Professional Documents
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but also the ability to learn. Indeed, learning we recognise as three main ways of
is the key process to be managed when learning.
circumstances are changing. Just as
individuals learn to deal with the changing
situations they face throughout their lives, Ways of learning
organisations too can learn effective responses
to change. They need to do so in the interests (1) We can learn by being informed about
of all in the organisation ± to ensure a something by an ``authority'' whom we
satisfying work environment where all operate trust (teacher, author and so forth), and
at the peak of their ability. with/from whom we can validate our
learning. (I learnt that E = mc2 through
being informed by teachers whose
Organisational learning teaching I trusted and by reading in
respected scientific literature how
Organisations learn when the individuals who Einstein ``proved it''!) This is
comprise them learn. When these individuals sometimes called propositional learning
share their learning with each other and learn or learning (in order) to know about
to learn as a collective, both individual and something.
organisational learning is increased and is (2) We can learn by being instructed in how
more efficacious. Here learning is a social to do something by an ``authority''. We
process. The learning organisation comprises validate our learning here by doing it
an integrated community of people ourselves. (I can instruct you how to ride
functioning together as learning collectives of a bicycle by demonstrating and
empowered and interdependent individuals, explaining, and you can try it yourself.)
all helping to link the forward direction for This is often referred to as practical
their organisation with the movement of learning or learning (in order) to be able
historical forces in their environment. to do something.
The fundamental aim of process (3) We can learn by making sense ourselves
management is to improve the quality of of something that is happening around us
collective learning, both within the or directly to us. Often the only way we
subsystems that organise the overall can validate this learning (if we are unable
organisational system, and between the to follow the Socratic method of trying to
system and its environments. Learning in this disprove what we have learned to prove
context of change is a notion far removed its validity) is by accepting it to be true for
from the conventional ideas of education and ourselves, that is, using our intuition. (I
training within organisations. cannot be sure what a headache feels like
The key to understanding the distinction to you, but I know through experience
between the conventional and the new what it is like for me!) This is called
management approaches is the notion of experiential learning or learning (in
learner and learning organisation as active order) to be someone.
participants in learning. Here learning Note that all three forms of learning involve
involves those who share a not only ``finding out'' but also ``taking
workplace/organisational concern in the four action''. Yet the ways of doing these differ in
inter-linked processes: the three modes. ``Finding out'' is through
(1) finding out;
being informed by secondary sources, being
(2) determining the best course of action;
informed through example directly by the
(3) taking action; and then, crucially:
primary source, and experiencing personally.
(4) reflecting on both the outcomes and the
``Taking action'' is through validating against
processes as a step towards further
an ``authority'' and your own prior
learning.
knowledge, testing for yourself by putting
Before we explore this notion, we find what you have learned into practice, and
it useful to distinguish between what reaching recognition or understanding
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through personal reflection and assessment, One particularly effective way to develop
again by validating against your own prior meta-learning in organisations is through
knowledge. The primary purpose of the processes management so it is instructive here
learning ± for knowing about, doing, or being to reflect on the concept of process
± also differs significantly, even if the ultimate management.
purpose may be the same.
In the various organisations with which we
(the authors of this article) have been involved A conceptual framework of process
in process management ± indeed as a result of management
the aims of these organisations ± we often
encounter the encouragement of Process management is a facilitative structure
propositional and practical learning. Rarely that can be used for management inside an
do we find, however, strategies formalised for organisation or other community. It
experiential learning in these organisations. recognises that organisations/communities
This type of learning appears to be taken for comprise groups of people who share some
granted. Yet it is wrong to think that because interests, and in managing processes that a
humans are sentient creatures they are group undertakes (guided initially by a
inherently capable of experiential learning facilitator) it advocates group equity, group
and will undertake it of their own volition. ownership of the product, and shared
Humans have to learn how to learn ownership of the process by the facilitator and
experientially just as we have learnt (e.g. the group.
through our schooling, etc.) how to learn Process management is a social learning
propositionally and practically. process that helps groups to identify and
This deficiency in experiential learning clarify their most suitable goals and the means
strategies highlights the need for an even more to achieve them. It is oriented towards
basic process to be managed: learning to change, the future and the needs of society or
learn, or meta-learning as many educators call the group or organisation/community.
it. And again, just as individuals can learn Process management requires participants to
how to learn more effectively, so too can
be aware of the significance, productivity and
organisations as learning collectives. This is a
creativity of group processes, and of the
critical process for any enterprise trying to
influence of power relationships within and
remain as much as possible in concert with
between these processes. It is characterised by
the ``forces influencing its future''. Hence we
an uncertain environment. It seeks to
believe that an organisation has no higher
empower participants, not manipulate them,
priority for a sustainable future than designing
through implementing and facilitating a
and implementing persuasive strategies to
work process designed to meet
support ``learning to learn'' ± meta-learning
organisational/community management
± inside the organisation.
purposes. Process management guides the
Most people rarely question how they
learned what they have learnt. This point is flow of events without controlling the
quite easy to make; try writing down five outcomes.
things that you have learnt and write next to Process management is more a state of
each how you think you learned each one. mind than a series of concrete, observable
This is likely to be an unfamiliar task for most events. It requires vision that is attractive to
who attempt it. participants, plausible, unconfined and
The management of meta-learning in practicable. It identifies and facilitates group
organisations is a new challenge to people talents; it is contextual and it gains
interested in and responsible for the effectiveness from the synergy and symbiosis
following: of component parts of the process. The
. organisational development; process relates to relationships rather than to
. human resource management; tasks and it is value based ± hence our
. staff training and development; and difficulty in formulating a definition. Process
. education research and development. management is also seen to:
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including facilitators (who facilitate the group Research at Griffith University in Brisbane
process in a workshop or team project) and (Limerick and Cunnington, 1993) and
convenors (who convene and manage the elsewhere has identified action learning and
whole program) are active participants in the action research as highly appropriate methods
action learning or action research process. for developing the managerial competencies
Action research includes action learning, and attitudes seen to be necessary to adapt to
but action researchers aim not only to learn present and future rapid change. Action
from their own and each other's work, but learning and action research are therefore
also to improve it and to change their own important constituents of process
situations and the conditions in which they management for both the business managers,
work, as well as to contribute to public project facilitators and for their staff.
knowledge through publishing their learning. However, action learning, action research
They collaborate as equal participants in and process management are not the panacea
teams or task forces, researching with others for all management problems. Whether they
rather than on them, so forming a ``critical are appropriate ways to respond to a
learning community'' or ``action researching management problem depends on the overall
system'' (Bawden, 1996). The action research circumstances and particular situations that
process was first described by Lewin (1952) prevail in each case.
as a systematic way of identifying and solving
problems through a spiral of action research
cycles, each consisting of: When is process management
. a plan; (in)appropriate?
. action;
Before we consider process management in
. observation; and
industry, government and higher education
. critical reflection.
we need to assess its suitability for certain
This explanation has been developed further types of projects. Since process management
by authors in various disciplines and by helps us to cope judiciously with change, the
participants in the International Symposium key context for its effective use is an
on Action Research in Industry, Government environment of uncertainty. Thus process
and Higher Education (Zuber-Skerritt, management is less appropriate in steady
1996). The intended outcomes of action environments where there is minimal doubt or
research always include taking remedial or risk, and where tasks may be performed faster,
otherwise positive action as well as creating more efficiently and more cost-effectively
knowledge. under the direction of an experienced
One of the co-authors of this article has manager, rather than through lengthy group
developed a model of action research in processes. Therefore, traditional control
higher education that integrates previously management and propositional and practical
unrelated domains of theory (Zuber-Skerritt, learning are appropriate in environments with
1992a, b). It is an alternative model of a high degree of certainty. Process
university education designed to improve management, action learning and action
learning, teaching, research and academic research are appropriate in environments
staff development through action research where there is uncertainty.
projects conducted by university teachers Another criterion for assessing the
themselves in collaboration with an suitability of process management is the
educational adviser. The aims of action degree to which executive managers are
researchers are: willing to distribute some of their authority to
. learning more about and developing their other people in their organisation, or whether
performance as academics; and these managers insist on retaining as much of
. improving their practice through their power as possible to control others in the
processes that include changing existing organisation. The latter approach may be
conditions and removing constraints that understandable and in an environment of
impede practical improvements. certainty may even be appropriate. But it is
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