Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Compiled by
Okan Tüysüz
1
FLUVIAL LANDFORMS AND PROCESSES
• fluvius (L.): river
• the work of rivers, but also the erosion of soil and rock on hillslopes by running
water, particularly in semiarid environments (badlands)
2
• force of raindrops on bare soil causing disaggregation of surface soil
2. rainsplash erosion
overland flow
movement of water over slopes when precipitation intensity exceeds the soil
infiltration capacity according to soil porosity and permeability, vegetation, slope gradient,
antecedent moisture and seasonal factors (e.g. ice)
4. rill erosion
3
• overland flow deepens downslope, reaching a critical depth where laminar
flow cannot be maintain and turbulence begins to develop
5. subsurface erosion
piping
formation of natural pipes as interflow and baseflow erode macropores and fractures in
fine sediments
sapping
4
• on open slopes they tend to form parallel to one another, converging in
hillside hollows to form dendritic patterns
• ephemeral, that is, can be destroyed and recreated during major storms
• terminate at the base of slopes and thus are not part of the regional drainage
network
• gully
• persist for years or decades, so more persistent than rills but still not
"permanent" features
• agricultural definition: farm machinery can pass through rills but not gullies
5
The study of river energy and flow is therefore critical as far as the study of fluvial
geomorphology is concerned.
• the greater the amount and the higher the vertical distance, the more energy the
river possesses
The potential energy rivers possess actually originates from the sun which evaporates
water from the sea enabling it to be deposited at a higher level as precipitation over the land.
Kinetic energy is that generated by the flow of the river, which is actually using up the
supply of potential energy. The amount of this energy is determined by
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The energy a river possesses is
used up when the river
• although laminar flow is relatively common in highly viscous fluids, such as lava
flows, it rarely occurs in water moving in natural channels
• in stream channels water movement nearly always occurs as turbulent flow, that is,
the velocity of flow fluctuates in all direction within the fluid
7
2.1 Volume of Water and River Energy
The volume of water (related to cross-sectional area) is important since an increase in
the amount of water will mean a higher discharge and a more efficient river. This explains
why floods can cause so much destruction to human property.
• the volume of water will increase downstream due to contribution from tributaries
• this will usually lead to a more efficient river downstream—i.e. a high energy river
capable of eroding its channel and transporting its load
• this will mean a less efficient river downstream and the effect of a decrease in the
river energy will be reflected in its long profile—i.e. a convex profile may be
produced (refer to the lecture on “River Long Profile”)
Factors affecting the velocity of rivers are spelled out by the Manning’s equation
where V = velocity,
R = hydraulic radius,
Since stream flow is caused by the force of gravity, a change in the channel’s gradient
will affect the amount of energy the stream possesses
8
• if channel gradient is steep, the change from potential to kinetic energy is rapid
and the velocity of the river is high
Surface Manning’s n
Concrete 0.013
In a downstream direction
• the river channel tends to become smoother because it is more likely that the banks
and beds of the river will be made up of clay/ silt/ sand instead of boulders and
pebbles
The hydraulic radius is the ratio between the area of the cross-section of a river
channel and the length of its wetted perimeter, i.e.
9
where R = hydraulic radius,
WP = wetted perimeter (the total length of the bed and bank sides in contact
with the water in the channel)
Figure 2 shows two channels with the same cross-sectional area but with different
shapes and hydraulic radii
Stream A
• this creates less friction which in turn reduces energy loss and allows greater
velocity
Stream B
10
• this results in greater friction, more energy loss and reduced velocity
in fact, a semi-circle is the ideal shape for the cross profile of a river channel in that it
imposes least restriction on stream velocity
• since S normally decreases (i.e. becomes gentler) in the downstream direction the
V value should logically be lower with increasing distance from the source (i.e. a
lower velocity)
• the result is that average stream velocity of rivers tend to increase, or at least to
remain constant, downstream from the source despite the usual decrease in
gradient
The effect of velocity variation in river energy fluctuation is all the more important
because a doubling of velocity is likely to result in a four times increase in energy. This is
the reason why large rivers or rivers in flood are, in terms of their geomorphological activity,
very much more powerful than small streams.
To reduce the risk of flooding, urban drainage systems are often designed to get rid of
storm run-off in as short a time as possible.
As shown in Figure 3, these artificial drainage systems are usually straight, smooth
and semi-circular in shape giving the drains a very high R and low n values (notice the lower
Manning’s n for concrete as compared to winding natural channels in table 1).
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According to
Manning’s equation,
this will lead to a
very high velocity
of flow and
therefore ensuring
the urban areas
rapid clearance of
overland flow.
12
FLUVIAL PROCESSES
The processes which allow rivers’ slope, width, depth, bed sediment, load and
roughness to adjust are erosion, transportation, and deposition—i.e. processes which respond
to the increase or decrease in energy which the discharge provides.
1 River Erosion
By the process of erosion a river can deepen, widen or even lengthen its channels and
thus adjust its efficiency to suit the workload to be done.
1. corrasion/ abrasion,
2. hydraulic action,
3. attrition, and
4. solution
• it occurs when coarse and angular fragments of hard rocks are released, rolled and
dragged along the channel floor, thus slowly wearing away exposed rock outcrops
rather like sandpaper
• this process is responsible for much of the downcutting that creates and deepen
channels
• it is likely to be most effective in upland channels in times of flood when the large
angular fragments of bedload can be activated upon the exposed rock of the bed
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• when fragments of load/pebbles are trapped in these hollows, turbulent eddies
produced by currents will swirl them around to drill smooth depression, termed
potholes, into the bed rock (Figure 1)
• in the middle and lower courses of rivers where bedrock is less likely to be exposed to
abrasion
o the river is more likely to attack its channels, and in particular its banks,
carrying out lateral erosion
o the hydraulic power exerted by rapid river flow may also lead to the
fragmentation of bedrock in the channel particularly where joints and
bedding planes are present and have been opened up by localized corrasion
or chemical attack
1.1.3 Attrition
Another form of erosion that takes place in river channels attacks the load itself rather
than the channel
• attrition of the suspension and bedload, as fragments collide with each other in motion,
causes particles not only to become rounded but also to decrease in size downstream
• this, of course, has its impact on the efficiency of the channel downstream and helps to
reduce the need for steep gradients in the lower course
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1.1.4 Solution
2. the removal of loosely compacted sediments which have been laid down temporarily
Some rivers flow in rock-cut channels. As stated above, processes such as corrasion
and pothole drilling are dominant in this type of channel.
• erosion concentrated at and below the water surface will cause undercutting and collapse
of the upper face of the bank (Figure 2), particularly if this has been weakened by
wetting during a previous high flow
• bank erosion also performs the important function of entraining within the river material
which has been released by weathering of the valley slopes and transported down to the
river by rainwash and mass movements
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1.3 The Components of River Erosion
River erosion is commonly seen to have three main components
1. vertical downcutting,
3. headward erosion
Vertical downcutting is characteristic of fast flowing rivers with a large bed load of
coarse, hard particles
• aided with the high velocity of flow, these coarse bed load are used to abrade and pot
hole the channel floor, which is thus lowered relatively rapidly
1. uplift or
2. fall in sea-level
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• either of the above may lead to the formation of deep gorges or deep and narrow V
shaped valleys especially if slopes are formed of hard rocks that resists weathering
• this means that the relative rate of downcutting will be faster than slope recession
(Figure 3)
Lateral erosion occurs when a river swings to one side, thus causing bank erosion—
i.e. when rivers meander. Where the channel impinges on the base of the valley-side slope,
erosion of the solid rock may lead to the formation of meander cliff.
lateral erosion can also be especially pronounced in those river sections which are braided
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• for example, rivers in limestone terrain may emerge from underground as springs, which
are eating back into the hill slope and extending the valley headwards
• In steepened valley sections, the rapidly flowing water causes accelerated erosion, with
the result that the steepened section migrates upstream
• in its most spectacular form, headward erosion of this form is associated with waterfalls
as shown in Figure 4, particularly where these are formed by a hard cap rock overlying
weak strata
• vigorous vertical erosion is concentrated in the plunge pool at the base of the fall
• enlargement of the plunge pool can undermine the face of the waterfall so that periodic
collapse of the hard rock will cause it to retreat upstream
2 River Transport
River transportation refers to the downstream movement of sediment either along the
channel bed (bedload or traction load) by the processes of dragging, rolling and saltation
(jumping) of particles, or within the body of flowing water (suspended load and dissolved
load).
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3. dissolved load by solution (Figure 5)
Large rock fragments tend to roll or slide along the stream bed
• if they are rounded in shape they may move comparatively easily, but
• if they are angular they may become wedged between other fragments
• traction is usually most important near the source of a stream where river channel and
valleyside gradients are steep, and valleyside slopes are capable of delivering coarse
debris to stream channels
Smaller grains may be transported by saltation under the hydraulic force of the
moving water
• in this case, they are lifted bodily from the stream bed by turbulence and then they fall
back again a short distance downstream
Together, the particles moving close or along the bed of the river by traction and
saltation are referred to as the bed load.
Some particles, such as silt and clay, are small enough to be held up by turbulence
within the water, and form the suspended load. The greater the turbulence and velocity the
larger the quantity and size of particles which can be picked up.
The material held in suspension usually forms the greatest part of the total load and the
amount increases towards the river’s mouth.
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2.1.3 Transportation of Dissolved/ Solution Load
Water flowing within a river channel contains acids (e.g. carbonic acid from
precipitation).
Velocity is a very important factor regulating the erosion, transport and deposition of
particles
1. the critical tractive force or erosion velocity is the drag needed to initiate particle
movement
o if the drag is sufficiently powerful, the inertia of the particle will be overcome,
and it will begin to roll or slide
o as the size of the particle increases, the competence velocity also increases
3. the mean fall/settling velocity is the velocity at which particles of a given size
become too heavy to be transported and so will fall out of suspension and be deposited
• both the total load and the maximum size of the particles being moved will increase
because the competence velocity of the large sized particles are now reached
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• particles of sand and silt (and boulders and gravels under extreme conditions) which at
lower velocities are subjected to traction will begin to saltate or even become
temporarily suspended—i.e. they become suspended load along with fine clay particles
When river velocity decreases, such as during the later stages of a flood
• the total load and the maximum size of the particles being moved will decrease because
the coarser and then the finer sediments will be deposited, as the competent velocity is
no longer attained
This shows that the amount of bed load and suspended load of rivers is not fixed. The
proportion of these load vary with fluctuating velocity—i.e. an increase in the river velocity
will increase the proportion of suspended load and reduce that of the bedload, vice versa.
The Hjulstrom
Curve shows two
important points
1. for particles of
greater than 0.5 mm in
diameter, competent
velocity increases with
grain size, and for particles
less than 0.5 mm in
diameter, competent
velocity increases with
decreasing grain size
o this means that sand particles can be picked up at relatively low velocities,
whereas gravel and also fine silt and clay particles are more difficult to
entrain
o in the former instance, higher velocities are needed because of the weight
of the particles and
21
o in the latter instance, high cohesiveness and electrical bonding means that
higher velocities are needed to dislodge the smaller particles
2. the velocity required to maintain particles in suspension is less than the velocity
needed to pick them up
o for very fine clays, the velocity required to maintain them is virtually nil,
meaning that material picked up by turbulent tributaries and lower order
streams can be kept in suspension by a less turbulent, higher order main
river
2. more important than capacity is the competence of the river, which refers to its
ability to transport particles of sediment of various sizes and weights
o this means that if its velocity doubles, the river can transport particles 26 or 64
times heavier than before
o this is because fast-flowing streams have greater turbulence and are therefore
better able to lift particles from the stream bed
22
2.3 Changes in the Amount and Nature of Sediment Load
Downstream
The amount of sediment load
increases downstream because of
2. continued feeding in of
weathered material from the valley sides
(Figure 7)
2. gentler valleyside slopes are only able to deliver material of finer calibre to the river
channel
3 River Deposition
Deposition of sediment takes place when the river becomes incompetent either
because
When the river no longer has the competence or capacity to carry all of its load,
deposition will occur. So starting with the largest particles, material begins to get deposited.
1. a river broadens out and therefore has a larger wetted perimeter which, assuming the
volume of water remains constant, results in increased friction and a reduction of velocity,
2. a river enters the sea or a lake and therefore velocity is lessened (due to sharp
change in gradient),
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3. discharge is reduced following a period of low precipitation or when excessive
percolation takes place (as is common in deserts),
4. the river is shallower on the outside of a meander (i.e. the convex bank), or
• tributary streams flow into the main valleys along very steep gradients and, at times,
they can be heavily loaded with sediment derived from their valleyside slopes
• when they reach the main valley floor there is a sudden decrease in their velocity (and
thus energy) because of the sudden drop of gradient
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• deposition may then result in the production of an alluvial fan, which is a cone-shaped
mass of alluvium with its apex at the point where the stream leaves the mountain
• also water infiltrates the coarse bed materials, losing transport capacity
• adjacent alluvial fans coalesce to produce a peidmont plain at the base of mountain
fronts
25
Delta
• similar morphology to an alluvial fan but deposition results from sharp reduction in
velocity as a stream enters standing water
Alluvial fans: require high relief and an adjacent low-lying area for collection of
sediment. They generally occur in areas of active tectonism where a high gradient stream
crosses into an open valley and flow becomes less constrained. Commonly alluvial fans are
associated with faults.
Upper fan (proximal part): characterized by a small number (1-3) of deeply incised
channels. Upper fan deposits are usually poorly sorted and generally contain no sedimentary
structures other than imbrication. Debris flow deposits are common.
Middle fan: numerous shallower channels with longitudinal bars separating channels.
Midfan facies contain both streamflow and debris flow sediments. Sheetfloods are common
and their deposits consist of gravel/sand couplets that display both planar and trough cross
bedding. Imbrication in stream channels is common.
Lower fan (distal part): braided channel patterns similar to middle fan but with smaller
channels and less dense braiding. Distal fan deposits are largely sand and silt deposits of
sheetflood origin, with thin conglomerate layers. Low angle cross stratification and trough
cross stratification are common; distal fan deposits may be similar to braided fluvial deposits
and commonly interfinger with basinal sediments (playa lake deposits, fluvial deposits, etc.)
1) Type 1 fans (debris flow dominated): Debris flow dominated fans occur in areas
with a ready source of mud (i.e., areas with exposed fine-grained sedimentary or volcanic
sections) and show interbedding of fine and coarse material that reflects the extreme ranges in
flood magnitudes on these fans.
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2) Type 2 fans (sheet flood dominated): Sheet flow dominated fans tend to form in
areas of perennial flow and formerly were considered "wet fans" or "humid fans". These tend
to be better sorted and display a more uniform grain size throughout than debris flow
dominated fans.
C.) Evolution of alluvial fans through time: Alluvial fan facies vary considerably
between debris flow dominated and sheet flow dominated fans and depends also on the age
(stage) of the fan:
Typically the early stages of a fan (stages 1 and 2 of Blair and McPherson, 1994) are
dominated by rock avalanche and rock-slide deposits resulting from very high depositional
slope angles characteristic of "mature" talus or colluvial cones. Stage 2 fans are dominated by
coarse gravelly debris flows (for type 1 fans) or sheetfloods or incised channel flows (for type
2 fans). Stage 3 fans contain cobbly, pebbly, and sandy debris flows (type 1 fans) or
sheetflood deposits and incised channel flows (type 2 fans).
D.) Stacking patterns associated with alluvial fans: Common upward thickening
and coarsening in alluvial deposits is caused by progradation or outbuilding of fan.
Photo of a couple of talus cones at Ubehebe Crater near Death Valley. These would
be considered to be in the stage 1 of development, in terms of the classification scheme
presented by Blair and McPherson (1994)
27
An alluvial fan near Oshin Nuur in western Mongolia. Notice that the fan occurs at the
mouth of a mountain canyon and most of the fan is currently inactive, as suggested by the
dissected fan surface. The active part of the fan is at the far left.
On-the-ground view of the active part of the Oshin Nuur fan. Note the
topographically-higher inactive fan surface in the background. The person is behind a train
of weakly imbricated boulders. This boulder train may be the winnowed remnants of a debris
flow levee. Flow was right to left.
28
Debris-flow dominated fans near Mammoth Hot Springs in northern Yellowstone
Park, Wyoming. The cliff in the background is made of Cretaceous shale that supplies debris
flows on the fan surface with mud.
Aerial shot by Martin Miller of the Badwater fan in Death Valley. Note the road
traversing around the fan. The white deposits surrounding the fan are evaporites on the basin
floor the distal (lower) parts of the alluvial fan interfingering with these basinal deposits.
29
Series of coalesced alluvial fans (termed a bajada) on the west flanks of the Panamint
Range, eastern California. Photo by Martin Miller. Notice the distributary channels on these
fans. Eolian deposits cover much of the basin floor and the distal parts of the alluvial fans
making up the bajada interfinger with these deposits.
Alluvial fan in the mouth of a tributary of the Kızılırmak River, Kargı-Sinop road.
In a meander
• vigorous undercutting tends to occur along the concave banks and eroded material
slumps into the river
• some of this sediment is transported to the opposite convex bank or the next convex
bank on the same side of the river to form a point bar
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• the result is that while the concave banks tend to retreat, the flatter convex banks
gradually advance with the accumulation of more sediments
• the original valleyside slopes are then replaced by almost level point bars deposited by
rivers which become the river’s flood plain as shown in Figure 10
Flood plains may also form by vertical accretion when river overflows its banks
during floods as shown in Figure 11a
• as the floodwater, highly charged with sediment, extends over the adjacent plain, silt in
suspension settles out due to a decrease in velocity, leading to vertical accretion
• sometimes deposition, especially of the coarse particles, is greatest along the margins of
the river channel, giving rise to natural levees shown in Figure 11b
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• when the river floods it may cover the whole of the flood plain
• however, the water still flows fastest along the line of the river channel because here
the hydraulic radius is greater than in the case of the shallow flood water that covers
the flood plain
• hence, along the margins of the river channel there is a sudden decrease in the
competence velocity and capacity
• this causes deposition to occur, beginning with sediment of coarser calibre because of
their higher settling velocity
• the accretion of coarse sediment just beyond the banks will eventually lead to the
formation of levees
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FLUVIAL SYSTEMS:
Three ‘end-member’ fluvial styles are:
Best developed in distal parts of alluvial fans, on glacial outwash plains, and in
mountainous reaches of river systems where slope angles are high and coarse-grained
sediment is plentiful.
Braided stream deposits are typically coarse grained, with poorly developed channels
and abundant cross-bedded and current-rippled bar deposits. Fining upward sequences are
common though are not as prominent or as well developed as in meandering systems.
Deposits include channel sediments (principally lag deposits); point bars (upward-
fining; with large dunes on lower part, ripples on upper part); natural levees (thickest and
coarsest near channel bank); fine-grained flood basin deposits; and sandy crevasse splay
deposits interbedded with floodplain fines.
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C) Anastomosed Stream systems are volumetrically minor by comparison with
meandering and braided systems, but their distinctive style warrants a separate category.
Anastomosed streams are characterized by low gradients and low stream power Lateral
migration of channels is minimal, producing isolated channels bounded by fine-grained
floodplain deposits, both of which aggrade vertically rather than accrete laterally. Channels
evolve through crevassing rather than lateral migration.
3) Lateral bars: very large bars that develop in areas of relatively lower energy along
sides of channel. River migration results in lateral bar progradation and creation of lateral
accretion sets and upward-fining sequences.
34
Photo of the Wood River meandering river system in southern Alaska. Notice the
abundant mud suspended in the river typical of mud-dominated fluvial systems that result in
highly sinuous channels. The oxbow lake in the background was produced by meander cut-off
and channel abandonment. Note also the flooded chute channels on the inside of the
meanderbends.
35
A close up of an incised channel margin in an inferred fluvial deposit. Jurassic
Badaowan Formation, Turpan-Hami basin, western China. Notice that the channel sandstone
is incising into fine-grained muds and silts of presumed overbank origin.
A shot of some lateral accretion surfaces from the Book Cliffs in central Utah. The
lateral accretion surfaces are the left-dipping beds in the middle of the photograph and reflect
channel migration from right to left.
Rio Puerco in southeastern Utah during low flow. Most of the river system is exposed
and consists of a series of braids (longitudinal and transverse bars) with current rippled tops
36
and a mud drape. This is a good example of a braided stream in which the sediment supply
has greatly exceeded the capacity of the stream.
Braided river system showing a well developed longitudinal bar. Flow is towards the
camera. Note the presence of several other longitudinal bars in the background and the
presence of multiple channels, characteristic of braided systems.
Inferred braided river deposit in Upper Jurassic strata from western China. Notice the
multiple stacks of sandstone holding up the cliff. Each of the sandstone units is pervasively
cross-bedded and some contain bar foresets several meters in relief.
37
Anastomosed river system in southeastern Saskatchewan. Notice the multiple channels
and interchannel wetlands.
38
CHANNEL PLAN FORMS
Three types of channel patterns are generally recognised
1. straight,
2. meandering:
• sinuous single thread, the most stable and efficient channel geometry (least
variable energy distribution) to conduct water and sediment over any surface (e.g.
supraglacial streams
3. braided
• bars reforms during flood stage, deposition during falling stage that splits
subsequent flow
39
Photo: Meandering river
Rivers are rarely straight for lengths of more than ten times their average width. If they
do
40
• they are strongly influenced by the presence of zones of weakness, such as
joints or faults, in the underlying rocks
1 River Meanders
All three types of channel plan forms may be seen along a single river but meandering
channels are most common.
• this is the ratio between distance along the centre line of the valley, and the
distance along the channel—i.e. it shows the extent to which the meander
deviates from a straight line
• Figure 2 shows that a 1:1 ratio indicates a straight course while a 1:4 ratio
denotes a well developed meandering course
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Meanders are usually symmetrical, their form relatively consistent wherever they
occur. Such consistency is supported by the mathematical relationships that have been shown
to exist between their various dimensions. For example, the wavelength of a fully developed
meander is dependent on three major factors
1. channel width
• the meander wavelength is usually 7-10 times as great as channel width, and
• points of inflexion (cross-over points) are usually 5-7 channel width apart,
measured along the channel
2. discharge
• Schumm’s investigations have revealed that the lower the percentage of clay-silt in
the bed and banks the greater meander wavelength is likely to be
42
1.3 Theories of Meander Formation
There is an extensive literature on the origin of meanders suggesting a range of
possible mechanisms. Although the actual mechanisms by which meanders develop are
understood in general terms, they still pose difficult problems in details.
It was once thought that the initial sinuosity of the channel, from which meanders are
developed, was due to chance irregularities which deflected the stream from one side of the
channel to the other. When this happens
• at the concave banks on the meander banks, where the thalweg is diverted against,
there will be erosion and the formation of bluffs (as shown in Figure 5, thalweg is
the line tracing the deepest water and which coincides with the line of maximum
velocity)
• with continuous erosion at the outer banks and deposition at the inner banks, the
meander amplitude (and hence sinuosity) will increase over time leading to the
formation of a well developed meander (Figure 6)
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• when the river becomes too sinuous the cutting of the meander necks during high
discharge will straighten the river channel resulting in the formation of ox-bow
lakes
One of the weaknesses of this early theory of meander formation lies in the fact that
the development of meanders is assumed to be the result of chance irregularities. Study of the
geometry of meanders, as expressed by dimensions such as meander wave length, meander
amplitude and radius of curvature has revealed that meanders are very regular forms (as
illustrated above) and as such, are not likely to be the outcome of random causes.
Langbein and Leopold have managed to provide further explanation for the
development of meanders by suggesting that meanders represent the ultimate aim of a river to
equalise its energy expenditure along the length of the river.
In other words, rivers meander so that their energy is expended at a uniform rate along
the channel to obtain a uniform energy grade line in a channel containing pool and riffle
sequences.
The links between pools and riffles and meanders seem unquestionable, not least
because the spacing of meanders along the channel’s course appears to be equivalent to that of
pools and riffles (i.e. 5 – 7 times channel widths).
• there is a high expenditure of energy because the water is shallow (as shown in
Figure 7 and at point B in Figure 8) and more heat energy is generated
44
• to balance this loss of energy, these particular sections of the river will have to be
straight so that there will be no deflection or helicoidal flow of water (which will
mean even more energy loss)
• helicoidal flows will cause more energy loss at these particular locations when
erosion occurs and when more heat friction is produced as water is dragged across
the river bed and sides as shown in Figure 10
• this in turn accounts for the existence of “bends” at areas where pools are found
It is because of the alternating arrangement of riffles and pools along the river channel
that the river gets the alternating arrangement of straight channels and “bends”, which
together make up a meandering channel. Therefore the formation of meanders can be
attributed to the presence of the pool and riffle sequence and the river’s tendency to develop a
uniform energy grade line along its length.
45
2 Braided Rivers
A braided channel consists of a mass of diverging and intertwining threads of water
separated by ever-changing islands of sediment (Figure 11).
1. strong but localised bank erosion, which tends to widen the channel as a whole,
2. the transportation of large bed loads, as in periglacial regions where large amounts
of coarse debris are produced by active freeze-thaw weathering on slopes
3. channels with banks composed of incoherent sands and gravels, which are easily
eroded during high discharge, thus adding further to the sediment load
46
Braiding is therefore common in
• the stream’s discharge varies in relation to the rate of melting of the glacier
When the above three conditions are satisfied, the formation of braided rivers will take
place as illustrated below
o the banks of the channel may be undermined so that they collapse into the
channel therefore causing the development of a wider channel
o the sediment load will accumulate at certain points within the channel to
give sand and gravel banks
o in the formation of these mid-channel bars, the coarse bed load is the first
to be deposited
o this material forms the nucleus of bars which grow downstream as the flow
velocity is reduced and finer sediment accumulates
o with further decreases in discharge the water level progressively falls and
the bars are gradually
exposed (Figure 12)
47
channel widening by bank collapse, tends to lead to a lower hydraulic
radius (due mainly to an increase in the wetted perimeter)
o the width/depth ratios may even exceed 300 in certain cases and to
compensate for this, a braided river channel is usually steeper than, for
example, a meandering channel
• some of the sand and gravel accumulations will be washed away during
subsequent floods, but others will grow and become colonised by vegetation
o the plants will assist the trapping of more sediment, and the bars will
eventually become islands that are rarely inundated
o however, the islands can rarely survive for long, since they are composed
of loose sediments and can suffer bank erosion by flowing water in the
anabranches on either side
5. a less stable channel with the constant formation and destruction of mid-channel
bars
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RIVER LONG PROFILE
By plotting a line graph of a river’s height above base level against the distance from
its sources, one obtains an impression of a river’s long or longitudinal profile.
1 Profile of Equilibrium
W. M. Davis proposed that
• in the early stages of development, valley profiles are irregular, reflecting the
influence of factors such as
i. variations in the initial slope over which the river begins to flow
• however, such irregularities are smoothed away by river erosion, to give a smooth
graded profile over a long period of time as shown in Figure 1
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1.1 The Graded River Long Profile
Although some individual valleys are characterised by irregularities, such as channel
steepenings, rapids or even waterfalls, it has been widely observed that many develop a
smooth concave-up profile with a short, steep upper section and an elongated, gentle lower
section as shown in Figure 2.
However, in arid regions and areas where the rock is particularly permeable, the
equilibrium profile may be one that is convex in appearance. This is mainly the result of the
decrease in discharge downstream due to evaporation and percolation.
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• according to Small, such a balance between energy and work cannot exist at an
instant of time, but is an average condition existing over a period of time
o for example, a river channel may be scoured during a brief flood, but
following the flood the scoured areas may again be infilled by channel
deposits
• over geologic time, slope and channel characteristics adjust to provide, with the
available discharge, just the velocity required to transport the sediment supplied
from the basin
• a change in any of the controlling factors will cause a displacement of the system
in a direction that will tend to absorb the effect of the change (dynamic
equilibrium)
• independent factors
o discharge, sediment from the basin and base level (potential energy)
• semi-dependent factors
o channel width, depth, roughness, velocity, pattern and load grain size
• dependent factors
• rate of adjustment
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o depends on resistance of the bed materials and amount of energy, i.e. mass
(Q) and relief (base level)
• experience outputs of
Such systems have the capability to achieve a steady state/dynamic equilibrium where
the inputs and outputs are balanced. There is therefore no tendency for progressive long-
term change to occur.
However, if any of these is disturbed (e.g. when sediment input increases or discharge
decreases), the state of equilibrium will be upset and the river will have to try to reestablish
equilibrium by self regulation. For example
1. when there is an increased sediment input (such as from the valley slopes after mass
movement)
• the river will try to reestablish equilibrium by changing its channel slope
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• this will result in an increase in the river slope and velocity downstream from
the site of the deposition, which will in turn lead to an increase in the river
energy for the transport of the extra load
2. when there is an increase in the water input (e.g. due to climatic changes)
• the river will erode its banks so that the development of a very wide and
shallow channel will increase the wetted perimeter
• this will in turn cause a decrease in the hydraulic radius and velocity of the
river leading to the formation of an inefficient river
• in this way, the increase in stream energy from the increased discharge will be
offset
It is through these self regulation mechanisms that rivers are able to achieve a state of
equilibrium and this is reflected in the way the rivers’ long profile adjust to changes in
discharge, sediment and channel characteristics in the downstream direction.
One piece of evidence supporting the channel slope adjustment hypothesis is that
• after the uplift which led to the incision of the channel and the abandonment of
the terrace, the river was able to restore its former gradient, which is that
required to handle the discharge and sediment load of the river
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2 Reasons for a Concave Up River Long Profile
Modern research has shown that even irregular long-profiles can be graded—these
comprise individual reaches, in each of which the steady state exists.
Even so, the concave-up form is very common and its formation can be explained as a
response to the following controlling factors
1. the normal increase in mean velocity downstream enables the sediment load to be
carried over a progressively gentler slope (explain using the Manning’s Equation)
2. the reduced median grain size of the sediment load in a downstream direction has a
similar effect (explain using the Hjulstrom Curve)
3. the increased efficiency of the river channel (larger hydraulic radius, and reduced
influence of roughness) also enables the river to transport sediment more easily in a
downstream direction
The shape of a river’s long profile therefore basically depends upon the relationship
between the river’s discharge and velocity (i.e. the ability to perform the work of
transportation) and the sediment load that is being transported
• a tendency seems to exist for each part of a river’s course to adjust itself so that
it is just able to transport a certain amount of sediment of a certain caliber
• when the total energy of the river is just sufficient to transport its water content
and its load of sediment, the river is said to be in equilibrium
3.1 Faulting
The geological structure of the area a river flows through will influence the river’s
long profile. Faulting can cause the development of irregular river long profiles due to the
formation of waterfalls. Subsequent river regulation to such irregularities is discussed below.
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3.2 Rock Type and the Development of Waterfalls
The existence of rocks with different resistance and characteristics will affect the
development of long profile in two ways. Different rock resistance will induce different rates
of river downcutting and the development of waterfalls. This will produce an irregular river
long profile as shown in Figure 4. By self regulation, the river will work towards the
development of a graded profile by the following processes
• in the steep reaches the river would tend to have a surplus of energy over and
above that needed to transport its water and sediment content
• it would therefore erode its channel and thus decrease the channel’s slope
• in the reaches with gentler gradients, the river’s energy would tend to be
insufficient to transport its load of sediment, so deposition would occur, so as to
steepen the channel slope
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• erosion at the upper reaches and deposition at the lower reaches will eventually
reduce the differences in the river’s gradient as shown in Figure 5
Where the sediment is coarse, the channel gradient will need to be steep for transport
to occur and vice versa. This is one reason why graded profiles, developed across a series of
different rock types, do not necessarily show a progressive decrease in slope down valley. As
is illustrated in Figure 6
• a tributary stream from a nearby area, for example, may be carrying a load of very
coarse caliber down a steep gradient (e.g. because the weathered end product of the
rock in the area is coarse)
• this is likely to cause the trunk stream to steepen its profile below the confluence
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Shales or clays tend to produce a sediment load of very fine calibre, and limestones
produce very little visible load. Hence, one might expect a river to have a low gradient when
passing over such rocks.
Sandstones, on the other hand, produce coarser, more resistant sediments, so one
would expect the long profile to be steeper. One would not expect to see very sudden changes
in gradient, however, since a bed load of sandstone fragments can be carried a considerable
distance downstream before the fragments are comminuted by attrition.
The base level for streams that flow into the sea is sea level. For streams flowing into
enclosed lakes that have no outlet the lake surface is the base level.
Most rivers flow eventually into the sea, and sea level (their base level) may change
from time to time. These changes may be
1. an eustatic change of base level occurs when the level of the sea changes
2. an isostatic change of base level occurs as a result of a change in the level of the
land
• flood the lower parts of river courses, turning them into estuaries
• this will reduce the gradient of the lower reaches of the river
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• this will produce alluvial flats resembling river flood plains (but their origin is
quite different) and the process will continue till a new long profile is achieved
A fall in sea level can have a much greater effect upon relief
• in this case, the extension of the river’s course over the former sea bed may have a
steeper slope than the lower course of the river
• a fall in sea level and the exposure of the sea bed will thus increase the gradient
and the velocity of the river
• the excess energy generated will in turn result in the erosion of the oversteepened
reaches, known as knickpoints (Figure 7)
• the result is the successive steepening of each section of the river and the eventual
lowering of the whole profile till a new equilibrium profile is reached
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DRAINAGE DEVELOPMENT
Geomorphologists have devoted much time and effort to the study of drainage systems
and their evolution because
1. a drainage system is a major feature of the physical landscape and the form of the
system, especially the orientation and spacing of its component streams, does much to
determine the essential character of the landscape, and
2. evolutionary studies of drainage systems may afford valuable information about the
denudational history of an area
2. the topographical and geological characteristics of the land surface upon which the
network has evolved
• all other channel networks (radial, trellis, rectangular, distributary, annular) result
from structural control
There is an almost infinite variety in the patterns formed by drainage systems but it is
useful to make a classification of some of the more obvious ones.
• deterministic explanation
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o acute junctions involve least rate of work (power) expended and therefore
neither erosion (excess energy) of deposition (insufficient energy to
transport the load)
• probabilistic explanation
o they can be produced from a random walk model (using random number,
dice or a bingo machine)
o this, however, is only a explanation of the form and not the origin (e.g.
headward erosion or progressive intersection of channels)
1. the dip-slopes
of cuestas or
2. areas which
have recently been
exposed by regression
of the sea
• in both
cases,
geological conditions and/or the time factor have not yet permitted the
development of a more complex pattern by the process of adjustment to structure
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• derived from the Greek
dendron, a tree, this
pattern comprises a
multitude of small branch
streams which join each
other, usually at fairly
acute angles, to nourish a
large trunk stream
(Figure 2)
• the ramifying tributaries in the dendritic pattern whose position and direction are
entirely fortuitous are often described as insequent streams
• the actual “closeness” of the pattern of the pattern will vary a great deal, depending
on
3. the time factor (i.e. how “old” the rivers are-headward erosion add tributaries to
stream so that older rivers are less “open”)
1. of well-developed cuestas where the main dip-slope streams run broadly at right
angles across alternately resistant and unresistant rock outcrops
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• however, whereas in the latter the main and tributary streams join approximately at
right angles, in a rectangular pattern the individual streams may themselves show
marked angularities of course
• these are invariably the result of geological controls (i.e. well-defined lines of
weakness such as faults or joints) along which the streams have extended their
course by headward erosion
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where downfaulted blocks give rise to basins of internal drainage.
2 Drainage Evolution
The initiation and subsequent evolution of any drainage system are determined by
1. the nature of the surface (mainly relief) on which the streams begin to flow
• in other words, their courses will be consequent upon the form of the land surface,
and such streams are accordingly referred to as consequents
• the geological structure will affect the later development of the rivers
• the most significant feature in this context will be the appearance and growth of
subsequent streams, which by the process of headward erosion will extend along
lines of geological weakness such as clay and sand outcrops, fault-lines, major
joints and anticlinal axes
• the closeness of the relationship between stream courses and lines of geological
weakness may afford some measure of antiquity of a drainage system—i.e. if there
is little adjustment of the stream pattern to structure the drainage may be extremely
“youthful” and vice versa
Clearly the initial consequent pattern will vary greatly in its complexity, depending on
the degree of irregularity of the “initial surface”.
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If the “initial surface” is produced by the uplift and gentle tilting of say, a plain of
marine erosion, the result will probably be a series of nearly parallel streams as shown in
Figure 7.
• in this case, the geological structure planed off by the sea seemed to have included
rock strata with different resistance, yet these would exert little or no influence on
the course of the consequent streams
If the initial land surface is produced by more complicated earth movements, leading
to the formation of a folded geological structure, the drainage pattern will tend to develop
along different lines (refer to Figure 8)
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• the largest streams will flow along the synclinal axes to form the “primary” or
longitudinal consequents
They develop as tributaries of the original consequent streams and tend to excavate
valleys in the outcrops of weaker rocks or along zones of weakness caused by faults or the
joint pattern.
• lateral consequents may deepen their channel (as shown in Figure 9a) and erode
headwards till the crest of the anticline is reached
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• as shown in Figure 9b, this in turn encourages headward erosion by the streams
and tributaries near and along the crest of the anticline where folding has
structurally weakened the rock (refer to Figure 10)
• this will lead to the formation of combes, or stream eroded hollows, in the crests of
the ridges
• since the anticlinal streams will be more active than the synclinal rivers, the
anticlinal vales will be rapidly enlarged and the ridges reduced
• meanwhile, vertical erosion by the consequent stream flowing along the synclinal
valley has been hindered by the presence of the resistant rock layer at the synclines
(Figure 10)
• as a result, longitudinal subsequents that erode into softer underlying beds may be
able to lower their valley to below the level of the neighbouring longitudinal
consequents (Figure 9d)
In Figure 11a, a consequent stream flows transverse to the outcrops of alternate layers
of weak and resistant rocks on a former sea bed that has been exposed due to uplift and tilting.
Figure 11b shows the possible development of the drainage pattern
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• these vales are asymmetrical in cross profile, having steep scarp slopes where the
ground surface cuts across the resistant layer
o resequent streams flow in the same direction as the dip of the strata and
o the obsequent streams flow from the scarp slopes, in the opposite direction
to the dip of the strata
• uplifting and tilting has in this case resulted in the development of a trellis
drainage pattern
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• these resequents and obsequents should not be confused with the lateral
consequents shown in Figure 8 -resequents and obsequents cannot exist until there
are subsequent streams
• as was illustrated above, subsequents are structurally guided streams which are
continually being added to the initial consequents
• with the development of subsequents over time, the drainage system will therefore
be characterized by an ever increasing degree of adjustment to structure when
these streams take advantage of structural weaknesses (e.g. joints and weak rocks)
to erode headward and become entrenched
• Figure 12b shows a uplifted sea bed with alternate layers of resistant chalk and
weak clay
• two consequent streams flow across the area excavating valleys in both the clay
and the chalk
• consequent B is the more vigorous and proceeds to develop a tributary along the
outcrop of clay (Figure 12c)
• this subsequent stream extends its source headwards until it reaches consequent A,
which it “captures”, so that the upper part of A’s course is diverted and becomes a
tributary of consequent B
• the former lower course of consequent A is now a dry gap (wind gap) at the crest
of the chalk scarp and a small misfit or underfit stream (misfit because this stream
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is clearly too small to have been responsible for the creation of the valley that it
now occupies)
• the misfit stream is sometimes referred to as a beheaded or victim stream since its
headwaters have been diverted to consequent B (the pirate stream) by the river
capture that has taken place
For river capture to take place, the pirate stream must be incised to a level
substantially lower than its victim. All rivers possess an appreciable gradient downstream
towards the sea, which acts as a common base-level for fluvial erosion
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• in streams flowing over similar rocks, and having similar catchment areas, this
gradient may not vary greatly from one stream to another
• thus the height of consequent B in the above instant should not be greatly different
from consequent A
• therefore for capture to take place, one stream must obtain a very great erosional
advantage deriving from particular relief or geological conditions that are by no
means encountered in all areas
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maintain its form by incision into the new structures as they develop
Antecedent drainage occurs when an established river, existing before orogenic uplift,
keeps pace by erosion with the elevating upland and this cuts a gorge through the mountain
chains
• antecedent drainage is exemplified in the Himalayas where the Indus and the
Brahmaputra Rivers rise in the less mountainous areas to the north and both flow
south through gorges in the main Himalayan chains
• as an example of the depth of these gorges, the floor of the Indus in Kashmir is
only 1000 meters above sea level
• thus the river eroding vertically has kept pace with about 5000 meters of uplift
during the Tertiary orogency when the formation of the Himalayans began
However, the streams cannot adapt their courses immediately to conform with the new
geological conditions.
Adjustment to structure will certainly proceed in due course, but in the meantime the
old consequent directions will persist and, even after the rocks of the overlying structure have
been entirely removed, will often be easily recognisable because of their discordant
relationship with the newly exposed structure.
In late Cenozoic times, uplifting of sedimentary rocks in the Lake District had resulted
in the formation of a dome and an associated radial pattern of drainage (Figure 14)
• as the cover of sedimentaries is removed over 30 million years during the Tertiary era, the
much older rocks beneath were exposed (Figure 14b)
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• with insufficient time for adjustment, the radial pattern is superimposed into these rocks
(rocks which the radial pattern is quite compatible as illustrated in Figure 14c)
• thus, today, the three parallel bands of Borrowdale Volcanics, Skiddaw Slates and Silurian
rocks which compose the Lake District provide a geological structure discordant with the
pattern of rivers and lakes which drain them
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DRAINAGE BASIN ANALYSIS
Most earlier discussions of drainage patterns considered their development in relation
to the structure and the lithology of the underlying rocks. During the last twenty years, the
subjective approach to the description of drainage patterns has been largely supplanted by
more objective—and far more useful—techniques of study.
2. to enable relationships between different aspects of the drainage pattern of the same
basin to be formulated as general laws, and
• where two second-order streams unite, a third order segment results and so on
(Figure 1)
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If Strahler’s method of stream ordering is
used, it follows that the trunk stream of the basin,
through which all the discharge of the basin finds
its outlet, is the stream segment of the highest
order.
The strength of the method lies basically in its simplicity and ease of application
which have commended its widespread use in the 1960s.
• the stream order number does not reflect its relationship with channel size and
capacity
• for example, a fourth-order stream will have a capacity far in excess of four times
that of a first-order stream
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number of the stream below the junction (Figure 2)
• thus, at any point on a drainage network the order of a stream is given by a number
which represents the total number of the first-order streams which have
contributed to it
One advantage of using Shreve’s method over Strahler’s is that if we assume that first-
order streams are of approximately the same magnitude and that discharge is neither lost nor
gained from any source other than the tributaries (which is not true), than the Shreve number
is roughly proportional to the discharge in the segment of a stream to which it refers.
The disadvantage of his method is that a large number of stream orders will be defined
and there will be gaps in the sequence.
1. the law of stream number states that within a drainage basin, a constant geometric
relationship exists between stream order and stream
number
2. if the logarithms of the mean lengths of the stream segments of different orders are
plotted against stream order, the result is usually an approximately straight line—this is the
law of stream lengths
• Figure 4 shows that the higher the stream order the longer the mean stream length
(a positive relationship)
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3. the law of basin areas follows the same general pattern
• Figure 5 shows that the higher the stream order the greater the mean drainage basin
area (a positive correlation)
It is obtained by dividing the number of streams in one order by the number in the next
highest order.
The calculation of the bifurcation ratio can be done for streams ordered according to
Strahler’s method
• if there are
o 26 first-order streams,
o 6 second-order streams,
o 1 fourth-order stream
• the bifurcation ratio for the first- and second-order streams will be 26/6 = 4.33
• the bifurcation ratio for the second- and third-order streams will be 6/2 = 3.00
• the bifurcation ratio for the third- and fourth-order streams will be 2/1 = 2.00
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4.33+3.00+2.00
3
= 3.11
The bifurcation ration in drainage basins not greatly distorted by geological factors
usually varies between values of 3.0 and 5.0.
2 Drainage Density
This is a useful measure of the frequency and spacing of streams within the drainage
basin because
2. it also reflect to some degree the amount of run-off that a basin generates, since the
total channel capacity needs to be sufficient to cope with normal discharges, otherwise
flooding will be frequent and widespread
The calculation of the drainage densities allow comparisons to be made between area
and area. For example, it becomes possible to compare the drainage density
o it was found that the values usually range from less than 5 km/km2 on
permeable sandstones, to extreme values of more than 500 km/km2 on
unvegetated clay “badlands”
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• surface drainage may assume the form of intermittent streams
• the wet season Dd will therefore have a higher value as compared to the dry season
value
• however, the presence of numerous dry valleys occupied by streams in the recent
geomorphological past, points to a higher value for Dd
o for such landscapes, it may be useful to calculate both Dd in the strict sense of
the term and also the valley density
2.2.1 Time
In the early stages of development, the drainage network may be very “open” and the
rivers may be widely spaced (low Dd). However, as a result of the formation and growth of
tributaries, a closer and more dense network may be formed (higher Dd).
Impermeable rocks tend to give rise to more overland flow which will in turn lead to a
higher drainage density (especially when the rock is weak and easily eroded).
Permeable rocks such as limestone, on the other hand will give lower drainage density
since most of the water will percolate downwards so that little surface erosion or channel
formation will take place.
A high annual precipitation may mean more discharge and therefore a higher drainage
density, vice versa.
2.2.4 Vegetation
Vegetation will serve to enhance infiltration so that little surface run-off is generated.
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Dense vegetation cover is therefore usually associated with lower drainage density
values.
2.2.5 Relief
Steep slopes will generate more run-off than gentle slopes and will therefore have
higher drainage densities.
High intensity rainfall may lead to the generation of Horton overland flow and areas
which experiences heavy rainfall (e.g. convectional rain) will therefore have higher drainage
density values.
Permeable soil is associated with low drainage density and vice versa.
2. the soils are usually baked by the sun so that they become rather impermeable
3. the lack of vegetation cover means the frequent generation of overland flow
• very high drainage density in this region therefore appears to result from the
prevalence of surface run-off and the relative ease with which new channels are
initiated
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