When presented with a linear equation, such as x + 1 = 5, it may be
necessary to ‘solve’ the equation for x. This means that the unknown term ‘x’ is to be
isolated on one side of the equation. For the example given it would be necessary to
remove the +1 from the left-hand side. To do this subtract 1, but remember, what is
done to one side, exactly the same must be done to the other, so 1 is also subtracted
from the right-hand side:

x+1–1=5–1

x =4

The equation is now said to have been ‘solved’, and the value of x = 4 is said to
‘satisfy’ the equation.

Example 1. Solve the equation 5y + 6 = 21

5y + 6 – 6 = 21 – 6

5y = 15

5 y 153
= (dividing both sides by 5 to isolate y)
5 5

y=3

- 19 -
Note. For clarity, it is advisable to keep all equal signs in the same vertical line on the
page and if like terms occur in an equation, these need to be collected together on one
side.

Example 2. Solve the equation 4x – 7 = 5 – 2x

Following the above procedure:

4x – 7 + 7 = 5 – 2x + 7 (adding 7 to both sides)

4x = 5 – 2x + 7
4x + 2x = 5 – 2x + 7 + 2x (adding 2x to both sides)
6x = 5 + 7
6x = 12
6x 12
= (dividing both sides by 6)
6 6
x=2

A simpler way of doing this is to realise that a change of side involves a change of
sign. Thus to move the 7 from the left to the right just move it over and change the
sign. Moving the 2x from the right to the left involves changing the sign from a minus
to a plus:

4x – 7 = 5 – 2x
4x + 2x = 5 + 7
6x = 12
12
x= =2
6

1 1 1
Example 3. Make ‘R’ the subject of the equation = +
R R1 R 2

Before the right hand side can be inverted, it must be written as a single fraction, you
may remember this from an earlier example. Terms cannot be inverted if they are
connected by a plus or a minus sign – only if they are connected by a times or a division
sign.

On the right hand side the common denominator is R1 × R 2 (=R1R2)

1 1× R 2 1× R1
Thus: = +
R R1 × R 2 R 2 × R1

1 R + R1
= 2
R R1 R2

R R1 R2
= (inverting both sides)
1 R2 + R1

R1 R2
R =
R2 + R1

- 20 -
Note: This is worth remembering as it is the solution for finding the total resistance RT
of a pair of resistors R1 and R2 connected in parallel.

5x
Example 4. Solve the equation = 10
3
5x
Multiply both sides by 3 × 3 = 10 × 3
3
5x = 30

5 x 30
Divide both sides by 5 =
5 5

x=6

Example 5. Make x the subject of the equation 2(x – 4) = 6

Method 1 Method 2

2(x – 4) = 6 2(x – 4) = 6
2(x - 4 ) 6
= (divide each side by 2) 2x – 8 = 6 (open brackets)
2 2
x–4=3 2x = 6 + 8
x=3+4 2x = 14
2x 14
x=7 =
2 2
x=7

Now try Activity 6.

blank

- 21 -
 Activity 6

1. Solve the following equations.

(a) 3x – 6 = 15
r
(b) +3=7
2
s s
(c) - =4
2 3
(d) 2y – 1 = 3y + 4 – 6y
(e) 3(x + 2) = 30 + 2(x – 4)
2
(f) + 4 = 12
x

2. Make x the subject of the following equation:

x-2
= 4
x-3

Answers to Activity 6

1. (a) x=7
(b) r=8
(c) s = 24
(d) y=1
(e) x = 16
1
(f) x=
4

10 1
2. x= or 3
3 3

SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

Equations will often contain more than one unknown. The equation x + y = 6 is an
example. It contains 2 unknowns and cannot be solved without further information
(knowing x or y). It simply provides a relationship between two unknowns. If however,
another equation could, at the same time or simultaneously, be formed containing the
same unknowns, then a solution would be possible. For example, if, under the same
conditions, a further relationship of say 2x + 3y = 15 was obtained then a solution for
x and y could be obtained. For example, solve the following simultaneous equations:

Example 1. x + y = 6 ………….equation (1)

2x + 3y = 15 ………….equation (2)

- 22 -
There are several ways of doing this and one way is to eliminate one unknown from
both equations. We will eliminate y. To do this, equation 1 is multiplied throughout by
3, causing y to become 3y, then subtracting equation 2 from equation 1. This will
remove all the ‘y’ terms.
x + y = 6 …………..x 3 = 3x + 3y = 18

3x + 3y = 18
2x + 3y = 15
Subtracting x = 3

The value of x (=3) is now substituted into either of the original equations to obtain
the value of y.

Thus substituting x = 3 into equation 1:

3+y=6
∴ y=6–3
∴ y=3

A final check can now be made by substituting the values of x and y into equation 2.

2x + 3y = 15

Hence the left hand side value is 2 × 3 + 3 × 3 and equal to the right hand side (15).

Example 2. Solve the following simultaneous equations for x and y.

4x - 3y = 18 ……….(1)
x + 2y = -1 ………..(2)

To eliminate y 4x – 3y = 18 ………. × 2
x + 2y = – 1 ………. × 3

8x – 6y = 36
3x + 6y = – 3
Adding 11x = 33

x=3

Substituting x = 3 into equation (1) to find y:

(4 × 3) – 3y = 18
12 – 3y = 18
– 3y = 18 - 12
– 3y = 6
6
y=
−3

y=–2

- 23 -
Check, substituting for x and y in equation 2

Left hand side = 3 + (2 × – 2)

=3–4
= – 1 which equals the right hand side.

If you feel happy with this section then try activity 7.

Activity 7

Solve the following simultaneous equations. Use the check to see if your
answers are correct.

1. 6s – t = 17 : 4s + t = 13

2. p+q=5 : 2p + 3q = 13

3. 2l – 3m + 4 = 0 : 3l – 2m + 1 = 0

4. 3x – 4y = 7 : 5x – 11y = 29

5. 5s + 7t = -17 : t – 5s = 13

COMMON LOGARITHMS (LOGS)

Used extensively in the days when there were no electronic calculators or computers.
They made the process of division and multiplication simpler (in particular when
dealing with large numbers). Since the introduction of calculators/computers
common logarithms (logs to the base 10) are little used, but other logs (logs to the
base e for example) are part of some equations and therefore are in current use –
though again, data can come straight from a computer.

In general, to carry out a multiplication of two numbers (any size) the log values of the
numbers are found from tables and these log values are added. The resultant log
value is looked up in anti-log tables which will give the answer. For division the log
numbers are subtracted one from the other.

Indices, as you will have appreciated, are used to simplify problems, and to be of any
use the indices must have the same base. This is a similar situation to that used with
Common Logarithms (Logarithms or Logs). With common logs the numbers are
written to a common base of 10 and raised to some power.

For example, since 1000 = 103 we say that the Log of 1000 is 3.

Or log101000 = 3 (log10 is spoken as ‘log to the base ten’ and the whole
statement is spoken as ‘log to the base ten of a thousand equals three’).

- 24 -
 Similarly 100 = 102 so therefore log10100 = 2

Ten itself is 10 raised to the power 1, (101). The figure 1 is not usually written since
10 = 101.
then log1010 = 1
also, since 1 = 100 (see laws of indices) then log101 = 0
So any value may be expressed to base 10 and raised to a suitable power.

For example 2 = 100.3010

so therefore log102 = 0.3010

also 50 = 101.6990

therefore log1050 = 1.6990

Considering this last example, log1050 = 1.6990. The log itself (1.6990), is made up of
two parts, the 1 and 0.6990. These two parts are given special names. The figure in
front of the decimal point (1 in this case) is called the characteristic of the logarithm,
whilst the number behind the decimal point, 0.6990 in this case, is called the
mantissa.

Tables of common logarithms (logs to the base 10) (log tables) are available for any
number. These provide the value for the mantissa but leave the value of the
characteristic to be decided by inspection.

These tables are supplied in booklet form to include log tables, antilog tables, and
possibly many other mathematical tables and data. Many calculators have log and
antilog functions built in.

For example: 753 = 100 × 7.53

= 102 × 100.8768
∴log10753 = 2.8768 (the characteristic is 2 and the mantissa is .8768)
Similarly 4732 = 1000 × 4.732
= 103 × 100.6751
∴log104732 = 3.6751 (the characteristic is 3)
and 3=1×3
= 100 × 100.4771
∴log103 = 0.4771 (the characteristic is 0)

Studying these examples you will probably have noticed that the characteristic is
simply one less than the number of digits to the left of the decimal point in the
original number.

- 25 -
An important fact to remember is that the mantissa is always positive, but as we shall
see, the characteristic may be either positive or negative.

Continuing with these examples, lets now consider the number 0.07.

7 7
Now 0.07 is the same as or 2 or 7 × 10 - 2 (see laws of indices).
100 10

Thus 0.07 = 10-2 × 7

= 10-2 × 100.8451
∴log10 0.07 = 2.8451

You will notice that the negative sign now appears above the characteristic instead of
in front. This is deliberate so as to avoid making the whole number negative
(remember that the mantissa is always positive). Written in this way it is termed ‘bar’
and the above logarithm is spoken as ‘bar two point eight, four, five, one’.

Consider another example: 0.000 471

0.000 471 = 10-4 × 4.71

= 10-4 × 100.6730

∴log100.000 471 = 4.6730

A negative characteristic will always occur with numbers of less than 1. Again this
can be obtained by inspection. Simply count the number of zero’s, including the one
before the decimal point, the total will be the value of the bar number.

EXAMPLES
NUMBER CHARACTERISTIC

0.001 3 (BAR THREE)

0.07 2 (BAR TWO)

0.4 1 (BAR ONE)

1.2320 0
13.367 1
257.1423 2
7460.2323 3
97642.012 4

Putting numbers into log form is done (was done a lot before electronic calculators
became widely available) to make calculations easier, however, before attempting
questions that make use of logarithms we must understand the reverse process, that
is how to obtain an ordinary number from a log number.
To do this antilogarithms (antilogs) are used. Again, antilog tables are available
together with log tables.

- 26 -
For example, having made your calculations in log form, you end up with a log answer
(say 3.7521). Using the mantissa part of the log number only the antilog tables are
consulted and the ‘answer’ obtained (in this case 5650 which is always read in
standard form 5.650).

Next the characteristic is considered. This is 3 (bar 3) which moves the decimal place
three places to the left giving the answer as 0.00565.

Note. Commonly log10 is abbreviated to ‘log’ or sometimes ‘lg’.

Now lets look at the use of logarithms in solving problems.

Fig. 5 PART OF THE LOG TABLE (TO BASE 10)

Multiplication. This is achieved by adding the logs of the quantities involved then
finding the antilog. For example: 57.43 × 66.51

1. From log tables (figure 5) find the log of 57.43. (A, B, C, D & E)= 1.7591
2. Then find the log of 66.51 (1, 2, 3, 4 & 5). = 1.8229
3. Add the log numbers. = 3.5820

4. Using the antilog tables (figure 6), convert the mantissa

part (.5820) of the log back into an ordinary number
(A, B, C, D & E). = 3.819

5. From the characteristic, move the position of the

decimal point 3 places to the right of the standard
form (3.819) to give a final value. = 3819

- 27 -
 Fig. 6 PART OF THE ANTI-LOG TABLE (LOGS TO THE BASE 10)

Division. Similar to multiplication but requires the subtraction of the log numbers.

Example. 25.34 ÷ 0.0751

111
1. Log 25.34 = 1.4038

2. Log 0.0751 = 2. 8 7 56
9 8

3. Subtracting (2. from 1.) gives = 2.5282

4. Antilog of 5282 = 3375, in standard form = 3.375

5. Characteristic = 2. Move decimal point 2 places

to the right = 337.5

This example is more complicated due to the ‘bar’ quantity involved. Remember that
the mantissa is always positive, so during the subtraction of .8756 from .4038 normal
subtraction rules apply. When subtracting 9 (the 8 went to 9 because of the previous
‘borrow’) from 4, just to the right of the decimal point, 10 had to be ‘borrowed’ from
the next column to make the 4 into 14. Having ‘borrowed’ ten it was then necessary to
‘pay’ this back. This made the 2 or (-2) become 1 since –2 + 1 = -1. Subtracting 1
from 1 gave a characteristic of 2, ie (1- [-1] = +2).
If more accuracy is required in the final answer then 5 figure log tables can be used.

Powers and Roots

To find the value of a number raised to a power the log of the number is simply
multiplied by the value of the power.

- 28 -
Example. Solve (4.732)3

log 4.732 = 0.6751

( )3 ×3
2.0253
Antilog = 1060 (standard form = 1.060)
Answer = 106.0 (moving the decimal point 2 places to the right)

Example. Solve (0.2531)5

log 0.2531 = 1 .4033

( )5 ×5

3 .0165
2

Note that in the multiplication of 4 × 5 = 20 the 2 is carried over, this is positive, of

course. When 1 is multiplied by 5, giving 5 the addition of +2 gives an answer of 3 .

Antilog = 1039 (standard form 1.039)

Number = 0.001039 (moving the decimal point 3 places to the left)

3
Example 5. Solve 0.05731

log 0.05731 = 2 .7583

3 = ÷3

To divide 2 by 3, could prove difficult, however by changing 2 into 3 makes it easier,

but this changes the value, so to return to the correct value, 1 is added to the 3
ie 2 .7583 is the same as 3 +1.7583

now dividing through by 3 gives 1 .5861

Antilog = 3858 (standard form 3.858)
Number = 0.3858

Recapping on the operations we have performed using common logarithms.

1. log (A × B) = log A + log B

A
2. log = log A – log B
B
3. log An = n log A
n A
4. log A = log
n

This section has been quite intensive, so lets see how much you have understood by
trying Activity 8.

- 29 -
Activity 8

1. Write down the characteristics of the logarithms for the following:

(a) 4270
(b) 73.4
(c) 5.74
(d) 0.613
2. Given that the mantissa of log105.243 is 0.7195, write down the logs for:
(a) 0.5243
(b) 52430
(c) 52.43
(d) 0.005243
3. The antilog of each number is given below. Write down the number it
represents.

(a) The antilog of 3 .4781 is 3007

(b) The antilog of 2.3162 is 2071
(c) The antilog of 0.6143 is 4114

Answers to Activity 8

1. (a) 3
(b) 1
(c) 0

(d) 1
2. (a) 1 .7195
(b) 4.7195
(c) 1.7195

(d) 3 .7195
3. (a) 0.003007
(b) 207.1
(c) 4.114

- 30 -
Finally, before leaving this section on logarithms to the base 10 you should be made
aware that logarithms to ANY base may be put together. Naperian logarithms
(sometimes called Hyperbolic or Natural logs) are an example of logs to a different
base. These have a base ‘e’ where ‘e’ is a mathematical constant (approximately
2.718). The use of ‘e’ is often related to the field of growth and decay and is a more
convenient base than 10 when dealing with some branches of higher mathematics.
The symbol ln is used for natural logs and like common log, tables of values are
available.

Notes.
1. Before the advent of readily available calculators, common logs where used
extensively when multiplication and division was involved – together with
the slide rule of course. The cheap scientific calculator made common logs
and the slide rule out-of-date almost over-night.

2. Log books are not used in CAA examinations but the EASA Part 66
syllabus requires that a level of knowledge is required on logs to level 1.

OTHER NUMBERING SYSTEMS

The mathematics covered so far have dealt with ten numbers from 0 to 9 and called
the Decimal or Denary system. Ten is the radix of decimal numeration and of common
logarithms (a radix is the number or symbol used as a basis of a numeration scale).

There are many other numbering systems – mostly associated with computers. These
include:

* Binary
* Octal
* Hexadecimal
* Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

THE DECIMAL SYSTEM

This is the system in everyday use; there are 10 digits (0 to 9 inclusive) so it has a
‘base’ or ‘radix’ (number of digits used in the system) of 10. Taking the number
72306, it can be written as:

(7 × 10,000) + (2 × 1000) + (3 × 100) + (0 × 10) + (6 × 1)

= (7 × 104) + (2 × 103) + (3 × 102) + (0 × 101) + (6 × 100)

= 72306

Each digit is effectively multiplied by a power of 10.

Note that to write 19.526 in powers of 10 then:

1 × 101 + 9 × 100 + 5 × 10-1 + 2 × 10-2 + 6 × 10-3

- 31 -
 = (10) + (9) + (5 x 1 = 0.5) + ( 2 = 0.02) + ( 6 = 0.006)
10 100 1000

= 10 + 9 + .5 + 0.02 + 0.006

= 19.526

Note that 100 = 1. In fact any number to the power of zero = 1.

Proof, using the number 3 ie 30 = 1

1 = 9 = 32 = 32 x 3-2 = 32+(-2) = 30
9 32

3 was used because it is an easy number to show you that any number to the power
of nought is equal to 1.

It can be seen that the decimal system is based on successive powers of 10, the
number with the smallest value (100) is known as the least significant digit (LSD) and
the number with the highest value (104 in this example) is known as the most
significant digit (MSD).

The disadvantage of the decimal system for use in digital technology is that the
circuits which would be used (using transistors), would have to have 10 discrete levels
of collector current. For example 0mA (milliamps) = 0, 1mA = 1, 2mA = 2, 3mA = 3
etc. Such a system would be difficult and slow to operate.

Where accuracy and speed are important it would be better to use a system that has
just two states, either HIGH (voltage level) and LOW (voltage level) or ON and OFF.

The system that is the basis of today’s digital processing is the ‘two state’ BINARY
SYSTEM.

THE BINARY SYSTEM

The Binary system and has only two figures or digits 0 and 1. These are known as
‘bits’, the name being formed from the words binary and digits. The system has a base
or radix of 2. As in the decimal system, we can represent any number in successive
powers of the radix, in this case 2.

For example:

27 = 24 + 23 + 21 + 20

= 16 + 8 + 2 + 1

- 32 -
further expanded:

= 1 x 24 + 1 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 = 1 x 20

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

1 1 0 1 1

means the binary number for 27 = 110112

To avoid confusion between systems with different radix this would be written as
110112 to identify it as a binary number.

What about a fraction expressed as a power of 2?

⋅12 = 2-1 = 1 = 0.5

2

⋅012 = 2-2 = 1 = 0⋅25

22

⋅0012 = 2-3 = 1 = 0⋅125

23

⋅00012 = 2-4 = 1 = 0⋅0625

24

Example. Convert 17.75 decimal to binary.

17 = 24 + 20 + 2-1 + 2-2

Expanded, this gives:

1 × 24 + 0 × 23 + 0 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20 + 1 × 2-1 + 1 × 2-2
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
1 0 0 0 1 . 1 1

So 17.75 = 10001.112

The table below shows the relationship between Binary and Decimal numbers up to
decimal 21 (2110). The table could be continued.

- 33 -
 Decimal 5-bit binary number (word) Decimal 5-bit binary number (word)
number number

24 23 22 21 20 24 23 22 21 20

0 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 1 0 1 1

1 0 0 0 0 1 12 0 1 1 0 0

2 0 0 0 1 0 13 0 1 1 0 1

3 0 0 0 1 1 14 0 1 1 1 0

4 0 0 1 0 0 15 0 1 1 1 1

5 0 0 1 0 1 16 1 0 0 0 0

6 0 0 1 1 0 17 1 0 0 0 1

7 0 0 1 1 1 18 1 0 0 1 0

8 0 1 0 0 0 19 1 0 0 1 1

9 0 1 0 0 1 20 1 0 1 0 0

10 0 1 0 1 0 21 1 0 1 0 1

TABLE 1 BINARY NUMBERS

Addition of Binary Numbers

When adding binary numbers the rules are similar to those when adding denary
numbers, eg 5 + 5 = 0 and carry 1.

Rules
ADDITION SUM CARRY
0 + 0 = 0 0
0 + 1 = 1 0
1 + 0 = 1 0
1 + 1 = 0 1
1 + 1+1 = 1 1

The procedure for adding binary numbers follows that for denary numbers but the
carry bits are moved one place to the left.

Example 1. Find the value of the sum of the binary numbers 110 and 1101.

Method 1

110
1101
10011

- 34 -
Using the rules

1st column. 0 + 1 = 1 and no carry

2nd column. 1 + 0 = 1 and no carry
3rd column. 1 + 1 = 0 and carry 1
4th column. Nothing on the top line + 1 + the carry 1 = 0 and carry 1
5th column. Nothing on both lines + the carry 1 = 1

Method 2

row a 1 1 0 Summing vertically row a and b

row b 1 1 0 1 using the summation laws.
row c SUM 1 0 1 1
Summing vertically row c and d
row d CARRY 0 1 0 0 using the summation laws.
row e SUM 0 0 1 1
Summing vertically row e and f
row f CARRY 1 0 0 0 using the summation laws.
row g SUM 1 0 0 1 1

Row g completes the addition, ie 110 + 1101 = 10011

The answer may be checked by converting the binary numbers to denary and adding
the denary numbers:

1102 = 610
11012 = 1310
100112 = 1910

Total = 19

In an exam situation, if in doubt about adding binary, convert to denary and add
normally then re-convert.

Subtraction

Again, the rules are similar to decimal subtraction except 0 – 1 = 1 borrow 1.

Rules

0 – 0 = 0
1 – 0 = 1
1 – 1 = 0
0 – 1 = 1 borrow 1

Example 2. Subtract 10101 from 11011

11011
10101 –
00110

- 35 -
Multiplication

Rules

0 × 0 = 0
0 × 1 = 0
1 × 0 = 0
1 × 1 = 1

Example 3. Multiply 1100 x 11

1100
11
1100
1100 ADD
100100

A computer does not multiply as such but this operation is carried out by repeated
addition, eg in decimal 2 × 4 = 8 and computed it is 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 8. Because the
computer/electronic calculator is so fast it can carry out this operation many
thousands of times a second to completed long complex ‘multiplications’ seemingly
instantly.

Division

Rules 1 0
1) 1 1) 0

Example 4. Divide 111100 by 110 (60 divide by 6)

1010
110)111100
110
00110
110
00000

Check this by converting binary 1010 to denary to see if the answer is correct.

Computers cannot divide; they carry out division by repeated subtraction, which is in
itself actual carried out by an addition process. Again ‘subtraction’ can be carried out
many thousands of times a second making division appear almost instantaneous.

Positive and Negative Numbers

The computer needs to distinguish between positive and negative numbers. This
usually involves an additional bit added to the word which identifies whether the
number is positive or negative, eg ‘0’ for positive numbers and ‘1’ for negative
numbers. For instance: in example 4 the answer was 1010 – a four bit word. A fifth
bit could be placed on the front to indicate negative or positive – eg 01010 – a positive
value.

- 36 -
How a Computer Does Subtraction

Probably outside the scope of this book but to satisfy any that are curious.

For subtraction, by inverting the binary number and adding 1 we get the negative of
the number. This process is called TWO’s COMPLEMENT.

Example. Find the negative binary number of +5 decimal.

+5 as a 4 bit word is 0101

Invert (change ‘0’s to ‘1’s and ‘1’s to ‘0’s) 1010
Add 1 1
1011

Example. Subtract 5 from 7 (7 – 5)

+7 = 0111

-5 = 0101
Invert = 1010
Add 1 = 1011

adding 0111 to 1011

= 0111
1011
0010 (the carry 1 of the MSB is carried ‘off the page’

Proof 00102 = 210

Converting Denary into Binary

The denary number is successively divided by 2 with the remainder (1 or 0) recorded

each time. So taking Example A (in the table below). First line, 2 into 796 = 398
remainder 0. 2 into 398 = 199 remainder 0. 2 into 199 = 99 remainder 1 etc.
Continue until the division is complete then read from the bottom up the remainder
digits, in this case 1100011100. So denary 796 = binary 1100011100.

blank

- 37 -
Example A Example B

Convert 796 to binary Convert 217 to binary

2 796 2 217

2 398 remainder 0 2 108 remainder 1

2 199 ’’ 0 2 54 ’’ 0

2 99 ’’ 1 2 27 ’’ 0

2 49 ’’ 1 2 13 ’’ 1

2 24 ’’ 1 2 6 ’’ 1

2 12 ’’ 0 2 3 ’’ 0

2 6 ’’ 0 2 1 ’’ 1

2 3 ’’ 0 2 0 ’’ 1

2 1 ’’ 1 Read up to
obtain the
0 ’’ 1 binary number

Read up to 11011001
obtain the
binary number

1100011100

TABLE 2 CONVERSION OF DECIMAL TO BINARY

Converting Denary to Binary

It is best to write down the successive values of the powers of 2 then, by inspection,
calculate the denary number from these. For example, convert 4510 to binary, write
down the successive powers of 2 (up to the largest number smaller than 45, eg:

(25) (24) (23) (22) (21) (20)

32 16 8 4 2 1

Then make up the number (45) by the addition of the denary numbers starting from
the largest, ie:

(1 × 32) + (1 × 8) + (1 × 4) + (1 × 1) = 45

So 32 16 8 4 2 1 is

1 0 1 1 0 1

The binary number is 1011012

- 38 -
THE OCTAL SYSTEM

In the binary system the number of bits in a word can be quite lengthy and problems
can occur such as the increased possibility of an error in manipulating so many
digits.

The octal system (table 3) helps lessen these difficulties, being more compact and
easily converted to decimal or binary. The system uses the base or radix 8, this
means, to convert from decimal to octal (example 1a below) the number is divide by 8
and the remainders are recorded as before and read upwards to get the octal number.

To convert this number to binary split each octal number into it’s three figure binary
number and join together.

Example 1. Convert 796 to octal and then convert octal to binary.

a. Conversion of decimal to octal b. Conversion of octal to binary

8 796 (to convert 14348 to binary)

8 99 remainder 4 The binary number is obtained by

taking each octal digit and converting
8 12 remainder 3 READ it to a three figure binary number

8 1 remainder 4 UP
1 4 3 4
0 remainder 1 001 100 011 100

so 79610 = 14348 and 14348 = 0011000111002 = 11000111002

79610 = 14348 = 11000111002

To convert from binary to octal, start from the right of the binary number and group
into threes, if the final group does not have three bits then add noughts to make it up
to the three.

Example 2. Convert 10101002 to octal

1 01 0 1 0 0

add 2 noughts 001 010 100

Convert to octal digits

1 2 4

Reading from left to right gives 10101002 = 1248

- 39 -
 Decimal Octal Binary Hexadecimal

0 0 00000 0
1 1 00001 1
2 2 00010 2
3 3 00011 3
4 4 00100 4
5 5 00101 5
6 6 00110 6
7 7 00111 7
8 10 01000 8
9 11 01001 9
10 12 01010 A
11 13 01011 B
12 14 01100 C
13 15 01101 D
14 16 01110 E
15 17 01111 F
16 20 10000 10
17 21 10001 11
18 22 10010 12
19 23 10011 13
20 24 10100 14

TABLE 3 COMPARISON OF NUMBERING SYSTEMS

THE HEXADECIMAL SYSTEM

This system has a base or radix of 16 and is used where large binary numbers are
handled to cut down possible errors. Since we have only ten different digit symbols (0
to 9 inclusive) six other symbols have to be used and these are letters A to F inclusive.
Table 3 shows the numbering systems already considered and the hexadecimal (hex)
system.

Conversion from Decimal to Hexadecimal

Divide the decimal number by 16 writing the remainders in as hex characters. Then
read the remainder column from the bottom.

Convert 76210 to Hexadecimal

16 762

16 47 remainder A

16 2 remainder F

0 remainder 2 READ UP

So 76210 = 2FA16

- 40 -
Conversion from Hexadecimal to Binary

Take each digit and convert to a four digit binary number.

Convert 2BC16 to Binary

2 B C

group into }
4 digits } 0010 1011 1100

therefore 2BC16 = 10101111002

Comparing the length of a binary number to Octal or Hexadecimal shows that the
binary number can turn out to be very long. For example:

111100001111101100011.00010011012

= 7417543.04648

= 1E1F63.13416

THE BINARY CODED DECIMAL (BCD) SYSTEM

There are several forms of this system but we shall concentrate on the 8421 code. It is
used in display read-out systems, decoders and counters.

DECIMAL BCD
23 22 21 20
8 4 2 1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0
5 0 1 0 1
6 0 1 1 0
7 0 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 1

TABLE 4 DECIMAL BCD EQUIVALENT

It is called 8421 code as each digit is weighted from right to left in powers of 2. You
might be thinking that this is the same as the binary code; however, with numbers
from 10 upwards each number is represented by a 4 bit code.

Example. 1110 in BCD is 0001 0001 leaving a space between each group of four digits.
In ordinary binary the word would be 1011.

- 41 -
Another example. 42910 to BCD

is 0100 0010 1001

Converting from BCD to Decimal is again quite easy.

eg 10000101 is split into groups of four:

1000 0101

8 5

= 8510

By way of a summary and to enable a comparison to be made between a number

representation in the various systems and codes, consider the decimal number 347.

DECIMAL 347
BINARY 101011011
8421 BCD 0011 0100 0111
OCTAL 533
HEXADECIMAL 15B

When a number such as decimal 347 is converted into any binary form the
corresponding group of binary digits is known as a WORD. Each word is formed by a
number of BITS and this represents the word length.

Activity 9

1. Convert the following denary numbers into binary numbers.

(a) 5
(b) 12
(c) 18
(d) 210

2. Convert the following binary numbers into denary numbers.

(a) 1011
(b) 101
(c) 101110

3. Using binary addition find the value of the following binary numbers.

(a) 111 + 101

(b) 1111 + 1111
(c) 10010 + 10110

- 42 -
4. Convert the following decimal numbers into hexadecimal form:

(a) 97410
(b) 256310
(c) 8610

5. Express the following numbers, which are in denary form, in octal:

(a) 80010
(b) 25010
(c) 6010

6. Convert the following decimal numbers to binary coded decimal (BCD).

(a) 60010
(b) 8410
(c) 246010

7. Convert the following hexadecimal numbers into binary:

(a) 5AC16
(b) ABC16
(c) 2CE16

8. Express the following numbers, which are in BCD form, as decimals:

(a) 001110000000
(b) 100101110010
(c) 00010000

9. What would be the equivalent denary form for the hexadecimal numbers
shown below?

(a) 2CD16
(b) 7AB16
(c) 4EF16

10. Calculate the denary equivalent of the following octal numbers:

(a) 648
(b) 108
(c) 3208

- 43 -
Answers to Activity 9

1. (a) 101
(b) 1100
(c) 10010
(d) 11010010

2. (a) 11
(b) 5
(c) 46

3. (a) 1100
(b) 11110
(c) 101000

4. (a) 3CE16
(b) A0316
(c) 5616

5. (a) 14408
(b) 3728
(c) 748

6. (a) 011000000000
(b) 10000100
(c) 0010010001100000

7. (a) 0101101011002
(b) 1010101111002
(c) 0010110011102

8. (a) 38010
(b) 97210
(c) 1010

9. (a) 71710
(b) 196310
(c) 126310

10. (a) 5210

(b) 810
(c) 20810

- 44 -
 GEOMETRY

The following section deals with basic geometric constructions. They cannot be drawn
to any degree of accuracy without using instruments so if you are going to attempt
any drawing then some instruments will be needed. Straight lines will need the use of
a rule and all arcs drawn will need a compass. To draw parallel lines two set squares
are needed.

(The CAA do not ask for drawings in their multi-choice examinations so drawing
practice as such is not required.)

To construct a line parallel to another.

The compass radius (r) is set to the required distance apart for the parallel line and
two arcs are constructed (a and b) at the longest reasonable distance apart on line 1.
A line (line 2) is drawn to just touch the top of the arcs. Line 2 will be parallel to line
1.

To bisect a line.

The compass radius (r) is set to greater than half the line (A, B) length and arcs are
constructed (arc 1 and arc 2) above and below the line from each end of the line A and
B, leaving the radius unaltered. A line perpendicular to line A, B is drawn through the
two arc intersections. This line bisects line A, B.

To construct a perpendicular from a point on a line.

- 45 -
The compass is opened to any radius and with the compass point placed at A where
the perpendicular is to be erected. Two arcs (1st arc) are struck on each side on the
line. These then form the centres of two further arcs (arc 2 and 3), drawn with the
compass radius increased. Where these intersect a line can be drawn to A which will
be perpendicular to the line.

To erect a perpendicular from a point to a line.

An arc is drawn from the point (A) with the compass set at a radius greater than the
distance to the line, to cut the line at C and D. The radius of the compass is now
reduced and two further arcs (3rd and 4th) are drawn with the compass point at C and
D to intersect at E. A line drawn from ‘A’ through E and drawn to the line will form a
perpendicular to the line.

To bisect an angle (CAB).

Using the point where the two lines intersect as a centre ‘A’, an arc is drawn cutting
both lines at B and C. These form the centres of two additional arcs (2nd and 3rd)
drawn with the same but reduced radius that intersect at D. A line drawn through
this point to A bisects the angle CAB.

blank

- 46 -
To construct an angle of 60° to a line.

The compass point is centred at the point ‘A’ to which the angle is to be drawn and set
to any radius AB. An arc BC is drawn. Without changing the radius, the compass is
now centred at B and an arc is drawn to cut CB at D. A line drawn through D to A
will form an angle of 60° with AB.

30° can be obtained by bisecting the 60°.

To divide a line into a number of equal parts.

To the required line (AB), a second construction line (AD), is drawn at any angle.
Using a compass set at any radius the number of required divisions (in this case 9) is
stepped off equally along the construction line (AD). The final point ‘D’ is then joined
to the end of the original line (B). Parallel lines are then drawn to this line from each
of the stepped-off points, dividing the line into the required number of equal parts.

It is interesting to note that engineers have been able to accurately divide lines for
hundreds of years. This lead to the early development of the vernier calliper to give
accuracies in measurement down to a thousandth of an inch.

- 47 -
To divide a line proportionally.

The same method, as in the previous construct, may be used. For this example the
line is required to be divided proportionally into a ratio of 2:3:5. The construction line
AD is therefore divided into 10 parts (2 + 3 + 5 = 10) and parallel lines drawn in the
same ratio as that required.

GRAPHS

Graphs provide a visual representation of data and show, in many cases, the variation
of one quantity with another. The most common form of graph is one which uses a
pair of straight lines, known as axes, that are drawn at right angles to each other.
Such a pair of axes are known as Rectangular or Cartesian axes.

The horizontal axis is called the x-axis, and the vertical axis as the y-axis (to aid
memory, y rhymes with high). The point where these two axes cross is called the
origin and usually given the symbol ‘0’. Conventionally, values along the x-axis and to
the right of the origin are considered positive, whilst those to the left are negative.
With the y-axis, values above the origin are considered positive, whilst those below
negative.

To locate a point on the graph a value of both x and y are required. These are often
written in brackets with the x-value always written first (x,y).

Values of x and y that locate a point on a graph are called the ‘co-ordinates’ of the
point, further, the x-distance from the y-axis is called its ‘abscissa’ and the y-distance
from the x-axis is called its ‘ordinate’. Co-ordinates measured in this way are called
‘Cartesian co-ordinates’.

The graph (figure 7) shows the location of two points with co-ordinates (5,4) and (-2,-
6). Note that the x value is always quoted first followed by the y value.

If the relationship between two quantities are directly proportional and these are
plotted on a graph a straight line graph is produced. That is, if one quantity
(independent variable) is changed then the other quantity (dependant variable) is
changed in proportion, eg double one and the other also doubles.

An example is the results obtained from a tensile test on a metal test piece. This
involves the slow extension of the test piece by the application of a gradually
increasing load until the test piece breaks.

- 48 -
 Fig. 7 GRAPH SHOWING RECTANGULAR/CARTESIAN AXES

As the load is applied so the test piece behaves elastically and it gets longer. At
intervals the amount of extension is recorded (using a micrometer, vernier or dial test
indicator) and at the same time the load is also recorded (indicated on the testing
machine).

Fig. 8 TEST PIECE EXTENSION

Comparing the values of load against extension shows that for every unit of load
applied the test piece extends one unit of length (say 1kN for every 0.05mm).

- 49 -
Plotting values of applied load against the corresponding extension (while the material
remains elastic) produces the type of graph shown in figure 9.

The graph is a straight line which passes through the origin. This shows that values
of load are directly proportional to the extension produced (Hooke's law - Robert
Hooke English physicist 1635-1703).

ie load ∝ extension (load is proportional to extension)

or load = extension x a constant

load
rearranging this = constant
extension

Fig. 9 STRAIGHT LINE GRAPH PASSING THROUGH ORIGIN

That is, if any load is selected and is divided by the extension it produces, then a
value will be found that will be the same for any other load divided by its
corresponding extension ie, a constant value will be obtained.

Of course, the above only remains true if the test piece is not loaded too much such
that it is stretched beyond its elastic limit. Once this happens it will take on a
permanent set (and the graph will not be a straight line any more). If the load
continues to be increased then the test piece will break.

On a straight line graph this constant (value) is often achieved by selecting any two
points on the graph, as shown in figure 10.
y
In a general sense, with the x and y axes, the relationship of = constant is similarly
x
obtained. This constant is a measure of the slope of the graph and is given the symbol
‘m’.

blank

- 50 -
 Fig. 10 LOAD/EXTENSION GRAPH

Fig. 11 X Y RELATIONSHIP

y
Thus = m or y = mx
x

With straight line graphs that do not pass through the origin, the relationship
y = mx changes to y = mx + c. Where ‘c’ is a value measured on the y-axis, from the
origin to where the graph cuts the y-axis.

Fig. 12 STRAIGHT LINE GRAPH - 1

- 51 -
This relationship is an important one and is called the ‘straight line law’.

Of course not all straight line graphs will have a positive gradient, as the one above, ie
rising from left to right, and not all values of c will be positive. The graph below has a
negative gradient (falling from left to right) and has a negative value of c.

Fig. 13 STRAIGHT LINE GRAPH - 2

As we have seen the straight line graph is a pictorial representation of the equation
y = mx + c (in general terms). Graphs can be plotted for other types of equations, for
example:

Consider 2y – 4x = 6

Rearranging this into the form y = mx + c, we obtain 2y = 4x + 6 (transposing the –4x

to the other side changes it’s sign).

y = 2x + 3 (dividing throughout by 2)

By comparison with the straight line law (y = mx + c) it can be seen that:

(a) the gradient ‘m’ has a value of +2.

and (b) the value of c is +3.

A gradient of 2 would be 2 units vertical for every 1 unit horizontal (figure 14). Thus
the drawing of the graph that represents the equation is made easy, requiring the
location of only two points (figure 15).

Fig. 14 SLOPE

- 52 -
 Fig. 15 GRAPH OF Y = 2X + 3

Lets consider a further example, 9x + 3y = 12

Rearranging 3y = -9x + 12

y = -3x + 4

Again, by comparison with the straight line law y = mx + c. The gradient

= -3 and c = +4

The gradient of –3 is as shown in figure 16 and the complete graph in figure 17.

Fig. 16 NEGATIVE SLOPE

blank

- 53 -
 Fig. 17 GRAPH OF 9X + 3Y = 12

Simultaneous equations of the form y = mx + c may be solved using this graphical

method. In general both equations are plotted on the same graph and where the two
lines intersect is the solution for x and y.

Consider x+y=6 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (1)

and 2x + 3y = 15 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (2)

Rearranging these equations into the form y = mx + c we obtain:

y = –x + 6 (gradient m = –1)
2 2
and y = – x + 5 (gradient m = – )
3 3
2
Gradients of –1 and – are shown in figure 18 and the graphs for both equations are
3
shown in figure 19.

Fig. 18 GRADIENTS OF –1 & –2/3

- 54 -
 Fig. 19 GRAPH OF SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

The point where the two graphs cut each other provides the solution to the
simultaneous equations, ie for this question x = 3 and y = 3.

It is worth studying how coefficients and constants affect the position of the graph
representing algebraic equations, so try activity 10 now.

Activity 10

1. Draw the graphs that represent the following equations, showing clearly
the value of ‘c’ and ‘m’ by first putting them into the form
y = mx + c where necessary.
(a) y=x
(b) y = -x
(c) y = x +1
(d) y = -x – 1
(e) y=x+2
(f) y = ½x + 3
(g) y = 4x + 2
(h) -2x + 8y = 10
2. Using 1cm squared graph paper (provided), solve graphically the
following simultaneous equations.

4x – 3y = 18
x + 2y = -1

- 55 -
Answers to Activity 10

- 56 -
If you feel confident with straight-line graphs lets move on to some that are a little
more complicated. You will probably have realised by now that if x, raised to the
power of 1 (understood but rarely written) occurs in the equation, then the equation is
a linear equation, ie when represented graphically will produce a straight line.

Now if x is replaced by x2 the graph will become curved and the equation is known as
a quadratic equation. Quadratic equations are usually written in the form
ax2 + bx + c = 0. These can be solved graphically and will produce a curve when a
range of values, both negative and positive, are selected for x and plotted against the
corresponding values of y.

Lets consider the quadratic equation y = x2 – 5x + 6.

By giving x values from –3 to +5, the corresponding values of y can be obtained using
the formula. In each case put a value of x into the equation (say –3 for the first
equation) and work out the value of y (in this case 30). Do this for all other values of x
to give all the values of y as shown in the table below.

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Y 30 20 12 6 2 0 0 2 6

Each pair of values is then plotted as a point on a graph (-3 with 30, -2 with 20 etc)
and all the points joined up to form a smooth curve. This process may not be easy as
it may have to be done by hand – or the careful use of French curves (curves that
have a continuous changing radius). Figure 20 results.

Fig. 20 GRAPH OF Y = X2 – 5X + 6

The values of x when y = 0 are +2 and +3 and are called the ‘roots’ of the equation.

The graph forms a curve known as a parabola. It is a shape that frequently occurs in
engineering. Other common engineering situations, such as a gas being compressed
in a cylinder (figure 21), produce curves known as hyperbola when pressure is plotted
against volume.

- 57 -
Figure 21 shows a piston and cylinder arrangement and the graph shows the
relationship of the volume of the cylinder and the pressure. There is a rise in pressure
as the piston compresses the gas in the cylinder with a reduction in volume.

Fig. 21 VOLUME/PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP

Curves known as sine waves represent simple harmonic motion and electrical
alternating currents (ac) and voltage. The sine wave or sine curve (figure 22) is
obtained by calculating the sine of an angle for all angles from zero to 360° and
plotting on a graph. The sine of any angle can be obtained from tables or from a
scientific calculator.

Fig. 22 SINE CURVE

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY

Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that deals primarily with the relationships

between the sides and angles of a triangle. To study these relationships, consider an
arm AB, of unit length, revolving in an anticlockwise direction about point A, which is
fixed (figure 23). As it revolves it can be imagined that a right angled triangle ABC is
formed with the right angle at C.

- 58 -
 Fig. 23 REVOLVING ARM

As the arm revolves the lengths of the sides, BC and AC, change. These lengths, are of
course, related to the angle θ formed at the centre. If this is the included angle, then
the side BC is known as the opposite (to the angle) and the side AC is known as the
adjacent (to the angle). If the arm itself, is considered as the third side of the triangle
then it is called the hypotenuse and is always the longest side.

Three basic relationships are made that involve the angle θ and the sides of the
triangle.

The first is the sine ratio (often shortened to ‘sin’ but still pronounced sine).

opposite BC
Sin θ = =
hypotenuse AB

The second is the cosine ratio (often shortened to cos).

adjacent AC
Cos θ = =
hypotenuse AB

The third ratio is the tangent ratio and is obtained by dividing the sine ratio by the
cosine ratio. (The tangent ratio is often shortened to tan).

opposite
sin θ hypotenuse
Tan θ = =
cos θ adjacent
hypotenuse

opposite BC
= =
adjacent AC

Tables exist for all three ratios between the angles of 0° and 90° and they can also be
found using scientific calculators. The tables are used in a similar way to log tables
although care should be taken with the mean difference columns.

The mean differences for sine and tangent are added but those for cosine are
subtracted. Instructions to this effect are usually written above the mean difference
columns.

- 59 -
As a memory aid the ratios can be remembered as SOH, CAH, TOA.

SOH = Sine = Opposite over Hypotenuse.

CAH = Cosine = Adjacent over Hypotenuse.
TOA = Tangent = Opposite over Adjacent.

Let us consider some of these ratios, for instance consider the arm positions in figure
24 (there should be no need to commit them to memory).

At (a) it is horizontal and θ = 0°, sin = 0, cos = 1 and tan = 0. At (b) it is vertical so θ =
90°, sin = 1, cos = 0 and tan = infinity. At (c) it is 30° so θ = 30°, sin = 0.5, cos = 0.866
and tan = 0.577. At (d) it is 60° to the horizontal so θ = 60°, sin = 0.866, cos = 0.5 and
tan = 1.732. At (e) it is 45° so θ = 45°, sin = 0.707, cos = 0.707 and tan = 1.

Fig. 24 RATIOS OF COMMON ANGLES

Now lets see how these ratios are used.

As an example. All that is known about the right-angled triangle BAC in figure 25, is
the length of the hypotenuse AB and the included angle BAC (= 30°). It is required to
find the lengths of the other sides of the triangle, AC and CB.

Fig. 25 RIGHT ANGLED TRIANGLE

- 60 -
To find side BC use the sine ratio:

opposite
sin θ =
hypotenuse

opp
sin 30° =
20

therefore opp = 20 sin30°

= 20 × 0.5 (from tables)

= 10cm

To find side AC (the adjacent side), the cosine ratio is used.

adjacent
cos θ =
hypotenuse

adjacent
cos 30° =
20

adjacent = 20cos30°

= 20 × 0.866 (from tables)

= 17.32cm

If the third angle is required, this can be calculated, as the sum of the interior angles
of a triangle is always 180°.

∧
Hence ABC = 180° – (90 + 30) = 60°

At this point it is worth noting one of the most important relationships that exists
concerning right angled triangles, as stated in the Pythagoras’ Theorem.

The theorem states that in any right angled triangle, the square on the hypotenuse is
equal to the sum of the square on the other two sides (figure 26).

In general AB2 = BC2 + AC2

The example in figure 26 shows the following relationship:

52 = 32 + 42
25 = 9 + 16

- 61 -
 Fig. 26 PYTHAGORAS

Armed with this and the ‘trig’ ratios it is obvious that many approaches are now
available in solving sides and/or angles for right angled triangles. So now try
Activity 17.

blank

- 62 -
Activity 11

1. From tables (in the text) give the value of:

(a) Tan 90°
(b) Tan 0°
(c) Tan 60°
2. In the triangle ABC shown below calculate the length of (a) AC
and (b) BC

3. Given the length of the two sides in the right angled triangle ABC below,
determine the length of the hypotenuse using Pythagoras’ theorem.

Answers to Activity 11

1. (a) ∞ (infinity)
(b) 0
(c) 1.7321

2. (a) 20cm
(b) 34.64cm

3. 10cm

- 63 -
Before leaving this section you should make sure that you can use trigonometrical
tables. The following examples show their use by using extracts from such tables.

Example 1. Find the sine of 25°20`.

Selecting the table of NATURAL SINES read to 25 degrees 20 minutes.

DIFFERENCE
0` 6` 12` 18` 24` 30` 36` 42` 48` 54` 1` 2` 3` 4` 5`
24°
25° .4226 .4242 .4258 .4274 .4289 .4305 .4321 .4337 .4352 .4368 3 5 8 11 13
26°

Sin 25°20` = 0.4274 + 5

= 0.4279

Example 2. Find the cosine of 42°39`

Selecting the table of NATURAL COSINES

SUBTRACT
0` 6` 12` 18` 24` 30` 36` 42` 48` 54` 1` 2` 3` 4` 5`
41°
42° .7431 .7420 .7408 .7396 .7385 .7373 .7361 .7349 .7337 .7325 2 4 6 8 10
43°

Cos 42°39` = 0.7361 – 6

= 0.7355

Example 3. Find the tangent of 73°50`

Selecting a table of NATURAL TANGENTS

DIFFERENCE
0` 6` 12` 18` 24` 30` 36` 42` 48` 54` 1` 2` 3` 4` 5`
72°
73° 3.2709 .2914 .3122 .3332 .3544 .3759 .3977 .4197 .4420 .4646 36 72 108 144 180
74°

Tan 73°50` = 3.4420 + 72

= 3.4492

POLAR CO-ORDINATES

From our work on graphs we are aware that a point on the graph may be located by
knowing it’s co-ordinates, ie a value for x and a value for y, which would be expressed
as (x,y). These are known as Cartesian or rectangular co-ordinates.

However, there is another way of locating a point on a graph and this uses the
distance (r) from the origin and an angle (θ) measured anticlockwise from the x axis to
the line joined to the point at the origin. Such co-ordinates (r,θ) are known as POLAR
CO-ORDINATES (figure 27).

- 64 -
 Fig. 27 POLAR CO-ORDINATES

It is also useful to be able to convert from polar c-ordinates to rectangular co-

ordinates and vice-versa. Using the trig ratios it can be seen that:

y
sin θ = therefore y = rsinθ
r

x
and cos θ = therefore x = rcosθ
r

y
also tan θ =
x

Example. Express in polar co-ordinate form the point expressed in rectangular co-
ordinates as (4,2). Answer:

Using Pythagoras’ theorem r = 4 2 + 22

= 20 = 4.472

2
tan θ = = 0.5
4

θ = 26.57° (from tangent tables).

Thus in polar co-ordinates the point is located at (4.472, 26.57°).

””””””””””
- 65 -
 Revision Questions

1. The answer to 10 + 6 ÷ 2 – 2 – 3(8 + 6) is:

(a) –26
(b) –31
(c) 58

7 1 21
2. The solution of × ÷ is:
11 3 33
1
(a)
3
147
(b)
1089
29
(c)
47

7
3. expressed as a decimal is:
100

(a) 0.007
(b) 0.0143
(c) 0.07

4. Write to four significant figures 16.0524:

(a) 16.05
(b) 16.052
(c) 16.0524

5. £750 divided into the ratio of 6:4 is:

(a) £624 : £126

(b) £450 : £300
(c) £600 : £150

3
6. expressed as a percentage is:
8

(a) 37.5%
(b) 24%
(c) 26.7%

7. The marks of eight students are as follows: 95, 87,60,73,45,82,65 and 52.
What is the number of students below average?

(a) two
(b) three
(c) four

- 66 -
8. The surface area of a sphere is obtained from the formula:

(a) 4/3πr3
(b) 4πr2
(c) 2πr2 where ‘r’ is the radius

9. The value of 53 is:

(a) 15
(b) 5 1/ 3
(c) 125

5 2
10. 2
+ expressed as a single fraction is:
x x

7
(a)
x3
5 + 2x
(b)
x2
5 + 2x
(c)
x3

11. By solving the equation 5x – 5 = 30, x is equal to:

(a) 7
(b) 5
(c) 30

12. x 5 expressed as a fractional index would be:

1
(a) x5
5
(b) x2
2
(c) x5

13. If 2 = 100.3010 the common logarithm of 2 is:

(a) 0.3010
(b) 2.3010
(c) 0.6020

14. In common logarithmic form, the characteristic of the number 0.00521 is:

(a) 5
(b) 3
(c) 0

15. The equivalent denary number of the binary number 1110 is:

(a) 14
(b) 3
(c) 30
- 67 -
16. Given the Cartesian co-ordinates of (15,4) what is the value of the abscissa?

(a) 15
(b) 4
(c) 19

17. Given that sin θ = 0.8 and cos θ = 0.2, the value of tan θ would be:

(a) 0.16
(b) 4
(c) 0.25

18. The equivalent polar co-ordinates of the Cartesian co-ordinates (2,2) are:

(a) (16, 30°)

(b) ( 8 , 45°)
(c) (4, 45°)

19. To find the vertical height of a triangle you would multiply the area by:

(a) Twice the base length.

(b) Two and divide by the base length.
(c) Half the base length.

20. The shape of the graph that would result from the equation 5x – 3y = 12 would
be a:

(a) Parabola
(b) Hyperbola
(c) Straight line

21. The fraction ¼ expressed as a ratio would be:

(a) 1:0.25
(b) 1:4
(c) 4%

22. 5.645 written correct to one decimal place would be:

(a) 5.6
(b) 6.0
(c) 5.7

23. The solution of (32)3 is:

(a) 36
(b) 35
2
(c) 33

- 68 -
 1 1 1
24. If = + then R equals:
R R1 R 2

1
(a)
R 1R 2
R 1R 2
(b)
R1 + R 2
2
(c)
R1 + R 2

25. What is the denary number 10 expressed in binary form?

(a) 101
(b) 10
(c) 1010

Answers to multiple choice questions.

1. (b)
2. (a)
3. (c)
4. (a)
5. (b)
6. (a)
7. (c)
8. (b)
9. (c)
10. (b)
11. (a)
12. (b)
13. (a)
14. (b)
15. (a)
16. (a)
17. (b)
18. (b)
19. (b)
20. (c)
21. (b)
22. (c)
23. (a)
24. (b)
25. (c)

”””””””””

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GRAPH PAPER FOR STUDENT USE

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APPENDIX - SYLLABUS

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