Constant and sliding-pressure options for new

supercritical plants
02/15/2006 | rian P. Vitalis, Riley Power Inc., a subsidiary of Babcock Power Inc.

The drivers may be different, but the destination—higher efficiency—is the same worldwide. As a
primary component of current efforts to reduce the environmental impact of burning low-cost coal,
new and more-efficient steam plant designs are once again being considered by the U.S. generation
industry.

Even though current market conditions in the U.S. tend to favor diversification of technologies and
operating capabilities, the lowest-cost generating units will still be first in line for dispatching. The
present and expected makeup of regional generating fleets in the U.S. generally indicate that any
modern supercritical, coal-fired unit will have a significant fuel cost advantage and could be
dispatched at costs approaching those of current nuclear plants.

Although seasonal and daily load reductions could be plausible in the long term, much of any new
supercritical coal-fired capacity will not be frequently shut down or continually load-cycled. This is
one major difference between the market conditions and practices of the U.S. and Europe, and a
main reason why it should not be assumed that the pressure-control mode and technology prevalent
in Europe should be embodied in the bulk of new unit construction in the U.S.

To advance plant efficiencies to 40% (HHV) and beyond, supercritical steam conditions (higher than
3,208 psia) are employed. Operation at these pressures, where there is no phase distinction
between liquid and vapor, requires unique steam generator design features, most notably in furnace
circuitry and components. Within this category of steam generators, the design is also very much
influenced by the intended operating mode: constant pressure or sliding pressure (see box).

Beyond the apparent differences in component and construction design features, the choice of mode
has broader implications, for example, on overall furnace sizing differences and materials options.
These less-discussed differences can have a noticeable impact on cost and can become even more
significant as steam conditions are gradually advanced toward ultra-supercritical conditions in pursuit
of greater efficiency and reduced emissions. Plant designers should factor these steam generator
design implications into their strategic planning and their development of specifications for new
plants to arrive at the most cost-effective generation portfolio for particular U.S. and regional market
environments.

Steam pressure vs. load

Constant pressure implies stable pressure of the steam generator and main steam line over the
unit’s load range. Meanwhile, the basic nature of a simple, rotating turbine is to require less pressure
as load and flow rate are reduced, and if the main steam pressure is limited to only that required for
each load, this mode is referred to as pure sliding pressure.

However, when we speak generally of "sliding pressure," we often mean modified sliding pressure,
as shown in Figure 1. This mode has a limited amount of pressure throttling to provide a modest
amount of fast-response load reserve. A unit under constant pressure will have significant load
reserve at any reduced load, due to its significant pressure throttling or the availability of admission
valve(s). By opening the throttle valve or an admission valve, the pressure in the turbine and steam
generator move toward equalization. The sudden reduction of pressure in the steam generator
prompts an instantaneous expulsion of steam mass due to the increase in a specific volume of
steam within the confines of the system, and it provides a temporary load increase even before the
fuel-handling and -firing system can be loaded to support any sustained higher load.

graph

1. Steam generator operating modes

Pure sliding-pressure operation does not offer this kind of load or frequency response and is
therefore generally not practiced. Note that for a typical 3,800-psia steam pressure rating, a
(modified) sliding-pressure steam generator operates at subcritical pressures at all loads below
about 73% maximum continuous rating (MCR).

Design for sliding pressure

Market conditions in Europe and Japan—including shutdowns and rapid and continual load ramping
of supercritical coal-fired plants—foster priorities and operating practices different from those in the
U.S. In part, these conditions have justified the development and expense of sliding-pressure
designs overseas. For instance, to handle rapid and continual load ramping (which is of particular
value due to high local fuel costs), turbine temperature transients are minimized by operating in
sliding-pressure mode. This requires certain drastic adaptations of the steam generator design,
which—for current steam conditions—are apparently worth the investment given European and
Japanese market realities (except that the implied low capacity factor means a longer payback
period for the higher capital investment).

In sliding-pressure operation, because the steam generator operates under both supercritical and
subcritical conditions as load is varied, the furnace must be designed to accommodate both single-
and two-phase fluid flow. Because the two pressure regimes and the wide variation in fluid specific
volume make continual forced recirculation rather impractical, it is appropriate to use a once-through
design, in which flow rate through the furnace is directly proportional to load. Steam flow rate and
velocity through the furnace tubes are critical for cooling the tubes, and with flow proportional to
load, low-load operation presents a challenge to proper furnace tube cooling.
Further, in sliding-pressure mode at low load, the fluid is subcritical, posing specific challenges to
heat transfer and tube cooling. Both departure from nucleate boiling and steam dry-out carry the
potential for elevated tube metal temperatures. These conditions are mitigated or avoided, in part, by
providing sufficient steam mass flow density at subcritical, once-through, low loads. Designing for
proper steam cooling effect at low loads produces very high steam mass flow density and pressure
drop at full load in a once-through design. Therefore, specifying minimum once-through load should
be done with careful consideration of its consequences at full load. Below the minimum design once-
through flow rate, recirculation pumps are usually used to protect the furnace.

Sufficiently high steam mass flow density at once-through loads is provided by use of a small flow
area. Because the furnace perimeter has certain minimum limitations due to conventional firing
configurations and slag control, the challenge of providing a small flow area to envelop a relatively
large furnace enclosure requires special plumbing arrangements. But because sliding pressure
operation involves two-phase fluid over most of the load range, multiple furnace passes with up-
down-up flow direction become difficult to manage, making a single upward flow progression
preferable.

The upward flow progression in a single pass is achieved with fewer tubes by laying the wall tubes
down at a low inclination angle rather than hanging the tubes vertically. A given transverse
dimension of a furnace wall normally covered by nine vertical tubes and membrane fins can be
spanned by only three inclined tubes of the same tube and membrane size (Figure 2). Although the
furnace cross-section remains rectangular, this inclined tube arrangement is often called a "spiral"
design due to the overall progression of each tube upward and around the furnace. The tube
inclination angle is typically 10 to 20 degrees from horizontal, so the tube length is three to five times
greater than the vertical distance gained.

Source: Riley Power Inc.

2. Spiral arrangement. The furnace circuit flow area and the tube count can be reduced by inclining
the wall tubing at a low angle.

Special internally rifled tubing could allow a lower steam mass flow density and the use of vertical
tubes, but the range of operating conditions under sliding-pressure operation would make such a
system design quite challenging.
Figure 3 is an example of a sliding-pressure unit designed for Powder River Basin (PRB) coal, with a
spiral arrangement in the high heat-flux zone of the lower furnace. Although much experience has
been gained and many lessons learned from such a furnace wall design, it remains a complicated
structure to design, fabricate, erect, and maintain. Once the tubes rise into a sufficiently low heat-flux
zone, the expensive arrangement is terminated and a transition is made to vertical tubes in the
upper furnace. The transition is commonly accomplished by a ring of forgings around the perimeter
of the furnace and an external ring mixing header. The walls composed of inclined tubes are not self-
supporting, so an "exoskeleton" support system is used, consisting of vertical support straps and
load transfer by many welded lugs over the wall surfaces.

Source: Riley Power Inc.

3. Sliding-pressure, once-through furnace construction. The lower walls with inclined tubing are
supported by external support straps.

Constant pressure

Two-phase heat transfer crises are not encountered in furnaces maintained at supercritical pressure,
so constant-pressure operation allows greater flexibility and the use of a conventional design. By
employing furnace recirculation smoothly over the entire operating range, low load does not dictate
furnace design. As a result, a furnace can be designed with:

 Vertical, self-supporting, smooth-bore tubes.

 A single upward pass with the same simple construction as a conventional drum unit.
 No intermediate mixing or external piping.
Figure 4 shows a 400-MW Riley Power recirculating supercritical unit with these features. It has
powered South Carolina Electric & Gas Co.’s Wateree Station Units 1 and 2 since 1970.
Source: Riley Power Inc.

4. Constant-pressure, recirculating unit. This design features vertical, self-supporting, smooth-bore

furnace tubing in a single upward pass.

Beyond plumbing

In addition to incorporating these constructional differences, a sliding-pressure furnace (evaporator

system) must be sized to yield a greater outlet enthalpy (energy content of steam), so it requires a
greater heat duty and furnace size.

To illustrate this, Figure 5 compares the steam generator operating conditions and trends on an
enthalpy-pressure steam diagram. This steam property diagram is used to trace the rising heat
content (enthalpy) of the steam as it flows and loses pressure through the boiler (the series of circled
data markers and dashed lines at right).
Source: Riley Power Inc.

5. Enthalpy-pressure steam diagram. In sliding-pressure operation, the furnace must absorb

proportionately as much energy as a typical, 1,500-psia industrial boiler.

Sliding-pressure operation during load reductions moves the furnace operation into the subcritical,
two-phase region at loads below 70% to 75% MCR. The nearly horizontal dashed lines in Figure 5
indicate the trend of furnace inlet and outlet conditions over the load range. To accommodate the
two-phase boiling condition of steam, there are specific steamside conditions that must be fulfilled at
the minimum once-through load, and so it is sometimes low load—rather than full load—that
determines the heat duty and size of the furnace or evaporator system. Those conditions are:

 The economizer size is limited to prevent steaming within it.

 The furnace size must be sufficient to produce dry steam in once-through mode to prevent
introduction of liquid water into superheaters.
These requirements are indicated in Figure 5 at the 35% of MCR load condition. A furnace sized for
a certain minimum once-through load produces the indicated conditions at full load, including the
total heating duty (the arrow on the far right) and the furnace outlet enthalpy and temperature.
Accordingly, the selection of minimum once-through load has consequences not only on the steam
flow area and the full-load pressure drop; it also drives the overall furnace size and operating steam
and metal temperatures. It is interesting to note that the sliding-pressure furnace is essentially sized
as one would size the evaporator system for a 1,500-psia industrial unit. Often, these medium-
pressure industrial units employ a boiler bank or convective evaporator section to supplement the
boiling heat duty while limiting the furnace size.

In contrast, constant-pressure units stay in the supercritical, single-phase region and therefore have
no such waterside sizing criterion. Figure 6 shows in blue the operating conditions of the constant-
pressure, Riley Power recirculating unit over the same load range. The usual gas-side furnace sizing
criteria that apply to any operating pressure unit—such as firing arrangement requirements,
residence time and burnout, emissions considerations, and exit gas temperature limits for slagging
and fouling control—will dictate. Depending on the particular fuel and fireside conditions, the
constant-pressure furnace could be sized as indicated (the large blue arrow). Note that, although the
sliding-pressure furnace must be sized like an industrial boiler, the constant-pressure furnace can be
sized as one would a high-pressure subcritical, natural-circulation unit (Figure 7).
Source: Riley Power Inc.

6. Constant- and sliding-pressure operating trends. The constant-pressure furnace size is not driven
by the significant heat of vaporization at lower pressures.

graph

Source: Riley Power Inc.

7. Relative furnace heating duty. Although the sliding-pressure furnace must be sized like an
industrial boiler, the constant-pressure furnace can be sized as one would expect for a high-pressure
subcritical, natural-circulation unit.

But unlike natural-circulation units, the supercritical unit remains flexible in its performance, because
it does not have a fixed evaporator (furnace) end point. Evaporative and superheat duty can be
shifted between furnace and convective surfaces in response to changes in fuel, slagging, or other
conditions. This feature is not limited to Benson, Sulzer, or other once-through designs, and the
constant-pressure design retains this flexibility at all loads. By comparison, a sliding-pressure unit
has less flexibility as pressure is reduced and the margin above saturation (two-phase boiling)
decreases.
Nearly as important as this size difference, the furnace outlet temperature of the constant-pressure
unit can be significantly less than that from the sliding-pressure unit (due to this enthalpy difference).
Furthermore, the thermodynamics of steam are such that, at the greater outlet enthalpy level
required for the sliding-pressure unit, temperature is much more sensitive to differences in enthalpy
between furnace tubes. This increased sensitivity is partly mitigated by the heat absorption
equalizing effect of the spiral tube arrangement around the sliding-pressure furnace.

These are especially important points for extension to ultra-supercritical conditions, where it is found
that sliding-pressure designs will have very high furnace outlet temperatures (approaching 1,000F to
1,100F) and may require advanced alloys for the furnace walls. The various materials research
efforts being conducted worldwide for ultra-supercritical plants are struggling with this issue, partly
due to the exclusive assumption of sliding pressure. Though the furnace outlet temperature with
constant pressure also continues to rise, the potential reduction compared to sliding pressure
becomes greater—and furnace materials ooptions are comparatively broader—as the final steam
conditions are advanced.

A visible difference

A constant-pressure furnace designed according to the universal gas-side criteria results in a

furnace outlet steam enthalpy of about 1,050 Btu/lb (at 760F). The equivalent sliding-pressure
furnace is about 20% larger in order to yield the required outlet enthalpy of 1,150 Btu/lb (at 790 to
800F). Because the larger furnace is effectively accomplishing some of the superheat duty at higher
loads, the radiant superheater can be reduced accordingly, but the net cost increase is positive.
Additionally, a particular advantage of the Riley Power recirculating supercritical design is that it
does not require intermediate furnace mixing. That not only reduces associated piping costs but also
permits the use of a close-coupled backpass and eliminates the tunnel section that would otherwise
be required.

The primary differences in furnace construction and size are estimated to result in 4% to 5% greater
overall boiler cost for sliding-pressure designs. For a 650-MW unit, this differential amounts to about
$6 million to $7 million, including materials and erection. This cost differential is due to only the tube
circuitry, intimate support, erection, and overall furnace size differences. It does not include further
potential differences in tube materials; tunnel pass elimination; cycling design requirements; and
steel, building, or foundation differences—all of which lead to even greater costs for a typical sliding-
pressure design.

Is it worth it?

Can the additional capital investment in a sliding-pressure plant be recovered by operating cost
advantages in the U.S. market? With uncertainty about long-range load dispatching, the efficiency of
new plants at low loads becomes important for considering a plant’s payback of capital and, indeed,
for dispatch competition. Many people have been under the impression that sliding-pressure units
offer better efficiency (lower heat rate) than constant-pressure units at reduced loads. The extent to
which this is true depends greatly on the turbine control mode, and so a closer review of heat rate
differentials is in order.

Though old, throttle-control turbines at constant pressure indeed suffer in efficiency at part loads,
comparative data from turbine manufacturers indicate that modern, nozzle-control turbines at
constant pressure have nearly the same efficiency as at sliding pressure across the load range. This
is mainly due to the sequential use of the turbine admission valves, and at several loads (the "valve
best points") the remaining valves are fully open and there is negligible throttling loss before the first
turbine stage.

Using differential heat rate data from turbine manufacturers, heat rates were evaluated for both
constant- and sliding-pressure systems, with both throttle and nozzle control. Plant operating costs
were evaluated at all loads for each turbine control mode using a detailed economic model including
fuel, reagent, and emissions costs according to typical U.S. conditions.

Even assuming a nightly load reduction to 35% to 80% every night over an entire 20-year evaluation
period, the present value of the difference in operating costs is calculated to be only $0.5 million for
PRB coal firing and less than $1 million for high-sulfur bituminous coal firing of a modern 650-MW
unit with nozzle control. As Figure 8 makes clear, the present value of 20 years of operating cost
savings is not nearly enough to justify the additional $6 million to $7 million capital investment
required for the sliding-pressure steam generator. Meanwhile, the sliding-pressure turbine cost
savings are reportedly estimated to be on the order of $0.5 million and would be partly offset by any
additional feedwater heater and steam generator costs to handle sliding pressure and any
associated load and pressure cycling.

Source: Riley Power Inc.

8. Investment payback. The chart shows simple 20-year present value of operating cost savings with
sliding pressure on a 650-MW unit. Additional cost for a sliding-pressure steam generator is
estimated as $6 million to $7 million.

For cycling service?

For completeness, it should be recognized that continual load cycling and fast start-up abilities may
be of particular value for a limited number of units in each region of the U.S., though the value is
relatively difficult to quantify. Sliding pressure may be justified and viable where such features are
especially valued, but development of these abilities with constant-pressure systems should not be
overlooked. Nevertheless, it is widely believed that any continual load cycling of new coal units,
beyond controlled nightly reductions, will be for a relatively small proportion, to be strategically
determined for each grid region. The significant operating cost advantage of new supercritical units
will give these units preference for load dispatch.

In addition, America’s installed natural gas–fired capacity—now almost 200 GW—represents a

sizeable sunk investment in generation that is well suited for peaking duty. Though it is expensive to
operate, this capacity is available to meet peak loads and is relatively easy to start up and shut
down. This creates a different environment from that of the 1970s, when such peaking capacity was
not available and utilities were caught not being able to easily cycle their baseloaded units when a
recession hit. Independent power producers considering new coal-fired units should recognize that—
armed with economically efficient generation fired by coal rather than by natural gas—their role in
contributing to the regional grid load and their priority on the dispatch curve will be entirely different,
moving from the peaking role into the baseload and average-load roles.

Regarding start-up, it should be noted that not all of the start-up systems and features employed on
modern generating units around the world are inherently or exclusively applicable to sliding-pressure
operation, and the expense of once-through sliding-pressure steam generators need not be
assumed to gain such features. The Riley Power recirculating units in operation since 1970 already
prove the successful application of recirculation to facilitate start-up of a constant-pressure
supercritical unit. For the future generation of coal-fired plants in the U.S., other modern start-up
features can be developed and integrated with appropriate plant designs for the range of expected
domestic needs, for both constant- and sliding-pressure applications.
Boiler-Tuning Basics, Part I
03/01/2009 | Tim Leopold
On my first project as a combustion control engineer, I was responsible for loop checks and for watching
the experts tune the system controls. The first loop I tried to tune solo was the drum level control. At that
time the trend-tune program defaulted to a 2-minute window, and no one bothered to mention to me that
the proper time span to tune drum level control to is 20 to 30 minutes. I also zoomed in on the drum level,
which has a normal range of ±15 inches, though my trend range was ±3 inches. Finally, I did not know
that drum level can be a very "noisy" signal, so the hours I spent trying to tune out that noise were
wasted.
Eventually, I got the bright idea to add a little derivative to the loop control. In the time it took to program
0.01 as the derivative gain and then immediately remove it, the boiler tripped. Thus began my career in
boiler tuning.
In the 20-plus years since my inauspicious debut, I’ve had the opportunity to successfully tune hundreds
of boilers, new and old, that needed either a control loop tweak or a complete overhaul.
Many inexperienced engineers and technicians approach boiler tuning with a heavy hand and little insight
into the inner workings of individual control loops, how highly interconnected they are with other loops in
the boiler system, or what change should be expected from the physical equipment the loops are to
control. My purpose in writing this article is to explore these fundamentals and share my experiences. I
trust these insights will be of value to the power industry and specifically to those who want to tune boilers
for rock-solid stability yet agility when responding to process changes.

What Constitutes Good Control?

Every boiler ever built has its own set of peculiarities. Even two boilers built at the same plant at the same
time to the same drawings will have unique quirks and special tuning issues. I begin with a description of
the various boiler and subsystem control loops before moving to good boiler-tuning practices that are
sufficiently robust to accommodate even minute differences between what should be identical boilers.
From a pure controls perspective, the most important goal is to tune for repeatability of a value, not the
actual value itself. We do not care that there are exactly 352,576.5 pph of fuel going into the furnace; we
only care that, for a given fuel master demand, we get the same amount every time. There will be process
variation, of course, but the goal is to tune the controls to keep that variation as small as possible and
then tune for accuracy.
Boiler control processes are where I will begin. Additional control functions outside the furnace will be
explored in Part II in a future issue of POWER.

Operator Controls
The operator’s window into the control system is referred to as a master or as a hand/auto station, control
station, or operator station. The station is the operator interface to a given control loop and is typically a
switch located on the control panel in older plants or accessible from the operator’s keyboard in those
equipped with all-digital controls. Typically, the control station allows the operator to move between
manual and automatic modes of operation. All of the control loops discussed in this article combine to
form the set of controls that manage the key boiler operating functions.
When a control loop is placed in manual mode, the operator will have direct control of the output. In
automatic mode the output is modulated by the proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller. In
automatic mode the operator usually has some control over the set point or operating point of the
process, either directly or through the use of a bias signal. Occasionally, as in primary airflow control, the
set point is displayed either on the controller located on the control panel or on the computer screen
graphic display. Cascade mode is a subset of the automatic mode in which the operator turns over control
of the set point to the master, whose internal logic generates the set point. Usually, there is some digital
logic that requires the station to be interlocked to manual, as well as control output tracking and set point
tracking.

Furnace Pressure Control

Furnace pressure control is a fairly simple loop, but it’s also one that has important safety implications.
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) codes, such as NFPA 85: Boiler and Combustion
Systems Hazards Code, are dedicated to fire and furnace explosion and implosion protection. Before you
begin tuning a boiler, you must read and understand the NFPA codes that apply to your boiler.
Balanced draft boilers use induced draft (ID) fans and/or their inlet dampers to control boiler furnace
pressure. The typical control system has one controller that compares the difference between the furnace
pressure and the furnace pressure set point that uses a feedforward signal usually based on forced draft
(FD) fan master output. The output from the controller typically is fed through an ID fan master control
station. Smaller units may have a single ID fan, but larger units usually have two or more ID fans. The
most I have seen is eight ID fans for a single unit. In this case, the output from the control loop or master
is distributed to the individual fan control stations.
The NFPA also requires some additional logic for the furnace pressure control loop to ensure adequate
operating safety margins. There should be high and low furnace pressure logic to block the ID fan from
increasing or decreasing speed, as is appropriate. For example, because this fan sucks flue gas out of
the furnace, on a high furnace pressure signal the fan should be blocked from decreasing speed and on a
low furnace pressure signal it should be blocked from increasing speed. On a very negative furnace
pressure signal, there should be an override that closes the ID inlet damper or decreases ID fan speed.
The settings of these signals are determined by the boiler and fan supplier during the design of the plant.
Also, on a main fuel trip (MFT) there should be MFT kicker logic. An MFT occurs when the burner
management system detects a dangerous condition and shuts down the boiler by securing the fuel per
NFPA and boiler manufacturer requirements. When fuel is removed, the flame within the furnace
collapses violently, which can cause a lot of wear and tear on the boiler and related boiler equipment. It
also presents the very real danger of an implosion. The MFT kicker should immediately reduce the control
output to the fan(s) proportional to the load being carried at the time of the MFT and then release the
device back to normal operation.
I am constantly amazed at how well furnace pressure can be controlled, especially when you consider the
amount of fuel and air being injected into a ball of fire many stories tall and the ferocious and chaotic
environment inside a boiler. The fact that a well-tuned system can maintain furnace pressure to – 0.5
inches H2O is remarkable.
A typical mistake made by boilers tuners is the use of very fast integral action to the furnace pressure
controller. Furnace pressure changes quickly, but not instantaneously, so consider the size of your
furnace and the amount of duct work between the furnace and the fans as capacitance in the system,
because air is compressible. I recommend restraint when tuning furnace pressure when it comes to
adding integral gain. Interestingly, the feedforward for almost every boiler is on the order of 0% to 100%
in, and 0% to 80% out.
The trends in the following figures show what you should expect to see from your furnace pressure
control. The plant from which these data were taken uses both fan inlet damper position and fan speed to
control furnace pressure. Figure 1 illustrates an ID fan tuning trend and the reaction of the ID fans and the
furnace pressure to a change in set point.
1. Blowing hot air. Induced draft fans are used to control furnace pressure and primary
combustion airflow. In this test, induced draft fan and furnace pressure respond to a step increase in
furnace pressure set point. Source: Tim Leopold

Airflow and Oxygen Trim

Forced draft fans are typically placed in automatic after the ID fan master is placed in automatic. Usually,
the FD fan master is only controlling airflow; however, some boilers are designed with secondary airflow
dampers that control the airflow. In this case the FD fan will control the secondary air duct pressure to the
dampers (Figure 2).

2. Favorite trend. I typically monitor airflow, O2 content in the flue gas, and furnace pressure control
when I tune airflow. The particular response of those variables was observed after a 20% load increase in
coordinated control mode. Source: Tim Leopold
Air and, consequently, O2 control are critical to the safe and efficient operation of a boiler. The airflow
signal is normally measured in terms of a percentage and is usually not available in volumetric or mass
flow units. The obvious question is, "Percentage of what?" The answer is the percentage of airflow that is
available from a given fan or system of fans. The actual measured pounds per hour of air does not matter,
because air is free, and the final arbiter of proper airflow is the O 2 content in the flue gas (gases leaving
the furnace). Because of variations in coal heat content, air temperature, and combustion conditions
inside a boiler, we ensure proper burning by measuring the amount of oxygen content in the flue gas,
commonly referred to simply as O2.
Pulverized coal has an interesting property: Under certain conditions of heat in a low-oxygen atmosphere,
coal can self-ignite or even explode. Therefore, personnel safety and equipment protection require boiler
operators to maintain excess O2 in the flue gas. The amount of excess O2 is determined by the load on
the plant and the type and design of boiler. Typically, the load signal used is steam flow. In any coal-fired
boiler, airflow demand is a function of the boiler firing rate or boiler demand (Figure 3). Gas- and oil-fired
boilers have lower O2requirements at higher loads.

3. Extra air is a good thing. A typical O2 set point curve for a coal-fired plant is a function of
boiler firing rate or boiler demand. Minimum levels of air are required so that reducing conditions in the
furnace never occur. Source: Tim Leopold
The term cross-limiting refers to the function of fuel flow that limits the decrease in air demand and the
function of airflow that limits the increase in fuel demand. When decreasing load, the air demand follows
its lag function and the fuel demand follows the boiler demand to ensure that there is always more air
than fuel going into a furnace so explosive conditions never develop inside the furnace. When increasing
load, the opposite is true. This is truly an elegant piece of logic.
The output from the boiler master is the boiler demand. Cross-limited air demand is developed by
choosing the highest of four calculated values: boiler demand function, the lag of the boiler demand
signal, a minimum value (per the boiler manufacturer under the NFPA codes), and a function of the actual
fuel flow. The cross-limited fuel demand is selected from the least of three signals: boiler demand
function, a lag of boiler demand, and a function of actual airflow. When load is increased, air demand
follows the function of the boiler demand and the fuel demand follows its lag of the boiler demand.
To develop the air demand for your boiler, hold your O2 trim controller in manual at 50% output. At a low,
medium, and high load, place your FD fan master, or secondary airflow dampers (if the boiler is so
equipped), and your fuel master in manual. Then manipulate the airflow until you find the amount that
satisfies your O2 set point requirement, using stack opacity as a reality check on the O2 set point. Next,
manipulate the airflow characterization curve as required to allow the air demand to equal or slightly
exceed the fuel flow or boiler demand. Record the airflow required for that fuel flow and then move on to
another fuel flow setting. Three points should be sufficient for a good airflow curve.
Typically, the airflow measurement is a differential pressure taken in air ductwork and requires a square
root in order to make it linear. Ensure that your signal is also temperature-compensated. Each boiler
should have an airflow characterization curve that should be a virtual straight line. If it isn’t, I would be
concerned about unexplained "correction factors" or "magic numbers" that should not be necessary.
Next, the characterized airflow is multiplied against a function of the O2 trim controller. The O2trim control
loop uses the set point curve, discussed above, plus an operator bias to calculate an O 2 set point for
various loads. This set point is compared with the O2 content of the flue gas used by the control system. It
is best to have several O2 measurements because of striations or variations of temperature and oxygen
that are present across the stack cross-section.
Different plants use different measurement schemes, selecting the average, the median, or the lowest
measurement to control. O2 trim is designed to be a steady state trim of the airflow. If you, or your tuner,
are trying to control airflow with the trim controller, stop it. The O 2 trim controller should be mostly integral
action with very little proportional and no derivative gain. Your time is better spent reworking your air
demand curves or airflow characterization than attempting to tune the airflow using the O 2 controls.
The output from the O2 trim control station then goes through a function generator such that a 0% to
100% input signal equals a 0.8 to 1.2 output signal. This value is then multiplied against the characterized
airflow. This means that the O2 trim controller can adjust the airflow ±20%. In some extreme cases this
amount can be varied, but for most boilers ±20% is more than sufficient. The final result is a signal
referred to as "O2 trimmed airflow." This value is then used by the airflow controller to modulate the ID
fans or dampers.
Because O2 trim control uses a primarily integral-only controller, it does not have the dynamic capabilities
of most controllers. As a result, there are times when the controller should not be allowed the full range of
control. At low loads, typically less than 30% to 35%, output from the O2 trim controller should not be
allowed to go below 50% but should be limited to some minimum setting so that an air-rich atmosphere is
always maintained in the furnace.
Also, when the lag function in the cross-limited air demand is driving air demand, airflow will lag behind.
That is, the air will remain elevated for a period of time as the load, and the fuel flow, decreases. As a
result, oxygen in the flue gas will spike up. If the O2 trim controller is not limited, the controls would see
the O2 go higher than the set point and start cranking, cranking, cranking down. Then, when the load gets
to where the operators have set it and the fuel flow is no longer decreasing, airflow demand will catch up
with the boiler demand, and the O2 will quickly begin to fall. The controller will see the O 2 falling and
begin to crank up. But because there is very little, or no, proportional gain, it will take a long time to bring
the air back. This can result in an unsafe or, at the least, a nerve-wracking condition.
The NFPA requires some additional logic for the airflow control loop. There should be high and low
furnace pressure logic to block the airflow from increasing or decreasing, as is appropriate. Because this
fan forces air into the furnace, on high furnace pressure, the fan should be blocked from increasing
speed; on a low furnace pressure signal, it should be blocked from decreasing.
Also, on an MFT there are NFPA and boiler manufacturer requirements that must be considered. One
important consideration is the need to hold the air in place for a time after an MFT or if the airflow should
drop very low during or just after a trip. The dampers should go to a full open position shortly after the loss
of all FD or ID fans (providing a natural draft air path). Moreover, in the typical boiler air control system, if
the ID fan is placed in manual, then the FD fan is normally forced to manual. If the FD fan is in manual,
then O2 trim is forced to manual.

Drum Level and Feedwater Control

Feedwater is fed into the drum in a typical subcritical pulverized coal – fired drum boiler via either a series
of valves in parallel with a series of constant-pressure feedwater pumps or a battery of variable-speed
feedwater pumps. If the feedwater level in the drum goes too high, water can become entrained in the
steam going to the turbine and can cause catastrophic results. If the drum feedwater level goes too low,
the drum itself can become overheated, possibly resulting in catastrophe.
Feedwater (and drum level) control has two modes of automatic operation: single- and three-element
control. The drum level set point for both modes is set by the operator. In single-element control the
difference between the drum level and the drum level set point provides the error signal that is used by
the single-element controller to control the rate of water entering the drum by modulating the feedwater
flow control valve. Three-element control governs the three variables, or elements, that are used in this
control scheme: drum level, steam flow, and feedwater flow.
Drum level control uses a cascaded controller scheme consisting of an outer and an inner controller.
Steam flow is an indication of the rate at which water is being removed from the drum. A function of steam
flow is used as a feedforward to the outer controller. The drum level error is then operated on by the outer
controller. The output of this controller is the feedwater flow set point. The difference between this set
point and the feedwater flow is then operated on by the inner controller. The output from this controller is
then used to modulate the feedwater flow control valve.
Three-element control is much more stable and robust than single-element control. The reason that we
use single-element control at all has to do with the nature of the instrumentation. Typically, feedwater
flow, and occasionally steam flow, is developed by using a flow-measuring device like an orifice plate or a
flow nozzle, where flow rate is proportional to differential pressure. However, a problem occurs at low flow
rates (low boiler load), where differential pressures are not as solidly proportional as we would like and
therefore untrustworthy for boiler control. Consequently, single-element control is used at low loads.
A well-tuned drum level control can be placed in automatic as soon as a pump is started. By the time
steam flow has passed 25% of the total range, we can consider steam flow signals to be reliable. That is
a good point at which to switch to three-element control.
There really is not much in the way of manual interlocks or control tracking when it comes to the drum
level loop. If the drum level signal or the feedwater flow valve control output goes out of range, or no
pump is running, this station is normally locked to manual mode. That’s about it.
Normally, tuning for the single-element controller consists of big proportional and very small integral gain
settings. Tuning for the three-element controller has some additional requirements. As in any cascaded
loop, it is absolutely crucial that the inner controller be tuned as tightly as time will allow. The inner
controller, the feedwater controller in this case, must have an integral action that is faster than that of the
outer, or drum level, controller (Figure 4). This is true for all cascade loops.
4. Rapid responder. A typical coal-fire boiler with a properly tuned drum level control will respond
very quickly to a substantial load increase (top) or load decrease (bottom). The dynamic response of
other key variables in boiler drum level control system is also illustrated. Source: Tim Leopold
You may notice that as the load decreases, the drum level sags downward, and as the load increases,
the drum level is slightly elevated. This means that the steam flow feedforward is just a tad too strong. A
minute adjustment to the feedforward signal can add stability to the control loop (Figure 5).

5. Small is big. A small increase in the feedforward signal added more stability to the drum level
controls. Only very small incremental changes in feedforward should be made when tuning drum level
controls. Source: Tim Leopold

Superheat Temperature Control

Superheated steam temperature control is very straightforward. Normally, steam leaves the drum and
travels through a primary superheater(s) before entering the desuperheater, where attemperating water is
mixed with the steam to modulate its temperature before it enters the next superheater section. After the
steam passes through that superheater, the outlet temperature is measured.
If the inlet temperature to the superheater is a measured variable, the preferred method of control is a
cascaded loop. In this case the outer controller uses the superheater outlet temperature as the process
variable. The output from the outer controller is the inlet temperature set point. The output from the inner
controller is spray water demand. If the superheater outlet temperature is the only available
measurement, then we are forced to use a single-element control loop. In either case, it is important that
the controls are equipped with a feedforward signal.
A variety of signals can be used for the superheater temperature control feedforward. Usually, the boiler
demand is a good starting point for the feedforward because this signal anticipates the measured
temperature signals. My experience is that the boiler demand usually has a well-defined relationship with
the superheater temperature.
Other measured variables are available to supply the feedforward signal. Throttle pressure is usually used
in tandem with the throttle pressure set point as an indication of over- or underfiring of the boiler, but
throttle pressure is transient in nature. Airflow versus fuel flow or steam flow may be used in the same
way. The ratio of fuel flow to the top mill versus the other mills is a good indicator of the changing
dynamics in the boiler, especially if the boiler is large and has many burner levels. In this case it is a good
rule of thumb to think of the top elevations as affecting temperature more than pressure, and the lower
elevations as affecting steam pressure more than temperature. Finally, the reheater temperature control
affects the superheater temperature to a greater or lesser degree, depending on the type of boiler
manufacturer and its method of control.
The feedforward signal development may include both static and dynamic functionality. The static cases
are basically a function of the variable that you are using. Dynamic feedforward refers to a derivative kick
based on the movement of the chosen variable. For example, the ratio of airflow to steam flow might be
used as an indicator of the boiler’s movement up or down, and the feedforward then can be manipulated
accordingly.
Patience is a virtue when tuning these feedforwards, because steam temperature processes may have
long time constants.

Deaerator Level Control

It is often possible to use a three- element controller for deaerator level control. Whereas the drum level
controls use drum level, steam flow, and feedwater flow, the three-element controller for the deaerator
uses deaerator level, feedwater flow, and condensate flow.
It is usually not necessary to provide adaptive tuning for this control loop, but do add it if possible.

Reheat Temperature Control

It is an interesting fact that superheater spray adds to the efficiency of a unit but reheater spray flow
decreases the unit’s efficiency. Maximum boiler efficiency is always the goal, so boiler manufacturers
have developed alternative approaches to control reheat steam temperature.
Babcock & Wilcox uses a gas recirculation fan to move flue gas from the outlet of the boiler back into the
furnace, either directly or through the secondary air wind box. More recirculation yields higher furnace
temperature and, therefore, higher steam temperatures. Combustion Engineering, now Alstom Power, is
famous for its tangential, tilting burner design that can move the furnace fireball vertically to control steam
temperatures. Foster Wheeler boilers use a superheat/reheat gas bypass damper to shunt flue gas to the
appropriate gas pass ducts to control reheat temperature. Spray valves are also used in each design,
although the reheat temperature set point to the spray valve controller is usually several degrees higher to
keep the reheater spray to a minimum.
The setup for the reheat temperature spray valve control is the same as that for the superheat
temperature control: two valves (modulating valve and block valve), an attemperator or desuperheater,
and a reheater section. However, reheat steam temperature control is not normally a cascaded loop.
Assuming that the primary method of control (gas recirculating fan, tilting burners, or bypass damper) is
operating, the sprays are held in reserve. The operator-adjustable set point is used directly by the primary
control mechanism. A sliding bias is added to the set point before it is sent to the spray controller. Usually,
the spray set point is set higher than the primary reheat temperature control set point before the sprays
are enabled, to reduce the reheater spray flow.
Part II will look at fuel flow control, pulverizer air control, and overall plant control options such as boiler-
and turbine-following modes and plant coordinated control.
–Tim Leopold (tim.leopold@hotmail.com) is a field service engineer with ABB and has more than 20
years’ experience tuning controls on power plants around the world. His book You Can Tune a Boiler But
You Can’t Tuna Fish is slated for publication in March.
Boiler-Tuning Basics, Part II
05/01/2009 | Tim Leopold, ABB Inc.
Boilers have enormous thermal mass and are relatively slow to react. Turbines are nimble and quickly
answer an operator’s command. Coordinating an entire plant requires an intimate knowledge of both
systems and selecting the right logic tools to bring them together.
The front end, in the jargon of the power plant controls engineer, consists of the boiler master and turbine
master. As explained in Part I of this two-part series, the operator’s window into the control system is
referred to as a station or master, and it provides the operator interface for a given control loop. Access to
that loop is typically from a switch or hand station located on the control panel in older plants or, more
commonly, the operator’s keyboard in plants fortunate enough to be equipped with digital controls.
The best case is when both the turbine and boiler masters are in the distributed control system (DCS).
But this is not always the case. We often find that only the boiler controls have been upgraded. In such
cases it is important that the DCS be able to interface with the existing turbine controls if you want to take
advantage of the DCS’s full abilities. Options for tuning the entire plant are limited with a DCS that
includes the boiler master but lacks a communications link with the turbine controls.

Boiler Control Options

Boiler tuning is something of a balancing act. Feedwater enters the boiler through a series of low- and
high-pressure steam heaters into the drum. The water then journeys through the water walls of the
furnace and absorbs heat until steam is formed in the main steam drum.
This steam then enters the main steam line and passes through a series of superheaters and
desuperheaters until it finally ends up at the turbine governor and/or stop valves. The boiler controls the
turbine throttle pressure by modulating the boiler-firing rate. This means that the amount of fuel and air
that is going into the furnace is increased or decreased depending on whether the turbine requires more
or less steam pressure.
There are four usual modes of operation in the world of drum boilers: base mode, boiler-following mode,
turbine-following mode, and coordinated control (Table 1). Each of these operating modes is described in
the following paragraphs.

Table 1. Options for plant boiler control. Source: Tim Leopold

In general, the boiler master will be either in auto or manual control mode. The turbine is another matter.
Turbine controls generally have a number of stand-alone loops — such as megawatt, pressure, valve
position, or speed — which are control loops that do not respond to the DCS turbine master. If the turbine
controls are not looking at the front end, then as far as the front end is concerned, the turbine is in manual
control. For our purposes, "auto" under the turbine master heading in Table 1 means the front end is
controlling the turbine governor valves.
Base Mode. In this mode, there is no automatic response to changes in main steam or throttle pressure or
megawatt setpoint by the front-end controllers. An operator’s steady hand is required to make the final
boiler control adjustments. The turbine might be in one of its own stand-alone loops, but the turbine
master has no control of the plant. Many plants operate in this or a similar mode prior to upgrading their
turbine controls to a DCS.
Boiler-Following Mode. In this mode of operation, the boiler master is in automatic and the turbine is not.
This is an automatic control loop, controlling steam pressure. Depending on the boiler, it can be well
controlled. Generally, this is the loosest of the three typical automatic front-end modes of operation
(Figure 1).

1. Loaded questions. A typical boiler-following response following a setpoint change. Source: Tim Leopold
This is one of those loops that uses the dreaded derivative gain. The proportional gain is normally pretty
high, the integral action slow, and the derivative is absolutely a must. The real keys to tuning the front end
are a few simple concepts. For example, don’t add to an upset; that is, don’t have any of your gains
disproportionately high. We use the derivative because we are trying to anticipate the steam pressure
deviation.
The feedforward signal is an important part of this control loop and is often referred to as target steam
flow. Target steam flow is the measured steam flow multiplied by the ratio of throttle pressure setpoint to
throttle pressure. Typically, there is a function generator designed such that 0% to 100% of the input
signal is proportional to a 0% to 100 % output signal. The nicely dynamic nature of the ratio helps the
boiler master move in the right direction. Additional "kickers" may also be available. One option is a
throttle pressure setpoint kicker that adds a little to the feedforward signal if the setpoint is changed. The
derivative action of the controller also acts as a kicker.
Turbine-Following Mode. In many ways, this is my favorite plant operating mode, because it is the easiest
to tune. It also offers a good strong safety net to operators in times of crisis. In turbine-following mode the
boiler master is in manual and the turbine master is in automatic mode. The turbine master controls
throttle pressure by modulating the turbine governor valves. Megawatts are then produced in the
generator and pushed to the grid as a function of the boiler load.
Compared to the slow and sometimes lumbering response of the boiler, turbine response is usually fast
and agile. Proportional gains are usually moderately large, and the integral action can be quite fast.
Although adaptive tuning is possible, there usually isn’t the need for this; many units use only one value
for the proportional and/or the integral gain. Also, the need for a feedforward is minimal. The turbine
governor valves operate as one large pressure control valve that can easily control throttle pressure when
the control loops are well-tuned.
Turbine-following mode is also a favorite among operators. If the plant is in coordinated mode, and the
unit starts to go out of control for almost any reason, operators simply have to put the boiler master into
manual. Immediately, the controls will automatically default to turbine-following mode. The valves open or
close, as necessary to control the main steam pressure. Meanwhile, because the firing rate has steadied,
the boiler controls will soon settle out.
Figure 2 plots the data taken during start-up of a 320-MW power plant. At the lower left corner you can
see where the valve transfer occurred. The valve transfer is a process in which the turbine, upon start-up,
transfers control from the stop valve to the governor valve. There are actually two sets of valves in the
main steam line before the turbine: the main stop valve and the governor valves. The next interesting
point on this figure is the area that I call the "disturbing delta." There was a long period, during this load
ramp, when the difference (delta), between the throttle pressure and the throttle pressure setpoint was
virtually constant (the purple and green lines at the first vertical white dotted line). When we expect the
controls to act one way, and they do not, it’s time to investigate.

2. Under control. Taming a control loop that switched out the integral control on a load ramp. Source: Tim Leopold
During a change in unit load demand, in coordinated control, it is common practice to decrease the
integral action of the boiler master controller to zero until the load ramp is finished. This strategy was used
in all of the turbine and boiler master controller modes. This is a case where more is definitely not better;
there was a touch of feedforward, based on boiler demand, substantial proportional gain, and no integral
gain when I looked at the logic. Tuned as it was, the error signal between throttle pressure and throttle
pressure setpoint will never go away.
I tried to tune out the error without success. Although the error decreased, as shown in Figure 2, we soon
discovered that the tuning was not robust under all operating conditions. We then downloaded the
necessary logic modifications (the second white vertical dotted line), causing the unit to drop out of
turbine-following and into base load mode, and then back again. When the logic modifications were
made, from that point on (the third white vertical dotted line) you can see good control of the throttle
pressure. This is how a well-tuned turbine-following mode should operate.

Coordinated Control Mode

Coordinated front-end control was developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s to answer a long-standing
controls problem. For many years, the turbine master controlled megawatt production and the boiler
master controlled boiler pressure, and the two never spoke to one another. To this day there are plants
that continue to operate with no coordination between the boiler and turbine masters.
For example, if we are in boiler-following mode, the boiler master is controlling pressure, and if the turbine
master uses the local megawatt control loop, we have what I refer to as an "anti-coordinated" mode. If the
megawatts increase, the turbine valves must close down. When the valves close, the throttle pressure
rises. When the pressure rises, the boiler master must decrease. When the boiler decreases, the
megawatts drop and the turbine valves must open up, dropping pressure, raising the boiler demand,
increasing megawatts, closing the valves… and around we go again, and will hopelessly oscillate this way
forever.
Enter boiler-turbine coordinated control, where the boiler master and turbine master are used in tandem
to control both megawatt production and throttle pressure. In coordinated mode the boiler master looks
mostly at the throttle pressure error and just a tiny bit of megawatt error. The turbine, on the other hand
looks mostly at the megawatt error with some throttle pressure error. The expert tuning the controls must
then decide how much of each to use. The rule of thumb, as passed on to me by Al Shultz, PhD, is 10
parts throttle pressure error to 1 part megawatt error for the boiler master; for the turbine it’s 10 parts
megawatt error to 4 parts throttle pressure error.
If there is no coordination between the boiler and turbine controls, they will fight each other to the death.
The boiler really cannot do much more than control throttle pressure, and even then it is slow because of
its massive thermal capacitance.
The turbine valves are much faster and are capable of controlling both megawatts and pressure. The
valves tap into the boiler’s thermal capacitance when the plant’s load changes. These ratios focus the
turbine controls on megawatt production with the megawatt setpoint and throttle pressure are near the
setpoint. When deviations occur, the throttle pressure error becomes more important and slows the
turbine down, moving it in the opposite direction that a pure megawatt controller would demand.
Amazingly, for all boilers (drum or once-through, coal- or gas- or oil-fired) this rule of thumb will give you a
good solid starting point to begin tuning the front-end coordinated mode controls.
Next comes the tuning of the controllers. In general, the turbine master is the easier of the two
components to tune, so that is the one to attack first. The gains will be less aggressive than were used for
the turbine-following mode, but it is good practice to have the turbine master control the megawatts as
tightly as possible at first. If that response is too much for the boiler to handle, the tuning can be loosened
up later. Note that this will only be proportional and integral tuning with no derivative action.
The key to tuning the boiler master is balancing the proportional, integral, and derivative action of the
controller so that the pressure is maintained with good control, moves toward the setpoint in a timely
manner, and correctly anticipates the movement of the error signal. In general, the proportional gain will
be fairly large, the integral action slow, and the derivative gain in the controller should be relatively small.
Finally, the controls that make up the coordinated front end may use some feedforward and the various
kickers that are part of it. The feedforward signals to both the turbine and the boiler master controllers, in
coordinated mode, is a function of unit load demand.

Tuning for Unit Response

Unit load demand is the high- and low-limited and rate-limited version of the unit master demand. The
operator enters in his target megawatt load into the DCS. There are high and low limits on what the
operator can enter that are determined by the operator, the boiler and turbine suppliers, and good
practice. A unit load increase rate limit is also available to the operator. Typical values used by the
industry are 1% or 2% per minute unit load rate of change. I have tuned boilers that can go up to 5% a
minute, but nobody really uses that value because of the wear and tear on the equipment. I normally
expect to see a rate limit of about 1 MW/minute for a 100-MW unit or 8 MW/minute for an 800-MW unit.
The feedforward to the turbine will usually be a very weak function of unit load demand, when used. This
is because the turbine is quite capable of doing its part in this coordinated control dance — it can respond
much faster than the boiler. The feedforward to the coordinated boiler master controller is quite different.
The important aspect of feedforward is the slope of the line. This is determined by the function of unit load
as well as the rate of change of the unit load demand chosen by the operator. This feedforward helps the
boiler master keep up with the increase or decrease in load to maintain the throttle pressure at setpoint.
However, a simple feedforward addition is almost never sufficient for a robust coordinated control system.
Remember that the boiler is a reservoir of energy trapped by the turbine governor valves as the load
demand changes. However, it’s not an infinite reservoir, and the main steam pressure tends to sag or
balloon as the unit increases and decreases load. That is why kicker circuits are included in the controls.
The first kicker is based on the feedforward (that is a function of unit load demand), and it should be a
derivative kick that can be tuned to minimize the pressure sag on a load change. Remember, the closer
the throttle pressure can stay to the setpoint, whatever it is, the easier it is for the turbine to provide
megawatts and the less swing will occur when the load change is finished. Some boilers are well behaved
and very responsive, so this kick is minimal. Some boilers are not well behaved, and their kickers can be
pretty substantial. There can be other kickers, possibly based on the throttle pressure or the throttle
pressure setpoint kicker, as described for the boiler-following mode.

Practical Controls Magic

The tuning process can’t be rushed and does take some time to get right. Here is an example. Recently, I
walked into the control room of an 800-MW unit just as the operators made a load change. As you can
see, the response of the unit left something to be desired (Figure 3).

3. Unresponsive. A load change on this 800-MW unit showed poor response and controls in need
of a good tuning. Source: Tim Leopold
By the third day, the coordinated controls were responding well after I slightly decreased the integral and
proportional gain and increased the derivative action of the controller by about 25%. I also modified the
feedforward signal slightly. Figure 4 illustrates the unit response to a 353-MW load increase test. About
halfway through, the operator was unable to start an induced-draft (ID) fan, so he changed to base mode
and then to boiler-following mode. When the ID fan was finally started, he returned to coordinated control
mode. As you can see in Figure 4, a request was received by the front end to increase load just after the
operator decided to raise his throttle pressure. This well-tuned boiler sailed through each test with rock-
solid performance.
4. New lease on life. The same 800-MW unit as in Figure 3 showed much better response to a load change after tuning the proportional and integral gain and increasing the
derivative action of the controller by 25%. Source: Tim Leopold

Runbacks and Rundowns

The final phase of tuning is runback testing. Turbine following is a nice safe place to retreat to when the
operator has the time to take action. However, what happens when there is no time to react?
For these situations two control strategies are used: runbacks and rundowns. A runback is an action
taken on a loss of a major piece of equipment. Typical runbacks include coal feeders, boiler feed pumps,
or any plant fan — induced draft, forced draft (FD), or primary air.
A rundown is a reaction to a large process error that does not go away, such as a major boiler tube
rupture. In this incident, the feedwater pumps pick up the increased feedwater demand or the feedwater
valve goes completely open, but the drum level keeps dropping. Eventually, the plant must initiate a
rundown or reduction in steam generation rather than trip the boiler. Typical rundowns are associated with
air flow, furnace pressure, fuel flow, feedwater flow, or drum level.
Rundowns are seldom tested, on purpose, and that’s not because they are overlooked. Rather, the logic
decides if the boiler or the turbine can or should respond. If the fuel master is in auto and looking at the
boiler master for its output, then the boiler is capable of responding, and there is no need for the turbine
to respond. If the turbine is not looking at the front-end controls for its output and the fuel master is not in
auto, then the only device that can respond is the turbine, and so it does. This last scenario has a very
high potential for tripping the unit.
Usually, the fuel master will be in auto. The boiler demand is then reduced by the rundown logic from
where it was to some value that allows the error that is driving the rundown to fall below some preset limit.
If the error does not go down, the rundown will continue to reduce boiler load to a set minimum value.
The first runback logic that I ever came into contact with was very severe. On a loss of equipment, the
boiler controls would attempt to stay in coordinated mode. The unit load demand would run down, at
some preset, fast, rate. This would decrease the boiler demand and the demand to the turbine governor
valves. That worked all right for some boilers, but the rate that was necessary for the boiler to get to a
safe operating load was very fast. The difficulty is that the turbine governor valve would close down at the
same rate. When these valves close, the main steam pressure must climb and may eventually lift the
boiler pressure safety relief valves. This is very hard on the drum level and your ears, and often results in
a master fuel trip. Granted, it was a trip from a lower boiler load, rather than if we had otherwise simply
tripped the boiler, but it was a trip nonetheless.
As a result, what I like to call a kinder, gentler runback was developed. Some call it the turbine-following
runback, where the boiler switches to manual on the loss of a piece of equipment. If you are in
coordinated mode, the boiler should go to manual control and turbine-following mode for the steam
turbine. At this time, the runback logic reduces the boiler demand to a predetermined level at a preset
rate. In the meantime, the turbine is free to control the main steam pressure. The megawatt load is then
gently reduced, and the plant experiences a soft landing. Turbine-following is the best mode to select in
an emergency.
A further goal of a runback is to recover automatically so the operators can figure out what happened to
the equipment and fix it while the unit is still online and avoid a master fuel trip.
The data shown in Figure 5 were collected during an actual runback test on a 95-MW plant that operated
with three pulverizers. The runback occurred when an ID fan was tripped, which had the effect of tripping
one of the FD fans. The runback of the boiler was set to a point that was below the three-mill minimum
load for safe and stable operation. As a result, automatic mill tripping on a runback was developed.

5. Avoiding unit trips. A runback test is necessary when any changes are made to boiler gas
pass, fans, or mills. In this test of a 95-MW unit, the runback occurred when an ID fan was
tripped. Source: Tim Leopold
You can see the boiler demand dropping, and the fuel flow percentage dropping even further as one of
the three mills is shut down by the runback logic. The pulverizer master (coal master demand) picks up
momentarily as the mill is stopped, then ramps back down, eventually getting the fuel percentage down to
the boiler demand. Automatic mill tripping is generally a good idea, especially on larger units with a lot of
mill capacity. Also, notice how the turbine pushes the throttle pressure back to the setpoint. Drum level
also dropped slightly before it recovered. The entire runback occurred in just over two minutes. Figure 6 is
a longer view of the entire episode.
6. Many moving parts. The same runback test (Figure 5) of a 95-MW unit but with a longer time-
span is illustrated. Here you can see the pulverizer master ramping back and the lowering of the turbine
operating pressure setpoint. Source: Tim Leopold
In this test, as is true for most of the tests I have run over the years, the fan and fuel runbacks are easily
handled by the turbine-following runback logic. However, the boiler feedwater pump runback can be
another matter. The turbine valves are relatively slow to respond and tend to suck steam from the drum.
Though some boilers are able to survive this without tripping on low drum level, many can not.
As a result, new logic was developed. I like to call this special type of runback the separated runback. On
the loss of a boiler feed pump, the boiler master goes to manual, coal mills are tripped, and the boiler
demand is driven to minimum. The turbine master remains in auto to stay in turbine-following mode. At
this point, we add a special high-limit override enabled during this runback that overrides the turbine-
following controller and marches the governor valves to a predetermined position. The rate at which the
valves are closed is variable and depends on the throttle pressure. Higher pressures tend to depress the
drum level, which we do not want, and really high pressures lift safeties, which started us on this runback
logic journey in the first place.
If you plan to test your runback logic, it’s a good idea to elevate the drum level a few inches before your
test. At this same 95-MW plant, we tested the boiler feedwater pump runback using separated runback
logic from 75% load with the drum level rundown initiated when the runback was complete. Figure 7 data
illustrate this successful test from the feedwater perspective. Notice the action of the feedwater control
valve. The drum level dropped about 6.5 inches. The low drum level trip was set at 7.7 inches. That was
successful, but a little too close for comfort.
7. Different perspective. The same runback test (see Figure 5) of a 95-MW unit but from the
perspective of the feedwater system. Note the drum level response. Source: Tim Leopold

When Enough Is Enough

One of the big challenges faced by a boiler and turbine controls tuner is to know when to stop. It’s a job
that has no defined stopping point, and there are always ways to further improve performance.
So how do we know when boiler tuning is finished? Typically, I call it quits when the operators are
satisfied and, based on my experience, the plant is as good as other units I’ve worked on over the years.
Or, in the words of Supreme Court Justice Potter Stewart, "I know it when I see it."
—Tim Leopold (tim.leopold@hotmail.com) is a field service engineer with ABB and has more than 20 years’ experience tuning controls on power plants around the world. His book, You Can Tune a Boiler But
You Can’t Tuna Fish, is available through amazon.com.