CHAPTER F O U R

ORTHOGRAPHIC

PROJECTION

OBJECTIVES
After studying the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Recognize and sketch the symbol for third-angle projection.
2. List the six principal views of projection.
3. Sketch the top, front, and right-side views of an object with

normal, inclined, and oblique surfaces.

4. Understand which views show depth in a drawing that shows

top, front, and right-side views.
S. Know the meaning of normal, inclined, and oblique surfaces .
6. Compare and contrast using a CAD program to sketching on a
sheet of paper to create 20 drawing geometry.
7. Know which dimensions transfer between top, front, and right­
side views .
8. Transfer depth between the top and right-side views .
9. Label points where surfaces intersect.

Refer to the follow ing standard:

• ANSI/AS M E Y14.3- 2003 Multiview and Sectional View
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OVERVIEW
A view of an object is called a projection . By project­ oriented in your drawing, and how to represent key
ing multiple views from different directions in a sys­ information such as edges, surfaces, vertices, hidden
tematic way, you can completely describe the shape of lines, centerlines, and other crucial details.
3D objects. The standard published in ANSI/ASME Y14 3M­
There are certain standard practices that you must 1994 is common in the United States where third­
know in order to create sketches and drawings that angle projection is used. Europe, Asia, and many other
can be accurately interpreted. For example, you need places use the first -angle projection system.
to know which views to show, how they should be

Search the following Web sites to learn more about

orthographic projections (geom ancy) and a biogra phy of
Gaspard M ongl (bib mat h) .
• http :/ /wwwgeomancy.org
• http://www.bibmath .net
 UNDERSTANDING PROJECTIONS
In order to make and interpret drawings you need to know how
to create projections and understand the standard arrangement
of views. You also need to be familiar with the geom etry of solid
objects and be able to visualize a 3D object that is represented
in a 20 sketch or drawing. The ability to identify whether sur­
faces are normal , inclined, or oblique in orientation can help you
to visualize objects. Common features such as vertices, edge s.
contours, fillets, holes, and rounds arc shown in a standard way,
which makes drawings simpler to create and helps to prevent
Front view
them from being misinterpreted.
(a) (b)

4.1 Front View of an Object Views of Objects

A photograph shows an object as it appears to the observer, but
not necessarily as it is. It cannot describe the object accurately.
Top no matter what distance or which direction it is taken from , be­
cause it does not show the exact shapes and sizes of the parts. It
would be impos sible to create an accurate three-dimensional
model of an object using only a photograph for reference because
it shows only one view. It is a 20 repre sentation of a 3D object.
Drawings are two dimensional representations as well, bnt
L side Rear unlike photos, they allow you to record sizes and shapes pre­
cisely. In engineering and other fields , a complete and clear
description of the shape and size of an object is necessary to be
sure that it is manufactured exactly as the designer intended. To
provide this information about a 3D object, a number of sys­
tematically arranged views are used .
The system of views is called multiview projection. Each
R side view provides certain definite information. For example, a
front view shows the true shape and size of surfaces that are
Front parallel to the front of the object. An example showing the di­
rection of sight and the resulting front view projection is shown
in Figure 4 .1. Figure 4.2 shows the same part and the six prin­
Bottom
cipal viewing directions, as will be discussed in the next
section. Figure 4.3 shows the same six views of a house .
4.2 The Six Principal Views

Top view

Rearview

or elevation

or plan
Top view
or plan ~
h:=- ..:p
~r--... , ....__ Right side view
Left side view
\\L?~ 1~ - or elevation

~~ )h ~.
or elevation
.dfff.- Front view Rearview Left side view Front view or elevation Rear view

~-<~~ " ~f or elevation or elevation or elevation

Bottom
view Bottom view

4.3 Six Views of a House

 Top view: Right view:
~D e Pt h
T
\j-ht
revolve the object ~ revolve the object
up and toward you ~ J-----J- to bring the right
side towards you ~
Debth r--~.......""",,
-L

4.4 Revolving the Object to Produce Views. You can experience different views by revolving an object, as
shown . (a) First, hold the object in the front view position. (b) To get the top view, tilt the object toward you to
bring the top of the object into your view. (c) To get the right-side view, begin with the object's front view facing you and
revolve it to bring the right side toward you. To see views of the rear, bottom, or right side, you would simply turn the
object to bring those sides toward you.

The Six Standard Views
Any object can be viewed from six
mutually perpendicular directions. as
shown in Figure 4.2. These are called
the six principal views.
You can think of the six views as
what an observer would see by moving
around the object. As shown in Figure 4.3,
the observer can walk around a house and
view its front, sides, and rem', You can
imagine the top view as seen by an ob­
server from an airplane and the hottorn, or
"worm's-eye view," as seen from under­
neath. The term "plan" may also he used
for the top view. The term "elevation" is
used for all views showing the height of
the building , These terms arc regularly
used in architectural drawing and occa­
sionally in other fields.
To make drawings easier to read,
the views are arranged on the paper in a
standard way. The views in Figure 4.3
show the American National Standard
arrangement. The top, front, and hot­
tom views align vertically. The rear,
left-side, front, and right-side views
align horizontally. To draw a view out
of place is a serious error and is gen er­
ally regarded as one of the worst mis­
takes in drawing. See Figure 4.4 for a
demonstration of how to visualize the
different views.
Principal Dimensions
The three principal dimensions of an
object are width, height, and depth
(Figure 4.5). In technical drawing. these
fixed terms are used for dimensions
shown in certain views, regardless of
the shape of the object. The terms
"length" and "thickness" are not used be­
cause they cannot he applied in all case s.
The front view shows only the
height and width of the ohject and not
the depth. In fact. any principal view of
a 3D object shows only two of the three
principal dimensions; the third is found
in an adjacent view . Height is shown in
the rear, left- side. front, and right-side
views. Width is shown in the rear, top,
front, and bottom views. Depth is
shown in the left-side, top, right-side, 4.5 The Principal Dimensions of an
and hottom views. Object
96 CHAPTER 4 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

Projection Method Planeof projection Planeof projection

(frontal) (frontal)
Figure 4.6 shows how to understand the / /
front view of an objec t drawn usin g an
orthographic projection. Imagine a sheet of
glass para llel to the front surfaces of the
object. This represents the plane of projec­
tion. The outline on the plane of projection
shows how thc object appe ars to the
observer. In orthographic projection. rays
(or projec tors) from all points on the edges
or contours of the objec t extend parallel to
Linesof sight Projectors
each other and perpendicular to the plane perpendicular perpendicular to plane
of projection. The word orthographic es­ to plane
(b)
sentially means to draw at right angles. (a)
Examples of top and side views are
shown in Figure 4.7. The plane on which 4.6 Projection of an Object
the front view is projected is called the
frontal plane. The plane upon which the
top view is projected is the horizontal
plane. The plane upon which the side view
Horizontal Line of
is projected is called the profile plane. sight
plane ~
Profile plane ~
~ 1 2
" ,TOP
view 2

Line
of sight

R side
(a) Top view (b) R side view view

4.7 Horizontal and Profile Projection Planes

The Glass Box

Top view of
One way to understand the standard projection line
arrangement of views on the sheet of paper
is to envis ion a glass box. If planes of pro­
jec tion were placed parallel to each princi­
pal face of the object, they wo uld form a
box, as show n in Figure 4.8. The outside
observer would see six standard views of Right side view
the object through the sides of this imagi­
nary glass box.

-----I
I \ " Profile plane
Frontal plane Projection line

4.8 The Glass Box

 To orga nize the views of'a 3D objec t on a nat shee t of
paper, ima gine the six planes of the glass box being unfolded
to lie nat. as show n in Figure 4 .9. Think of all planes except the
rear plane as hinged to the front al plane. T he rea r plane is usu­
ally hinged to the left -side plane. Eac h plane folds out away
from the fronta l plane. T he representation of the hinge lines of
the glass box in a drawin g are known as folding line s. T he po­
sitio ns of these six planes afte r they have been unfold ed are
shown in Figure 4 . 10.
Carefully ide ntify eac h of these planes and co rresponding
views with the planes ' orig ina l pos ition in the glass box .
In Fig ure 4. 10, lines ex tend around the glass box from o ne
view to another on the plan es of proj ection . Th ese are the pro­
je ctors from a point in one view to the same poi nt in another
view. The size and posit ion of the object in the glass box does
not cha nge . Thi s ex plains why the top view is the same width
as tbe front view and why it is place d directly above the front
view. T he same relation exis ts betwee n the front and bo ttom 4.9 Unf olding the Glass Box
views. Therefo re, the front, top , and bott om views all line up
vertica lly and are the same width. The rear, left -side, front , and
right-side views all line up hor izon tally a nd are the same height.
Objects do not cha nge posit ion in the box, so the top view
must be the same distance fro m the foldin g line OZ as the right
side vie w is from the foldin g line OY. T he bottom and left- side
views are the same distance from their respective fold ing lines
as are the right- side and the top views. T he top, right -side, hot­
tOI11, and left-side views are all the same distance from the
respecti ve fold ing lines and sho w the same depth .

-,Depth /
Depth
-, 5
/
-Width
H
Z F 0 W X

)
F P P F
E
F P OJ
'ii)
J:
- --- - - -

Rea r L side Front

I R side
F y
H

/
Depth
-,Depth
/ -,
--rI ~-I r~
I I

Bottom

4.10 The Glass Box Unfolded

 ~
' I - ,

.-l..D2
D, 1
'--A " t lin es om itted
Folding

(b)

4.11 Views Shown With and Without Folding Lines

T he fron t, top , and righ t-side views
of the object show n in the previou s
figures are show n in Figur e 4. 11a, but
instea d of a glass box, fo lding lines are
sho wn be twee n the views. T hese fold ing
lines corres pond to the hinge lines of the
glass box .
Th e HlF foldi ng line , bet ween the
top and front views, is the intersecti on of
the hor izontal and front al plaues. T he
FIP foldi ng line , betwee n the fro nt and
side vie ws . is the inter secti on of the
frontal and profile planes.
W hile yo u sho uld underst and fo ld­
ing lines, particularly because they are
useful in solvi ng probl e ms in descript ive
geo metry, they are usually left off the
drawing , as in Figure 4. 11b . Instead of
using the fo lding lines as reference liues
for mark ing depth measurem ents in the
top and side vie ws , you may use the fro nt
surface (A) of the object as a reference
line. No tc that D I , D2, an d all other
depth measurem ent s correspo nd in the
two views as if fold ing lines were used.
Spacing Between Views
Spac ing bet ween views is mainly a
matt er of appea rance. Views sho uld be
spaced we ll apa rt, but close enoug h to
appear related to eac h othe r. You may
need to leav e space bet wee n the views to
add dimen sion s.
Transferring Depth
Dimensions
Th e depth dim ensions in the top and side
views mu st co rrespond point-for-point.
Wh en usin g CA D or instrume nts, tran s­
fe r the se distances acc ura tel y.
You ca n trans fer dim en sion s be­
tween the top and side vie ws eithe r w ith
divid ers or with a sca le, as sho wn in
Figur es 4. 12a and 4 .12b. Markin g the
distances on a sc rap of paper and usin g it
like a scale to tran sfer the distan ce to the
othe r view is ano the r meth od that works
well when ske tching.
You may find it co nve nient to use a
45° miter line to project dim en sion s
betw een top and side vie ws, as sho wn in
Figu re 4 . 12c. Becau se the miter line is
drawn at 45°, dep ths show n vertically in
the top view Y can be tran sferred to be
show n as hor izontal depths in the side
view X and vice versa.
Measuring from a
Reference Surface
To transfer a dimension from one view to a
related view (a view that shares that
dimension) you can think of measurin g
from the edge view of a plane which shows
on edge in both views as in Figure 4. 13.

Miter line

~'t
...-­

O=EJ I
I 0
III
, 2\­
(b) Scale (e)Mit er line

4.12 Transferring Depth Dimensions

Necessary Views
Figure 4.14 shows that right- and left-side
view s are esse ntially mirror image s of
each other, only with different lines ap­
pearing hidden. Hidden lines use a dashed ­
~
I---'--"'"- -
Plane on edge
- -.- - L- oepthl

02---j
line pattern to represent porti ons of the 011- I
object that are not directl y visible from that
dire ction of sight. Both the right and left
views do not need to be shown, so usuall y
the right- side view is drawn . This is also
true of the top and bottom views , and of the
front and rear view s. The top, front , and
right- side views, arranged togeth er, are
shown in Figure 4. I 5. Thes e are called the Plane on edge / 1
three regular views because they are the
views most frequently used . 4.13 Transferring Depth Dimensions from a Reference Surface
A sketch or drawing should only con ­
tain the views needed to clearl y and COIll­
pletely describe the object. The se
minimally required view s are referred to
as the necessary views. Choose the view s
that have the fewe st hidden lines and
show es sential contours or shapes most
clearly. Compli cated objects may require
more than three view s or speci al view s

~
such as partial view s.
Many obje cts need only two views to
clearly describe their shape. If an object re­ Front
quire s only two view s and the left-side and
right- side views show the object equally
well, use the right-side view. If an object
requires only two views and the top and (a) (b)

bottom views show the object equally

4.14 Opposite Views are Nearly Identical
well , choose the top view. If onl y two
views are necessary and the top view and
right- side view show the object equally
well, choose the combination that fits best
on your paper. Some examples are shown
in Figure 4.16 .

4.15 The Three Regular Views

~
.'
'

I I I

•• t +
I
,

(a) (b ) (c) (d)

4.16 Choice of Views to Fit Paper

100 CHAPTER 4 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROIECTION

0 65 M2 0 x 2. 5 7 Oft en. a single view supplemented

-~--'-
by a not e or by lettered symbo ls is
en ough, as sho wn in Fi gure 4 .17. Objects

IJI-FI=fL ]­
,that can be sho wn using a sing le vie w
usually ha ve a un iform thickness. This

f-------1I ~" "J b:~

connecting rod is an exception. It is po s­
sible to sho w it in a single view due to the

7 8 .0 -------~~
- "8 " '02 wa y it is d imensioned.

STOCK : 6 5 SO C R S Orienta t io n of t he Front

4.17 One-View Drawing of a Connecting Rod View
Four views of a compact automobil e are
sho wn in Figure 4 .18 . The view chosen
for the front view in thi s case is the sid e,
not the front, of the aut omobile.
o Th e front view should sh ow a lar ge
surface of the part parallel to the
front viewing plane.
(Shows shape clearly)
o The front view sho uld show the
shape of the objec t cle arl y.
o Th e front view should show the ob­
j ec t in a usual , sta ble, or opera ting
po siti on , particularl y fo r fam iliar
objec ts.
o When possible. a machine part is
(No ! Show large surfaces (No! Other views show (No! Use a usual, stable drawn in the orientation it occupies
pa rallel to the view) shapes better) or operating position ) in the assembly.
4.18 Choice of Front View o Usually screws. bolt s. sha fts. tub es.
and other elongated part s ar e drawn
in a hori zontal positi on as shown in
Figure 4.19.
ooa. _ _ ~

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.­ CAD software ca n be used to gen er­
1o-.-.... lIO<lI..N)-. . ..
.~ '1D.AAICII_ 1oD
_0V01'M)<-_
ate orthog ra phic view s dire ctl y from a
3D mod el as shown in Figure 4.20. Th e
pictorial view of thi s mod el is sho wn in
Fig ure 4.2 1. Wh en using CAD yo u still
need to se lect a good orientation so that
2' .00 the part sho ws clearly in the front view.
16,00 Th e standard arrangem ent of view s

f-. t-
~6'OOI
1.25 'I I r .63
shown in Figure 4.15 sho uld be used. Do
not be tempted to rearrange the view s of
.E9. - - ­ ,E9. - - - - - ­ -­ .E9 .- - ­ ' E9 ~tD-
your CA D drawing to fit the shee t better,
.-'­ - ­ - -+ - - -­ -------+----­ ' •
.,
. ­ ~6]8 ~ t .50
unless yo u follow the practices outlined
in C hapter 5 for usin g rem ov ed view s.
18.76
25.55
First- and Third-Angle
Projection
As you saw earlier in this chapter. yo u ca n
think of the sys tem of proj ecting views as

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4.19 Long Part Looks Best Oriented with the Long Axis Horizontal on the some other co untries. and first-angle
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 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 101

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4.20 Computer Generated Multiview Drawing from a CAD Model.

Courtesy of Dynojet Research, Inc. Top

Europe and Asia. Difficulty in interpreting the drawing and

manufacturing errors can result when a first-angle drawing is
confused with a third-angle drawing.
Because of the global nature of technical drawings, you
should thoroughly understand both methods. However, since it
can be confusing to try to learn both methods intermixed, this
text pre sent s third-angle projection throughout. When you are
comfortable with creating third-angle projection drawings, re­
" Right side
visit this section. You will see that the two drawing methods are
very similar and you should be able to extend the same skills to
either type of drawing.

Third Angle Projection

Figure 4.22a shows the concept of third-angle orthographic pro ­
jection . To avoid misunderstanding, internat ional projection
symbols have been developed to distinguish between first -an ­
gle and third-angle projections on drawings. The symbol in Top view
Figure 4.22b shows two view s of a truncated cone. You can ex­
amine the arrangement of the views in the symbol to determine
whether first- or third- angle projection was used. On interna­
tional drawings you should be sure to include this symbol.
To understand the two systems, think of the vertical and
horizontal planes of projection, shown in Figure 4.22a, as in­ Front view R side view
definite in extent and intersecting at 90° with each other; the
four angles produced are called the first , second , third , and
fourth angles (similar to naming quadrants on a graph.) If the
object to be drawn is placed below tbe horizontal plane and be­
(b) Third angle project ion symbol
hind the vertical plane, as in the gla ss box you saw earlier, the
object is said to be in the third angle. In third-angle projection,
4.22 Third-Angle Projection
the views are produced as if the observer is outside, looking in.

102 C HAP T E R 4 0 RTHO G RAP HI CPR 0 J EC T I O N
~ - . - - - ---_._----------- - - - - ---
Top L _
view --r:--=-­
1----
I Wasted
I
I space
t--- ­
1----
(a) Crowded arra ng em ent of views
4.23 Position of Side View
Alternate Arrangements for Third-Angle
Projection
Som et imes drawing three view s usin g the co nve ntio na l
arran gem ent wastes space. (Fo r example, see the wid e flat ob­
je ct in Figure 4 .23a .) Using the space on the paper efficiently
may prevent the need to lise a redu ced scale.
Fo r these cases , there is anoth er acc eptable ar range me nt of
third angl e proj ecti on views. Imagin e unfolding the g lass box
as sho wn in Figure 4 .23b. The views are arra nge d differently,
with the right side view ali gned with the top view, but these
views are still usiu g third angle projecti on.
In this case , thi nk of the pro file (side view) hing ed to the
hori zontal plane (top view) inste ad of to the frontal plane (front
view ) so that the side view is besid e the top view wh en
unfolded, as shown in F igur e 4 .23b. Noti ce the side view is
!'otated 90 ° from the orientatio n sho wn iu the side view in
Figure 4. 23a when it is in th is pla cem ent. Note also that you
can now direct ly proje ct the depth dim en sion from the top view
into the side view.
If nec essary. you may place the side view hori zontally
across from the bott om vie w (so the pro file plan e is hiug ed to
the bottom plane of the proj ection ).
Similarl y, the rear view may be pla ced directly above the
top view or under the bott om view. In this ca se , the rear plan e
is co nsidered hinged to the horizontal or bottom plan e and
rota ted to coincide with the frontal plane.
r--­ TIP - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
You can experiment with these alternative arrangements
by trying them out on a paper box.
I
- - -­ ~
. ,
,,-,',
'-- '
Side
view
~--Efj
(b) Approved alternate arrange me nt of views
First-Angle Projection
If the object is placed abo ve the horizontal pla ne and in front of
the verti cal plane, the object is in the first angle. In first-angle
proj ecti on the observe r look s through the objec t to the planes
of project ion. Th e right-sid e view is still obt ained hy lookin g
toward the right side of the object, the front by lookin g toward
the front , and the top by looking do wn toward the top ; but the
views are proje cted fro m the object onto a plane in each case .
The biggest differenc e bet ween third- angl e proj ection and
first-ang le proj ecti on is in how the planes of the glass box are
unfolded, as sho wn in Figure 4.24 . In firs t-ang le projecti on , the
right- side view is to the left o f the front view, and the top view
is below the fro nt vie w, as sho wn.
You sho uld und erstand the difference between the two sys ­
tem s and know the symb ol that is placed on dra win gs to incli­
ca te which has been used . Keep in mind that yo u will use
third-an gle proj ecti on throu ghout this book .
Projection System Drawing Symbol
Th e sy mbol shown in Figure 4 .25 is used ou drawings to indi ­
cate which sys tem of projecti on is used. When ever draw ings
will be used internationally you should include this symbol in
the title block area.

 OR THO G RAP Hie PRO J EC T ION 103 '

Hidden lines
One advantage of orthog raphic views over photograph s is that
each view ca n show the entire objec t from that viewi ng direc­
tion. A photograph shows only the visible surface of an object,
but an ort hogra phic view shows the objec t all the way through ,
as if it were tran sparent.
Thick, dark lines represent features of the object that are
directly vis ible. Dashed lines represent features that would be
hidd en behind other surfaces .
Figure 4. 26 shows a part that has intern al fea tures . When
a 3D view of this model is rendered using a tran sparent mate­
rial, as shown in Figure 4.27, you can see the internal featu res .
Figure 4.28 shows this part from the front as it would be ori­
Horizontal ented in an orthographic drawing. Th e features that are hidden
plane
from view are shown in orthog raphic views using the hidden
(a) line pattern as show n in Figure 4.2 9.
Wheneve r possible, choose views that show fea tures with
visible lines. Use hidden lines where they are needed to make
the drawing clear.
Some practices for repre senting intersecti ons of hidden
lines with other lines may be difficult to follow when using
CA D. In CAD, adju st the line pattern s so that the hidden lines
R side view Front view in yo ur drawing have the bes t appeara nce possible.

Top view

4.26 Shaded Model

with Hidden Features

(b) First ang le pr oject ion symbol

4.24 First-Angle Projection. An object that is

above the horizontal plan e and in front of the
vertical plane is in the first angle. An observer 4.27 Transparent
looks through the object to the planes of Model Showing
projection. Hidden Features

4.28 Front View of

Transparent Model

First Angl e Projection Third Angle Projection

- - -­ -- -­ - -- I I
4.25 Drawing Symbols for First- and Third­ 'rtyI I
I
:1 :
~ iI
I 4.29 Front View
Angle Projection Projection
104 CHAPTER 4 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

CENTERLINES Cylind rical

surface
Circula r
The centerline pattern is used to:
edge
• show the axis of symmetry for a feature
or part
• indicate a path of motion Element
• show the location for bolt circles and I
other circular patterns
The centerline pattern is composed of
J
I
three dashes: one long dash on each end with
a short dash in the middle. In the drawing,
centerlines are shown as thin and hlack. Be­ I I

cause a centerline is not an actual part of the

(a) (b)
object, it extends beyond the symmetric fea­
ture as shown in Figure 4.30 . 4.30 Cylindrical Surfaces
The most common shape that needs a
centerline is a cylindri cal hole. Figure 4.31
shows centerlines in a drawing . In the circu­ Stagger
lar view of a hole, the centerline should form lum p
dashes
visible
a cross to mark the center location. When a on closely
lines
spaced lines
feature is too small for the centerline pattern
to be shown with the long-short-long dash I '\

- ------ --I----.:+~-+"""T""I'""'I
pattern, it is acceptable to use a straight line.
You will learn more about showing hidden
and centerlines in the techniqu e sections.
4.31 Hidden Lines

4.1 HIDDEN LINE TECHNIQUE

You can save time and reduce clutter by
leaving out hidden lines that aren't nec­
essary as long as you are certain that the
remaining lines describe the object
clearly and completely. If you omit un­
necessary hidden lines, add a note to let
the reader know that the lines were left
out intentionally and that it is not an
error in the drawing.
Sketch hidden lines by eye, using
thin dark dashes about 5 m111 long and
spaced ahont I m111 apart. Hidden lines
should be as dark as other lines in the
drawing , but should be thin.
When hidden lines intersect each
other in the drawing, their dashes should
meet. In general, hidden lines should
intersect neatly with visible lines at the
edge of an ohject. Leave gaps when
hidden lines align with a visible lines, so
the visible line's length remains clear.

4.2 PRECEDENCE OF LINES

Visible lines, hidden lines, and center­
lines (which are used to show the axis of
symmetry for contoured shapes, like
holes) often coincide on a drawing.
There are rules for deciding which line to
show. A visible line always takes prece­
dence over and covers up a centerline or
i [1' i

a hidden line when they coincide in a B

4­
view, as shown at Aand B in Figure 4.32 .
A hidden line takes precedence over a C
centerline, as shown at C. At A and C the
ends of the centerline are shown sepa­
rated from the view by short gaps, but I
the centerlin e can be left off entirely.
Figure 4.33 shows example s of correct
Precedence of Lines
and incorrect hidden lines.
 4 .2 PRE C E DEN CEO F LIN E S 105

Correct and incorrect practices for hidden lines

Make a hidden line join When two or three

a visible line, except hidden lines meet at (f)

•
wh en it causes the visi­ a point, join the
ble line to extend too far, dashes, as shown

-{
as shown here. for the bottom of
I I
this drilled hole .
Leave a gap whenever a
hidden line is a continu­
ation of a visible line.
Correct NO!
[illJ II I
I I I
Correct
'1- 1- (
I I I
I I I
NO !

Make hidden lines The same rule of

intersect to for L joining the dashes (f)

•
and T corners . when two or three
hidden lines meet
at a point applies
for the top of this
counter sunk hole.
-
[lliJ{I I I
I I
I
I I I
I
/
I

Correct NO! Correct NO !

Make a hidd en line Hidden lines

"jump" a visible line shou ld not join vis ­
when possible. ible line s when this
makes the visible
line extend too far.

EaEa

Correct Acceptable Correct NO !

Draw parallel hidden

lines so that the dash­
es are staggered, as in
Draw hidden arcs with
the arc joining the
center line , as in upper L
I
/--i- 4- 11­
1

+ I
I
I
_-+- +_
\, ~ _
bricklaying. example . There should
not be a gap between (h) Correct

c=JCJ -?r(~
the arc and the center­
line, as in the example
c=J c=J
Correct NO!
below with the
straightaway joining NO!
the centerline.

4.33 Correct and Incorrect Practices for Hidden Lines

.---- TI P - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Accent the beginning and end of each dash by pressing down on the pencil. Make hidden lines as tidy as you can so they

are easy to interpret. Be sure to make hidden line dashes longer than gaps so they clearly represent lines.

106 CHAPTER 4 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

4.3 CENTERLINES
Centerlines (symbol: ¢ ) are used to
indicate symmetrical axes of objects or
features, bolt circles, and paths of
motion as shown in Figure 4.34 .
Centerlines are useful in dimensioning .
They are not needed 011 unimportant
rounded or filleted corners or on other
shapes that are self-locating.

4.34 Centerlines (d) (e) (I)

4.4 LAYING OUT A DRAWING

If you use 2D CAD, you can move the views later, keeping
them in alignment. so you do not need to give as much atten­
tion to placement of the views in the beginning as if you were
laying them out by hand. When using 3D CAD to generate
views , you should still plan how the sheet will show the infor­
mation clearly and select the necessary view s to best represent
the shape of the part. While you can easily change the scale of
a CAD drawing after it is created, placing the dimensions and
views on the sheet requires some planning. If you consider the
purpose of the drawing, the planned scale, and the space that
will be required for adding notes and dimensions, you will save
the time of having to rearrange their placement later.

LAVING OUT A METRIC THREE-VIEW DRAWING

Determine space desired between (about 11 inches)

• the front and right side views, say 1---- 266 - - - ­

32 mm, C. Add this space to the sum of
the length of the view s that will be '" ~

Q)
~ R side

R side
aligned along the long edge of the sheet. .cu
(l08 + 58 + 32 = 198) To set equal dis- .s
tances to the paper edge, subtract this to- ~194
+C)
I D

il
~r H
Front
tal from the sheet width. then divide the
remaining number by two (266 - 198 =
70, and 70 7 2 = 35). Do the same for the views to be aligned along the
short side of the paper, selecting a desired space between the views.
Space D need not match C. Remember to leave space for dimensions
1-·1'-108
A
- -1-58-1·-1
C A
as you plan your sheet.

-
~ -- -'~1V
, ' ::'\.
2~\
~
6
.-.~.
7 +)h­
-j-+-
8::f=.. _.

flt­
4 -

!
.~

/
.
a I

t
'4"
.us.n r
_
13 -
'
1
&A
It t~t
p6.J7. 18l19-2O
~ .
F'------+--r-,
,
I
I
~r +1J ~ I

Set off vertical and horizontal
spacing measurements with light
tick marks along the edge of the sheet
as shown . Locate eenterlines from these
spacing marks and construct arcs
and circles.
Construct the views, drawing Add hidden lines and darken
horizontal, vertical, and then final lines.
mchned construction, lines in the
order shown above .
 4.5 V I SU A L I Z AT I ON 107

4.5 VISUALIZATION
A long with a basic understanding of the system for projecti ng
views , you must be a hle interpret multiple views to picture the
obje ct that the y show . In add ition to heing an indi spensabl e skill
to help you ca pture and comm unicate your ideas, techn ical
sketching is also a way for others to presen t their ideas to you.
Even ex perienced engi neers, technici ans, and designers
ca n' t always look at a multi view sketch and instantly visualize
the ohject repr esented. You will learn to study the sketch and in­
terpret the lines in a logical way in order to piece together a clea r
idea of the whole. T his process is sometimes called visualization.

Surfaces, Edges, and Corners

To effec tive ly crea te and interpret multi vie w projections, you
4.35 Three Views of an Object. Reprinted by
have to co nsider the clement s tha t make up most so lids .
permission of Pearson Education, Inc. , Upper
Sur fa ces form the boundaries of so lid objec ts. A plane (flat)
Saddle River, Nj.
surface ma y be bound ed by straig ht lines, curves, or a combi­
nation of the two. It takes practice to envision flat representa­
tions as 3D objec ts. Take a moment to examine the views
show n in Figure 4.35 and try to picture the objec t. (See sol ution
on page 120 ).

EV = Edge view
TS =Tru e size
FS = Foreshortened

(c)

4.36 Projections of Surfaces

r-- TI P - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Using Numbers to Identify vertices
Add ligh tly drawn numbers to your sketches to keep track of each vertex on the surface you are considering. Each vertex is
unique on the part, so each num bered vertex will app ear only onc e in each view. Sometimes two vertices will line up one
behind the other as in 4.36a. Wh en this happens you can list them in order with the closest first as in 1, 2 of som etim es it is
useful to put numbers for the closest visible vertex outside th e shape, and the further hidd en vertex inside the shape outline.

4.6 VIEWS OF SURFACES

A plane surface that is perpendi cul ar to a plan e of projection
appears on edge as a straig ht line (Fig ure 4.36a) . If it is paral­
lel to the plane of projection, it appears true size (Fig ure 4. 36b ).
If it is angled to the plane of proj ec tion, it appears foresho rt­
ened or smaller than its actual size (Fig ure 4.36c) . A plane sur­
face alw ays projects either on edge (appea ring as a sing le line )
or as a surface (show ing its characteristic shape) in any view.
It ca n appear foreshortened , but it ca n never appear larger than
its true size in any view.
There are term s used for describing a surface 's orientation
to the plane of proj ection. The three orientat ions that a plane
surface can have to the plane of proj ection are normal, inclined.
and oblique. Unde rstanding these terms will help you pictu re
and describe objec ts.
108 C HAP T E R 4 0 RTHO G RAP H I C r R OJ E C T IO N

4.37 Normal Surfaces. Reprinted 4.38 Inclined Surface. Reprinted with 4.39 Oblique Surface. Reprinted
with permission of Pearson Education. permission of Pearson Education. with permission of Pearson Education.

4.7 NORMAL SURFACES

A normal surface is parallel to a plane of projection. It appears
true size and true shape on the plane to whi ch it is parallel, and
it app ears as a true-length vertical or a horizontal line on adja­
cent planes of projection. Figure 4.37 shows an illustration of
normal surfaces .
Practice identifying normal surfaces on CAD draw ings. You
can download orthographic views of subjects that show many
normal surfaces at the following Web sites:
• http://www.constructionsite.come/harlen/8001-81.htm
• htt p:/ / www.user.mc.net / haw k/cad.h t m

4.8 INCLINED SURFACES 4.9 OBLIQUE SURFACES

An inclined surface is perpendicular to onc plane of projec­
tion , bot inclined (or tipped) to adjacent planes. An inclined
surface proj ects an edge on the plane to which it is perpendicu­
lar. It appears foreshortened on plane s to which it is inclined.
An inclined surface is shown in Figure 4.38 . The degree of
fore shortening is proportional to the inclination. While the sur­
face may not appear true size in any view. it will have the same
characteristic shape and the same number of edg es in the view s
in which you see its shape.
An oblique surface is tipped to all principal planes of projec­
tion. Since it is not perpendicular to any projection plane, it
cannot appear on edge in any standard view. Since it is not par­
allel to any projection plane, it cannot appear true size in any
stand ard view . An oblique surface alw ays appears as a fore ­
shortened sur face in all three standard view s. Figure 4 .39 and
Figure 4.40 show oblique surfaces.

,P

~
H
E D
F A C P
F

C B
(a) (b) (c)

4.40 Oblique Surfaces

4.10 EDGES
Th e inters ection of two plane surfaces of an object produces an
edge, which shows as a straigh t line in the drawing. An edge is
common to two sur faces , forming a boundary for each. If an
edge is perpend icular to a plan e of projecti on , it app ea rs as a
point; otherwi se it appea rs as a line. If it is parall el to the plan e
of proj ection, it shows true len gth . If it is not parall el, it app ears
foresh ort ened . A straight line always proj ects as a straight line
or as a point. The term s normal , inclined, and obl ique describ e
the relati on ship of an ed ge to a plane of proj ect ion .
4.41 Projections of a Normal Edge. Reprinted with
permission of Pearson Education, Inc.
4.11 NORMAL EDGES
A normal edge is a line perp endicul ar to a plane o f proj ection.
It app ears as a point on that plan e of proj ection and as a true­
length line on adjacent plan es of projection (Figure 4.41 ).

4 .12 INCLINED EDGES

An inclined edge is parallel to one plan e of projection but in­
clin ed to adj acent plan es. It app ears as a true-length line on the

~
plane to which it is parallel and as a foreshort en ed lin e on ad­
jacent plan es. The true-l ength view of an incl ined line alwa ys
app ears as an angled line , but the foreshort ened view s appe ar
True length Foreshortened
as e ither verti cal or horizontal lines (Fig ure 4.42).
4.42 Projections of an Inclined Edge. Reprinted
with permission of Pearson Education, Inc.
4.13 OBLIQUE EDGES
An oblique edge is tipped to all plan es of projection. Sinc e it
is not perp endi cular to any proj ecti on plane, it canno t app ear as
a point in any standard view. Sinc e it is not parallel to any pro ­
je ction plan e, it canno t appe ar true length in any standa rd view.
An oblique edge appea rs foresho rtened and as an angled line in
every view (Figure 4 .43).

4.14 PARALLEL EDGES

Wh en edges are parall el to one ano ther on the object. they will
app ear as parallellincs in ever y view, unle ss they align one be­
hind the other. T his inform ati on can be useful wh en you are
laying out a drawing, especiall y if it has a complex inclined or 4.43 Projections of an Oblique Edge. Reprinted
oblique surface that has parallel edges. Figure 4.44 sho ws an with permission of Pearson Education, Inc.
example of parallel lines in drawing views.

~1....__1:'~ 4 1/ ?' ~ 24
«. 2~2

D 0 ~4:O:
1 3 1 3

~ 2~
1 2 2 4
3 4 1 3

(a) Parallel planes intersected (b) Lines 1,2 & 3,4 parallel, (c) Lines 1,2 & 3,4 parallel, (d) Lines 1,2 & 3,4 parallel,
by another plane and parallel to hori zontal & parallel to frontal plane and oblique to all planes
plane

4.44 Parallel Lines

 110 CHA PTER 4 O R THOGRAPHIC P RO JEC T ION

Angle~
true

size 450

(a) Angle in (b) Angle in (c) Angle in (d) Projections of 90° angles
normal plane inclined plane inclined plane appear true size w henever one leg
of the triangle appears true lengt h
4.45 Angle s

4.14 ANGLES
A 90° angle will project as true size. eve n if it is in an
If an angle is in a normal plane (a plane parallel to a plane of
inclined plane, prov ided that one leg of it is a norm al line.
proj ecti on) it will show as true size on the plane of projection
In Figure 4.4 4d the 60° angle is projected oversize and
to which it is para llel (Figure 4.45). If an angle is in an incli necJ
the 30 ° angle is projec ted und ersize. Tr y thi s on yo ur ow n us­
plane. it may be projected ei the r larger or sma ller than the true
ing a 30° or 60° trian gle as a model , or eve n the 900 co rne r of
angle, depencJ ing on its pos ition. T he 45 ° angle is show n over­
a sheet of pape r. Tilt the triang le or pape r to look at an oblique
size in the fro nt view in Fig ure 4.44 b, whil e the 60° ang le is
view .
shown unde rsize in both views in Figure 4.44c.

4 .15 VERTICES
A corner, or point. is the co mmo n intersection of three or more
surfaces. A point appears as a poin t in every view. An exa mple
of a po int on an object is show n in Figure 4.4 6.

4.16 INTERPRETING POINTS

A po int located in a sketch ca n represe nt two thin gs:
• A vertex
4.46 Views of a Point. Reprinted with permission of • The point view of an edge (two vertices tined up one
Pearson Education, Inc. directl y behin d the other)

4.17 INTERPRETING LINES

A straight vis ible or hidden line in a drawin g or sketch has three

-E-=r=<g,,;~
possi ble mea nings, as shown in Figure 4.47:
• A n edge (intersection) between two surfaces
• The edge view of a surface
• The limiting cleme nt of a curved surface
contour\ of surface Sin ce no shadi ng is used o n orthographic views. you must
A B
Intersection

exa mine all the views to determine the meaning of the lines. If
of surfaces
you were to look at only the fro nt and top views in Figure 4.46,
you migh t believe line AS is the edge view of a n at surface
Fro m the right-side view. yo u ca n see tha t there is a cur ved sur­
face on top of the objec t.
D If you look at only the front and side views, yo u might be­
lieve the vertic al line CD is the edge vie w of a plane surface.
4.47 Interpreting Lines The top view revea ls that the line actually represe nts the inter­
sec tion of an inclined surface.

- ---
 4.1 8 S I M I L A R S H A P E S OF S URFAC E S 111

4. 18 SIMILAR SHAPES OF SURFACES

If a nat sur face is viewed from se veral
different positions, ea ch view will show
the sa me number o f sides and a similar
shape . Th is consiste ncy of shapes is useful
in analyz ing view s. For example, the
L shaped sur face shown in Figure 4.48
app ear s L-shaped in every view in which
it does not app ear as a line. A surface will
hav e the sa me number of sides and verti ces
and the same characteri stic shape wh en ­
ever it app ears as a surface. Note how the
U- sh aped, hexagonal , and Tvshaped
surfaces in Figure 4.49 are recognizable in
different views.

~~E70[CJu
4.48 Similar Shapes

b~ 000 D:JtHJ

4.49 Similar Shapes

PRACTICE VISUALIZING

Look at tbe top view (a) and then examine some of the various objects
it could represent. As you practice interpreting views, you w ill get f;WcB
better at visualizing three dimensional objects from projected views. L..ill
Notic e that the top view alone does no t provide all the information, Top view

but it d oes tell you that surfaces a, band c are not in the sa me (a) (b) (c) (d)

plane. There are many po ssibilities beyond those shown .

4 .19 INTERPRETIN G VIEWS

One meth od of inter preting s ketches is to
reverse the mental proc ess used in pro­
jecting them . Th e views of an ang le
brack et are sho wn in Figu re 4 .50a.
The front vie w (Fig ure 4. 50b ) shows
the obj ec t's L-shape, its height and
w idth, and the thickness of its members.
The me anings of the hidd en lines and
ce nterlines are no t yet clear, and you do
not know the object's depth .
The top view (F ig ure 4.50c) sho ws
the de pth and width of the objec t. It al so
makes it clear that the hori zontal feature
is rounded at the rig ht end and has a
round hol e. A hidd en line at the left e nd
indi cat es some kind of slot.
Th e right-side vie w (Figure 4.50d)
show s sho ws the height and depth o f the
o bjec t. It reveals that the left end of the
obj ect has rounded corners at the top and
cl arifies that the hidd en line in the front
view represents an open -end slot in a ve r­
tical po sition .
Each view provides ce rtai n definite
information ab out the shape of the ob ­
ject, and all are ne cessary to vis ua lize it
co mp letel y.

eTop

~~
Front
1 I I

(a )
I I j

R side

(c) (d)
~9ht
side

4.50 Visualizing from Given Views

112 CHAPTE R 4 O R T HOGRAPH I C P R O J E C T ION

READING A DRAWING

Visualize the objec t sho wn by the three view s at left . Sinc e no

lines are curve d, we know that the object is made up of plane
surfaces.

shaded Th e shaded sur face in the top view is a six-sided L-shape. Since you do
surface not see its shape in the front view-and every surface either appe ars as
its shape or as a line-it must be showing on edge as a line in the front
view. The indic ated line in the front view also projects to line up with
the vertices of the L-shaped sur face .
Becaus e we see its shape in the top view and becau se it is an angled line
in the front view, it must be an inclined surface on the object. Thi s means
it will show its foreshortened shape in the side view as well, appearing
L-shap ed and six-sided. The Lshaped surface in the right-sid e view
must be the sam e surface that was shaded in the top view.

In the front view we see the top porti on as a triangular-shaped

surface . but no triangular shapes appear in either the top or the
side view. The triangular surface must appear as a line in the top view
and in the side view.
Sketch projection line s from the vertices of the surface where you see
its shape. The same surface in the other views mu st line up along the
projection lines. In the side view, it must be the line indicated. That ca n
help you to identify it as the middle horizontal line in the top view.

The trapezoidal-shaped sur­ On your own. identify the

face shaded in the front
view is eas y to identify, but there
Shaded
trap ezoidal are no trapezoid s in [he top and
surface side view s. Again the surface must
on edge be on ed ge in the adjacent views .
remaining surfaces using
the sa me reasoning. Which sur ­
faces are inclined , and which
are normal? Are there any
oblique surfaces'?

If you are still havin g trouble visualizing the o bjec t, try picturing the
views as describing tho se portions of a block that will be cut away, as
illu strated below.
 4 . 20 M OD EL S 113

4. 20 MODELS , - - TI P - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Making a Model
O ne of the best aids to visualizat ion is an ac tua l model of the
object. Mo dels don ' t necessaril y need to be made acc urate ly or Try making a soa p or clay mod el from projected view s:
to scale . T hey may be made of any co nve nie nt ma te ria l. such
First, loo k at the three
as model ing cla y, soa p, wood. wire, or St yro foam, or any ma­ view s of the o bjec t . Make
terial that ca n eas ily be shape d, carved. or cut. So me exam ples yo u r block of clay to the
of soa p model s are shown in Figure 4.5 1. same principal dim ension s
(h eight, width , and depth)
Rules for Visualizing From a Drawing: as sh own in the view s.

Putting it all Togethe r

Reading a multi view drawing is like unr avelin g a puzzle. W hen Score lines on the fron tal
yo u inte rpre t a dra wi ng, keep these thin gs in mind : surface of yo ur clay bloc k
Th e clo sest sur face to yo ur view mu st have at least one to corre spond with those
edge showi ng as a visi ble line. shown on th e front view
in the dra wing. Then do
A plane surfu ce has a similar shape in any view or appears
the same for the top and
on edge as a straig ht line.
rig ht-side views.
Lines of the dra wing represent either an intersec tio n be­
tween two surfaces , a sur face perp endicul ar to yo ur view
that appears " on edge." or the limiting e leme nt of a curved
surface . Slice straig ht along eac h line
No two adj acen t areas di vided by a visib le line in an or tho ­ scored on the clay bloc k to get
grap hic view ca n lie on the same plane in the ac tual object. a 3D model that represents the
Areas not adj acent in a vie w may lie in the sa me plane on proj ected views.
the objec t.
If a line appears hidden , a c loser su rface is hidin g it.
Your interpr et ation mu st acco unt for all o f the lines o f the
drawin g. Ever y line has a meaning.

4.51 Soap Models

4.21 PROJECTING A THIRD VIEW

Ordinaril y wh en yo u are designing a produ ct or system, yo u
have a goo d mental picture of what the obje ct yo u are sketch­
ing will look like from different direction s. How ever, skill in
projecting a third view can be useful for two reasons . First ,
views must be shown in alig nment in the drawing and proj ected
correc tly. Secondl y. practi ce in proj ect ing a third view from
two give n views is an excelle nt way to devel op your visu al
abili ties.
Numbe ring the vertices on the object makes projecting a
third view easy. Point s that you number o n the drawing repre­
se nt points on the objec t where three surfaces co me togeth er to
form a vertex (and sometimes a point on a co ntour or the ce n­
ter of a curve) .
On ce yo u have located a poi nt in two draw ing views, its
locat ion in the thi rd view is known . In other word s, if a point is
located in the front and top view. its locat ion in the side view is
a matter of project ing the height of the po int in the glass box
from the front view and the de pth of the point in the glass hox
fro m the top view.
In orde r to number the point s or vertices on the object and
show those numbers in di fferent views, yo u need to be able to
ide ntify surfaces on the ohjec t. Th en proj ect (o r find) the point s
in ea ch new view, surface hy su rface . You can use wh at yo u
know about edges and surfaces to ident ify surfaces on the ob ­
ject wh en yo u dra w vie ws. T his will help you to interp ret draw­
ings created by o thers as well as kn ow how to project your ow n
dra win gs correc tly.
114 CHAPTER 4 OR THO GRA PHI C PROJECTI O N

PROJECTING A THIRD VIEW

Follow the steps to project a third view. Co ntinue on, surface by

Th e figur e below is a pictori al drawing of an o bject to

be s bow n in three views . It has numb ers ident ifying eac h
corne r (ver tex) and letters ide ntify ing some of the major
'1: ':
9
9
10
5
6
5
:I' 1
sur face , until yo u have
num bered all of the vertices in
the give n views as sho wn. Do
not use two different numb ers
s urfaces. You are give n the top and fron t view. You will for the same vertex.
usc point numbers to proje ct the side view.

To number points effec­ 10

tivel y, first identify sur­

9
faces and int erpret the views Try to vis ualize the right-side view you will ere ­
that are given. Start by labelin g ate, T he n co nstruct the right -sid e view point by
visible surfaces whose shapes point. usin g ve ry light lines. Locate point I in the side
are easy to identi fy in one view . 7
view by draw ing a light horizont al projection line fro m
Th en locate the same surface in 2
point I in the front view. Use the edge view o f sur face A
the adjacent view. (T he surfaces in the lop view as a referen ce plan e to tran sfer the depth
on the pictori al object have been 3 locati on for point I to the side view as shown.
labeled to make it eas ier.)
2
Reference 1°IS
7 6 41 Reference
surface" 3 surface y."
Surface A in the 1
9 5 5 1
fro nt view is a nor­ Reference
9 10 6
mal surface. It will appear surface-,..
as a hori zontal line in the 1
top view. The two rectan­ 2
S 4
gular surfaces Band C in

the top view are a normal

surface and an incli ned sur­

face. They will sho w as a Proj ect point s 2, 3, and 4 in a similar way to COI11­

hori zontal line and an

plete the verti cal end surface of the ohjec t.
inclined line in the front

vie w, respectiv ely.

] .;.,.:_ ---=1 ...:.:1'

9 10

J
After identi fying the
sur faces, label the 2
a

I vert ices of a surface that

7
L:S"-- "-' 7 So
9 5 5 has an easily rec ogni zed 3 3 4
sha pe, in this case,
sur face A.
Proj ect the remaining point s usin g the same
7 L....- ----' 3 Label its vert ices with meth od, proceeding surface hy surface .
numbers at each co rne r as
6

:I'
sho wn. If a point is dir ectl y

visible in the view, pla ce the

number outside the corne r.

'°1: I B

If the point is not directl y visible in that view, place the

9
9 10
55
6
5 I
9 10
0 6

num eral inside the corn er. Usin g the sa me numbers to

ide ntify the same points in different v iews will hel p you 2
a
to project known points in two views to unknown pos i­ S 7 So
tion s in a third view. 7 3 4
 4 .22 BECOMING A 3D VISUALIZER 115

PROJECTING A THIRD VIEW

Continue th e steps to project a third

view.
Use the points that you have projected into the side
•
• view to draw the surfaces of the object as in this
example.
If surface A extended between points 1-3-7-9-5 in the front
view where you can see its shape clearly. it will extend be­
tween those same points in every other view.

6 2

'°1:
9
9 10 6
I
55
i. 1 5
9 10
6
"Ship Arriving Tool Late to Save Drowning
Witch" This well-known drawing by artist
Roger Price is an example of how a single
2 orthographic view can be difficult to
interpret. Courtesy of "Droodles, The
8 7 8
7 Classic Collection. II
3' 4

When you connect these points in the side view. they form
a vertical line.
Thi s makes se nse. because A is a normal surface. As is the
rule with normal surfaces. you will see its shape in one
standard view (the front in this case) and it will appear as
a horizontal or vertical line in the other views .
Continue connecting vertices to define the surfaces on the
object. to complete the third view.
Inspect your drawing to see if all of the surfaces are
shown and darken the final lines.
Consider the visibility of surfaces . Surfaces that
are hidden behind other surfaces should be shown with
hidden line s.
6 of views. This clarifies how the views relate to one an­
4.22 BECOMING A 3D
VISUALIZER
To the untrained person, orthographic projections
might not convey the idea of a 3D shape. but with some
practice you should now be able to look at projected
front, top, and right-side views and envision that they
represent the width. depth, and height of an object.
Understanding how points. lines. and surfaces can be
interpreted and how normal. inclined, or oblique sur ­
faces appear from different views helps you interpret
orthographic views to let you form a mental image of
the 3D object they represent.
Having an understanding of how orthographic
views represent an object gives you the power to start
capturing your own 3D concepts on paper in a way that
others can accurately interpret. Keep in mind the idea
of an unfolded "glass box" to explain the arrangement

:I'
other and why you can transfer certain dimensions
'°1: I B from adjacent views. Using standard practices to rep­
9
9 10
5 5 1 5 I
6
resent hidden lines and centerlines helps you further
define surfaces, features. and paths of motion.
6 A .........
9 10
The better you understand the foundation con­
C
1 1 2 cepts of projected views , the more fluent you will be in
2
8 4 7 D 8 the language of 3D representation and the skill of spa­
7 3 3 tial thinking. regardless of whether you sketch by hand
4
or use CAD .
116 CHAPTER 4 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

USING A MITER LINE

Gi ven tw o completed view s Project the rem ainin g points.

yo u can use a miter line to
trans fer the de pths and draw
the side view of the obj ect
shown at left.

-r ~
Dep th

_1 ~
1, 2 2
Locate the miter line a convenient di s­
tance away from the o bject to produce
the desired spacing between views.

-r I
t-------'--1
4,3 41_ Dept h - I
3
Depth
I
_1 '------------L. I
" 45 °
Mitre line
Draw view locating each vertex of sur­
face on the projection line and the miter line.
To mo ve the right- side view to the right or left,
mo ve the top view upward or downward by
moving the miter line clo ser or further from the
view, You don't need to draw co ntinuous line s
between the top and side view s via the miter
line. Instead. make short da she s acro ss the
mit er line and proj ect from these. The 45 °
miter-line meth od is also conv enient for tran s­
Ierring a large number of points, as when plot­
Sket ch light line s proj ecting depth loca­ ting a curve.
tion s for point s to the miter line and then
down into side view as shown.
2 3
4
r
Depth 1
1
81
7
Depth
_1 61
5 4
_1 '-----'-----'
3 1,2 2

7,8
1,2 y y
5
7,8

41_ De pth _1 3

4 3
 - - - -

. -- , CA D at WO R K - - - - . - . .

PLACING VIEWS FROM A 3D MODEL

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Orthographic Views Generated from a CAD Model. Courtesy of Solidworks Corporation.

Once a 3D model is created, most CAD packa ges allow you to whether or not they add useful information . Using CAD
place ortho graphic view s gen erat ed from the model. To place a to place the 3D view s also makes it eas y to show views in
proje cted view is as easy as selec ting the base view and then alignment.
choosing where to place the projected view. You can also USLI­ Most 3D CAD so ftware allows you to configure it to show
ally turn off hidden lines in eac h individual view based on the views in eith er third-angle or first-angl e projection .
 118 CHAPTER 4 ORTHO GRAPHIC P RO JEC TIO N

REVISIONS

ECO # DESCRIPTION APPROVED

4 CHANGEDDEPTH OF C-BORE TO 4.70 / 4.45 M PERKINS

5 CHANGEDDEPTH OF C-BORE TO 5.15 / 5.00 M PERKINS
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NOTES: UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED

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CLASS I HEAVY NICKEL-ACETATE SEAL

3. "Q " INDICATES INCOMING QC INSPECTION

POINTS

UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED

THE INFORMATIONCONTAINEDIN THIS DRAWING ISTHE SOlf PRoPERTY
DIMENSIO NS ARE IN MM or BIG SKY WER TECHNOLOGIES. INC. ANY REPRODUCTION IN MRI
ORWHOLEWITHOUTTHE wRmENPERMISSION OFBIGSKY WER
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DRAWN M PERKINS 3/15/0 2 RETAINER. MIRROR

MAT'L 6061 -T6 AL CHECKED L M cNEIL 3/5/03

FINISH SEE NOTE 2

ISSUED

DO NOT SCALE DRAWING

Top, Front and Bottom Views of a Mirror Retainer. The bottom view is shown for ease of dimensioning.
Courtesy of Big Sky Laser.
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o rr o s i a o a
120 CHAPTER 4 ORTHOGRAPHI C PROJECTION

KEY WORDS
Multiview Projection Third-Angle Projection
Principal View s First-Angle Projection
Width Projection Symbols
Height Surfaces
Depth Plane
Key to Figure 4.35
Plane of Projection Normal Surface
Normal Surfaces: A, 0, E, H,
Orthographic Inclined Surface Inclined Surfaces: B, C, Oblique
Frontal Planc Oblique Surface Surfaces: F
Horizontal Plan e Edge
Profile Plane Normal Edge
Gla ss Box Inclined Edge
Folding Lines Oblique Edge
Three Regular Views Point
Necessary View s

CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW QUESTIONS

• Orthographic drawings are the result of projecting the im ­
age of a 3D object onto one of six standard planes of pro ­
jection. The six standard views are often thought of as an
unfolded glass box . The arrangement of the view s in rela ­
tion to one ano ther is important. Views must project to line
up with adjacent views. so that any point in one view proj­
ect s to line up with that same point in the adjacent view .
The standard arrangement of view s shows the top , front ,
and right side of the object.
• Visuali zation is an important skill for engineers. You can
build your visual abilities through practice and through un­
derstanding terms describing objects. For example, surfaces
can be normal. inclined. or oblique. Normal surfaces appear
true size in one principal view and as an edge in the other
two principal views. Inclined surfaces appear as an edge
view in one of the three principal views . Oblique surfaces
do not appear as an edge view in any of the principal views.
• Choice of scale is important for representing objects
clearly on the drawing sheet.
• Hidden lines are used to show the intersections of surfaces,
surfaces that appear on edge, and the limit s of curved sur­
faces that are hidden from the viewing direction.
• Centerlines are used to show the axis of symme try for fea­
tures, paths of mot ion, and to indicate the arrangement for
circular patterns.
• Creating CAD drawings involves applying the same con­
cepts as paper drawing. The main difference is that draw­
ing geometry is stored more accurate ly using a computer
than in any hand drawing. CAD drawing geometry can be
reused in many ways and plotted to any scale as necessary.
I. Sketch the symbol for third -angle projection.
2. List the six principal views of projection.
3. Sketch the top, front. and right-side views of an object of
your design having normal, inclined, and oblique surfaces.
4. In a drawing that shows the top. front. and right-side view ,
whi ch two views show depth? Which view shows depth
verti cally on the sheet? Whi ch view show s depth horizon­
tally on the drawing sheet?
5. What is the definition of a normal surface ? An inclined
surface ? An oblique surface?
6. What are three similarities between using a CAD program to
create 20 drawing geometry and sketching on a sheet of pa­
per? What are three differences?
7. What dimensions are the same between the top and front
view: width . height, or depth? Between the front and right­
side view ? Between the top and right -side view ?
8. List two ways of transfcrring depth between the top and
right-side view s,
9. If surface A contained corners 1,2,3.4. and surface B con­
tained corners 3,4,5,6, what is the name of the line where
surfaces A and 8 intersect?
 M U LT I V l EW PRO J E C T I ON E X ER e I 5 E 5 121

MULTIVIEW PROJECTION
EXERCISES

The follow ing proj ec ts are intended to be sketched free hand

on gra ph paper or plain paper. Sheet layout s suc h as A- L
found in the back of this book. are suggested. but yo ur in­
structor may prefer a different shee t size or arrange ment.
Use metric or decimal inch as assigned. Th e mark s shown
on so me exe rcises indicate rough unit s of ei ther 112" and
1/4" (o r IO mm and 5 mill). All holes are through holes. If
dimen sion s are required. study Ch apter 9. Use metric or
decimal inch dimen sions if assig ned by the instru ctor.

•.
,
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BASE I PU BLICK. JOHN a. I ,'. ,' I 8- ' -02 I A-6 I 3

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( Exampleof one sketched solutionper8.5 x 11 sheet U

S E.CT R DR AWN BY : ' ,J o E. BLOW I S<AT 20 I S ~ «T 2

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Exam ple Exe rcise

122 CHAPTER 4 O R T HOGR A PHIC P R O J E C TI O N

EXERCISES

r~,
2.50

11.1: -
~l <,

Exercise 4 .] Space r. Draw and sketch all

necessa ry views.

Exercise 4.2 Slide . Draw and sketch all necessary views.

 EX ERe I SE S 123

Exercise 4 .3 Wall bracket

Create a drawing with the necessary orthographic views for the wall bracket.

R.039
BEND RADIUS

.173

2.00

4 X . 13 X .13 CHAMFER
NOTES:
1. ALL DIMENSIONS IN INCHES
2. PART ISSYMMETRIC IN 2 AXIS
3. MAKE FROM .060' THICK SHEET METAL

Exercise 4.4 Sheet metal bracket

Create a drawing the necessary orthographic views for the sheet metal bracket.

124 CHAPTER 4 O R T HOG RA P HIC PR OJ E C TIO N

Exercise 4.5 Multi view Sketching Probl ems . Sketch necessary orthogra phic views on graph pap er or plain paper, showing e ither
one or two probl em s per shee t as assigned by your instructor. The se exercises are designed to fit on 8 ~ x II " size A, or metric A4
paper. The units shown may be either .500 " and .250" or 10 111m and 5 111111 . All holes are through hole s.
 EX E Re I 5 E 5 125

D J c;=;] 2 [[] 3- 0=0 4

[g0EJjtJB~LbB
Probs 1- 5 : No inclined CY oblique surfaces.

E}J 5 ~ 6 G=J 7 [ 0 8

BJ[]UO[i]u[:3[J

CJ CJ CD LJ 9 10 11 12

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E7 13 E3 14 [7 15 LJ 16

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~ 17 [J 18 C 19 D 20

tsJD U~ Q:[] ~O

B 21 0 22 CJj 23 D 24

@--g ~ fB (Q; -6j E=Jffl

Exercise 4.6 Missing-Line Sketching Problems . ( I) Sketch given views on graph paper or plain paper showing either one or two
problems per sheet as assigned by yo ur instructor. These exerci ses are designed to lit on 8 ~ x I I" size A or metric A4 paper.
Add missing lines. The squares may be either .250" or 5 mm. See instructions on page 150. (2) Sketch in isometric on isometric
paper or in oblique on cross-section paper. if assigned.
126 CHAPTER 4 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

25

, CrtIEa

~t[B~

28
Add R S
29
Add RS
30
Add RS
31
Add RS
32 33

Exercise 4.7 Third-View Sketching Problems. Sketch the given view s and add the missing views as indicated on graph paper
or plain paper. These exercises are designed to fit on 8 ~ x II " size A or metric A4 paper. The squares may be either .25" or
5 mm . The given views are either front and right-side views or front and top views. Hidden holes with centerlines are drilled
holes.
 EX ER e I SE S 127

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L.­ - - - 117 - - - ---I - 'l-8--42- -1I '

Exercise 4.8 Mis sing-Vi ew Probl em s. Sketch or draw the given views. and add the missing view. If dimen sion s are required.
study Chapter 9. These exercis es are design ed to fit on 8 ~ x I I" size A or metri c A4 paper. Use metric or dec imal inch dimen­
sions as assigned by the instructor. Mo ve dimensions to betier locations where possible. In Exercises 1-5. all surfaces are nor­
mal surfaces .
128 CHAPTER 4 O R T H OG R A P H IC P RO J EC T ION

2
I_OC ATER V -S TO P

~ET~

,J
- - - - --, l/t'ew rie re I

3 - - - - 120 - - - - -1 4

,!~ -@J
BRACK ET A NGL E:
B L OCK
L'':I ~T~
I H +-+-++-+-+--,'--'- - --'
L ;

,­
2.12
I
1 1~...L..i'-'------''-'--~
i--- - - 4. 56 - - - .

5 l 16 ~- 72 ----j
.J_ 6
T
58
I

II It II
I
I
16

2'6
W EDG E
B LOCK

I METRIC :
L H F INGER

--l
11-- 58
I
--1 -1 16
I
¢12

--.­
I
T
50
2"1~ _==~ = = )
l !--_ _
~--- 1 1 8 ---..,
...L--_ _ ~ -L L...- --../_ ----'-

7 r- 2 .75 ­ l
(S urfac es A& B p arallel)
-L
r
8 r
I -
- - - 121----,- --;
T
I
1.38 .:?51
2.00
,
A DJ U STE:R
TI---'-+-'-n
54
A NGL E
SLI DE
6 METRIC
!---1-W---:'.-:::....- - - - - - - l
I

1 1-22~ r­ 59

Exercise 4 .9 Missing-View Problem s. Sketch or draw the given view s, and add the missing view. These exe rcises are
designed to fit on 8 ~ x II " size A or metri c A4 paper. If dimension s arc requi red, study Chap ter 9. Use metric or decim al
inch dimension s as assigned by the instru ctor. Move dimensions to better locations where poss ible.
 EX ER e I S E S 129

2
/ , 2 X ¢ 13
HOLDER BLOCK
I I I ./ 2X R
Complete th e GU IDE
--(} - .62 ­ ~'5- top view F INGER
1.2 5 I ' I 16 I LMETRIC
I
J - !--r-­ - 1-"­ r . ~ 16 ~ ..
.75 - , .-=­ ----,!:-.--f-­ -f-­ ,­
22
_1­
L.. 35- ­
L I
L3 I t I

~4. S0---~ + t - -­ - - 121- - ---1

3 4
ANGLE GUIDE
ME- RIC' B RA CKET
~ -............

Add a ll
missing l ines

120 - CView hem T .2 5

5 6
ROD HEAD ECCENT RIC

Add fop view [METR IC] A d d t op vie w

2 ~45·CHAMF
BOTH ENDS
I

t~
13 ~ ... I
1 I

~Add t op vIew
7 WE DGE
8 HOLDER
A d d fop vie w
~ME R~

.7 0
.38
.30
I ~=---_--'====~
1--­ - -5.0 0 - - - -1 ;-­ - - 11 4­ - - -1

Exercise 4.10 Missing-View Problems. Sketch or draw the given views, and add the missing view. Thes e exercises are designed
to fit on 8 ~ x 11" size A or metric A4 paper. If dimen sion s are required, study Chapter 9. Use metric or decimal inch dim ensions
as assigned by the instructor. Move dimensions to hetter locations where possible.
 CHAPTER 4 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

Exercise 4.11 Safety Key. Draw the necessary Exercise 4 . 12 Tool Holder. Draw the neces­
orthographic views on 8 ~ x II" size A or met­ sary orthographic views on 8 ~ x II " size A or
ric A4 paper. Use a title block or title strip as as­ metric A4 paper. Use a title block or title strip as
signed by your instructor. assigned by your instructor.

CR S
I REQD

Exercise 4. 13 Index Feed. Draw the necessary

orthographic views on 8 ~ x II" size A or
metric A4 paper. Use a title block or title strip as
ass igned by your instructor.