In a school setting all educators are concerned with two imperative variables namely teaching

and learning. It is the prime concern of all educators that learners at the end of the course or a
particular session will learn something out of it. Coinciding with this idea is making learning
successful for each learner. To make learning successful, there should be a match in the
teaching style with the learning style of each learner through varied techniques, thus, learning
becomes successful when facilitated with better teaching. In this vein, it is conspicuously
evident that teaching and learning are remarkable phenomena that are causally and tightly
bound in such a way that questioning what learning is, might lead to have a closer look at what
precisely, are the components of teaching and the underlying principles of the same.

According to Lupdag (1984) learning takes place when there is more or less a change in
behaviour that emanates from experiences. On the other hand, Clarke (1970) in his formulated
general theory of teaching, assumes that teaching is a purposefully organized set of activities
designed and performed to produce change in behaviour or response of learners. Hence one
can be sure to say that teaching and learning cannot be accomplished with absolute feasibility
when knowledge is subtracted out, because both are concerned with a change in behaviour
which results from learner’s information and skills acquired though experience.

In order to explain teaching, different theories of teaching have been advocated. As will be
explained hereinafter, teaching is a complex concept. Understanding theories of teaching has
given rise to models of teaching. Teaching models prescribe tested steps and procedures to
effectively generate desired outcomes. The number of emerging models and the ones that have
emerged is uncountable (Bruce & Marsha, 1977). However, in this paper, confined to a
psychological model of teaching namely Robert Glaser’s basic teaching model, will endeavour
to establish interrelationships between teaching, learning and knowledge as well as availing a
critique of how Robert Glaser’s model can help in conceptualizing the teaching process.

Peterson and Piaget (1996) explained learning as a process that takes place through
assimilation, accommodation and equilibration. Piaget (1997) further adds that learning takes
place because of schemas. Schemas allow individuals to make connections with information
they receive. Assimilation is the process of absorbing new knowledge from the environment
and adding these to the previous experiences (Reyes, 2000). Accommodation is the integration
of new experiences with the old and the formation of new insights and ways of thinking as a
result of this integration (Glaser & Bassok, 1989). The process of learning takes place in three
stages as explained.

1|Page
However, it is not an unusual enterprise that learning, and teaching are not two sides of the
same coin. Learning is a process that takes place in a living organism and in virtue of it, the
behaviour of the organism changes. This process is the object of psychological research. The
role of teaching, on the other hand, is to organize the environment in such a way as to enable
learning to take place. Teaching, therefore, entails a purposefully organized set of events,
outside the learner which are designed to support internal process of learning (Lamm, 1976).

Clarke (1970) pronounced as well that learning describes how students learn through
acquisition of knowledge. Teaching seeks to optimize this process and makes it more efficient
in terms of time, scarce talent and as such, specifies what ought to be taught. The one is
descriptive and the other is prescriptive (Teacher Education, VoL XXI, No. 3, 1970).

In order to organize a learning-enabling environment, there are several conditions and aspects
that have to be factored in. Obvious examples are student’s prior knowledge and teacher’s
knowledge of the subject matter. It is assumed that a teacher should know the theory about the
pedagogical concept (theoretical knowledge), be able to use it for analysing the topic and
producing information about it (technical knowledge) and be able to use this information for
making decisions in the planning process (practical knowledge) (Teacher Education, VoL 39,
No. 12, December 2014).

Thus, prior knowledge of the leaner and the teacher’s competent knowledge of the subject
matter are at the heart of successful learning, and effective teaching respectively. Together they
ultimately result in a learner’s change in behaviour and cognitive growth augmented (Glaser &
Bassok, 1989).

The perspectives advanced hereinbefore are not exhaustive without taking into account, a
reputable teaching model that was developed by Robert Glaser in 1962. It explains the
relationship between teaching and learning and further avails a fairly adequate
conceptualization of the teaching process. The basic teaching model explicates the whole
process of teaching-learning by partitioning it into four chief components namely; instructional
objectives, entering behaviour, instructional procedures and performance assessment.

Instructional objectives are those objectives which are based on Bloom’s taxonomy of
behavioural objectives and must be achieved by the learner upon completion of a particular
unit of instruction. Instructional objectives require the teacher to know precisely where they
want to take their learners to, and thus serves a purpose in guiding the teacher in selecting
subject matter, materials and activities in organizing teaching. An example of a behavioural

2|Page
objective would be; the learners will be able to identify nouns from a list of given words. This
component thus demands the teacher to possess competence and ability in terms of various
skills like formulation of objectives. Taylor (1966) suggested that all behavioural objectives
should reflect the concrete behaviour the students are expected to acquire.

When a learner with a certain type of behavioural pattern goes through a particular instructional
system, he/she comes out with a certain type of changed behavioural pattern. This type of
behavioural pattern of a student at the time of entering the instructional process is what is
referred to as entering behaviour. Entering behaviour is tightly analogous to prerequisite
abilities of a learner and help the teacher to determine from where they must take their students
from. This would require the teacher to investigate learner’s previous knowledge, level of
intellect, motivation state and interest, to mention but a few. In particular, it is learner’s prior
knowledge that will determine where the teacher may start from in order to nicely lure the
learner into achieving the prescribed behavioural objectives. For example,

Entry behaviour: learner can compute factors of the quadratic expression 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 as

(𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽).

Behavioural objective: given an equation of the form 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 [where 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

can be factorized in the form (𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽)], learners should be able to computer the values
of 𝑥 for which it is satisfied.

Once instructional objectives have clearly been pronounced, the teacher should identify the
lowest stage of instructional hierarchy to start with. In this vein, this component of the model
reminds the teacher to bear in mind and always ensure that learner’s entry behaviour is more
than enough so as to meet instructional plans. If it so happens that a leaner lacks entry
behaviour, the teacher can employ several mechanisms. Firstly, entry behaviour can be
augmented though review of exercise to recall learned concepts. Secondly, more instruction
than originally planned can be provided to the learners. Finally, instructional objectives can be
altered either by choosing different instructional objectives or by lowering the standard or
including some of the deficiencies in entering behaviour. Glaser and Bassok (1989) opined on
the basis of their own findings that tackling of changes across problems enables the teacher to
select problems appropriate to student’s knowledge state in order to optimize learning. In any
case the results of determination and assessment of entering behaviour must become an integral
part of instructional plans.

3|Page
Instructional procedures describe the instructional strategies and actions to be taken by the
teacher as an executor of the teaching-learning process. Proper management of this component
would result in behavioural changes among the learners as envisaged through instructional
objectives. This component requires the teacher to determine how they will take their students;
processes and procedures to be used in order to meet the instructional plans. These may include;
explaining, responding, asking questions, listening and diagnosing student responses and
providing feedback. Generally instructional procedures describe procedures for teaching skills
and methods, language, concepts, principles and problem solving.

The fourth component of the basic teaching model is performance assessment (Glaser, 1962).
It is the extent to which learning objective are being achieved by the learner (formative
assessment during the instruction) or have been achieved at the end of instructional session or
term (summative assessment). The emphasis on performance assessment during instructional
session, at the end of a lesson or at the end of a unit or term, implies that it is a continuous
process to assess leaners and needs not to occur only at the end of a specified period. Improved
teacher made tests, or available standardized tests either criterion-referenced or norm-
referenced tests can take form. The results of performance assessment would serve purpose of
feedback to instructional objectives, entry behaviour and instructional procedures. Such
feedback will show how well the learner has achieved instructional objectives, the adequacy of
entering behaviour and effectiveness of instructional procedures.

Robert Glaser’s basic teaching model was developed on the basis that every instructional
session assumes some knowledge on the part of the learner. Through instructional objectives
the teacher guides the learner from entry behaviour to terminal behaviour. Teaching is a
complex act which entails many acts like questioning, explaining, demonstrating, writing on
the board etc to induce, facilitate, retain and direct learning. It is imperative, however, to note
that individual learning varies for each learner and the role of the teacher is to provide authentic
learning experiences to achieve better performance of majority of students. It is commonly said
that the poor teacher talks, the average explains, the good demonstrates, and the great teacher
empowers. Thus, to empower learners, teachers must use all effective means of teaching.

4|Page
 References

Bruce, J & Marsha, W. (1997). Models of Teaching. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt.
Ltd.

Clarke, S. C. T. (1970). Genera Teaching Theory. With the Researchers: The Journal of
Teacher Education, 14(2-3), 404-405.

Glaser, R & Bassok, M. (1989). Learning Theory and the Study of instruction. Pittsburg:
University of Pittsburg.

Lamm, Z. (1976). Conflicting theories of Instruction: Conceptual Dimensions,

Berkley, California: McCutchan Publishing Corporation.

Lupdag, A. D. (1984). Educational psychology. Metro Manila: National Book Store.

Piaget, J. (1977). The Development of Thought: Equilibration of Cognitive Structures. New

York: Viking.

Raye, F. (2000). Engineering the curriculum: A Guide Book to Educators and School
Managers. De la Salle University: DLSU Press Inc.

5|Page