Republic of the Philippines

NEGROS ORIENTAL STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Main Campus II, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City

Compilation of Reports
in
CE 427- HYDROLOGY
(S.Y. 2014-2015)

Submitted to:
Engr. Irismay Jumawan

1
 Submitted by:
Bernard Lungcob

2
Difference between Hydrology and Hydraulics

Hydrology is one of the earth sciences. It studies the waters of the earth, their
occurrence, circulation and distribution, their chemical and physical properties, and their
relation to living things. The term hydrology came from Greek: ὕδωρ, hydōr, "water";
and λόγος, logos, "study"

Hydraulics is a topic in applied science and engineering dealing with the

mechanical properties of liquids. It focuses on the engineering uses of fluid properties
and is also used for the generation, control, and transmission of power by the use of
pressurized liquids.Hydraulics camefrom the Greek word ὑδρασλικός(hydraulikos) which
in turn originates from ὕδωρ (hydor, Greek for water) and αὐλός (aulos, meaning pipe)

Hydrologic Cycle and the Human Impact

The central theme of hydrology is that water circulates throughout the Earth
through different pathways and at different rates. The most vivid image of this is in the
evaporation of water from the ocean, which forms clouds. These clouds drift over the
land and produce rain. The rainwater flows into lakes, rivers, or aquifers. The water in
lakes, rivers, and aquifers then either evaporates back to the atmosphere or eventually
flows back to the ocean, completing a cycle. Water changes its state of being several
times throughout this cycle.

Hydrologic Cycle

3
Human Impact on Water Cycle:
Although 75% of the earth is covered in water, only 3% of the water is
freshwater. Most of the freshwater is in glaciers and ice caps. Less than 1% of the
freshwater on the earth is readily available.

Certain gases in the atmosphere help keep the earth warm. Without these
greenhouse gases, the earth would be extremely cold. Many human activities increase the
amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This is believed to be causing global
warming.

Global Warming affects the Water Cycle warmer air causes more evaporation and
warm air holds more water. This intensifies the water cycle.

In areas around water, there may be more clouds and precipitation. In areas that
are away from bodies of water, there may be few clouds and less precipitation leading to
dry soil, plants dying, wells drying up, etc.

Acid Rain

Combustion of fossil fuels adds sulfur and nitrogen compounds to the air. These
compounds mix with the water vapor in the atmosphere and make it more acidic.

Effects of Acid Rain

Acid precipitation causes water on the earth‟s surface to be more acidic. Many
plants and animals cannot live in the more acidic conditions. They die and it affects
everything in the food web. Acid rain deteriorates buildings, statues, etc.

What We Can Do:

 Cut down on production of greenhouse gases
 Use clean coal that does not contain as much sulfur
 Use scrubber technology when burning coal to remove sulfates before smoke
enters the atmosphere
 Use less electricity
 Use alternative forms of energy to generate electricity (wind, solar)

Phases of Hydrologic Cycle

 Evapotranspiration
 Precipitation
 Infiltration / Percolation
 Surface / Subsurface Runoff
 Groundwater

4
Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration is the water evaporating from the ground and transpiration by

plants.

Evaporation occurs when radiant energy from sun heats water, causing the water
molecules to become so active that some of them rise into the atmosphere as vapour.

Transpiration occurs when plants take in water through the roots and release it
through the leaves, a process that can clean water by removing contaminants and
pollution.

Transpiration

Evaporation
5
Precipitation
-In cold air way up in the sky, rain clouds will often form. Rising warm air carries
water vapour high into the sky where it cools, forming water droplets around tiny bits of
dust in the air. Some vapour freezes into tiny ice crystals which attract cooled water
drops. The drops freeze to the ice crystals we call snowflakes. When the snowflakes
become heavy, they fall. When the snowflakes meet warmer air on the way down, they
melt into rain drops. In tropical climates, cloud droplets combine together around dust or
sea salt particles. They bang together and grow in size until they‟re heavy enough to fall.

Forms of Precipitation

6
Infiltration / Percolation
-Under some circumstances precipitation actually evaporates before it
reaches the surface. More often, though, precipitation reaches the Earth‟s surface, adding
to the surface water in streams and lakes, or infiltrating the portion of precipitation that
reaches the Earth‟s surface into the ground through the process called infiltration. Some
water passes through the small holes of the ground, this is what we call percolation.

Infiltration

Surface / Subsurface Runoff

-Precipitation that reaches the surface of the Earth but does not infiltrate
the soil is called Runoff. Runoff also comes from melted snow and ice. Not all
precipitated water returns to the sea as runoff; much of it evaporates before reaching the
ocean or an aquifer.

7
Groundwater Run-off
Water is held in each zone as a result of gravitational surface tension and
chemical forces. There are no sharp boundaries, except at the capillary fringe in coarse-
grained sediments. The water table is, in fact, a theoretical surface, and can be
demonstrated approximately by the level of water in wells which penetrate the saturated
zone. The water table can be defined as the level at which the fluid pressure of the pores,
in a porous medium, is exactly atmospheric. Below the water table the subsurface water
is usually termed groundwater. Runoff

Groundwater

8
Philippine Watersheds

A watershed is an area of land where water, melted snow, or rainfall that is shed
off mountains and flows through cracks in the headwaters to the valley floor. The water is
channelled into soils, ground waters, creeks, and streams. The water eventually makes its
way to the wetlands, estuaries, and rivers which leads to the bays and oceans.

Watersheds are important. A watershed provides habitats to plants and animals.

Some of plants and animals that live in these places are different types of fishes.
Watersheds need to be healthy so that animals and plants may survive.

9
10
Watersheds in the Philippines:

Name Location Area Established

Aklan River Aklan 23,185 ha, 57,291 acres 1990

Alabat Quezon 688 ha, 1,700 acres 1987

Alijawan-Cansuhay-
Bohol 3,630 ha, 8,970 acres 1992
Anibongan River

Allah South Cotabato 92,450 ha, 228,449 acres 1985

Angat River Bulacan 6,600 ha, 16,309 acres 1968

Aurora Aurora 430 ha, 1,063 acres 1936

Bawa Cagayan 8,955 ha, 22,128 acres 1987

Binahaan River Quezon 465 ha, 1,149 acres 1991

Calabgan Aurora 4,803 ha, 11,868 acres 1992

Calatrava-San Andres-
Romblon 2,670 ha, 6,598 acres 1982
San Agustin

Calauag Quezon 328 ha, 811 acres 1939

Capalonga CamarinesNorte 752 ha, 1,858 acres 1966

Catanduanes Catanduanes 26,010 ha, 64,272 acres 1987

Dahican CamarinesNorte 44 ha, 109 acres 1933

Dalanas River Antique 8,558 ha,21,147 acres 1990

11
Name Location Area Established

Dibalo-Pingit-Zabali-
Aurora 4,528 ha, 11,189 acres 1992
Malayat

Dipaculao Aurora 1,786 ha, 4,413 acres 1987

Doña Remedios- Bulacan-Nueva

20,760 ha, 51,299 acres 1988
General Tinio Ecija

Dupax Nueva Vizcaya 424.80 ha, 1,050 acres 1934

IlocosNorte Metro IlocosNorte 2,815 ha, 6,956 acres 1934

Ilog-Hilabangan Negros Occidental 10,211 ha, 25,232 acres 1990

Infanta Quezon 384 ha, 949 acres 1967

Jalaur River Iloilo 9,228 ha, 22,803 acres 1990

Kabankalan Negros Occidental 432 ha, 1,067 acres 1991

Lake Lanao Lanao del Sur 180,460 ha, 445,926 acres 1992

Libungan Cotabato 52,820 ha, 130,521 acres 1990

Loboc River Bohol 19,410 ha, 47,963 acres 1953

Lopez Quezon 418 ha, 1,033 acres 1940

Lower Agno Benguet 39,304 ha, 97,122 acres 1983

Maasin Iloilo 6,150 ha, 15,197 acres 1923

Mahugunao Misamis Oriental 136 ha, 336 acres 1932

Malagos Davao del Sur 235 ha, 581 acres 1933

12
Name Location Area Established

Marcos Highway Benguet 6,105 ha, 15,086 acres 1978

Mariveles (Palanas) Bataan 325 ha, 803 acres 1919

Mulanay Quezon 26 ha, 64 acres 1938

Naguilian La Union 90 ha, 222 acres 1936

Olongapo (Palanas) Zambales 6,335 ha, 15,654 acres 1987

Palawan Palawan 4,776 ha, 11,802 acres 1982

Palompon Leyte 2,392 ha, 5,911 acres 1988

Panay River Capiz 4,350 ha, 10,749 acres 1990

Pantabangan-
Nueva Ecija 84,500 ha, 208,804 acres 1969
Carranglan

Polillo Quezon 130 ha, 321 acres 1966

Santa Ilocos Sur 25 ha, 62 acres 1935

South Upi Maguindanao 1,894.20 ha, 4,681 acres 1987

Nueva Ecija-Nueva
Talavera 37,156 ha, 91,814 acres 1938
Vizcaya

Tanap IlocosNorte 41 ha, 101 acres 1971

Tibiang-
Quezon 280 ha, 692 acres 1938
Damagandong

Torrijos Marinduque 105 ha, 259 acres 1932

Tumauini Isabela 17,670 ha, 43,664 acres 1994

13
Loboc Watershed

Pantabangan-Carranglan
Watershed

Angat Watershed

14
How to Delineate a Watershed?
Materials Needed:

-Topographic map
-Pencil if using paper map
-AutoCAD or other type of drafting software if using electronic map

Drainage areas are determined by tracing all of the water bodies flowing into the
stream or river upstream of the proposed site. A divide or ridge surrounds every drainage
basin. A divide is defined as “the line of separation or dividing ridge marking the
boundary between two drainage systems”.

Undelineated Watershed

15
Steps on how to delineate a watershed:

Step 1: Determine the discharge point and which part of the streams and tributaries are
upstream from that point.

Step 2: Next, working upstream, trace all of the streams that drain into the water body on
which your site rests. Remember that the tributaries point upstream.

Note:

Contour lines spaced far apart denote that the landscape is more level and
gently sloping. This is an indication of flat land. Contour lines spaced very
close together denote dramatic changes in elevation over the short distance.
Close contour lines mean steep slopes.

Step 3: After tracing the streams, you can delineate your drainage area by tracing the
divide that encircles all of the tributaries draining into the main stream. Begin
by recognizing valleys and ridges.

16
Step 4: Starting at the designated downstream point, draw a line perpendicular to the
nearest uphill contour line.

Step 5: Make sure to intersect the contours at break points. Break points are the highest
elevations where half of the precipitation in that area would flow to one stream
and half the precipitation would flow to another. Repeat this step continuing
from contour to contour.

Step 6: Connect all break points, making sure to hit all high points in the area. Also,
make sure the line connects to the original discharge point. The completed line
represents the drainage area boundary. The watershed is now delineated.

Discharge
point

Delineated Watershed

17
A delineated watershed in 3D view

Discharge
point

18
Step 7: Picture a drop of falling rain on the surface of the map, inside of the drainage
area boundary. Envision the water flowing down the slopes as it perpendicular
crosses contour lines. Trace its path to the nearest stream that flows to the
discharge point you are studying. Repeat this process for different points on the
watershed boundary to verify that the boundaries are correct.

Conclusion:

A drainage area can be related to a bowl. The drainage area boundary is the
rim of the bowl, and a rain drop on the rim will either fall into the bowl
(drainage area) or out. Engineers use the delineated watershed boundary in
conjunction with precipitation, infiltration, and evaporation rates to determine
water balances in drainage areas.

19
REFERENCES:
Websites:

-http://en.wikipedia.org

-https://www.fcwa.org/story_of_water/html/hydrocycle.htm

-https://www.gast.co.za/hydrology/

-http://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercyclesummary.html

-http://water.usgs.gov/edu/watershed.html

Powerpoint presentation:

https://www.google.com.ph/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&u
act=8&ved=0CCMQFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwesternreservepublicmedia.org%2Fea
rthmotion3%2Fimages%2FHuman_Impact_on_water.ppt&ei=GD8IVefzIaPKmwX7toKI
BQ&usg=AFQjCNGfQGTDdigwqyDVflBLPCd8PMB2bg

PDF:

-http://www.personal.psu.edu/acb5054/blogs/abisher/Instruction%20Set.pdf

http://www.geo.brown.edu/research/Hydrology/FTP_site_509905/maine_appD_watershe
d-delineate.pdf

20
 WEATHER BASICS
(METEOROLOGY)

ATMOSPHERIC WATERS

2.1 THE ATMOSPHERE:

Composition, General Characteristics and Stability

2.2 INTRODUCTION OF CLOUD PHYSICS:

Nucleation, Growth and Distribution

2.3 SOLAR RADIATION AND EARTH’S ENERGY BALANCE

Submitted by:
Anna Lie T. Piñero

21
METEOROLOGY

 Interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere

 The science which illuminates and explains observable weather events

Weather – Describes short term (hours to week(s) state of the atmosphere (i.e.
Sunshine, precipitation, temperature, etc)

Climate – Describes long term variation of weather at a certain location over a

specific time interval (months or longer)

2.1 THE ATMOSPHERE:

Composition, General Characteristics and Stability

ATMOSPHERE - a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body of

sufficient mass that is held in place by the gravity of the body
- Protects living organisms from genetic damage by
solar ultraviolet radiation

 COMPOSITION

 Nitrogen - 78%
 Oxygen - 21% ( used by most organisms for respiration )
 Argon - 0.9%
 Carbon Dioxide - 0.03%
( used by plants, algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis )
 Water Vapor and Trace Gases – average of 1%

 VERTICAL STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE

Troposphere – lowest portion of Earth's atmosphere

Tropopause – boundary region between the troposphere and the stratosphere.
Stratosphere – is the second major layer of Earth's atmosphere, just above the
troposphere, and below the mesosphere
Mesosphere – directly above the stratopause and directly below the mesopause
Ionosphere – region of the upper atmosphere, from about 85 km (53 mi) to
600 km (370 mi) altitude
22
 Vertical Structure of Atmosphere

 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

 The lower atmosphere contains varying amounts of water vapor, which

determine its humidity.
 Condensation and sublimation within the atmosphere cause clouds or
fog, and the resulting liquid water droplets or ice crystals may
precipitate to the ground as rain, sleet, snow, hail, dew, or frost.
 Because of the pull of gravity the density of the atmosphere and the
pressure exerted by air molecules are greatest near the earth's surface.

 5 VARIABLES THAT INFLUENCE THE ATMOSPHERE:

1. Temperature – amount of heat contained in an object

– the amount of heat in the air determines the speed of the
molecules in the air
2. Pressure – is the force per unit area that is always applied
perpendicularly to a surface by the surrounding gas. It is determined by a

23
 planet's gravitational force in combination with the total mass of a
column of gas above a location. On Earth, units of air pressure are based
on the internationally recognized standard atmosphere (atm), which is
defined as 101,325 Pa (760 Torr or 14.696 psi).
3. Humidity – the ratio of amount of water vapor in air at current
temperature to maximum amount vapor air can hold at that temperature
4. Cloudiness
5. Winds

 ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY

Stable Equilibrium Unstable Equilibrium

 Stability refers to a condition of equilibrium.

 When the atmosphere is stable, a parcel of air will want to return to its
original position after being raised or lowered.
 Vertical motions are inhibited.
 Atmospheric stability is a measure of the atmosphere's tendency to
encourage or deter vertical motion, and vertical motion is directly
correlated to different types of weather systems and their severity.
 The atmosphere is absolutely stable when the environmental lapse rate is
less than the moist adiabatic lapse rate.

24
ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE

Adiabatic – a process where the parcel temperature changes due to an expansion

or compression, no heat is added or taken away from the parcel

Lapse Rate – rate at which atmospheric temperature decreases with increase in

altitude
– units of lapse rate are °C/km

Dry-adiabatic Lapse Rate

– unsaturated parcels cool at a rate of 10°C/km
– this is called the dry-adiabatic lapse rate

Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate

– For a saturated parcel of air,i.e., when its T=Td, then it
cools at the moist adiabatic lapse rate= 6°C/km

25
HOW DO WE ASSESS STABILITY?

We must compare the parcel's temperature T p with the temperature of the

surrounding environment Te.

 Tp > Te The parcel is positively buoyant, it is less dense and will rise.

 Tp < Te The parcel is negatively buoyant, it is more dense and will sink.

 Tp = Te The parcel is neutrally buoyant, it will not rise or sink.

ABSOLUTE STABILITY
Generally, notice that Te is always larger than Tsp and Tup at any level
– Hence, an unsaturated or saturated parcel will always be cooler than the
environment and will sink back down to the ground

• The condition for absolute stability is:

– Γd > Γm > Γe
– Γd is the dry adiabatic lapse rate (10°C km-1)
– Γm is the moist adiabatic lapse rate (6°C km-1)
– Γe is the environmental lapse rate

26
2.2 INTRODUCTION OF CLOUD PHYSICS:
Nucleation, Growth and Distribution

CLOUD PHYSICS - the study of the physical processes that lead to the formation,
growth and precipitation of clouds

NUCLEATION - the first step in the formation of either a new thermodynamic phase
or a new structure via self-assembly or self-organisation

 CLOUD FORMATION

 Cloud is a thick mass of suspended water drops or ice crystals.

 Sunlight causes water to evaporate into the atmosphere. This air
containing the water vapor is heated at the surface of the earth and rises.
As the air rises, it cools and the water vapor condenses on some form of
particulate matter such as dust, ash, or smoke to form clouds. Clouds are
formed when water vapour is cooled below the dew point during its
upward movement. The particulate matter are called Condensation
Nuclei.
 Dew point – the temperature at which water vapour is turned into water

There are several ways to get a parcel to rise, thus, forming clouds. These are:

1) Lifting by Convection

As the earth is heated by the sun, thermals (bubbles of hot air) rise upward
from the surface. The thermal cools as it rises, losing some of its buoyancy
(its ability to rise).

27
2) Lifting by Convergence

Convergence exists when there is a horizontal net inflow into a region. The
air has nowhere else to go so, when air converges along the surface, it is
forced to rise.

3) Lifting due to Topography

This type of lifting occurs when air is confronted by a sudden increase in the
vertical topography of the Earth. When air comes across a mountain, it is
lifted up and over, cooling as it is rising.

4) Lifting along Frontal Boundaries

Cold Front

A colder, denser air mass lifts the warm, moist air ahead of it. As the warm
air rises, it cools and condenses, producing clouds and precipitation. The
steep slope of the cold front leads to more vigorous rising motion. Hence,
cold fronts are often associated with thunderstorms.

28
 Warm Front

A warmer, less dense air mass rises up and over the cold air ahead of the
warm front Air rises, cools and condenses. Warm fronts have gentler slopes
and move slower than cold fronts. Generally, precipitation is more steady
and widespread, a steady rain shower results.

Cold Front Warm Front

 THEORIES TO EXPLAIN THE GROWTH OF A CLOUD ELEMENT

1) Ice Crystal Process

 involves the presence of ice crystals in a supercooled (cooled to

below freezing) water cloud (–15 °C). Due to the fact that
saturation vapor pressure over water is greater than that over ice,
there is a vapor pressure gradient from water drops to ice
crystals. This causes the ice crystals to grow at the expense of the
water drops, and under favorable conditions, to attain
precipitation size.

2) Coalescence Process

 based on the difference in fall velocities and consequent

collisions to be expected between cloud elements of different
sizes. The rate of growth of cloud elements depend upon the
initial range of particle sizes.

29
2.3 SOLAR RADIATION AND EARTH’S ENERGY BALANCE

THE SUN

 the source of energy that drives the climate system

 the star located at the center of our planetary system, at a distance of about 150 x
106 kilometers from Earth. With a surface temperature of 5780 K
 a thermonuclear fusion reaction converts the hydrogen into helium releasing huge
amounts of energy

RADIATION - the transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves.

 The main range of solar radiation includes ultraviolet radiation (UV, 0.001-0.4
μm), visible radiation (light, 0.4-0.7 μm), and infrared radiation (IR, 0.7-100
μm).

SCATTERING

Solar radiation can be scattered by atmosphere

 Deflected off a molecule, cloud droplet, or particle
 May go up toward space, or down toward Earth
 Scattering most prevalent in blue wavelengths, thus, clear, blue skies
Some solar radiation goes directly to surface
 Called transmission
 Solar radiation arrives as 0.3μm to 3μm wavelengths
 This is shortwave radiation

30
INSOLATION

Daily insolation – average radiation total in 24 hours

o Sun angle – higher sun angle → greater insolation

o Length of day – higher latitudes get long summer days

Annual insolation – average radiation total for a year

o Also depends on sun angle and length of day

o Both of these determined by latitude
o So, latitude determines annual insolation

ALBEDO

Albedo – reflectivity of a planet; proportion of shortwave radiation reflected

 The Earth's albedo is about 0.3. This fraction of incoming radiation is

reflected back into space. The other 0.7 part of the incoming solar radiation is
absorbed by our planet.

Examples:
 Snowfield 0.45-0.85
 Black pavement 0.03
 Clouds 0.30-0.60
 Water (calm, high angle 0.02), (low angle 0.80)

31
 Snowfield Black Pavement

INCOMING SOLAR RADIATION

SWdn = S cos

Where:

S is solar constant S=1366 Watts/m2

 = solar zenith angle, which is the angle

between the local zenith and the line of line of
sight to the sun

REFLECTED SOLAR RADIATION

SWup = SWdn 

where  is albedo, which is the ratio of reflected flux density

to incident flux density, referenced to some surface.

32
INCOMING AND SURFACE EMITTED LONGWAVE RADIATION

• Can be estimated using the blackbody approximation

BLACKBODY - a body that absorbs all the radiative energy it received,

regardless of wavelength

 All heated objects must emit electromagnetic radiation, particularly so if

they are surrounded by empty space. This radiation is referred to as outgoing.
As long as the incoming radiative flux is larger than the outgoing, the radiated
object will continue to warm, and its temperature will continue to increase.
This in turn will result in an increase in the outgoing radiation (according to
the Stefan-Boltzmann law the outgoing radiation increases faster than the
temperature). At some point the object will emit as much radiation as the
amount incoming and a radiative equilibrium (or balance) will be reached.

STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW

• States that radiation emitted from a blackbody is a function only of temperature

I=T4

where I is the intensity of the radiation, T is the temperature in K, and is the

Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4)

• So, hotter surface emit more energy than colder surface (double T, 16x more
radiation)

• Earth (290K)= 401 Wm-2, Sun (6000K) = 7.3 x 106 Wm-2. So ISun >> Iearth

• Incoming LW (air-emitted): LWdn = air

• Surface emitted LW: LWup=Ts4

Net longwave radiation ( LWdn - LWup = Tair4 - Ts4 )

• Is generally small because air temperature is often close to surface temperature

• Is generally smaller than net shortwave radiation even when air temperature is not
close to surface temperature

• Important during the night when there is no shortwave radiation

33
SOURCES/REFERENCES

1) Ponce, Victor Miguel. 1989. Engineering Hydrology:Principles and Practices.

2) http://www.geo.utexas.edu/courses/387h/Lectures/Stability_Clouds.pdf

3) http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8e.html

4) http://study.com/academy/lesson/temperature-clouds-wind-humidity-on-the-
atmospheric-cycle.html

5) http://meteorologytraining.tpub.com/14312/css/14312_47.htm

6) http://ocw.usu.edu/Forest__Range__and_Wildlife_Sciences/Wildland_Fire_Manageme
nt_and_Planning/Unit_7__Atmospheric_Stability_and_Instability_1.html

7) http://eesc.columbia.edu/courses/ees/climate/lectures/radiation/

8) http://en.wikipedia.org/

34
 WEATHER BASICS
(METEOROLOGY)

ATMOSPHERIC WATERS

2.4 GENERAL CIRCULATION:

Thermal Circulation and Earth’s Rotation

2.5 TEMPERATURE:
Geographic Distribution, Time Variation and Measurement

2.6 HUMIDITY:
Geographic Distribution, Time Variation and Measurement

Submitted by:
Jhayrald Teroga
Marjorie Tubog

35
 General Circulation: Thermal Circulation and Earth’s
Rotation
Climate and general circulation of the atmosphere are related to:

 Energy Balance
 Transport Processes
 The three cell model
Energy Balance

Related to the balance of the incoming solar radiation and the outgoing terrestrial
radiation emitted by the earth. Over the globe, the energy balance is nearly balanced
when averaged over a year (incoming equals outgoing). When averaged over a latitude
band, incoming radiation is a surplus in the tropics and deficit of radiation is found in the
Polar Regions due to the outgoing terrestrial radiation being larger than the absorbed
solar radiation.

Transport Process

To compensate for the surplus and deficit of radiation in different regions of the
globe, atmospheric and oceanic transport processes distribute the energy equally
around the earth. This transport is accomplished by atmospheric winds and ocean
currents.

Three Cell Model

This model represents the average circulation of the atmosphere and is used to
describe the atmospheric transport of energy.

36
Thermal and three-cell circulation

You know equatorial areas receive more direct solar radiation than do polar areas. Also,
in the lower latitudes, the ratio of land to water is low. Since water loses heat slowly,
more heat is received than lost through radiation. In the polar regions, just the opposite is
true. The land to water ratio is high and more heat is lost due to radiation than is received.
Since the Tropics do not become progressively hotter and polar regions colder, there must
be a transfer of heat between the two regions or a general circulation. The mechanism
that sets up Earth‟s general circulation pattern is the latitudinal transfer of heat.

Thermal circulation

If the Earth‟s surface were smooth, uniform, and stationary, atmospheric circulation
would be very simple. The atmosphere would act as a contained fluid and movements
within this fluid would be the convective currents caused by temperature and density
differences. The latitudinal transfer of heat would result in a single circulation cell.
Unequal heating is the main driving mechanism responsible for the Earth‟s atmospheric
circulations.

Three-cell circulation

This theory of circulation best describes the Earth‟s general circulation because it
considers effects of coriolis force due to the Earth‟s rotation. In this circulation model,
the Northern and Southern Hemisphere are each divided into three cells of circulation,
each spanning 30 degrees of latitude. The latitudes that mark the boundaries of these cells
are the Equator, 30° North and South, and 60° North and South.

 Hadley Cell

37
 George Hadley, an English meteorologist, theorized this first circulation cell in 1735.
The Hadley cell is the strongest of the three cells of circulation and is formed as warm air
rises above the Equator and starts to flow northward. Because of the circulation in the
Hadley cell, two pressure belts are created. The first is a belt of semi-permanent high
pressure that results from the sinking air at 30°. This belt of high pressure is called
the subtropical ridge. The second pressure belt is a trough of low pressure near the
Equator. It is called the near equatorial trough.

 Polar Cell

This is the northernmost cell of circulation and its mean position is between 60°N
and the North Pole. At the pole, cold, dense air descends, causing an area of subsidence
and high pressure. As the air sinks, it begins spreading southward. Since the coriolis force
is strongest at the poles, the southward moving air deflects sharply to the right. This wind
regime is called the surface polar easterlies, although the upper winds are still
predominantly from the southwest. Near 60ºN, the southeasterly moving air moving
along the surface collides with the weak, northwesterly surface flow that resulted from
spreading air at 30°N. This colliding air rises, creating a belt of low pressure near 60°N.

 Ferrel Cell

The mid-latitude circulation cell between the Polar cell and the Hadley cell is called
the Ferrel cell. This cell is named after William Ferrel, a Nashville school teacher who
first proposed its existence. The Ferrel cell circulation is not as easily explained as the
Hadley and Polar cells. Unlike the other two cells, where the upper and low-level flows
are reversed, a generally westerly flow dominates the Ferrel cell at the surface and aloft.
It is believed the cell is a forced phenomena, induced by interaction between the other
two cells. The stronger downward vertical motion and surface convergence at 30°N
coupled with surface convergence and net upward vertical motion at 60°N induces the
circulation of the Ferrel cell.

38
THE TROPICAL HADLEY CIRCULATION
Persistent net radiational heating of the tropical earth surface leads to
widespread occurrence of static instability of the tropical atmosphere.
Large amounts of evaporation from the sun-warmed oceans also assures
ample supplies of water vapor in the air. There is, consequently, a large
scale, persistent band of organized convection throughout the tropics
called the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The ITCZ extends
along a long band in the deep tropics, and can often be traced aound the
whole globe. This persistent band of organized convection draws air into it
al low levels from latitudes north and south of its location.

Gravity and mass conservation requires that the large amounts of rising air
in this convection zone bear off to horizontal flow at high altitudes. The
need to transport energy out of the tropics dictates a bearing off towards
the higher latitudes of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, rather than
remaining in the tropics. As the air moves through the subtropics and
begins to interact with the flow regimes of the middle latitudes, the mixed
and cooled air subsides, thus completing a large scale, organized, tropical
convection system called the Hadley Circulation.

Actually, if you look at the zonal averages (the average

along the parallels) of the wind in the atmosphere, you
will find a reverse circulation at mid-latitude. This
circulation is called a Ferrel cell. The flow of the
atmosphere at the mid-latitudes is characterized by the
baroclinic instability, which causes high and low
pressure systems.

On the other hand, the circulation of air at low latitudes

is close to the model that Hadley proposed long ago, so
these areas are called Hadley cells.

39
 TEMPERATURE: GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION, TIME
VARIATION AND MEASUREMENT
Geographic distribution

If the Earth was a homogeneous body without the present land/ocean distribution,
its temperature distribution would be strictly latitudinal (Figure 7m-1). However, the
Earth is more complex than this being composed of a mosaic of land and water. This
mosaic causes latitudinal zonation of temperature to be disrupted spatially.

Figure 7m-1: Simple latitudinal zonation of temperature.

The following two factors are important in influencing the distribution of temperature on
the Earth's surface:

 The latitude of the location determines how much solar radiation is

received. Latitude influences the angle of incidence and duration of
daylength.
 Surface properties - surfaces with high albedo absorb less incident
radiation. In general, land absorbs less insolation that water because of its
lighter color. Also, even if two surfaces have the same albedo, a
surface's specific heat determines the amount of heat energy required for a
specific rise in temperature per unit mass. The specific heat of water is
some five times greater than that of rock and the land surface (see Table
7m-1 below). As a result, water requires the input of large amounts of
energy to cause a rise in its temperature.

40
Table 7m-1: Specific Heat of Various Substances.

Substance Specific Heat

Water 1.00
Air 0.24
Granite 0.19
Sand 0.19
Iron 0.11

Mainly because of specific heat, land surfaces behave quite differently from water
surfaces. In general, the surface of any extensive deep body of water heats more slowly
and cools more slowly than the surface of a large land body. Other factors influencing the
way land and water surfaces heat and cool include:

 Solar radiation warms an extensive layer in water, on land just the

immediate surface is heated.
 Water is easily mixed by the process of convection.
 Evaporation of water removes energy from water's surface.

Figure 7m-2: Mean January air temperature for the Earth's

surface, 1959-1997. (Source of Original Modified
Image: Climate Lab Section of the Environmental Change
Research Group, Department of Geography, University of
Oregon - Global Climate Animations)

41
 Figure 7m-3: Mean July air temperature for the Earth's surface,
1959-1997. (Source of Original Modified Image: Climate Lab
Section of the Environmental Change Research Group,
Department of Geography, University of Oregon - Global
Climate Animations).

TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

1. DIURNAL VARIATION

Is the change in temperature from day to night brought about by the daily rotation of
the Earth. The Earth receives heat during the day by solar radiation and warms up.
During the night, the Earth loses energy and cools down even until sunrise.

42
 2. SEASONAL VARIATION

Is the change in temperature due to seasonal variation of the angle of incident solar
radiation between hemispheres brought about by the tilting of the Earth‟s axis during its
orbit around the sun. The Northern Hemisphere is warmer in June, July, and August
because it receives more solar energy than does the Southern Hemisphere. During
December, January, and February, the opposite is true; the Southern Hemisphere receives
more solar energy and is warmer.

3. VARIATION WITH LATITUDE

Is the change in temperature due to the variation in the angle of incident solar
radiation in contact with the geographical surface profile of the Earth. Since the Earth is
essentially spherical, the sun is more nearly overhead in equatorial regions than at higher
latitudes. Equatorial regions, therefore, receive the most radiant energy and are warmest.

43
 4. VARIATIONS WITH TOPOGRAPHY

Is the change in temperature not related to movement or shape of the earth are
temperature variations induced by water and terrain. Water absorbs and radiates energy
with less temperature change than does land. Large, deep water bodies tend to minimize
temperature changes, while continents favor large changes. Wet soil such as in swamps
and marshes is almost as effective as water in suppressing temperature changes. Thick
vegetation tends to control temperature changes since it contains some water and also
insulates against heat transfer between the ground and the atmosphere.

5. VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE

Temperature varies as one move vertically upward from the Earth‟s surface.
Temperature normally decreases with increasing altitude throughout the troposphere.
This decrease of temperature with altitude is defined as lapse rate. An increase in
temperature with altitude is defined as an inversion, i.e., lapse rate is inverted.
An inversion often develops near the ground on clear, cool nights when wind is
light. The ground radiates and cools much faster than the overlying air. Air in contact
with the ground becomes cold while the temperature a few hundred feet above changes
very little. Thus, temperature increases with height. Inversions may also occur at any
altitude when conditions are favorable. Inversions are common in the stratosphere.

44
Temperature Measurement

Temperature is measured with thermometers that may be calibrated to a variety of

temperature scales:
 Celsius scale – measure temperature using the Celsius scale and
 Kelvin scale – measure thermodynamics temperature
 Rankine scale – a shifted Fahrenheit scale, used when working in
thermodynamic related disciplines such as combustion.
Temperature is an instrument that operates on the principle of thermal
expansion of the material used, e.g. liquids like mercury and alcohol, metallic
materials, etc.

 Standard Thermometer – mercury-in-glass measurement

 Minimum Thermometer –alcohol-in-glass type measuring minimum
temp. ( )
 Maximum Thermometer – mercury-in-glass type measuring maximum
temp. ( )
 Thermograph – an instrument that records air temperature
continuously on graphing paper

Thermometer

45
 Thermograph

Global Temperature

The global temperature records and measurements are typically acquired using the
satellite or ground instrumental temperature measurements, the usually compiled using a
database or c The true daily mean, obtained from a thermograph, is approximated by the
mean of 24 hourly readings (which is not the same as the mean of the daily minimum and
maximum readings). The world‟s average surface air temperature is about 15ºC.

Statistical Treatment of Temperature

a) Mean Daily Temperature ( ) – average of daily maximum and minimum
temperature

= ( + )
b) Nominal Daily Temperature ( ) – average daily mean temperature for a given
date over a specific 30-year period
= ; n= no. of days

c) Daily Range in Temperature( ) – the difference between the highest and lowest
temperature
= -

46
 d) Mean Monthly Temperature ( ) – average of the mean monthly maximum
and minimum temperature
T = ; n= no. of months
e) Mean Annual temperature (T ) –average of monthly means for the year
T =
Standard temperature of the atmosphere at sea level and a pressure of 1013.2 mbars is 15
ºC.

Sample Problem:

1. Determine the mean monthly temperature using the following data:

Month Minimum Temperature Maximum Temperature
June 21 28.5 ºC 33.2 ºC
July 22 33.2 ºC 29.8 ºC
August 23 36.2 ºC 28.7 ºC
Sept 24 29.7 ºC 30.8 ºC
Oct 25 34.8 ºC 28.0 ºC

Solution:

Month Minimum Temp. Maximum Temp.

June 21 28.5˚C 33.2˚C 30.85˚C
July 22 33.2˚C 29.8˚C 31.50˚C
August 23 36.2˚C 28.7˚C 32.45˚C
September 24 29.7˚C 30.8˚C 30.25˚C
October 25 34.8˚C 28.0˚C 31.40˚C
꞊ 156.45˚C

Therefore, mean monthly temperature,

꞊ ꞊ ꞊ 31.29˚C

47
 Humidity: Geographic Distribution, Time
Variation and Measurement

Humidity- is a term for the amount of water vapor in the air, and can refer to any
one several measurements of humidity; it is the state of the atmosphere with respect
to the water cement and maybe expressed in terms of the following parameters:
absolute humidity, relative humidity, specific humidity, dew point, frost point, mixing
ratio, saturation, vapor concentration, vapor pressure, etc.

In meteorology, humidity indicates the likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog. High

relative humidity reduces the effectiveness of sweating in cooling the body by
reducing the rate of evaporation of moisture from the skin. This effect is calculated in
a heat index table, used during summer weather.

Terminologies
 Water vapor is water in the gaseous phase.
 Vapor pressure is the partial pressure of a given sample of moist air that is
attributable to the water vapor.
 Vaporization or evaporation-process by which liquid water is converted into
vapor.
 Saturation vapor pressure is the vapor pressure necessary to saturate the air.
Its value depends only on the temperature of the air.
 Dew point temperature is the temperature the air would have if it were cooled,
at constant pressure and water vapor content, until saturation (or
condensation) occurred.
 Dew point depression is the difference between the actual temperature and the
dew point.
 Wet-bulb temperature is the temperature an air parcel would have if it were
cooled to saturation at constant pressure by evaporating water into the parcel.
The wet-bulb temperature is the lowest air temperature that can be achieved
by evaporation.
 Condensation-process by which water changes from the gaseous state into the
liquid or solid state.
 Sublimation-process whereby a solid is transformed directly to vapor state and
vice versa.
 Mass mixing ratio-mass of water vapor per unit mass of perfectly dry air in
humid mixture
 Volumetric humidity-mass of water per unit volume as in the equation above

48
  Psychrometrics-the field concerned with the study of physical and
thermodynamic properties of gas-vapor mixtures

Humidity Types
1. Absolute Humidity-is an amount of water vapor, usually discussed per unit
volume. The mass of water vapor per unit volume of total air and water vapor
mixture expressed as follows:
AH=

2. Relative Humidity-is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor
in the air-water mixture to the saturated vapor pressure of water at those
conditions. It is normally expressed as a percentage and is calculated by
equation.

Ø= ×100%
Relative humidity is an important metric used in weather forecasts and
reports, as it is an indicator of the likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog.

3. Specific Humidity-is the ratio of water vapor to dry air in a particular mass,
and is sometimes referred to as humidity ratio. That ratio is defined as:

SH=

Equations
Vapor Pressure, e = partial pressure exerted by water vapor

e= -
Where: = pressure of moist air
= pressure of dry air

Saturation vapor pressure, – the pressure exerted by the vapor in a saturated space and
is the maximum vapor pressure possible at a given temperature. It is also the rate at
which the molecules reentering the liquid is equal to the rate at which they leave. It is
also known as the boiling pressure at a given temperature occurs in a confined space.

49
Bosen Formula (1970):

≈ 33.8639[(0.00738T +0.8072)8- 0.000019(1.8T+48) + 0.001316]

Where: ꞊ in mbars

T ꞊ ºC

Tetens Equation (1930):

= 611 exp ( )

Where: = in Pa

T = ºC

Properties of Water Vapor

a. Specific gravity,
= = 0.622
b. Density of dry air,
=

Where: = pressure of dry air ⁄ , abs

R= gas constant = 287 ⁄

T = abs. temperature, K

c. Density of water vapor,

=0.622
Where: e = vapor pressure
d. Density of moist air,
=

= + = 0.622 +

50
Where: e = vapor pressure in ⁄ , abs

= pressure of dry air ⁄ , abs

R = gas constant = 287 ⁄ for dry air

T = abs. temperature, K

The vapor pressure e of the water vapor is given by the ideal gas law

e= T

The relationship between the constants for moist air and dry air is

= (1+0.608 ) = 287(1+0.608 )

Where: = specific humidity = 0.622 ⁄

Since is not normally known and from the above equation is equal to the total
pressure of moist air, then = -e, thus

= 0.622 +

= 0.622 + ( -e)

= 0.622 + -

= -0.378 +

= – ( - 0.378e) or = (1-0.378 )

From the equation of state for gases

= = 0.003489

Where: T= ºC

51
Relative Humidity, f– percentage ratio of the amount of moisture or water vapor the
space to the amount of moisture or water vapor the space could contain if saturated. This
is equal to the percentage ratio of the actual vapor pressure to saturated vapor pressure.

f = 100 (%)

Where: e = actual vapor pressure

= saturation vapor pressure

Bosen Approximate Equation

f≈ 100 ( )

Where: T = (-25 T 45ºC)

= air temperature, ºC

= dewpoint temperature, ºC

Dew Point Temperature,

 the temperature to which air must be cooled at a constant pressure in order for
it to become saturated
 the temperature having a saturation vapor pressure, equal to the existing
vapor pressure, e
 a temperature at which air would just become saturated at a given specific
humidity

Bosen Approximate Equation when -40ºC ≤ T ≤ 50ºC for known

T- ≈ (14.55+1.114T) X + [{2.5 + 0.007T|} X]3 + (15.9+0.117T)14

Where: T= air temperature, ºC

X= complement of relative humidity= 1.0-

Based on Teten‟s Formula:

52
 ( )
= 237.3
( )

Where: f= relative humidity in decimal

Psychrometric equation to determine actual vapor pressure, e

e= – 0.00066(1+0.00115 ) P (T- )

Where: e = actual vapor pressure, mbars

= saturation vapor pressure in mbar at the given wet-bulb,

= wet-bulb temperature, ºC

T = dry-bulb temperature, ºC

P = normal barometric pressure, = 1015.9 mbars

Note: The measurement of humidity in the surface layers of atmosphere are made with
psychrometer, which consist of two thermometers, one with its bulb covered by a jacket
of clean muslin saturated with water. The thermometers are ventilated by whirling or by
use of fan. Because of the cooling effect of evaporation, the moistened or wet-bulb
thermometer reads lower than the dry, and the difference in degrees known as wet-bulb
depression.

Atmospheric Humidity Measuring Devices

There are various devices used to measure and regulate humidity.

1. Hygrometer – device used to measure humidity. It uses human hair from which
the oil has been removed by using ether. The hair becomes longer as the relative
humidity of the air increases. This change can be made to move an indicator
needle which moves over a scale, the graduations of which reads from 0% to
100%.

53
2. Sling Psychrometer – consists of a dry and wet-bulb thermometer. The term bulb
refers to that portion of the glass tube where the mercury is stored. The dry and
wet bulbs are exactly alike in construction. The only difference is that the wet-
bulb has a piece of muslin cloth or wick wrapped around its bulb and which is
dipped in water shortly before the psychrometer is read.

3. Hygrothermograph – records both relative humidity and temperature on graph

paper in the same manner as the thermograph and barograph do.

4. Humidistat - is a humidity-triggered switch, often used to control a dehumidifier.

5. Satellites – remotely placed equipment that measure humidity on a global scale.

These satellites are able to detect the concentration of water in the troposphere at
altitudes between 4-12 km. Satellites that can measure water vapor have sensors
that are sensitive to infrared radiation. Water vapor especially absorbs and re-
radiates radiation in this spectral band. Satellite water vapor imagery plays an

54
 important role in monitoring climate conditions (like the formations of
thunderstorms) and in the development future weather forecasts.

The Climatology of Atmospheric Water Vapor

 The weight of the atmosphere‟s water vapor contributes only about one quarter of
one percent of the total sea level pressure of all the gases
 Precipitable water – all the water vapor in the air at a particular time condense and
fall as rain which amount to a depth of only about 2.5 cm.
 Because water vapor is not evenly distributed globally, there would be about 5 cm
near the equator and less than one tenth as much at the poles.
 The average precipitation over the globe is about 1 m annually, so there must be a
rapid turnover of water in the air.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND WIND

VELOCITY

Atmospheric pressure– is the force per unit area exerted into the surface by the weight
of air above that surfacein the atmosphere of Earth (or that of another planet); or the force
exerted by an overlying column of air extending to the outer limit of the atmosphere per
unit area. Unit of measurement: , abs, or millibar(mbar).

Standard atmosphere (atm) – is a unit of pressure and is defined as being equal to

101.325 kPa.
1013.25 mb꞊ 101.325 kpa꞊ 29.92 inches Hg ꞊ 14.7 pounds per ꞊ 760 mm of Hg
꞊ 34 feet of water

Wind speed

 or wind velocity, is a fundamental atmospheric rate.

 caused by air moving from high pressure to low pressure.
 affects weather forecasting, aircraft and maritime operations, construction
projects, growth and metabolism rate of many plant species, and countless other
implications

55
  now commonly measured with an anemometer but can also be classified using
the older Beaufort scale which is based on people's observation of specifically
defined wind effects.

Geographical Variation

 Surface winds tend to blow from colder interior of land masses toward the
warmer oceans
 During summer, winds tend to blow from the cooler bodies of water
towards the warmer land (monsoons)

Note : Standard level for wind measurements is 10m above the ground over
level open terrain

Wind Profile

 Variation of wind speed with height

 Wind speed is reduced and direction deflected in the lower layers of the
atmosphere because of friction produced by trees, buildings and other obstacles.
These effects become negligible above 600m and this lower layer is referred to as
friction layer. Overland, the surface wind speed averages about 40% of that just
above the friction layer and at sea about 70%.

General Equation in Friction Layer

 Power Law Profile

( )
Where: V꞊ wind speed at height z above the ground
꞊ wind speed at height
K꞊ coefficient that depends on surface roughness and atmosphere
stability, usually ranging from 0.1 to 0.6 (a value of 1/7 has been found to be
applicable to a wide range of conditions in the 0-10m layer)

 Logarithmic Velocity Profile

Common form of equation

Where: ꞊ friction velocity

V꞊ wind speed at height z

k꞊ von karmann constant t≈0.40

56
 roughness length (where V꞊0)

Sample Problem:

1. Anemometer at 10m and 100m record wind speeds of 50 and 75 km/h

respectively. Determine the exponent “k” in the power law profile.

Given :

a. At 10m, 50 km/h

b. At z꞊ 100m, V꞊ 75 km/h

Find: exponent “k”

Solution: Using Power Profile

( )

( )

k꞊ 0.17

2. Given a wind speed of 5.0m/s at 2m above the ground and a roughness length of
0.80 cm., compute the wind speed in m/s at 0.50m.

Given: @z꞊ 2m, V꞊ 5.0m/s

Roughness length, 0.80 cm

Find: wind speed, V @ z= 0.50m

Solution:
Note: 1 knot= 1 nautical mile per hour= 1.852 kph= 0.514 m/sec

Using Logarithmic Velocity Profile

Using first condition @ z= 2m, V= 5.0 m/s

57
 ( )

Velocity @ 0.50 m elevation, V

( )

58
 IMPORTANT
PHASES OF
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
3.1 PRECIPITATION:
OCCURRENCE AND MEASUREMENT

3.1.1 Formation Forms (Philippine Setting), Types and Artificially

Induced
3.1.2 Measurement: Gages and Networks, Radar and Satellite
Estimates
3.1.3 Precipitation Data Analysis: Estimation of Missing Data, Double-
Mass Analysis, Mean Areal Precipitation, Depth-Area-Duration
Analysis, Frequency Analysis

Submitted by:
Gemma C. Bantoto
Merrillinen Calunod
Neil Indonella

59
CHAPTER 3 Important Phases of Hydrologic Cycle

3.1 Precipitation: Occurrence and Measurement

Precipitation is defined as liquid or solid condensation of water vapour falling from
clouds or deposited from air onto the ground.

Precipitation includes all forms of moisture that fall to the earth‟s surface, such as rain,
drizzle, snow, and hail. Precipitation is observed and classified by form, type, intensity,
and character.

3.1.1

Formation of Precipitation
Two processes are considered to be capable of supporting the growth of droplets of
sufficient mass to overcome air resistance and consequently fall to the earth as
precipitation. These are known as the ice crystal process and the coalescence process.

 Coalescence Process- is the one by which the small cloud droplets increase their
size due to contact with other droplets through collision. Water droplets may be
considered as falling bodies that are subjected to both gravitational and air
resistance effects. Fall velocities at equilibrium are proportional to the square of
the radius of the droplet; thus the larger droplets will descend more quickly than
the small ones.
 Ice Crystal Process- an important type of growth is known to occur if ice crystals
and water droplets are found to exist together at subfreezing temperatures down to
about -40°. Under these conditions, certain particles of clay minerals and organic
and ordinary ocean salts serve as freezing nuclei so that ice crystals are formed.

Precipitation form is the state that the moisture is in: liquid, freezing, or frozen.

Liquid precipitation is any precipitation that falls as a liquid and remains liquid after
striking an object, such as the earth‟s surface or the skin of an aircraft. Rain and drizzle
are the only two types of liquid precipitation.

Freezing precipitation is any precipitation that falls as a liquid and freezes upon contact
with an object, such as freezing rain or freezing drizzle. In this form of precipitation, the
liquid water may be a super-cooled liquid and freeze upon contact with an object, or the
water droplet may have an above freezing temperature and freeze upon contact with an

60
object that has a temperature below freezing. (Super-cooled liquids have a temperature
below their normal freezing temperature, but still exist in the liquid state.) Small
freezing drizzle particles form a milky white ice coating, typically referred to as rime
ice, especially on aircraft in flight. Larger freezing drizzle and freezing rain drops form a
transparent ice coating known as clear ice on aircraft in flight or as glaze ice on the
ground, power lines, or trees.

Frozen precipitation is any precipitation of water that falls in its solid state, such as snow,
hail, or ice pellets. Different forms of precipitation may occur together, such as mixed
rain and snow; but such an occurrence is simply a mixture of forms, not a separate form
of precipitation.

Forms

Rain Freezing Rain

Rain - Liquid precipitation that has a water droplet diameter of 0.02 inch (0.5 mm) or
larger. If the water droplets freeze upon contact with a surface, the phenomenon is
called freezing rain

61
Snow - Precipitation that consists of white or translucent ice crystals. In their pure form,
the ice crystals are highly complex, hexagonal, branched structure

Snow

Sleet

Sleet - Transparent or translucent particles of ice that are either round or irregular (rarely
conical) and have a diameter of 0.2 inch or less. They usually rebound upon striking hard
surfaces and make a sound upon impact.

Hail

Hail - a clear to opaque ball of hard ice, ranging in diameter from 1/8 inch or so to 5
inches or larger. Hard, rounded pellets or irregular lumps of ice produced in large
cumulonimbus clouds. Hailstone size is measured and reported in inches, but hailstones
are usually compared to common objects when reported to the public by television or
radio, such as pea size, walnut size, golf-ball size, baseball-size, or softball size.

62
Forms (Philippine Setting)
Liquid precipitation is the only form of precipitation which occurs in the Philippines.
These types include rain and drizzle. Since Philippines is a tropical country there is no
other type that occurs in the country.

Types of Precipitation
Convective Precipitation is typical of the tropics and is brought about by heating of the
air at the interface with the ground. This heated air expands with a resultant reduction in
weight. During this period, increasing quantities of water vapour are taken up; the warm
moisture-laden air becomes unstable; and pronounced vertical currents are developed.
Dynamic cooling takes place, causing condensation and precipitation. Convective
precipitation may be in the form of light showers or storms of extremely high intensity.

63
 Orographic Precipitation results from the mechanical lifting of moist horizontal air
currents over natural barriers such as mountain ranges. Factors that are important in this
process include land elevation, local slope, orientation of land slope, and distance from
the moisture source.

Cyclonic Precipitation is associated with the movement of air masses from high-pressure
regions to low-pressure regions. These pressure differences are created by the unequal
heating of the earth‟s surface. It may be classified as frontal or non-frontal. If the air
masses are moving so that warm air replaces colder air, the front is known as warm front;
if, on the other hand, cold air displaces warm air, the front is cold. If the front is not in
motion, it is said to be a stationary front.

64
Artificially Induced

Rainmaking, also known as artificial precipitation, is the act of attempting to artificially

induce or increase precipitation, usually to stave off drought. According to the clouds'
different physical properties, this can be done using airplanes or rockets to sow to the
clouds with catalysts such as dry ice, silver iodide and salt powder, to make clouds rain or
increase precipitation, to remove or lessen farmland drought, to increase reservoir
irrigation water or water supply capacity, or to increase water levels for power generation

65
 3.1.2 Measurement: Gages and Networks, Radar and Satellite
Estimates
Measurement of precipitation (rain and snow) can be done by various
devices. These measuring devices and techniques are the following:

 Rain Gages
 Snow Gages
 Radars
 Satellites

 Rain Gages
A rain gage is an instrument that captures precipitation and measures its
accumulated volume during a certain time period. It is most commonly used for
the measurement of precipitation, both in terms of rain fall and snow.
There are two main types of rain gages which are used to measure the
precipitation. These are: (1) non recording rain gages and (2) recording rain
gages.

(1) Non recording rain gages

Figure: Non Recording Rain gauge

It measures the total rainfall depth accumulated during one time period. In the
United States, the most common non recording gage is the United States Weather Service

66
standard 8-in gauge. The gauge may be read at any desirable interval but often this is
daily. It is calibrated so that a measuring stick, when inserted, shows the equivalent
rainfall depth. Such gauges are useful when only periodic volumes are required, but they
cannot be used to indicate the time distribution of rainfall. Non recording rain gage does
not provide the distribution of amount of precipitation in a day. It simply gives the
amount of precipitation after 24 hours (daily precipitation).

(2) Recording rain gages – continuously sense the rate of rainfall and its
time of occurrence. It provides not only a measure of rainfall depth but also of
rainfall intensity. Recording rain gages are also called integrating rain gages since
they record cumulative rainfall. There are three main types of recording rain
gages and these are: (a) tipping bucket rain gages, (b) weighing type rain gages,
(c) float type rain gages.

(a) Tipping bucket rain gage

The interior of a tipping bucket rain

gauge

The exterior of a tipping bucket rain

gauge

Figure: Recording Mechanism of Tipping Bucket Type

67
Recording Rain gauge

It features a two-compartment receptacle (i.e., the bucket) pivoted on a

knife edge. The device is calibrated so that when one of the compartments is full
and the other is empty, the bucket overbalances and tips. At the start, rain is
funnelled into one of the compartments, which is positioned for filling. As rainfall
continues to fill this first compartment, the second remains empty. When the first
compartment is full, the bucket tips, emptying its contents into a reservoir and at
the same time placing the second compartment in filling position. The tipping
closes an electric circuit, which drives a pen that records on a strip chart affixed to
a clock-driven revolving drum. Thus, each electrical contact representing a
specific amount of rain is recorded. The alternate filling and emptying of the two
compartments continues until rainfall ceases. Tipping bucket gages measures the
rainfall with a least count of 1 mm and gives out one electrical pulse for every
millimetre of rainfall.

The tipping bucket gage has a few disadvantages. Some of the rain may
not be measured while the bucket is tipping during periods of intense rainfall. In
addition, the record consists of a series of steps rather than being a smooth curve
and the gage is not suitable for measuring snow. On the other hand, tipping bucket
gages are durable, simple to operate and of good overall reliability.

(b) Weighing type rain gages

Figure: Recording Mechanism of

Weighing Type Recording Rain
gauge

68
 It has a device that weighs the rain or snow collected in a bucket. As it fills with
precipitation, the bucket moves downward and its movement is transmitted to a pen on a
strip-chart recorder. Weighing type rain gages are useful in cold climates where it is
necessary to record both rainfall and snowfall. However, weighing gages have some
disadvantages like wind action on the bucket, which produces erratic traces on the
recording chart, and the overall lack of sensitivity of the measurement.

(c) Float type rain gages

Float type rain gages are essentially water-level gages. A float located
inside a chamber is connected to a pen on a strip-chart recorder. The float rises as
the collected rainwater enters the chamber, and the rise of the float is recorded on
the chart. Some float gages are limited to the capacity of the chamber. Others are
equipped with a self-starting siphoning device that empties the chamber when it
becomes full and returns the pen to the zero position on the strip chart. The use of
float gages is limited to non-freezing ambient temperatures, although heaters and
other similar devices have been used in an attempt to overcome the problem of
freezing. Oil and mercury which have freezing temperatures below that of water
have also been used inside the chamber. The siphoning action of the float gage
can cause serious losses of rain during severe storms.

In most float gages, oil or mercury is the float and is placed in the
receiver, but in some cases the receiver rests on a bath of oil or mercury and the
float measures the rise of oil or mercury displaced by the increasing weight of the
69
 receiver as the rainfall catch freezes. Float may get damaged by rainfall catch
freezer.

Figure: Recording from a natural siphon-type

If there is no rainfall, the pen traces a horizontal line.

 Radar Measurements

The weather radar is a type of radar used to locate precipitation, calculate

its motion, estimate its type (rain, snow, hail, etc.), and forecast its future position
and intensity. Weather radars are mostly Doppler radars, capable of detecting the
motion of rain droplets in addition to intensity of the precipitation. Both types of
data can be analysed to determine the structure of storms and their potential to
cause severe weather.

70
 Weather radar systems are a potentially powerful tool for measuring the
temporal and spatial variability of rainstorms. A radar system operates by emitting
a regular succession of pulses of electromagnetic radiation from its antenna. The
pulses are on the order of 1 µs, and the system emits approximately 1000 of these
pulses every second. Between pulses, the system‟s antenna becomes a receiver of
the energy of the emitted pulses scattered by various targets. These returned
signals are transformed into a visual display on the radar scope.

The actual measurement taken by the radar is of backscattered power of

the echo returns. This return power is used to calculate a reflectivity factor, Z.

Z = AIB

Where:

Z = radar reflectivity

I = precipitation intensity
A and B = empirical constants, the values depend upon the type of
precipitation being observed. Most often used are A=200 and
B=1.6

There are possible several types of error when using radar to sense
precipitation. For instance, the radar beam can overshoot shallow precipitation at
long ranges, missing the target. Another source of error is the presence of low
level evaporation beneath the radar beam, as well as several other meteorological
factors. Uncertainties in radar sensing of precipitation can be resolved by
calibrating the system with a rain gage.

71
 Satellite Measurements

A weather satellite is a type of satellite that is primarily used to monitor

the weather and climate of the Earth. These meteorological satellites however, see
more than clouds and cloud systems, like other types of environmental
information collected using weather satellites.

Satellite sensors work by remotely sensing precipitation – recording

various parts of the electromagnetic spectrum that theory and practice show are
related to the occurrence and intensity of precipitation. The sensors are almost
exclusively passive, recording what they see, similar to a camera, in contrast to
active sensors that send out a signal and detects its impact on the area being
observed. Satellite sensors now in practical use for precipitation fall into two
categories:

 Thermal infrared sensors record a channel around 11 micron

wavelengths and primarily give information about cloud tops.
 The second category of sensor channels is in the microwave part of
the electromagnetic spectrum. The frequencies in use range from
about 10 gigahertz to a few hundred giga hertz.

 Rain Gauge Network

 The number of rain gages and their distribution affect the nature of
collected precipitation data. The larger the number of rain gages the more

72
 representative will be the data collected. But on the other hand we have to
observe other factors also, like economy of the project, accessibility of
certain areas and topography of the area. So, one has to look for some
optimum solution. In this regard the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO) has made following recommendations for minimum number of
rain gages in a catchment.
 In comparatively flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical
Zones, the ideal is at least one station for 230-345 sq. miles. However one
station for 345- 1155 sq. miles is also acceptable.
 In mountainous regions of Temperate, Mediterranean and Tropical Zones,
the ideal is at least one station for 35-95 sq. miles. However one station for
95-385 sq. miles is also acceptable.

Measurement of snow
Snowfall is often measured with regular rain gauges. Snowfall is measured by the
depth of snow using snow survey. Such survey is particularly useful in mountains.

In case of snow fall, following two properties of more interest are measured:
Depth of snow at a particular place in mm/inches and Equivalent amount of water in mm.

1. Depth of snow at a particular place in mm/inches - Depth of snowfall at a particular

place can be measured by the following methods:

a. Standard rain gauges without collectors – standard rain gauges can also
be used for measuring the snow depth, with some alterations in the
arrangement of rain gauges, particularly, the collectors are not used. On a
paved surface with snow over it, scratching that snow layer with some
scrapper helps to measure the depth of snow with a tape. Visual
observation and with help of measuring tape helps to measure the depth of
snow.

b. Snow Gages

73
 A snow gauge is an instrument used in meteorology to gather and measure the
amount of solid precipitation (as opposed to liquid precipitation that is measured by a rain
gauge) over a period of time.

Snow Water Equivalent (SWE) is a common snow pack measurement. It is the

amount of water contained within the snowpack. It can be thought of as the depth of
water that would theoretically result if you melted the entire snow pack instantaneously.
The equipment used are standard rain gauges without receivers, weighing type rain gages
and snow gages. The equivalent amount of water in a snowpack can be measured by:
heating, weighing and adding measured amount of hot water.

 By heating – the equivalent amount in mm of water can be obtained by

heating the cylinder. It will melt the snow and the depth of the liquid
water can be measured with a measuring stick but this approach is
adjustable because some water may get evaporated during the heating.

 By weighing – weight is measured either by weighing type rain gauge

or by using a snow gauge.
W = W1 – W2

Where:

W1 = weight of snow + empty cylinder

W2 = weight of empty cylinder

W = weight of snow

By using weight volume relationship

Γ = weight / volume

Γ = W / A(h)

h=W/AΓ

Where h = equivalent amount of water in snow

c. By scratching snow packs

A measured amount of hot water is added into the cylinder which

will melt the snow. Now measure the total depth of water in the cylinder
“h1” h = h1 – h2

Where: h2 = measured amount of hot water

h = equivalent amount of water

74
3.1.3 Precipitation Data Analysis: Estimation of Missing data,
Double-Mass Analysis, Mean Areal Precipitation, Depth-Area-
Duration Analysis, Frequency Analysis

 Estimation of Missing Data

This situation will arise if data for rain gauges are missing (e.g. due to
instrument failure). Data from surrounding gauges are used to estimate the
missing data.

Methods for Estimation of Missing Rainfall Data

 Some precipitation stations may have short breaks in the records because of
absence of the observer or because of instrumental failures. It is often
necessary to estimate this missing record.
 In the procedure used by the U.S. Weather Bureau, the missing precipitation
of a station is estimated from the observations of precipitation at some other
stations as close to and as evenly spaced around the station with the missing
record as possible.
 The station whose data is missing is called interpolation station and gauging
stations whose data are used to calculate the missing station data are called
index stations.

There are two methods for estimation of missing data.

1. Arithmetic Mean Method

2.Normal Ratio Method

1. Arithmetic Mean Method – use when normal annual precipitation is within

10% of the gauge for which data are being reconstructed. According to the
arithmetic mean method the missing precipitation 'Px' is given as:

Where: Px = missing precipitation

Pi = precipitation at ith station
n = number of nearby stations

75
In case of three stations 1, 2 and 3,

Px = (P1 + P2 + P3)/3

Naming stations as A, B and C instead of 1, 2 and 3

Px = (Pa + Pb + Pc)/3

Where Pa , Pb and Pc are defined above.

2. Normal Ratio Method – is used when the normal annual precipitation at any of the
index station differs from that of the interpolation station by more than 10%.

According to the normal ratio method the missing precipitation is given as:

76
Where Px is the missing precipitation for any storm at the interpolation station 'x', Pi is
the precipitation for the same period for the same storm at the "ith" station of a group of
index stations, Nx the normal annual precipitation value for the 'x' station and Ni the
normal annual precipitation value for 'ith' station.

For example for the symbols defined above for three index stations in a catchment area

If the normal annual precipitation of the index stations lies within 10% of normal
annual precipitation of interpolation station then we apply arithmetic mean method to
determine the missing precipitation record otherwise the normal ratio method is used for
this purpose.

Consider that record is missing from a station “X”

Now let N = Normal annual precipitation. (Mean of 30 years of annual precipitation

data)

P = Storm precipitation

Let Px be the missing precipitation for station “X” and Nx the normal annual
precipitation of this station. Na , Nb and Nc are normal annual precipitations of nearby
three stations A, B and C respectively while Pa, Pb and Pc are the storm precipitation of
that period for these stations.

Now we have to compare Nx with Na , Nb and Nc separately. If difference of Nx -

Na, Nx - Nb, Nx - Nc is within 10% of Nx then we use simple arithmetic mean method
otherwise the normal ratio method is used.

Example 1

Find out the missing storm precipitation of station 'C' given in the following table:

Station A B C D E

Storm precipitation (cm) 9.7 8.3 ---- 11.7 8.0

Normal Annual precipitation (cm) 100.3 109.5 93.5 125.7 117.5

77
Solution

In this example the storm precipitation and normal annual precipitations at stations A, B,
D and E are given and missing precipitation at station 'C' is to be calculated whose
normal annual precipitation is known. We will determine first that whether arithmetic
mean or normal ratio method is to be applied.

10% of Nc = 93.5 x 10/100 = 9.35

After the addition of 10% of Nc in Nc, we get 93.5 + 9.35 = 102.85

And by subtracting 10% we get a value of 84.15

So Na, Nb, Nd or Ne values are to be checked for the range 102.85 to 84.15.

If any value of Na, Nb, Nd or Ne lies beyond this range, then normal ratio method would
be used. It is clear from data in table above that Nb, Nd and Ne values are out of this
range so the normal ratio method is applicable here, according to whic

Pc = (1/4)(93.5 x 9.7/100.3 + 93.5 x 8.3/109.5 + 93.5 x 11.7/125.7 + 93.5 x 8.0/117.5) =

7.8 cm

Example 2

Precipitation station "X" was inoperative for part of a month during which a storm
occurred. The storm totals at three surrounding stations A, B and C were respectively
10.7, 8.9 and 12.2 cm. The normal annual precipitation amounts at stations X, A, B and C
are respectively 97.8, 112, 93.5 and 119.9 cm. Estimate the storm precipitation for station
'X'.

Solution

Pa = 10.7 cm Na = 112 cm

Pb = 8.90 cm Nb = 93.5 cm

Pc = 12.2 cm Nc = 119.9 cm

Px = ? Nx = 97.8 cm

10% of Nx = 97.8 x 10/100 = 9.78 cm.

Nx - Na = 97.8 - 112 = -14.2 cm Þ More than + 10% of Nx (no need of calculating Nx -

Nb and Nx - Nc

78
Px = (1/3)( 97.8x 10.7/112+ 97.8x 8.90 /93.5 + 97.8x 12.2 /119.9)

Px = 9.5 cm

 Double-Mass Analysis

A double-mass curve is used to check the consistency of a rain gauge record:

 compute cumulative rainfall

amounts for suspect gauge and
check gauges
 plot cumulative rainfall amounts
against each other (divergence
from a straight line indicates error)
 multiplying erroneous data after
change by a correction
factor k where

Double mass analysis is a commonly used data analysis approach for

investigating the behaviour of records made of hydrological or meteorological data at a
number of locations. It is used to determine whether there is a need for corrections to the
data to account for changes in data collection procedures or other local conditions. Such
changes may result from a variety of things including changes in instrumentation,
changes in observation procedures, or changes in gage location or surrounding
conditions. It is used for checking consistency of a hydrological or meteorological record
and is considered to be an essential tool before taking it for analysis purposes.

79
 The double mass analysis curve is obtained by plotting

 X-axis ≈ Average accumulated precipitation of nearby stations

 Y-axis ≈ accumulated precipitation of the station under consideration

Steps in Double Mass Analysis

 Arrange the data recent to past

 Determine cumulative rainfall of the subjected station and of the nearby
stations
 Draw double mass curve
 Part of the curve which lies in straight line requires no correction
 All data lying after the deviation point from the straight line requires
correction
 To determine correction factor calculate the slope of the curve before and
after the point of deviation

Pa = (Sa/So) x Po
Where Pa = adjusted precipitation
Po = observed precipitation
Sa = slope prior to the break in the curve
So = slope after the break in the curve

Example:
Check consistency of the data and correct if inconsistent

80
81
Calculation of Slope:

=
=

Correction factor

Applicable to the data before 1950

Corrected precipitation

82
 Mean Areal Precipitation
A single point precipitation measurement is quite often not representative
of the volume of precipitation falling over a given catchment area. A dense
network of point measurements and/or radar estimates can provide a better
representation of the true volume over a given area. A network of precipitation
measurements can be converted to areal estimates using any of a number of
techniques which include the following:

1) Arithmetic Mean
This technique calculates areal precipitation using the arithmetic mean of
all the point or areal measurements considered in the analysis

83
2) Isohyetal Analysis

This is a graphical technique which involves drawing estimated lines of

equal rainfall over an area based on point measurements. The magnitude and
extent of the resultant rainfall areas of coverage are then considered versus the
area in question in order to estimate the areal precipitation value.

3) Thiessen Polygon

This is another graphical technique which calculates station weights based

on the relative areas of each measurement station in the Thiessen polygon
network. The individual weights are multiplied by the station observation and the
values are summed to obtain the areal average precipitation.

3) Thiessen Polygon

This is another graphical technique which calculates station weights based

on the relative areas of each measurement station in the Thiessen polygon
network. The individual weights are multiplied by the station observation and the
values are summed to obtain the areal average precipitation.

84
4. Distance Weighting/Gridded

This is another station weighting technique. A grid of point estimates is

made based on a distance weighting scheme. Each observed point value is given a
unique weight for each grid point based on the distance from the grid point in
question. The grid point precipitation value is calculated based on the sum of the
individual station weight multiplied by observed station value. Once the grid
points have all been estimated they are summed and the sum is divided by the
number of grid points to obtain the areal average precipitation.

85
5) MAPX

This is a NWS-specific gridded technique. Areal runoff zone precipitation

estimates are made using the 4 x 4 km WSR-88D 1-hourly gridded precipitation
estimates. The arithmetic mean calculation technique is used to average the grid
point estimates

86
 Depth - Area - Duration Analysis

Another way of describing the relation between storm depth, duration and
catchment area is the technique known as Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) analysis. This
technique is basically an alternate way of portraying the reduction of storm depth
with area, with duration as a third-variable.

To construct a DAD chart, a storm having a single major center (storm eye) is
identified. Isohyetal maps showing maximum storm depths for each of several typical
durations are prepared. For each map, the isohyets are taken as boundaries
circumscribing individual areas. For each map and each individual area, a spatially
averaged rainfall depth is calculated by dividing the total rainfall volume by the
individual area. This procedure provides DAD data sets used to construct a chart
showing depth versus area, with duration as a curve parameter. DAD analysis can
also be used to study regional rainfall characteristics.

 Frequency Analysis

Most hydrologic variables are assumed to be continuous random processes,

and the common continuous distributions are used to fit historical sequences, as in
frequency analysis.

1.) Normal Distribution

The normal distribution is a symmetrical, bell-shaped PDF also known as
Gaussian distribution, or the natural law of errors. It has two parameters: the
mean, µ, and the standard deviation, σ, of the population. The PDF of the normal
distribution is
( ) ( ) ⁄( )
√
Where e = the mathematical constant approximated by 2.71828
π = the mathematical constant approximated by 3.14159
μ = the population mean
σ = the population standard deviation
X = any value of the continuous variable
Any normal distribution (with any mean and standard deviation combination) can
be transformed into the standardized normal distribution (Z). Transforming X
units into Z units, we get,

87
Example: The annual maximum flows of a certain stream have been found to be
normally distributed with a mean 22,500 ft 3/s and a standard deviation 7,500 ft 3/s.
Calculate the probability that the a flow larger than 39,000 ft 3/s will occur.
Solution:

From the table of normal distribution, z=2.2 yields P(z)=0.9861.

Therefore,
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

2.) Log-Normal Distribution

For certain natural phenomena, Values of random variables do not follow a
normal distribution, but their logarithms do. In this case, a suitable PDF can be
obtained by substituting y for x in the equation for the normal distribution in which
. The parameters of the lognormal distribution are the mean and standard
deviation of y: µy and σy.

3.) Gamma (and Pearson Type III)

The Pearson Type III is a special case of gamma distribution. This distribution
has been widely adopted as the standard method for flood frequency analysis in a
form known as the log-Pearson III in which the transform is used to reduce
skewness. A very important property of gamma variates as well as normal variates is
that the sum of two such variables retains the same distribution.

4.) Gumbel’s Extremal Distribution

The theory of extreme values considers the distribution of the largest (or
smallest) observations occurring in each group of repeated samples. The distribution
of the n1 extreme values taken from n1 samples, with each samples having n2
observations, depends on the distribution of the n1 n2 total observations. Parameters σ
and µ are given as functions of the mean and standard deviation. Tables of the double
exponential are usually in terms of the reduced variates, ( ).

88
References:

Ponce, Victor Miguel. 1989. Engineering Hydrology:Principles and Practices.

http://www.aboutcivil.org/analysis-of-precipitation-data.html

http://www.aboutcivil.org/measurement-of-precipitation.html

http://www.srh.noaa.gov/abrfc/?n=map

http://kvgktrailblazers.weebly.com/forms-of-precipitation.html

http://www.infoplease.com/cig/weather/types-precipitation.html

http://www.theweatherprediction.com/preciptypes/

https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=mean+areal+precipitation&client=firefox-
a&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&channel=fflb&biw=1152&bih=732&tbm

89
 EVAPORATION
TRANSPIRATION
INTERCEPTION AND
DEPRESSION STORAGE

3.2.1 Evaporation from Free Surface | Water Balance Method |

Energy Balance Method | Mass Transfer Method | Penman
Equation | Empirical Methods | Direct Measurements
3.2.2 Transpiration and Evapotranspiration
3.2.3 Depression Storage

Submitted by:
Clia Mae Tabasa

90
EVAPORATION FROM FREE WATER SURFACE

Evaporation or vaporization is the process by which water changes from liquid

state to vaporous state. This change in state requires an exchange of approximately 2.5 kJ
energy for each gram of water evaporated. Two main factors influencing the evaporation
from an open water surface are the supply of energy to provide latent heat of vaporization
and the ability to transport the vapor away from the evaporating surface. Solar radiation
is the main source of heat energy. The ability to transport the vapor away from the
evaporating surface depends on the wind velocity over the surface and the specific
humidity gradient in the air above it.

In hot climates, the loss of water by evaporation from rivers, canals and open-
water storage equipment is a vital matter as evaporation takes a significant proportion of
all water supplies. It is significant in the sense that most of the water withdrawn for
beneficial uses ultimately returns to streams and aquifers and becomes available for
reuse, while the loss of water due to evaporation is entirely lost from the usable supply.
Even in humid areas, evaporation loss is significant although the cumulative precipitation
tends to mask it so that it is ordinarily not recognized except during rainless periods.

Because of its nature, evaporation from water surfaces is rarely measured directly,
except over relatively small spatial and temporal scales (Jones 1992). Evaporation from
water is most commonly computed indirectly by one or more techniques.

Process of evaporation - How Does Evaporations Work

Evaporation occurs naturally if an input of energy either directly from the sun or
indirectly from the atmosphere itself. In simplified terms the molecules are in constant
motion.

Adding heat to water causes molecules to become increasingly energized and they
start moving more rapidly, resulting in increase in distance between the liquid molecules
and weakening of the forces between them.

At high temperature, therefore, more of the molecules near the water surface will
tend to fly off into lower layers of the overlying air. At the same time, water vapor
molecules in the lower air layers are also in continuous motion and some of them
penetrate into underlying mass of water. Rate of evaporation at any given time depends
on number of molecules leaving the water surface minus the number of molecules
returning to water surface due to condensation.

91
 Generally, evaporation from a given surface is greatest in warm, dry and windy
condition and is least in humid and cold conditions. The saturation vapor pressure of
water is high and when the air is dry, the actual water pressure of water is low.

In other words, in dry conditions, the saturation deficit (E-e) is large and vice versa.

Factors that affect evaporation - What Causes Evaporation

Factors responsible for evaporation are divided into three major classes:

1. Meteorological factors

2. Nature of evaporating surface

3. Physical factors

Estimating Evaporation from Free Water Surfaces

Rates of evaporation vary depending on meteorological factors and the nature of

the evaporating surface and the quality of evaporating water. Meteorological factors
affecting evaporation are solar radiation, differences in vapour pressure between a water
surface and the overlying air, relative humidity, temperature, wind, atmospheric pressure,
etc. For large bodies of water, because of the extensive surfaces involved, direct
measurements of evaporation are not possible. As a consequence, a variety of techniques
have been derived for determining or estimating evaporation. Six methods are available
for estimating evaporation from free water surface.

Necessity of Estimation of Evaporation

Large amounts are spent in constructing a dam and creating a reservoir to shore
water. Canals are also constructed to carry water. Some water stored in these reservoirs
and flowing in canals is lost due to evaporation. The amount of the loss of water due to
evaporation can be substantial (about 30%).

It is, therefore, necessary to estimate the loss due to evaporation to assess the
water available for use in different seasons.

92
Rate of Evaporation

The rate of evaporation is defined as the amount of water evaporated from a unit
surface area per unit of time. It can be expressed as the mass or volume of liquid water
evaporated per area in unit of time, usually as the equivalent depth of liquid water
evaporated per unit of time from the whole area.

The unit of time is normally a day. The amount of evaporation should be read in
millimeters (WMO, 2003). Depending on the type of instrument, the usual measuring
accuracy is 0.1 to 0.01 mm.

There are direct and indirect methods in estimating evaporation.

1. Water Budget Method (Water Balance Method)

The water budget method for the estimation of evaporation uses the water budget
equation of the lake or reservoir. Evaporation from the lake or reservoir is estimated by
knowing all the other terms in the water budget equation (i.e., precipitation, net surface
and ground water inflow, transpiration and change in storage). The water budget method
for determining evaporation is a very simple procedure, but it seldom produces reliable
results. This is because some other terms in the water budget equation are also difficult to
measure (e.g. seepage).

The water balance procedure is based upon the hydrologic equation:

Inflow = Outflow + ∆Storage

Mathematically, it is stated as:

E = P + I - (Ui – Uo) – O ± ∆S

where: E = evaporation

P = Precipitation

I = surface runoff

Ui = underground inflow into the reservoir

Uo = underground outflow from the reservoir

O = outflow from the reservoir, if any

∆S = change in the storage

93
 SAMPLE PROBLEM:

The catchment area of an irrigation tank is 70 km2 . The constant water spread during
October 2006 was 2 km2. During that month, the uniform precipitation over the
catchment was recorded to be 100 mm. 50% of the precipitation reaches the tank. The
irrigation canal discharges at a uniform rate of 1.00 m3/s in the month of October.

Assuming seepage losses to be 50% of the evaporation losses, find out the daily rate of
evaporation for October 2006.

Solution:

Total inflow = (70 × 106) × ( ) × 0.5 = 3.50 × 106 m3

Outflow from the canal = 1 × 3600 × 24 × 31 = 2.68 × 10 6 m3

Loss of water = 3.50 × 106 – 2.68 × 106 = 0.82 × 106 m3

= seepage loss + evaporation loss

(Since seepage loss is 50% that of evaporation loss)

Loss of water = 1.5 × evaporation loss

Therefore, evaporation loss = = 0.55 × 106 m3

Rate of evaporation (per unit area) = = 8.8 mm/day

2. Energy Budget Method (Energy Balance Method)

This is an application of conservation of energy. Evaporation of water takes

energy. How much evaporation has occurred can be estimated by how much energy is
consumed. How much energy is consumed can be estimated by using the energy budget
equation. The energy equation accounts for incoming and outgoing energy balanced by
the amount of energy stored in the system and consumed in evaporation. Evaporation
requires heat to vaporize the liquid in form of latent heat of vaporization, which is the
amount of heat absorbed by a unit mass of a substance, without change in temperature,
while passing from liquid to the vapour state. The latent heat of vaporization varies with
temperature which is in calories per gram and in joules per kilogram are:

94
 Lv =597.3 – 0.564T and Lv = 2.501 × 106 – 2370T , respectively wherein T is in
°C.

Energy balance equation for evaporation can be written as:

( )

Assuming the sensible heat flux, and the ground heat flux, G, are both zero,
then an evaporation rate, Ev, which is the rate at which all incoming net radiation is
absorbed by evaporation, can be calculated as,

Where: Er = rate of evaporation

Lv = latent heat of vaporization

Rv = net radiation flux

= density of water = 996.3 kg/m3

 SAMPLE PROBLEM:
For a particular location the average net radiation is 185 W/m2, air temperature is
28.5 °C, relative humidity is 55 percent, and wind speed is 2.7 m/s at a height of 2m.
Determine the open water evaporation rate in mm/day using the energy method.
Solution:
*Latent heat vaporization in J/kg
Lv = 2.501 × 106 – 2370T = 2.501 × 106 – 2370(28.5) = 2, 433, 455 J/kg =
2433 kJ/kg

*density of water, = 996.3 kg/m3

*Average net radiation, Rv= 185 W/m2

3. Mass Transfer (Aerodynamic) Methods

Besides the supply of heat energy, the second factor controlling the evaporation
rate is the ability to transport the vapor away from the evaporating surface. The transport

95
rate is governed by the wind velocity over the surface and the specific humidity gradient
in the air above it. This method estimates the rate of evaporation based on the turbulent
transfer of water vapor from an evaporating surface to the atmosphere. The rate of
transfer is mainly a function of the vapor pressure gradient. Most commonly used
equation of this type is Dalton Model, which is:

( – ) (Eq. 1)

( – ) (Eq. 2)

For Equation 1:

( – )

where: E = rate of evaporation; and

fw = wind function which is dependent on the wind velocity, atmospheric

pressure and other factors; Several empirical equations are available for f w. Most
commonly used equation is in the form

( )

where: a and b are empirical constants, and

u = wind velocity at some fixed height from the water surface (e.g. u 2
wind velocity at height 2 meters)

es, ea = the saturation vapour pressure at water surface temperature (T s)

and the vapour pressure at air temperature (T a), respectively. Since ea = Rh×es, so

( )* ( )– ( )+

where T is in °C.

Method a b u Units of u Units of E

Lake Hefner 0 0.122 u4 m/s mm/day

Meyer 3.6 0.064 u8 m/s mm/day

Harbeck 0 0.29A-0.05 u2 m/s mm/day

Table: Values of constants for different empirical methods

96
For Equation 2:

( – )

where: B = vapour transfer coefficient with units of mm/day (Pa), given as

* ( )+

where: u1 = wind velocity (m/s) measured at height z1 (cm)

z0 = roughness height (0.01 – 0.06 cm) of the water surface

saturation vapour pressure is approximated as:

( )

and vapour pressure is:

where T is air temperature in °C and Rh is the relative humidity (0  Rh  1).

 SAMPLE PROBLEM:

For a particular location the average net radiation is 185 W/m2, air temperature is
28.5 °C, relative humidity is 55 percent, and wind speed is 2.7 m/s at a height of 2m.
Determine the open water evaporation rate in mm/day using the aerodynamic method, by
using a roughness height z0 = 0.03 cm.

Solution:
( )
*saturated vapour pressure, ( ) ( ( )
)

*relative humidity, Rh = 0.55

*vapour pressure, ea = esRh = 3893 × 0.55 = 2141 Pa

*wind velocity, u1 = 2.7 m/s @ height z1 = 2m = 200 cm

*roughness height, z0 = 0.03 cm

97
 ( )
* ( )+ * ( )+

( – ) ( – )

4. Combination of Mass Transfer and Energy Budget Method

Evaporation may be computed by the aerodynamic method when energy supply is

not limiting and by the energy balance method when vapor transport is not limiting. But,
normally, both of these factors are limiting, so as a combination of the two is needed. The
most widely used is the Penman's Equation. Through a simultaneous solution of an
aerodynamic equation and an energy budget equation, Penman derived the following
equation for daily evaporation E:

where Ea is the pan evaporation or evaporation calculated from aerodynamic methods;

is evaporation rate computed from the rate of net radiation R n ( = 0.0353 Rn

mm/day and Rn in W/m2);

= psychrometric constant (~66.8 Pa/°C);

∆ is the slope of the saturation vapor pressure vs. temperature curve at the air
temperature Ta, i.e.

[ ( )]
( )

⁄( ) and ⁄( ) are weighting factors they sum to unity.

Priestly and Taylor (1972) discovered that the aerodynamic term in equation is
approximately 30% of the energy term, so that Penman‟s equation can be simplified into

( )

which is known as Priestly-Taylor evaporation equation.

 SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

98
 1. For a particular location the average net radiation is 185 W/m2, air temperature is
28.5 °C, relative humidity is 55 percent, and wind speed is 2.7 m/s at a height of 2m.
Determine the open water evaporation rate in mm/day using Penman‟s Equation/
combined method.

Solution:

*gradient of saturated vapour pressure curve

( )
( ) ( )

*psychometric constant, ≈ 66.8 Pa/°C

( ) ( )

2. Solve the same problem using Priestly-Taylor Method

Solution:

( ) ( )( )

5. Empirical Methods

A large number of empirical equations are available to estimate evaporation using

available meteorological data. e.g. USGS and USBR Formula:

where E in cm/yr; T is the mean annual temperature in °C.

A few of the more common of these empirical formulae used for estimating the
evaporation from lake surfaces are given below:

 Marciano and Harbeck’s formulae, United States (Marciano and Harbeck,

1954)

E(cm/day) = 0.0918U8(es – e8)

E(cm/day) = 0.1156U4(es – e2)

99
 where: U4, U8 = the wind speed at 4 m and 8m above the water surface,
respectively

es = saturation vapour pressure at water surface temperature and

ea = vapour pressure of the air at the specified height.

 Meyer’s Formula
( )* +
where: = lake evaporation (mm/day)
= saturation vapor pressure (mm Hg)
= actual vapor pressure (mm Hg)
= coefficient accounting for other factors
(0.36 for large deep waters and 0.50 for small shallow
lakes)

= monthly mean wind velocity (km/hr) @ height of 9m above

the ground

 Rohwer’s Formula

( )( )( )

where: = evaporation (mm/day)

= mean barometric pressure in mm Hg
= wind speed (km/h)

6. Direct Methods

Use of Evaporation Pans/ Evaporimeters

The most widely used method of finding reservoir evaporation is by means of

evaporation pans or evaporimeters. Evaporimeters are pans containing water which are
exposed to the atmosphere. Loss of water by evaporation from these pans are measured at
regular intervals (daily). Meteorological data such as humidity, wind velocity, air and
water temperatures, and precipitation are also measured and noted along with
evaporation.

The 3 kinds of evaporation pans are:

1. Sunken Pan – the pan is sunk in the ground on the banks of the reservoir

100
 2. Floating Pan – pan is kept floating in the reservoir

3. Surface/ Land Pan – the pan is located above the ground normally on the bank
of the lake or the reservoir.

There are different designs for these pans. Some of the most commonly used are:

a. USWB Class A Pan

b. ISI Standard Pan (Modified Class A Pan)

c. Colorado Sunken Pan

d. USGS Floating Pan.

(a)
(b)

(c)
(d)

Evaporation pans are not exact models of large reservoirs as they differ in heat
storage capacity and heat transfer from sides and bottom, and height of the rim affects
wind action and cast shadow of variable magnitude. Due to these, normally, the pan will
overestimate E. In some circumstances the pan will underestimate E because a lake will
conserve heat longer. Actual evaporation from large bodies of water is the evaporation

101
measured by pans multiplied by a factor of 0.70 - 0.75 (pan coefficient), but this factor
varies by season and location. So

Lake/Reservoir evaporation = Pan coefficient × Pan evaporation

where the pan coefficients are:

Sl. No. Types of Pan Average Value Range

1 Class A Land Pan 0.70 0.60 – 0.80
2 ISI Pan (Modified Class A) 0.80 0.65 – 1.10
3 Colorado Sunken Pan 0.78 0.75 – 0.86
4 USGS Floating Pan 0.80 0.70 – 0.82

Evaporation Stations

WMO recommends the following values of minimum density of evaporimeters

 Arid Zones – 1 station for every 30,000 sq.km

 Humid Temperate Zones – 1 station for every 50,000 sq.km
 Cold regions – 1 station for every 1,00,000 sq.km

Control of Evaporation from a Reservoir

In arid zones where water is scarce, the importance of conservation of water

through reduction of evaporation is obvious. This can be achieved by reducing surface
area of water bodies, by mechanical covers, and by applying a thin chemical (monocular)
film on the water surface. Monocular layer (cetyl alcohol) is the effective and feasible
method, which inhibit evaporation (20-50%) by preventing the water molecules to escape
past them. It is colourless, odourless and nontoxic, and pervious to oxygen and carbon
dioxide, so the water quality is not affected by its presence. However wind, oxidation and
birds may disturb the layer requiring regular replenishments.

TRANSPIRATION

Only minute portions of the water absorbed by the root systems of plants remain
in the plant tissues; virtually all is discharged to the atmosphere as vapour through
transpiration. The ratio of the water transpired to that used in forming plant matter is 800
or more.

102
 Transpiration is the process by which soil moisture taken up by vegetation is
evaporated from the airspaces in plant leaves.

In transpiration water is extracted by the plants' roots, transported upwards

through its stem, and diffused into the atmosphere through tiny openings in the leaves
called stomata. The transpiration process constitutes an important phase of the hydrologic
cycle since it is the principal mechanism by which the precipitation infiltrated into the
soil is returned to the atmosphere.

Factors affecting transpiration

The amount of water that plants transpire varies greatly geographically and over
time. There are a number of factors that determine transpiration rates:

 Temperature

 Relative humidity

 Wind and air movement

 Soil-moisture availability

 Type of plant

Since photosynthesis is highly dependent on the radiation received, about 95% of

daily transpiration occurs during daylight hours, compared with 75 to 90% for soil
evaporation. Plant growth normally ceases when temperatures drop to near 4 °C, and
transpiration becomes very small. Plant type becomes an important factor in controlling
transpiration when available soil moisture is limited. Deep rooted vegetation transpires
more water during sustained dry periods than shallow rooted species. Transpiration per
unit area also depends on the density of vegetative cover.

Field Capacity: the amount of moisture (water) retained in a soil against

gravity drainage.

Wilting Point: soil moisture stage at which plants wilt and do not recover
in a humid atmosphere.

When soil moisture level is equal to or less than field capacity, further depletion
of moisture takes place only through evapotranspiration. As long as soil moisture lies
between the limits of wilting point and field capacity, transpiration is not materially
affected. Precise values for quantities of water transpired are difficult to acquire, since
many variables are active in the process.

103
 Transpiration is even more difficult to measure and estimate than evaporation. A
Field measurement of transpiration alone is virtually impossible. One method involves
placing one or more potted plants in a closed container and computing transpiration as the
increase in moisture content of the confined space.

Measurement

Most measurements are made with a phytometer, a large vessel filled with soil in
which one or more plants are rooted. The only escape of moisture by transpiration (the
soil surface is sealed to prevent evaporation), which can be determined by weighing the
plant and container at desired intervals of time. By providing aeration and additional
water a phytometer study can be carried through the entire life cycle of a plant. Since it is
virtually impossible to simulate natural conditions, the results of phytometer observations
are mostly of academic interest to the hydrologist. That is why measurements of the
combination of evaporation and transpiration (evapotranspiration) are commonly taken.

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

In studying the water balance of a drainage basin, it is usually impracticable to

separate evaporation and transpiration, and the practicing engineer therefore treats the
two factors as a single item. Evaporation from the land surface comprises evaporation
directly from the soil and vegetation surface, and transpiration through leaves of plants.
The processes of evaporation from the land surface and transpiration from vegetation are
often times referred to collectively by evapotranspiration.

Evapotranspiration (ET) is limited by:

(1) Supply of energy to provide latent heat of vaporization

(2) Ability to transport the vapour away from the surface

(3) Supply of water at the evaporative surface.

The evapotranspiration depends on the density of vegetation cover and its stage of
development. Thus we distinguish between Potential and Actual evapotranspiration.

a. Potential Evapotranspiration (PET)

The Potential evapotranspiration is the evapotranspiration that would occur from a

fully covered green vegetation surface when moisture supply is not limiting, and this is

104
considered to be equivalent to the evaporation from a free water surface of extended
proportions but with negligible heat storage capacity. Potential evapotranspiration no
longer critically depends on soil and plant factors but depends essentially on climatic
factors.

b. Actual Evapotranspiration (AET)

The real evapotranspiration occurring in a specific situation is called Actual

evapotranspiration . Actual evapotranspiration drops below its Potential level as the soil
dries out. Clearly if we run out of moisture, the plants will not continue to transpire nor
does the soil surface continue to evaporate.

Consumptive Use vs Evapotranspiration

Consumptive use is the total evaporation from an area plus the water used directly
in building plant tissue. The distinction between the consumptive use and
evapotranspiration is largely academic, falling well within the error of measurement, and
they are now generally treated as synonymous. When used with respect to a specific crop,
consumptive use is the evapotranspiration experienced if water supply is adequate at all
times.

Measurement/Estimation

Generally calculations of the rate of evapotranspiration are made using the same
methods as used for determining evaporation, with adjustments to account for the
condition of the vegetation and soil e.g. water-budget method, etc. Application to a water
budget to field plots produces satisfactory results only under ideal conditions, which are
rarely attained. Precise measurement of percolation is not possible, and consequent errors
tend to be cumulative. Many observations of evapotranspiration are made in soil
containers variously known as tanks, evapotranspirometers, and lysimeters in which
evapotranspiration is computed by maintaining a water budget. The first two terms
customarily refer to containers with sealed bottoms, while Lysimeter has pervious
bottoms or a mechanism for maintaining negative pressure at the bottom.

Lysimeter is a device that allows an area of a field to be isolated from the rest and
yet experience similar conditions. Typically just a cylinder inserted into the soil or a tank
filled with soil and placed in a field. By measuring the components of water balance
inside the Lysimeter, the actual amount of evapotranspiration can be determined.
Lysimeter are of weighing or non-weighing types. Weighing: continuously weigh water

105
contained inside the Lysimeter; non-weighing: measuring infiltration into and percolation
out of the Lysimeter .

Since Evapotranspiration is the combination of evaporation from the soil surface

and transpiration from vegetation; in Engineering Hydrology, the total consumptive use is
of real interest. There are numerous methods and approaches for estimation of ET, no one
is generally acceptable under all conditions. Similar to infiltration, further complexity is
due to the fact that actual amount of ET is also controlled by the supply side i.e.
availability of water. There are three major approaches to estimating ET:

(1) Theoretical, based on physics of the process

(2) Analytical, based on energy or water budgets

(3) Empirical, based on observations.

Since potential evapotranspiration and evaporation from a thin free water surface
are affected by the same meteorological factors, the most widely used is the Penman
Method similar to the Penman Eq. for estimating daily evaporation from reservoirs.

Consumptive Use:

In determination of consumptive use for crops for given climatic conditions, the
basic rate is the reference crop evapotranspiration, this being the rate of
evapotranspiration from an extensive surface of 8 cm to 15 cm tall green grass cover of
uniform height, actively growing, completely shading the ground and not short of water.

Potential Evapotranspiration:

The potential evapotranspiration of another crop growing under the same

conditions as the reference crop is calculated by multiplying the reference crop
evapotranspiration Etr by a crop coefficient kc, the value of which changes with the stage
of growth of the crop.

The values of the crop coefficient kc vary over a range of about 0.2 ≤ kc ≤ 1.3. The
initial value of kc for well watered soil with little vegetation, is approximately 0.35. As
the vegetation develops, kc increases to a maximum value, then decline as the crop
matures its moisture requirements diminish.

Actual Evapotranspiration:

The actual evapotranspiration ET is found by multiplying the potential

evapotranspiration by a soil coefficient ks (0 ≤ ks ≤ 1 ).

106
 There are a few other methods available for estimating actual evapotranspiration.
In selecting a method to use, it is important to know what weather data are available.
Each method has different climatic information requirement. Because of the complexities
involved in the ET process, only the order of magnitude accuracy can be achieved in
estimating ET using the approaches discussed.

Although we cannot easily see or measure it, the volume of ET from a watershed
over time can be substantial. Over the long term ET represents the largest hydrologic loss
component. However, evaporation and transpiration losses in shorter term (hourly or
maximum a day or two) rainfall-runoff sequences are not significant as compared to the
magnitude of rainfall and runoff. That's why hydrologic models that model the process of
runoff generation within rainfall events usually neglect ET.

Methods

 Penman Equation

Where Q is net radiation

( ) ( ) ( )( √ )

where:

= solar radiation in mm of water per day (mm/day)

r = albedo factor

= sunshine ratio (ratio of observed hours of sunshine)

c,d = constants (dependent on location)

N&S
3 13 24 36 54
Latitudes
c 0.25 0.26 0.28 0.23 0.21
Mean
Values d 0.44 0.55 0.49 0.53 0.55

107
 = Stefan-Baltzman constant 2.019 × 10-9 mm/day k4

Ta= absolute temperature K

= actual vapor pressure in mbars at Ta

Ea= evaporation defined by Dalton type

For Open Water Surface

( )( )

For short crop

( )( )

where: = wind velocity at 2m height, km/day

= saturation vapor pressure in mbars

Slope Saturation Vapor Pressure,

( )

Psychometric constant,

( )

where: ≈ 0.240

P = atmospheric pressure at specified elevation E L

= 1013 – 0.1055EL (mbars)

= latent heat of vaporization

= 597.3 – 0.564 Ta (cal/Gm)

 Modified Penman Equation

( ) ( )( )( )

108
where:

Slope of Saturation Vapor Pressure

( )

where T is the mean air temperature in °C

Psychometric constant

P = pressure at a certain elevation

= latent heat of vaporization = 2.501 – 0.002361T (MJ/kg)

Net radiation

( ) ( )( )

 Modified Hargreaves Method

where:

= reference evapotranspiration for Alta fescue grass in mm/day

T = mean daily temperature in °C

TR= mean daily temperature range in °C (mean max – mean min)

a,b = constants (a=1.0, b=0.0035 for Davis, California)

Ra, Rso = mean solar radiation for cloudless sky in mm/day

where

( )

109
ABSTRACTIONS: INTERCEPTION AND DEPRESSION STORAGE

Accounting for the disposition of precipitation is an important part of the

hydrologic modeling process. Two abstractions from precipitation input:

(a) Interception Loss

(b) Depression Storage

Interception losses and depression storage losses during the course of a year may
be substantial, but during intense storms, they may be sufficiently small to neglect.

Interception

If we follow the pathways that precipitated water takes when it reaches the earth,
the first encounters are intercepting surfaces: trees, crops, grass, and civil engineering
structures. Part of the precipitation is intercepted by trees, grass, other vegetation, and
structural objects and eventually returns to the atmosphere by evaporation i.e. never reach
the ground surface.

Interception loss is defined as that portion of the gross precipitation that wets
and adheres to above-ground objects until it is returned to the atmosphere through
evaporation.

110
 Vegetation: Portion of the precipitation may be retained on leaves, some will still
fall down (referred to as throughfall), some will flow down along the stem (referred to as
stemflow) . Only that portion that never reaches the ground is interception.

Interception is a function of

(1) the storm/rainfall character

(2) the characteristics of the prevailing vegetation

(3) the season of the year

For a forested area, interception may be directly measured. For other areas, it is
difficult to directly measure.

Interception Storage (S): The maximum volume that can be intercepted and retained on
the foliage against the forces of wind and gravity. (S is often expressed as depth over the
entire area). If the total rainfall volume is less than S, then all rainfall will be intercepted.
Potential interception losses during storm can be estimated:

= the volume of water intercepted (mm);

K = the ratio of surface area of intercepting leaves to the horizontal projection of

the total area (>1);

E = the evaporation rate (mm/hr) during the storm period; and

t = duration of storm (hr).

Generally, interception losses are difficult to estimate. For large storms this loss is
relatively insignificant. That‟s why in engineering hydrology, it is either neglected or
combined with other losses.

111
Depression Storage

Once reaching the ground, part of the precipitation may become trapped in
numerous small depressions (the land surface is not smooth and flat) from which the only
escape is evaporation or infiltration.

Depression storage (also known as ponding) is the initial storage within

depressions on the ground surface and also within the surface layers of nominally
impervious materials (surface wetting). The depressions vary considerably in size and, as
each depression is filled, flow passes to the other depressions and eventually directly into
channels. Water is lost from the depressions by subsequent evaporation, although some
water may infiltrate into the ground. The amount of depression storage varies widely,
depending on the surface micro-topography, slope and permeability, as well as the
antecedent rainfall conditions.

Maximum Depression Storage (Sd): the maximum storage capacity of all the depressions
(mm over the entire catchment).

The Wallingford Procedure (Hydraulics Research, 1983) incorporates the

following regression equation for estimating depression storage:

DEPSTOG = 0.71 x SLOPE-0.48

where:

DEPSTOG = the average depth of depression storage (mm)

SLOPE = the average ground slope (%)

(Typical values of depression storage vary from less than 2 mm for paved areas, 3-7 mm
for flat roofs, and up to 10 mm for gardens.)

The nature of depressions is largely a function of the land form and local land-use
properties and it varies widely in size, degree of interconnection, and contributing
drainage area. Depressions can be considered as small reservoirs. Depression storage is
sometimes assumed to be a constant throughout the storm events.

In modelling the rainfall-runoff process for engineering purposes, the frequently

used assumption is that all depressions must be full before overland flow supply begins.

112
Resources from the Web:

http://hydrologys5.blogspot.com/p/evaporations.html

http://www.aboutcivil.org/measurement-of-evaporation.html

http://iwmi.dhigroup.com/hydrological_cycle/evapotranspiration.html

http://www.civil.ryerson.ca/Stormwater/menu_4/index.htm

http://www.aboutcivil.org/evaporation-in-engineering-hydrology.html

web.iitd.ac.in/~chahar/Courses/CEL251/Evaporation.pdf

faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/CE/allayla/CE%20331.doc

www.studia.pwr.wroc.pl/p/...engineering/hydrology_for_engineers.pdf

www.univpgri-palembang.ac.id/perpus-fkip/.../Hidrologi%20Dasar.pdf

www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/pdf/wg2tarchap4.pdf

Notes.pdf

nptel.ac.in/courses/105105110/pdf/m2l01.pdf

nptel.ac.in/courses/105101002/downloads/module1/lecture3.pdf

www.ijaiem.org/volume2Issue1/IJAIEM-2013-01-30-092.pdf

www.civil.utah.edu/~mizukami/coursework/cveen7920/Evaporation.ppt

web.cecs.pdx.edu/~fishw/ESR320_Hydrology1.pdf

pubs.usgs.gov/wri/1986/4148/report.pdf L. Benson

https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=9rW9BAAAQBAJ

http://hydrologys5.blogspot.com/p/evaporations.html

https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=Nh8Y3vIjXK8C

journals.tubitak.gov.tr/agriculture/issues/tar-02.../tar-26-6-8-0112-4.pdf

Others:

Deodhar, M. J. 2008. Elementary Engineering Hydrology. Pearson Education

India

113
 SURFACE
AND SUBSURFACE
RUNOFF PHENOMENON

3.3.1 Rainfall-Runoff Processes: Mechanisms, Cycle,

Water Stage-Discharge Relationship, Measurement and
Interpretation

3.3.2 Flood Prediction

Submitted by:
Jelly C. Namacpacan

114
 Hydrologic Cycle

3.3 Surface and Subsurface Runoff Phenomenon

Surface Runoff

Surface runoff is a term used to describe when soil is infiltrated to full capacity
and excess water, from rain, snowmelt, or other sources flow over the land. This is a
major component of the water cycle or the hydrological
cycle.

Surface runoff can be generated either by rainfall or by the melting of snow

or glaciers. Based on the hydrological cycle, runoff is flow from a drainage
basin or watershed that appears in surface streams. The flow is made by parts of
precipitation that falls directly into the stream, surface runoff, subsurface runoff, and
groundwater runoff.

115
 Surface runoff has the greatest capacity to carry pollutants into the water flow
because on the surface, it is in contact with the greatest amount of pollutants. Also, unlike
subsurface and groundwater runoff, surface runoff does not undergo any filtering through
soils. Urban storm water runoff has been identified as a leading cause of waterway
impairment for many pollutants.

Subsurface Runoff

Subsurface runoff is that part of rainfall which first leaches into the soil and
moves laterally without joining the water table, to the stream, rivers or ocean is known as
sub-surface runoff. It is usually referred is inter-flow.

It is also that part of the infiltrated effective rainfall circulates more or less
horizontally in the superior soil layer and appears at the surface through drain channels.
The presence of a relatively impermeable shallow layer favours this flow. Subsurface
flows in water bearing formations have a drainage capacity slower than superficial flows,
but faster than groundwater flows.

The essential condition for the appearance of the subsurface flows is: the
hydraulic lateral conductivity of the environment has to be superior to the vertical
conductivity. The subsurface flow in unsaturated regimes can be the base flow in the area
with large slopes, and it is dominant in humid regions with vegetal covering and well-
drained soils.

116
 3.3.1 Rainfall-Runoff Processes: Mechanisms, Cycle, Water
Stage-Discharge Relationship, Measurement and Interpretation

Runoff is the movement of landwater to the oceans, chiefly in the form of rivers,
lakes, and streams. Runoff consists of precipitation that neither evaporates, transpires nor
penetrates the surface to become groundwater. Even the smallest streams are connected
to larger rivers that carry billions of gallons of water into oceans worldwide. Excess
runoff can lead to flooding, which occurs when there is too much precipitation.

Classification of runoff generation mechanisms

(following Beven, 2000)

(a)There is a maximum limiting rate at which a soil in a given condition can absorb
surface water input. This was referred to by Robert E. Horton (1933), one of the founding
fathers of quantitative hydrology, as the infiltration capacity of the soil, and hence this
mechanism is also called Horton overland flow. When surface water input exceeds
infiltration capacity the excess water accumulates on the soil surface and fills small
depressions. Water in depression storage does not directly contribute to overland flow
runoff; it either evaporates or infiltrates later. With continued surface water input, the
depression storage capacity is filled, and water spills over to run down slope as an
irregular sheet or to converge into rivulets of overland flow. The amount of water stored
on the hillside in the process of flowing down slope is called surface detention.

117
(b) Due to spatial variability of the soil properties affecting infiltration capacity and due
to spatial variability of surface water inputs, infiltration excess runoff does not
necessarily occur over a whole drainage basin during a storm or surface water input
event. Betson (1964) pointed out that the area contributing to infiltration excess runoff
may only be a small portion of the watershed. This idea has become known as the
partial-area concept of infiltration excess overland flow. Infiltration excess overland
flow occurs anywhere that surface water input exceeds the infiltration capacity of the
surface.

(c) Overland flow can occur due to surface water input on areas that are already saturated.
This is referred to as saturation excess overland flow. Saturation excess overland flow
occurs in locations where infiltrating water completely saturates the soil profile until
there is no space for any further water to infiltrate. The complete saturation of a soil
profile resulting in the water table rising to the surface is referred to as saturation from
below. Once saturation from below occurs at a location all further surface water input at
that location becomes overland flow runoff.

118
(d) Subsurface storm flow is a runoff producing mechanism operating in most upland
terrains. Subsurface storm flow occurs when water moves laterally down a hill slope
through soil layers or permeable bedrock to contribute to the storm hydrograph in a river.
In humid environments and steep terrain with conductive soils, subsurface storm flow
may be the main mechanism of storm runoff generation (Anderson and Burt, 1990b;
Gutknecht, 1996). In drier climates and in lowlands with gentler topography, subsurface
storm flow may occur only under certain extreme conditions (high rainfall and high
antecedent soil moisture), when transient water tables form and induce lateral flow to the
channel (Wilcox et al., 1997).

(e) Low permeability layers between ground surface and the main water table often form
a
perched water table that contributes to the interflow. Interflow or through flow due to
lateral movement through unsaturated matrix or macro pores or perched water table.

119
Runoff Cycle:
It is that part of hydrological cycles which is between the phase of precipitation
and its subsequent discharge in the stream channels or direct return to the atmosphere
through evaporation and evapotranspiration.

Types of Runoff:

a. Surface runoff (That portion of rainfall which enters the stream immediately
after the rainfall. It occurs when all loses is satisfied and rainfall is still continued
and rate of rainfall [intensity] in greater than infiltration rate.)

b. Sub-surface runoff (That part of rainfall which first leaches into the soil and
moves laterally without joining the water table, to the stream, rivers or ocean is
known as sub-surface runoff. It is usually referred is inter-flow.)

c. Base flow (It is delayed flow defined as that part of rainfall, which after falling
on the ground the surface, infiltrated into the soil and meets to the water table and
flow the streams, ocean etc. The movement of water in this is very slow.
Therefore it is also referred a delayed runoff.)

120
Water Stage- Discharge Relationship, Measurement and Interpretation

The stage-discharge relationship or rating curve at a river cross-section is a

fundamental technique in hydrology employed for determining discharge from
catchments. While river cross-sections are inherently variable, it generally takes quite
some time for a change in cross-section to occur. Thus, where good quality data on stage
and discharge are available, a stable and representative rating curve may be established.

121
122
Rating of the Current Meter

The relationship between the revolutions per second (N, rps) of the meter and the
velocity of flow past the meter (v, m/sec) has to be first established, or if the rating
equation is given by the maker, it has to be verified. This process of calibration of the
meter is called rating of the current meter. The rating equation is of the form

v = aN + b

where a and b are constants (determined from rating of the current meter).

123
 Stage-discharge Rating Curve

If the river is subject to scour,

124
 ( ) or from other sources ( )

The ratings are typically plotted in log-log space the medium to high flow and on
arithmetic coordinate space for low flow. Log-log space for medium to high flow is used
because it makes a power function into a straight line of the form:

Log Q = Log P + b Log (G-e)

which is the equation for a straight line as shown in the figure below.

Example of a stage-discharge rating which is linear in log space

125
Determination of scale offset by Johnson’s metho

126
There are two methods of determining the discharge in each elemental strip:

(i) Mid-section method. In this method, the vertical in which the velocity
measurements are made (by one-point or two-points method) is taken as the
middle of the strip, and the water depth (d) in the vertical (determined by
sounding) is taken as the mean depth of the strip, Fig. 6.7 (a). If b is the width
of strip (usually same for all strips) then the discharge in the elemental strip is
given by

Stream discharge,

In this method, the discharges in the two-triangular bits near the ends are not included in
the discharge computation.

127
 (ii) Mean-section method. In this method, the elemental strip is taken
between two verticals and the mean depth is taken as the average of the depths
in the two verticals (determined by sounding). The width of the strip is
distance b between the two verticals. The velocity in the strip is taken as the
average of the mean velocity determined in the two verticals (by one-point or
two-points method), Fig. 6.7 (b). The discharge in the elemental strip is given
by

The mean section method is considered to be slightly more accurate, but the mid-section
method is faster and is generally used.

128
 3.3.2 Flood Prediction

• Flood is defined as extremely high flows or levels of rivers, lakes, ponds, reservoirs and
any other water bodies, whereby water inundates outside of the water bodies area.

• Flooding also occurs when the sea level rises extremely or above coastal lands due to
tidal sea and sea surges. In many regions and countries floods are the most damaging
phenomena that effect to the social and economic of the population (Smith et,a1..1998).

Causes of flooding:
Many factors cause floods. In general, the reasons for increasing flooding in many
parts of the world are (Smith et, al., 1998):

1. Climatological events
2. Changes in Land use and increasing population
3. Land subsidence, Tsunami
4. Dam & Levee Failures

Effects of Floods
Hazards associated with flooding can be divided into primary hazards that occur
due to contact with water, secondary effects that occur because of the flooding, such as
disruption of services, health impacts such as famine and disease, and tertiary effects
such as changes in the position of river channels.

Primary Effects
The primary effects of floods are those due to direct contact with the flood waters
(Water velocities tend to be high in floods).
• With higher velocities, streams are able to transport larger particles/sediment as
suspended load.
• Massive amounts of erosion can be accomplished by flood waters
• Water entering human built structures cause water damage.
• Flooding of farmland usually results in crop loss. Livestock, pets, and other
animals are often carried away and drown.
• Humans that get caught in the high velocity flood waters are often drowned by
the water.
• Floodwaters can concentrate garbage, debris, and toxic pollutants that can cause
the secondary effects of health hazards.

129
Secondary Effects
(Secondary effects are those that occur because of the primary effects)
• Disruption of services
• Drinking water supplies may become polluted, especially if sewerage treatment
plants are flooded. This may result in disease and other health effects, especially
in under developed countries.
• Electrical and gas service may be disrupted.
• Transportation systems may be disrupted, resulting in shortages of food and
clean-up supplies. In under developed countries food shortages often lead to
starvation.

Tertiary Effects
(Tertiary effects are the long term changes that take place)
• Location of river channels may change as the result of flooding; new channels
develop, leaving the old channels dry.
• Jobs may be lost due to the disruption of services, destruction of business, etc.
(although jobs may be gained in the construction industry to help rebuild or repair
flood damage).
• Insurance rates may increase.
• Corruption may result from misuse of relief funds.
• Destruction of wildlife habitat.

Flood Prediction
Flood prediction and modeling refer to the processes of transformation of rainfall
into a flood hydrograph and to the translation of that hydrograph throughout a watershed
or any other hydrologic system.

Advantages / Disadvantages
By predicting floods:
• Authorities can prepare defences and emergency services before a flood occur,
therefore reducing damage to homes, farmland and businesses.
• It can help to choose what type of flood defences should be used in an area.
• Intangible losses including; loss of life and injury, and the damage caused to
human health and long-term well-being, can be prevented.
• Technology is always improving and becoming more accurate.
• Less damage means costs and disruption of daily lives are greatly reduced.
• Residents can take precautions to protect their property or can be evacuated.
•
Problems with flood prediction:
• How effective the preparations are depends on local authorities and support of
voluntary and official agencies.
• Prediction and warnings don‟t help to reduce the chance of the river bursting its
banks, therefore have to be used with other management strategies or defences.
130
Example:
Determine the discharge of the following data using mean-section method and mid-
section method:

131
Answer:

132
133
134
135
136
137
References:

pdf Files:

Chow, Ven Te; Maidment, David R.; Mays, Larry W. 1988. Applied Hydrology. McGraw
Hill.pdf

http://www.geo.auth.gr/yliko/useful/books/books_geology/H/Hydrology%20Principles.p
df

Field Methods For Hydrologic and Environmental Studies. Chapter 1, Surface Water
Data Collection by Robert R. Holmes, Jr..pdf

Hydrological Sciences Journal. A study of the stage-discharge relationship of the

Okavaiigo River at Mohembo, Botswana.pdf

Hydrology_for_engineers.pdf

Google Books:

Hydrology in Practice by Elizabeth M. Shaw

Streamflow Measurement, Third edition by Reginald W. Herschy

138
 Flood Prediction

3.3.2.1 Graph Analysis:

Characteristics
Base Flow Separation
Unit Hydrograph Theory
Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph
Synthetic Unit Hydrographs
Applications

Submitted by:
Neil Bryan B. Lunjas

139
 Hydrograph

 It is a graph showing the change of rate of flow (discharge) versus time past a
specific point in a river, or other channel or conduit carrying flow.

 It can also refer to a graph showing the volume of water reaching a

particular outfall (discharge point of a waste stream into a body of water usually
sea and lakes).

Characteristics of a Hydrograph
 Rising limb- the rising limb of hydrograph, also known as concentration curve,
reflects a prolonged increase in discharge from a catchment area, typically in
response to a rainfall event
 Recession (or falling) limb- the recession limb extends from the peak flow rate
onward. The recession limb represents the withdrawal of water from the storage
built up in the basin during the earlier phases of the hydrograph.
 Inflection point- the end of stormflow and the return to groundwater-derived
flow base flow.
 Peak discharge- the highest point on the hydrograph when the rate of discharge
is greatest
 Lag time, tl- the time interval from the center of mass of rainfall excess to the
peak of the resulting hydrograph
 Time to Peak, tp- time from the beginning of the rising limb to the occurrence of
the peak discharge.
 Discharge- the rate of flow (volume per unit time) passing a specific location in a
river or other channel.
Time Base, tb- duration of the direct runoff hydrograph

140
  If a second storm occurs now, again the hydrograph starts rising till it reaches the
new peak and then falls and the ground water recession begins.

 Thus, in actual streams gauged, the hydrograph may have a single peak or
multiple peaks according to the complexity of storms.

Base Flow Separation

As the Unit Hydrograph concept applies only to direct runoff, the direct runoff must be
separated from the baseflow. Baseflow separation or hydrograph analysis is the process

141
of separating the direct runoff (surface runoff and quick interflow) from the baseflow.
This separation is somewhat arbitrary, but corresponds to theoretical concepts of basin
response.

However, the process of separating “base flow” from “direct runoff” is an inexact
science. In part this is because these two concepts are not, themselves, entirely distinct
and unrelated. Return flow from groundwater increases along with overland flow from
saturated or impermeable areas during and after a storm event; moreover, a particular
water molecule can easily move through both pathways en route to the watershed outlet.
Therefore separation of a purely “base flow component” in a hydrograph is a somewhat
arbitrary exercise. Nevertheless, various graphical and empirical techniques have been
developed to perform these hydrograph separations.

Because we do not want to include the contribution from baseflow in the unit
hydrograph, this must be separated from the quick–response runoff. There are various
methods for doing this.

Some of the well-known base flow separation procedures:

(i) Simply by drawing a line AC tangential to both the limbs at their lower portions.
This method is very simple but is approximate and can be used only for
preliminary estimates.

(ii) Extending the recession curve existing prior to the occurrence of the storm up to
the point D directly under the peak of the hydrograph and then drawing a straight
line DE, where E is a point on the hydrograph N days after the peak, and N (in
days) is given by

N = 0.83 A^0.2 ( when A is in sq.km.)

N = A^0.2 (when A is in sq.mi.)

where: A = area of the drainage basin

(iii) Simply by drawing a straight line AE, from the point of rise to the point E, on the
hydrograph, N days after the peak.
(iv) Construct a line AFG by projecting backwards the ground water recession curve
after the storm, to a point F directly under the inflection point of the falling limb
and sketch an arbitrary rising line from the point of rise of the hydrograph to
connect with the projected base flow recession. This type of separation is

142
 preferred where the ground water storage is relatively large and reaches the
stream fairly rapidly, as in lime-stone terrains.

However, in many cases a straight line AE meets the requirements for practical purposes.
Location of the point E is where the slope of the recession curve changes abruptly, and as
a rough guide E is N days after the peak. In all the above four separation procedures, the
area below the line constructed represents the base flow, i.e., the ground water
contribution to stream flow.

Unit Hydrograph

Sherman (1932) first proposed the unit hydrograph concept. The Unit Hydrograph (UH)
of a watershed is defined as the direct runoff hydrograph resulting from a unit volume of
excess rainfall of constant intensity and uniformly distributed over the drainage area. The
duration of the unit volume of excess or effective rainfall, sometimes referred to as the
effective duration, defines and labels the particular unit hydrograph. The unit volume is
usually considered to be associated with 1 cm (1 inch) of effective rainfall distributed
uniformly over the basin area.

Unit Hydrograph concept applies only to direct runoff, the direct runoff must be
separated from the baseflow.

The fundamental assumptions implicit in the use of unit hydrographs for modeling
hydrologic systems are:

143
 a) Watersheds respond as linear systems. On the one hand, this implies that the
proportionality principle applies so that effective rainfall intensities (volumes) of
different magnitude produce watershed responses that are scaled accordingly.
On the other hand, it implies that the superposition principle applies so that
responses of several different storms can be superimposed to obtain the composite
response of the catchment.
b) The effective rainfall intensity is uniformly distributed over the entire river basin.
c) The rainfall excess is of constant intensity throughout the rainfall duration.
d) The duration of the direct runoff hydrograph, that is, its time base, is independent
of the effective rainfall intensity and depends only on the effective rainfall
duration.

Creating a Unit Hydrograph

STEP 1: SELECT APPROPRIATE PRECIPITATION EVENT

When deriving a unit hydrograph it is important to start with an archived hydrograph in

which the quick–response runoff portion is from one single storm event. In addition, that

144
storm should have produced its excess precipitation with nearly uniform coverage in
space and time over the basin.

STEP 2: REMOVE BASEFLOW CONTRIBUTION

Recall that a unit hydrograph represents the quick–response runoff.

To make the unit hydrograph show the effect of the quick–response runoff only, we need
to separate out the baseflow portion.

Once we subtract out the baseflow component, the resulting hydrograph shows only the
contribution from excess precipitation, or quick–response runoff.

STEP 3: CALCULATE QUICK–RESPONSE VOLUME

145
The total volume of water from the quick–response runoff needs to be calculated. This is
done by summing the areas under the quick–response runoff hydrograph for each time
step, in this case, hourly.
STEP 4: DETERMINE EXCESS PRECIPITATION DEPTH FROM THE BASIN

Once we have the estimated volume of the quick–response runoff for a basin, we need to
determine what basin–wide average depth would cause that volume. We do this by spreading this
volume out evenly across the entire basin.

For example, assume we have a basin area of 100 square kilometers, which is 100,000,000 square
meters. Assume we calculated the volume of water from the quick–response runoff to be
2,000,000 cubic meters. So dividing the volume by the area, or 2,000,000 cubic
meters/100,000,000 square meters, we get 0.02 meters, or 2.0 centimeters. This 2 centimeters is
the average depth of excess rainfall over the basin.

STEP 5: ADJUST THE QUICK–RESPONSE HYDROGRAPH

146
The excess precipitation depth probably won't be exactly one unit as unit hydrograph
theory requires. So, we have to adjust the quick–response runoff hydrograph to show
what the response from one unit would be.

We can determine the adjustment by simply dividing the hydrograph unit (in this case,
one) by the excess precipitation. We then use this adjustment factor to convert the points
on the hydrograph to the unit hydrograph.

 For example, our unit hydrograph depth measurement is 1 cm, and we just
calculated the excess precipitation depth to be 2 cm . That gives us an adjustment
factor of 0.5, which we can use to calculate each data point in the hydrograph.

Once we multiply each point on the hydrograph by our adjustment factor of 0.5, our
resulting unit hydrograph is for exactly 1 cm of excess precipitation.

Note: for a hydrograph the Y–axis shows flow, such as cubic meters per second (cms).
For a unit hydrograph, the Y–axis shows flow per unit, for example, cms per cm .

STEP 6: DETERMINE DURATION

The duration of a unit hydrograph refers to a continuous time period during which one
unit of excess precipitation occurred. If it took 6 hours for the one unit of excess to occur,

147
we have a 6–hour unit hydrograph. Remember, the unit hydrograph duration does not
refer to the duration of the streamflow response.

The difficult part of determining the duration of a unit hydrograph is estimating which
portion of the entire precipitation event actually contributes to excess precipitation.

Recall that the water that infiltrates and percolates into deeper storage and baseflow is not
part of excess precipitation.

We can estimate this portion of the precipitation by applying a constant loss function to
the rainfall.

Recall that we have already calculated the depth of the excess precipitation to be 2.0 cm .
Now, we need to know how long it took for that excess to occur. So we move this loss
function line such that the amount of precipitation above the line is equal to the depth of
excess precipitation that we already calculated for the basin.

 Below that line the precipitation goes to long–term storage. Above the line is the
excess precipitation.

148
Now we have an excess precipitation bar graph. Note that there are only 6 hours
represented, compared to 9 hours in the original total rainfall graph. That means the
excess rainfall duration is 6 hours, thus we will derive a 6–hour unit hydrograph.

Notice that the amounts from hour to hour on this graph are not truly uniform. This is
typical.

For purposes of calculating a unit hydrograph duration, however, we assume that all
excess precipitation occurred uniformly in time.

FINAL UNIT HYDROGRAPH

At the end of these steps, we have a 6–hour unit hydrograph. It shows the streamflow
response to 6 hours of excess precipitation that produced one unit of depth.

UNIT HYDROGRAPH FROM COMPLEX STORMS

Unit hydrographs from complex storms, involving varying intensities of rain can be
obtained by considering the complex storm as successive unit storms of different
intensities and the runoff hydrograph (due to complex storm) as the result of
superposition of the successive storm hydrographs. The ordinates of each storm
hydrograph are obtained as „the storm intensity times the corresponding ordinate of the
unit hydrograph as shown in the figure. The unit hydrograph ordinates u1, u2, ... are thus
obtained by writing a series of equations for each of the ordinates Q1, Q2, .... of the
runoff hydrograph (due to complex storm) and successively solving them.

149
Example:

The stream flows due to three successive storms of 2.9, 4.9 and 3.9 cm of 6 hours
duration each on a basin are given below. The area of the basin is 118.8 km2. Assuming a
constant base flow of 20 cumec, derive a 6-hour unit hydrograph for the basin. An
average storm loss of 0.15 cm/hr can be assumed.

Solution:

Let the 6-hour unit hydrograph ordinates be u0, u1, u2, u3, u4, ...., u7 at 0, 3, 6, 12, ...., 21
hours, respectively. The direct runoff ordinates due to the three successive storms (of 6
hours duration each) are obtained by deducting the base of flow of 20 cumec from the
streamflows at the corresponding time intervals as shown in Table 5.2. The net storm
rains are obtained by deducting the average storm loss as

150
151
The equations can be easily arrived by entering in a tabular column and successively
solving them. The 6-hr unit hydrograph ordinates are obtained in the last column; of
course the ordinates are at 3-hr intervals since the streamflows are recorded at 3-hr
intervals. The last four equations in the table serve to check some of the UGO‟s derived.
Another check for the UGO‟s derived is that the area under the UG should give a runoff
volume equivalent to 1 cm, i.e.,

Hence, the UGO‟s derived are correct and is plotted

6-hr unit hydrograph (derived)

152
 Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph

An IUH is a direct-runoff hydrograph producing a unit rainfall excess (Pnet = 1 cm)

precipitating instantaneously over the catchment. The shape of the IUH resembles a
single peaked hydrograph. The properties of the IUH are given by Eq. (16.9); and its time
to the peak < time to the centroid of the curve. The main advantage of IUH is that it
eliminates the problem of unit duration and restriction of uniform distribution of rainfall
in time. It is independent of the duration of the rainfall excess (tr) and rainfall
characterstics, and is indicative of the catchment storage characterstics (like length,
shape, slope and storage coefficient), which makes it eminently suitable for theoretical
analysis of rainfall-runoff relationship. The IUH is a unique demonstration of a particular
catchment response to rain, i.e., „impulse response‟. As the IUH is only an extension of
the unit hydrograph concept, it is also based on the principles of liniarity and time
invariance.

CONCEPTUAL (SYNTHETIC) UNIT HYDROGRAPHS

In India, only a small number of streams are gauged (i.e., streamflows due to single and
multiple storms, are measured). There are many drainage basins (catchments) for which
no streamflow records are available and unit hydrographs may be required for such
basins. In such cases, hydrographs may be synthesised directly from other catchments,
which are hydrologically and meteorologically homogeneous, or indirectly from other
catchments through the application of empirical relationship. Methods for synthesising
hydrographs for ungauged areas have been developed from time to time by Bernard,
Clark, McCarthy and Snyder. The best known approach is due to Snyder (1938). Snyder
analysed a large number of hydrographs from drainage basins in the Applachian
Mountain region in USA ranging in the area from 25 to 25000 km2 and selected the three
parameters for the development of unit hydrograph, namely, base width (T), peak
discharge (Qp) and lag time (basin lag, tp).

153
Snyder proposed the following

empirical formulae for the three parameters:

Lag time, tp

Standard duration of net rain, tr

For this standard duration of net rain,

peak flow, Qp

time base in days, T

peak flow per km2 of basin, qp

154
Snyder proposed subsequently an expression to allow for some variation in the basin lag
with variation in the net rain duration, i.e., if the actual duration of the storm is not equal
to tr but is tr′, then

Where: tpr = basin lag for a storm duration of tr′, and tpr is used instead of tp

Ct, Cp = empirical constants (Ct ≈ 0.2 to 2.2, Cp ≈ 2 to 6.5, the values depending on the
basin characteristics and units)

A = area of the catchment (km2)

L = length of the longest water course, i.e., of the mainstream from the gauging station
(outlet or measuring point) to its upstream boundary limit of the basin, (km) (Fig. 5.28)

Lca = length along the main stream from the gauging station (outlet) to a point on the
stream opposite the areal centre of gravity (centroid) of the basin

Example:

The following are the ordinates of the 9-hour unit hydrograph for the entire catchment of
the river Damodar up to Tenughat dam site:

and the catchment characteristics are

A = 4480 km2, L = 318 km, Lca = 198 km

155
Derive a 3-hour unit hydrograph for the catchment area of river Damodar up to the head
of Tenughat reservoir, given the catchment characteristics as:

A = 3780 km2, L = 284 km, Lca = 184 km

Use Snyder’s approach with necessary modifications for the shape of the hydrograph.

Solution:

The 9-hr UG is plotted and from that tp = 13.5 hr

156
The constants of Ct = 0.43 and Cp = 3 can now be applied for the catchment area up to
the head of the Tenughat reservoir, which is meteorologically and hydrologically similar.

These
widths also seem to be too long and a 3-hr UG can now be sketched using the parameters

Qp = 987 cumec, tpeak = 13 hr and T = 65 hr such that the area under the UG is equal
to a runoff volume of 1 cm.

Application of Unit Hydrograph

#1.

The runoff data at a stream gauging station for a flood are given below. The drainage
area is 40 km2. The duration of rainfall is 3 hours. Derive the 3-hour unit hydrograph
for the basin and plot the same.

157
158
159
#2.

The 3-hr unit hydrograph ordinates for a basin are given below.

There was a storm, which commenced on July 15 at 16.00 hr and continued up to

22.00 hr, which was followed by another storm on July 16 at 4.00 hr which lasted up to
7.00 hr. It was noted from the mass curves of self-recording rain gauge that the
amount of rainfall on July 15 was 5.75 cm from 16.00 to 19.00 hr and 3.75 cm from
19.00 to 22.00 hr, and on July 16, 4.45 cm from 4.00 to 7.00 hr. Assuming an average
loss of 0.25 cm/hr and 0.15 cm/hr for the two storms, respectively, and a constant base

flow of 10 cumec, determine the stream flow hydrograph and state the time of
occurrence of peak flood.

Solution:

Since the duration of the UG is 3 hr, the 6-hr storm (16.00 to 22.00 hr) can be considered
as 2-unit storm producing a net rain of 5.75 – 0.25 × 3 = 5 cm in the first 3-hr period
and a net rain of 3.75 – 0.25 × 3 = 3 cm in the next 3-hr period. The unit hydrograph
ordinates are multiplied by the net rain of each period lagged by 3 hr. Similarly, another
unit storm lagged by 12 hr (4.00 to 7.00 hr next day) produces a net rain of 4.45 – 0.15 ×
3 = 4 cm which is multiplied by the UGO and written in col (5) (lagged by 12 hr from the
beginning),table 5.9. The rainfall excesses due to the three storms are added up to get the
total direct surface discharge ordinates. To this, the base flow ordinates (BFO = 10
cumec, constant) are added to get the total discharge ordinates (stream flow).

160
161
Sources:

Google books:

Redowicz T., Hydrology for Engineers

Raghunath H.M., Hydrology, New Age International (P) Limited Publishers, New Delhi

Chow V.T., Maidment D., Mays L., Applied hydrology, McGraw-Hill Inc.,1988

Websites:

http://stream2.cma.gov.cn/pub/comet/HydrologyFlooding/UnitHydrographTheoryInterna
tionalEdition/comet/hydro/basic_int/unit_hydrograph/print.htm

http://stream2.cma.gov.cn/pub/comet/HydrologyFlooding/UnitHydrographTheoryInterna
tionalEdition/comet/hydro/basic_int/unit_hydrograph/print.htm

http://user.engineering.uiowa.edu/~flood/handouts/HO-L17-Baseflow-Separation.pdf

http://www.utdallas.edu/~brikowi/Teaching/Hydrogeology/LectureNotes/Streamflow/stre
amflow.pdf

162
 Flow Routing
Techniques
o Channel Routing
 Reservoir routing
 Muskingum Method
o Hydraulic Routing
 St. Venant Equations and Numerical Solutions

Submitted by:
Mae Mark C. Torres

163
3.3.2.2 FLOW ROUTING
 a procedure to estimate downstream hydrograph.
 A procedure to determine the time and magnitude of flow (i.e. , the flow
hydrograph) at a point on a watercourse from known or assumed hydrographs at
one or more points upstream. If the flow is a flood, the procedure is specifically
known as flood routing. The routed hydrograph is delayed by a time lag
(translation) and is attenuated.
 flow routing may be considered as an analysis to trace the flow through a
hydrologic system, given the input.
* ATENUATION - The peak of the outflow hydrograph will be smaller
than of the inflow hydrograph. This reduction in the peak value is called
attenuation.
* TIME LAG - The peak of the outflow occurs after the peak of the inflow;
the time difference between the two peaks is known as lag. The
attenuation and lag of a flood hydrograph at a reservoir are two very
important aspects of a reservoir operating under a flood-control criteria.
Why do we route flows?
* Account for changes in
flow hydrograph as a flood wave
passes downstream
* This helps in
* Accounting for storages
* Studying the attenuation
of flood peaks

Types of flow routing

• Lumped/hydrologic
• Flow is calculated as a function of time alone at a particular location
• Governed by continuity equation and flow/storage relationship
• Distributed/hydraulic
• Flow is calculated as a function of space and time throughout the system
• Governed by continuity and momentum equations

164
 3.3.2.2.1 LUMPED/HYDROLOGIC ROUTING
For a hydrologic system, input ( ), output ( ), and storage ( ) are related by the
continuity equation:

( ) ( ) ( )

If the inflow hydrograph, ( ), is known, Eq. (1) cannot be solved directly to obtain
The outflow hydrograph, ( ), because both and are unknown. A second
relationship, or storage function, is needed to relate and ; coupling the storage
function with the continuity equation provides a solvable combination of two equations
and two unknowns. In general, the storage function may be written as an arbitrary
function of , , and their time derivatives as shown by

( ) ( )

( )
The specific form of the storage function to be employed in this procedure depends on
the nature of the system being analysed. In Lumped flow routing, three particular systems
are analysed.
 First is reservoir routing by the level pool method, in which storage is a nonlinear
function of only:
( ) ( )
and function of ( ) is determined by relating reservoir storage and
outflow to reservoir water level.
 Second, storage is linearly related to and in the Muskingum method for flow
routing in channels.
 Finally, several linear reservoir models are analysed in which storage function
becomes a linear function of and its time derivatives.

The relationship between outflow and the storage of a hydrologic system has an
important influence on flow routing. This relationship may be either invariable or
variable.

165
 Invariable Storage Function
• It has a form of ( ) and applies to a reservoir with a horizontal
water surface. Such reservoirs have a pool that is wide and deep compared
to its length in the direction of flow.
• It requires that there be a fixed discharged from the reservoir for a given
water surface elevation.
 Variable Storage-Outflow relationship
• applies to long, narrow reservoirs, and to open channels or streams, where
the water surface profile maybe significantly curved due to backwater
effects.
• The resulting relationship between the discharge and the system storage is
no longer a single-valued function but exhibits a curve usually in the form
of a single or twisted loop, depending on the storage characteristics of a
system.
• Level pool method can be applied in an approximate way to routing with
this kind of relationship.
 Types
• Level pool method (Modified Puls)
 Storage is nonlinear function of Q
 Runge – Kutta method (alternative method for level pool routing)
• Muskingum method (Hydrologic River Routing)
 Storage is linear function of I and Q

166
 • Reservoir routing
 considers modulation effects on a flood wave when it passes
through a water reservoir
3.3.2.2.1.1 (LEVEL POOL ROUTING) RESERVOIR ROUTING
• It is the procedure for calculating the outflow hydrograph from a reservoir with a
horizontal water surface
• A number of procedures have been proposed for this purpose (e.g., Chow, 1951,
1959), and with the advance of computerization, graphical procedures are being
replaced by tabular or functional methods so that the computational procedure can
be automated.
• For reservoir routing the following data should be known
 Elevation vs Storage
 Elevation vs outflow discharge
 Elevation-storage and elevation-dis- charge relations for channel reaches
 Inflow discharge hydrograph to reservoirs or channel reaches and Initial
values of inflow, outflow Q, and storage S at time t = 0.
(a) Elevation-storage relations for reservoirs
• One of the important data items needed to complete a reservoir routing is a
relation of elevation or stage with volume of storage. If a reservoir is being
constructed, elevation-storage information is needed from the lowest
elevation at the centre line of dam up to an elevation slightly higher than
the expected top of dam. For an existing reservoir, elevation-storage
information is generally needed from the elevation of the permanent
pool/principal spillway up to an elevation slightly higher than the top of
d
a
m
.

T
h
e

p
r
e
s

167
 ence of residential or rural development may influence the ac- curacy
needed in development of the elevation-storage relation.
• The relation is developed from a contour map or its equivalent of the
reservoir area. A table is generally the easiest way to organize and
document the calculations.
• Once the contour map of a site is available,
• Step 1: Select elevation increments that define the topography with
reasonable accuracy, and tabulate them in column 1.
• Step 2: Determine the reservoir surface area at each elevation. For this
table the areas were determined in acres and tabulated in column 2.
• Step 3: Compute average surface areas in column 3.
• Step 4: Tabulate the increments of depth in column 4.
• Step 5: Compute the increments of storage for column 5 by multiplying an
average area in column 3 by its appropriate depth increment in column 4.
• Step 6: Accumulate the storage increments of column 5 in column 6 for
each elevation of column 1.

(b) Elevation-discharge relations for reservoirs

• The second important data item needed for reservoir routing is a relation
of elevation or stage with discharge through the principal spillway,
auxiliary spillway, and over the top of the dam if overtopping is

168
 anticipated during the routing. Select a set of elevations starting at the
elevation of the lowest outlet and ending at the expected maximum routed
water level, and calculate discharge at each elevation through the single or
multiple spillways. The elevations selected should be the same as those for
which the elevation-storage relation has been developed in the previous
step to eliminate interpolations needed to make elevations consistent in
both tables. The end result will be a table of elevations with the
appropriate storage and discharge.
(c) Elevation-storage and elevation-dis- charge relations for channel reaches
• Reservoir routing procedures may be used for chan- nel reaches under
certain circumstances. An example is a floodplain where a road or railroad
fill backs up the water and forces flow to pass through a restrictive bridge
or culvert. The decision to treat such a flood- plain area as a reservoir
requires judgment based on each case‟s physical characteristics:
• Is the floodplain relatively wide and the bridge or culvert
restrictive?
• Does the history of flooding in the area indicate significant storage
of water?
• Could the situation be treated as a reservoir with- out overtopping
occurring?
• Is the slope of the stream and floodplain flat enough that the
backwater would extend a significant distance upstream?
• Does enough storage in a combination of depth, width, and length
exist to significantly impact the routing of the inflow hydrograph?
• A rule of thumb is that if the volume of storage is more than 10 percent of
the volume of the inflow hydrograph, the area should be treated as a
reservoir.
• The answers to many of these questions may be de- rived from water
surface profiles and preliminary estimates of peak discharge and volume
of runoff at the location.
(d) Inflow discharge hydrograph to reservoirs or channel reaches
• The third important data item needed to complete a reservoir routing is an
inflow hydrograph representing discharge coming from the contributing
watershed. This hydrograph may represent the hydrograph from any of
various flood return periods, a hydrograph representing an actual flood
event or a design hydrograph such as a principal spillway hydrograph,

169
 auxiliary spillway design hydrograph, freeboard design hydrograph, or
probable maximum flood hydrograph.
• Base flow, if any, is generally added to the inflow hydrograph as a
constant value and the reservoir routing started at an elevation where base
flow will pass through the principal spillway. This elevation may be
derived from the elevation-discharge relation developed for the spillways.
• The continuity equation used in reservoir routing methods is that for the
conservation of mass: for a given time interval, the volume of inflow minus the
volume of outflow equals the change in volume of storage. The principal
assumption is that the water in the reservoir is level (level pool routing).

• The time horizon is broken into

intervals of duration , indexed by , that
is ( )
and the continuity equation is integrated
over each time interval, as shown in the
figure.

• For the -th time interval:

( ) ( )
∫ ∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) ( )

• The inflow values at the beginning and end of the -th time interval are &
respectively, and the corresponding values of the outflow are & . If the
variation of inflow and outflow over the interval is approximately linear, the
change in storage over the interval, , can be found by rewriting Eq. (4) as

( )

• The values of are known because they are prespecified. The values of
and are known at the -th time interval from calculation during the previous
time interval.

170
• Eq. 5 contains two unknowns, and , which are isolated by multiplying
Eq. 5 through by ⁄ , and rearranging the result to:

• ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

• To solve for , a storage-outflow function relating [( ) ]and is

needed.
• The elevation-discharge relation is derived from hydraulic equations relating head
and discharge, such as those shown in table 8.2.1, for various types of spillways
and outlet works.
• The value of is taken as the time interval of the inflow hydrograph.

171
• For a given value of water surface elevation, the values of storage and discharge
are determined (Fig. 8.2.2 a and b), then the value of ( ⁄ ) is calculated
& plotted in the horizontal axis of a graph with on the vertical axis.
• In routing the flow through time interval , all terms on the right side of Eq. (6)
are known, and the value of [( ⁄ ) ] can be computed. The
corresponding value of can be determined from the storage-outflow function
[( ⁄ ) ] versus , either graphically or by linear interpolation of tabular
values.

• To setup the data required for the next time interval, the value of [( ⁄ )
] is calculated by

( ) ( ) ( )

• The computation is then repeated for subsequent routing periods.

• Given the inflow hydrograph and and H relationship, we can solve the reservoir
outflow in three steps.
a. Develop versus ( ⁄ ) relationship using /H relationship
b. Compute ( ⁄ ) using

c. 3. Use the relationship developed in step 1 to get Q

172
Example 3.3.2.2.1.1:
A reservoir for detaining flood flow is one acre in horizontal area, has a vertical sides,
and has a diameter reinforced concrete pipe as the outlet structure. The head-water
relation for outlet pipe is given. Use the level pool routing method to calculate the
reservoir outflow from the inflow hydrograph. Assume the reservoir is initially empty.

Elevation H Discharge Q Time Inflow

(ft) (cfs) (min) (cfs)
0 0 0 0
0.5 3 10 60
1 8 20 120
1.5 17 30 180
2 30 40 240
2.5 43 50 300
3 60 60 360
70 320
3.5 78
80 280
4 97
90 240
4.5 117
100 200
5 137
110 160
5.5 156 120 120
6 173 130 80
6.5 190 140 40
7 205 150 0
7.5 218 160 0
8 231 170 0
8.5 242 180 0
9 253 190 0
9.5 264 200 0
10 275 210 0

173
Step 1 Develop versus (2 ∕∆ )+ relationship using /H relationship

𝑆 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔 𝑡
𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡
300.0
𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
250.0
200.0
150.0
100.0
50.0
0.0
0.0 500.0 1000.0 1500.0 2000.0

(2𝑆�∕∆𝑡�)
𝑄�

STEP 2 Compute ( ⁄ ) using

For the first time interval, because the reservoir is initially empty; so
( ) also.
, storage-outflow function is:

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

( )

174
To get the outflow at column 7, we just have to interpolate. We let our values as the
given discharge, and as the storage outflow function
[( ) ] . Using the formula
Where

( )
( )

After getting the outflow, we can now get the

value of column 5
at time index .

175
 ( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( )
Repeat steps 1-3 for the next time indices.

3.3.2.2.1.2 MUSKINGUM METHOD

• Is a commonly used hydrologic routing method for handling a variable discharge-
storage relationship.
• Models the storage volume of flooding in a river channel by combination of
wedge and prism storages.
 During the advance of a flood wave, inflow exceeds outflow, producing a
wedge of storage.
 During recession, outflow exceeds inflow, resulting a negative wedge. In
addition, there id a prism of storage which is formed by a volume of
constant cross-section along the length of prismatic channel.
The total storage in the channel reach can then be expressed as
[ ( )

It has been found that the value of varies from 0.6 for rectangular channels to a value
of about 1.0 for natural channels.
Using , the equation above reduces to a linear relationship for in terms of and

[ ( ) ] ( )

176
Where is the storage time constant for the reach, is a weighing factor (between
0~0.5, usually around 0.2). When ,

– such a storage is known as Linear Storage or Linear Reservoir

*Estimation of and
If there are no downstream records, the value is estimated from the travel time in the
reach (based on river bed slope and cross-section). The value is usually assumed as 0.2.
if there are measured flow records downstream, more accurate and values can be
derived from the procedures below:
• From the Eq. (4) [ ( ) ], so and [ ( ) ] have a
linear relationship and its slope is . The storage can be worked out by
accumulating ( ) from each time step (see Figure 4)

∑̅ ̅

For [ ( ) ] calculations, only use instantaneous values.

177
Example 3.3.2.2.1.2 a: The following inflow and outflow hydrographs were observed in a
river reach. Estimate the values of and applicable to this reach for use in the
Muskingum equation.

Solution: using the increment , the calculations are performed in a tabular

manner. The incremental storage and are calculated in columns 6 and 7
respectively. It is advantageous to use the units [( ⁄ ) ] for storage terms.

Storage in (𝑚 ⁄𝑠)
[𝑥𝐼 ( 𝑥 )𝑂]

178
From the figure above, it is clear that curve has the narrowest
Loop, hence is chosen. The slope of the line is
⁄
( ) ⁄

So,

179
For a given reach by selecting a routing interval and using the Muskingum equation,
the change in storage is:
[ ( ) ( )( )]

So,

[ ( ) ( )( )]

Simplify to get the Muskingum Equation

( )
where

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

It is important to check if . If not, some adjustments to the parameters

are needed. If there are routing errors, adjust the largest value first.

Since , , and are known for every time step, is solved for successive time steps
using each as for the next time step. is assumed the same as at the beginning
if not given.

Example 3.3.2.2.1.2 b: Route the following hydrograph through a river reach for which
and . At the start of inflow flood, the outflow discharge is .

180
Solution:

Since and should be such that

. In the present case is selected to suit the given inflow hydrograph ordinate
interval.

Using Eq(6,7 & 8), the coefficients are calculated as

* ( ) ( )+

* ( ) ( )+

* ( ) ( )+

* ( ) ( )+

* ( ) ( )+

* ( ) ( )+

For the first time interval, 0 to 6h.

From Eq(5)

181
182
 3.3.2.2.2 DISTRIBUTED/HYDRAULIC ROUTING
 Estimates of the flow rate or water level at important locations in the channel
system can be obtained using a distributed flow routing model. This type of
model is based on partial differential equations (the Saint Venant equations
for one dimensional flow) that allow the flow rate and water level to be
computed as functions of space and time, rather than of time alone as in the
lumped models.
Why computation of flood water level is needed?
- it is needed because this level delineates the flood plain and determines the
required height of structures such as bridges and levees.
Why is the computation of flood flow rate important?
-first, because the flow rate determines the water level.
-and second, because the design of any flood storage structure such as a detention
pond or reservoir requires an estimate of its inflow hydrograph
 Distributed flow routing models can be used to describe the transformation of
storm rainfall into runoff over a watershed to produce a flow hydrograph for
the watershed outlet, and then to take this hydrograph as input at the upstream
end of a river or pipe system and route it to the downstream end.
 It can also be used for routing low flows, such as irrigation water deliveries
through a canal or river system.
 The true flow process in either of these applications varies in all three space
dimensions (the velocity in a river varies along the river, across it, and also
from the water surface to the river bed), however, for many practical
purposes, the spatial variation in velocity across the channel with respect to
depth can be ignored, so that the flow process can be approximated as varying
in only one space dimension which can be solved by the Saint-Venant
equations, first developed by Barre de Saint-Venant in 1871)
3.3.2.2.2.1 SAINT-VENANT EQUATIONS
The following assumptions are necessary for derivation of the Saint-Venant
equations:
1. The flow is one-dimensional; depth and velocity vary only in the longitudinal
direction of the channel. This implies that the velocity is constant and the water
surface is horizontal across any section perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.
2. Flow is assumed to vary gradually along the channel so that hydrostatic pressure
prevails and vertical accelerations can be neglected (Chow, 1959)
3. The longitudinal axis of the channel is approximated as a straight line.
4. The bottom slope of the channel is small and the channel bed is fixed; that is, the
effects of scour and deposition are negligible.

183
 5. Resistance coefficients for steady uniform turbulent flow are applicable so that
relationships such as Manning‟s equation can be used to describe resistance
effects.
6. The fluid is incompressible and of constant density throughout the flow.
3.3.2.2.2.2 DERIVATION OF CONTINUITY EQUATION
• The following symbols are used in this derivation

Assuming that there is no lateral inflow, then

This has the partial derivative since is changing with both and time . Now the
volume of water between the sections 1 and 2 is increasing as a rate of where is

184
the top width, as cross-sectional area then this is equivalent to . The terms
are equal in magnitude but of opposite sign, so

( )
As then

3.3.2.2.2.3 DERIVATION OF DYNAMIC OR MOMENTUM EQUATION

• By applying Newton‟s law to our elemental length of channel we have

[ ]

Since varies with both space ( ) and time ( )

( )
• If is the bed slope (measured positive as the bed rises from downstream to up
then the sum of the three forces is

For small bed slopes, , then and so

Now

Where is energy loss/unit length of channel/unit weight of fluid.

• Equating these external forces to change in momentum yields

185
 [ ]

Rearranging gives

Using the Chezy

expression , can be written

Where is the Chezy and is the hydraulic mean radius given by

3.3.2.2.2.4 SOLUTION OF THE SAINT-VENANT EQUATIONS

The Saint-Venant equations are:

( )( )

( ) ( )( )

… these equations cannot be solved explicitly by making some very large assumptions
which are unrealistic for most situations. Therefore numerical techniques have to be used.
… equations above are not in a readily usable form to solve, so the first task is to
rearrange them. But is a function of so re-writing the equations using is to be done
and to arrange them to solve for the two unknowns and .
… *assume the simplest channel that is, rectangular cross-section of constant slope
3.3.2.2.2.5 MORE CONVENIENT FORM OF THE EQUATIONS
It is easier if we write the equations in terms of celerity, , rather than using this
equation for celerity of a small gravity wave in a rectangular channel of depth :

186
All terms involving of the Saint-Venant equations can be replaced by terms containing
making use of
( ) ( )

For continuity equation, where ,

( )

For the dynamic /momentum equation,

( ) ( )

Adding the continuity and momentum equations in terms of :

( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Subtracting momentum from continuity equation

[ ] ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Rearranging equations 14 and 15,

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

187
3.3.2.2.2.6 DIVERSION
… in differential calculus, one of the basic equations of partial differentiation is

… where and are independent variables.

if the variable is some property of the flow e.g., surface level, that varies with
both distance ( ) and time ( ) then if an observer is moving at velocity , the
observer will see the surface level change only with time relative to the observer‟s
position.
2.1.3.3 Characteristic form of the saint-venant equations
As could be any variable, we can write it as ( ) then
( ) ( ) ( )

If we compare this equation to equation 16

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

They are equivalent if ( ), so equation 16 can be re-written as the total

differential
( )
( ) ( )

And similarly equation 17 can be re-written as the total differential form if ( )

as
( )
( ) ( )

…equation 18 can be interpreted as, if an observer is moving at velocity ( ) then

they see/experience changes given by equation
18.
… and for equation 19, if the observer is
moving at velocity ( ) then they will
see/experience changes given by equation 19.
These pairs are known as the Characteristic
form of Saint-Venant Equations
…the solution of this system of equations is quite straight forward – particularly using a
computer.

188
The paths of the observers mentioned earlier can be represented by lines on these graph.
…lines of gradient on this graph are the paths of an observer.
( ) ( )
They may start at any points known as characteristic lines or simply characteristics.
Along these lines the associated characteristic equation applies. It is possible to solve the
characteristic equations at the point where they cross – at the same time this is the
solution to Saint-Venant equations. This technique is known as the Method of
Characteristics.
Consider again Figure 2, and a disturbance at the upstream end of the channel
(e.g., a flood wave). The part of the channel some way along from the end will not
receive the disturbance for some time. The time it takes depends on the velocity that the
information from the disturbance travels. In the figure, the line c0 represents this velocity.
Everything below that line represent the channel waiting for the disturbance – known as
the zone of quiet. c0 is a characteristic line. It is a forward characteristic as are the line c1
and c2, they have gradient of the form . Lines c3, c4 and c5 are negative /backward
characteristics and have gradients of the form .

189
3.3.2.2.2.7 NUMERICAL METHODS OF SOLUTION
• The numerical method is based on a staggered grid of solution point and doesn‟t
actually use the characteristic equations.
… this method is referred to as the Method of Characteristic – although it is just
approximations.
…it uses the ideas of where the information is traveling from – which is determined by
characteristics.
a.) Staggered Grid Method
consider the grid shown below, in which the nodes are spaced at regular
intervals along the direction of the axis and at intervals along the axis, the nodes
are staggered a distance ⁄ between and .

Calculate the solutions at point P which is at time , assume that we know all the
solutions values at the previous time, at time .
Solution: Draw two characteristics through points L and M as show in the figure. The
partial derivatives of the dependent variables will be:

And

Where point M is mid way between L and R and mean values can be used.
Substituting these to equation 13

( )

190
Since this equation is explicit in

[ ( ) ( ) ( ) ]

For equation 12

Which is explicit in

[ ( ) ( )]

…Those expressions for and enable the solution to be determined since all variable
on the right hand side are from the known conditions at the starting time level , they can
be used to calculate the solutions at every advanced time point on the level by
moving from point to point using each ones lower left and right point values.
… but this needs qualifying since the expressions are not true for the upstream and
downstream points ( ). At these boundaries we must derive special
equations – known as Boundary Conditions to describe exactly what changes are
occurring there.

191
3.3.2.2.2.8 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
… at any boundary, there is only one characteristic present because the other is outside
the channel. For an upstream boundary, we have the backward characteristic, and for the
downstream boundary, we have the forward characteristic.

Instead of the second characteristic equation we have a boundary condition

equation. This will either specify the depth (or stage) at P – e.g., from a stage curve
possibly from historical records or it will specify the discharge at P – e.g., from a flood
hydrograph.
*for Depth specified – upstream boundary

the values of depth is given so can be calculated (from √ ) then the

only solution for is required.
from the backward characteristic equation
( ) ( ) ( )
so
( ) ( )

*for Depth specified – downstream boundary

The values of depth is given so can be calculated and only the solution for
is required.
From forward characteristic equation
( ) ( ) ( )
so
( ) ( )
*for Discharge specified – upstream boundary

192
in this case the discharge is given, but must be converted in terms of or . The
shape of the cannel must be known to allow the area of flow to be calculated from depth.
For simplicity, we assume a rectangular channel

Or

Substitute to the backward characteristic

( ) ( ) ( )

( ( ) )

…can be solved using some iteration technique – e.g., Newton-Ralphson.

*for Discharge specified – downstream boundary

… similar to the upstream boundary except in this case we use the forward
characteristic

( ) ( ) ( )

( ( ) )

…can be solved using some iteration technique – e.g., Newton-Ralphson.

193
3.3.2.2.2.9 KINEMATIC WAVE CELERITY
A wave is a variation in a flow, such as a change in flow rate or water surface
elevation, and the wave celerity is the velocity with respect this variation travels along
the channel.
The celerity depends on the type of wave being considered and may be quite
different from the water velocity. For a kinematic wave the acceleration and pressure
terms in the momentum equation are negligible, so the wave motion is described
principally by the equation of continuity.
The name kinematic is thus applicable, as Kinematics – the study of motion
exclusive of influence of mass and force; in dynamics this quantities are included.
The kinematic wave model is defined by the following equations.

Momentum:

Mannings equation with , , and channel with :

⁄ ⁄

Kinematic wave celerity:

Or

where

194
3.3.2.2.2.9 DYNAMIC WAVE CELERITY
The dynamic wave celerity can be found by developing the characteristic equations for
the Saint-Venant equations. Beginning with the non-conservation form of the Saint-
Venant equations

And

( ) ( )

where is the dynamic wave celerity, given for a rectangular channel:

√
where is the depth of flow
( ) = the velocity propagation of the upstream dynamic wave and
downstream dynamic wave
EXAMPLE 3.3.2.2.2: A rectangular channel is 200 feet wide, has bed slope 1 percent
and Manning roughness 0.035. Calculate the water velocity , the kinematic and
dynamic wave celerities and , and the velocity propagation of dynamic waves
at a point in the channel where the flow rate is 5000 cfs.

solution: Manning‟s equation with , , and channel with

⁄ ⁄

⁄ ⁄
( )

⁄
( ⁄
)

⁄
( )
( )
( ) ⁄ ( )

195
So the water velocity is

( )
⁄
Solving for

⁄
⁄
( )

⁄
⁄
( )( )

( ) ⁄
⁄
( )( )

⁄
Solving for

√ ( )
⁄
the velocity propagation of the upstream dynamic wave
( )
( ) ⁄
velocity propagation of the Downstream dynamic wave
( )
( ) ⁄
Interpreting the results, it can be seen that flood wave traveling at the kinematic wave
celerity (14.4 ft/s) will move down the channel faster than the water velocity (8.65 ft/s),
while the dynamic waves move upstream (-1.0 ft/s) and downstream (18.3 ft/s) at the
same time.

196
REFERENCES:
PDFs:
Ven Te Chow, Maidment, David R., Mays, Larry W., 1988, Applied Hydrology,
McGraw-Hill Book Co. – Singapore.
Han, Dawei, 2010, Concise Hydrology, PDF.
Raghunath, H.M., 2006, Hydrology: Principles, Analysis, Design, New Age
International (P) Limited, Publishers.
Sleigh P.A., Goodwill I.M., March 2000, The Saint Venent Equations, PDF

197
3.4 INFILTRATION AND
PERCOLATION: PROCESSES
AND MEASUREMENTS

3.5 GROUNDWATER STORAGE

AND THE FLOW OF WATER

3.5.1 Hydrologic investigations in determining subsurface

resource
3.5.2 Hydraulics of flow of Groundwater
3.5.3 Groundwater Exploration and Exploitation in the
Philippines

Submitted by:
Danno Dwaine D. Catigtig

198
3.4 INFILTRATION AND PERCOLATION: Processes and Measurements

Infiltration includes entry of water into the soil surface and its movement, while
percolation is the movement of water under gravity. These two phenomena are confusing
as they are closely related, but technically there is a difference. Percolation starts after
infiltration.

Process of infiltration

Infiltration is that process by which precipitation is abstracted by seeping into the

soil below the land surface. When rainfalls on the ground, there is some resistance
offered by the soil surface for the entry of rainwater and also to the flow of water through
the soil. There are cracks, vertical as well as lateral in the soil, so also there are some
voids between the soil particles, which are ordinarily occupied by air or water. Water
flows through these cracks and gaps until it reaches the saturated zone below. Naturally,
the passage of water experiences some resistance.

The rate at which water enters the ground surface and then flows downwards is
known as infiltration rate. This rate is high in the beginning because it has to meet the
requirements of the dry soil. However, it attains a steady constant lower value after a
passage of time. The unit for the rate of infiltration is mm/h.

Fig. 1 Distribution of Soil Moisture in the Infiltration Process

The distribution of soil moisture within the soil profile during the infiltration
process is illustrated in Fig. 1 when water is applied at the surface of a soil, as indicated
in Fig. 1 can identified.

Zone1: At the top, a thin layer of saturated zone created.

199
 Zone 2: Beneath zone 1, there is a transition zone.

Zone 3: Next lower zone is the transmission zone where the downward motion of
the moisture takes place. The moisture content in this zone is above field capacity
but below saturation. Further, it is characterized by unsaturated flow and fairly
uniform moisture content.

Zone 4: The last zone is the wetting zone. The soil moisture in this zone will be at
or near field capacity and the moisture content decreases with the depth. The
boundary of wetting zone is the wetting front where a sharp discontinuity exist
between the newly wet soil and original moisture content of the soil. Depending
upon the amount of the infiltration and physical properties of the soil, the wetting
front can extend from a few centimeters to meters.

Factors Affecting Infiltration

1. Rainfall characteristic- the duration as well as the intensity of rainfall influences

infiltration. If the intensity of the rainfall is more than the infiltration rate, then only
surface runoff is noticed. On the contrary, if the intensity of the rainfall is less than the
infiltration rate, no surface flow is observed and all the rainfall is abstracted as
infiltration.

The rate of infiltration is high in the beginning and goes on reducing and attains a
steady state after some time. At earlier stage the intensity of rainfall may be less than the
rate of infiltration. Under this condition, the ground will absorb all the rainfall and there
will not be any surface flow.

When the infiltration rate reduces and becomes less than the intensity of precipitation,
surface flow will be noticed, which might increases till the infiltration rate stabilizes. In
addition to these considerations, rainfall has some additional effects as follows:

 When rainwater strikes the bare soil, there is mechanical compaction of soil due
to the impact, which reduce the infiltration rate.
 Fine soil particles are carried down due to rain water resulting in choking of the
pores spaces in the soil, and consequently resulting in reducing the infiltration
rate.
2. Ground surface condition- the land surface that receives rain may bare, vegetated or
cover with mulch or litter. The bare ground receiving rainfall may subjected to the effects
of impact, and so on. If impervious materials is exposed at the surface, naturally
infiltration is small or negligible.

200
3. Soil characteristics- have definite effect on infiltration. A uniformly graded material
will have more pores and hence the infiltration rate will be more than a well-graded
material. In clayey soils, because of the removal of moisture due to evaporation, some
shrinkage cracks may be observed. These termed as Sun cracks. Because of these these
cracks, infiltration rate may increase in the initial stage. Subsequently, when the soil gets
wet, the cracks get closed and may not affect the infiltration rate.

4. Soil moisture- even if the soil contains some moisture, there is no effect, practically, on
the rate of infiltration except that the rate is reduced at the initial stage.

Measurement of soil moisture content

The moisture content is measured directly or indirectly. The direct measurement

involves the determination of the weight loss from several oven-dried field samples or
Gravimetric method. Each sample is weighed before and after being dried at a
temperature of 105˚C. The moisture content is the ratio of the weight of water loss to the
weight of the dry soil, as a percentage.

( )

where:

= moisture content %

= weight of wet soil

= weight of dry soil

Indirect measurements of soil involve the use of;

1. Tensiometer- indirect measurement of soil moisture involve the use of

tensiometers to measure the suction force with which water is held in moist soil.
When the tube is inserted in the soil, water moves through the porous cup to the
surrounding soil, causing a pressure drop to register in the manometer or vacuum
gage. The drier the soil, the greater the amount of water leaving the tube and,
consequently, the greater the pressure decreases.
2. Neutron probe- Is a device used for indirect measurement of soil moisture content
in the field. The method is based on the fact that fast neutrons are scattered and
slowed down when they collide with the protons of hydrogen atoms. The probe
consist of a fast neutron source and a slow neutron counter, which registers a high
count when the soil moisture is high and a low count when the soil moisture is
low.

201
 Tensionmeter Neutron probe

Water Reservoir

Variable Tube Length (12 in- 48 in)

Based on Root Zone Depth

Porous Ceramic Tip Vacuum Gauge (0-100

centibar)

5. Human activities- cultivation of land disturbs the soil structure, closes the openings
made by burrowing animals and insects as well as decaying roots and thus reduces the
rate of infiltration.

6. Climatic conditions- the flow of water through the soil is laminar. Change in
temperature may cause change in the viscosity of water and consequently may cause
change in velocity of water, and thus may affect the infiltration rate.

7. Entrapped air- if infiltration process covers a large area, there may not be an exit
passage to the entrapped air in the soil. Also, because of the downward passage of water,
the air entrapped may get compressed and may offer more resistance to the flow, which
may result in reducing the infiltration rate.

8. Other minor factors- such as depth of water on the ground, groundwater table, and so
on, have practically no effect on the infiltration rate.

Measurement of Infiltration

The rate of infiltration is initially high. It goes on reducing with time and after
some time it becomes steady. The rate of infiltration for a soil is measured in the field as
well as in the laboratory. These are known as infiltrometers.

The most common types are the following:

202
1.Flooding-type infiltrometers- are experimental devices used to obtain data relating to
variation of infiltration capacity with time. Two types of flooding infiltrometers are in are
the following:

 Tube type or single-ring- this is a simple instrument consisting essentially of a

metal cylinder, 30 cm diameter and 60 cm long, open at both ends. The cylinder is
driven to a ground to a depth of 50 cm.
 Double-ring infiltrometer- this most commonly used infiltrometer is design to
overcome the basic objection of the tube infiltrometer. In this, two sets of
concentrating rings with diameters of 30 cm and 60 cm and of 25 cm. the two
rings re inserted to the ground and water is applied into both the rings to maintain
a constant depth of about 5.0 cm. the outer ring provides water jacket to the
infiltering water from the inner ring and hence prevents the spreading out of the
infiltering water of the inner ring.
Fig. 2 Types of Flooding Infiltrometers

2.Sprinkling-type infiltrometers or rain stimulators- in a small plot of land, 2 m

4m size, is provided with a series of nozzles on the longer side with arrangements to
collect and measures the surface runoff rate. The specially design nozzles produce
raindrops falling from a height of 2 m and are capable of producin various intensities of
rainfall.

Infiltration formulas

For a given storm, infiltration rates tend to vary in time. The initial infiltration rate
is the rate prevailing at the beginning of the storm. This rate is likely to be the maximum
rate for the given storm, gradually decreasing as the storm progresses in time. For storms
of long duration, the infiltration rate eventually reaches a constant value, referred to as
final (or equilibrium) infiltration rate. This process led Horton to the following formula to
describe the variation of infiltration rate with time:

203
 ( ) (2-
13)

in which = instantaneous infiltration rate; =initial infiltration rate; =final

infiltration rate; = a constant; = time in hours. The units of are are . For = 0 ,
; and for , (see fig. 3).

Fig. 3

𝑘𝑡
𝑓 𝑓𝑐 (𝑓 𝑓𝑐 )𝑒

Equation 2-13 has three parameters: (1) initial infiltration rate; (2) final
infiltration rate; and (3) the value describing the rate of decay of the difference between
initial and final infiltration rates. Field measurements are necessary in order to determine
appropriate values of these parameters. The plot of infiltration rate versus time enables
the estimation of the final rate. With a knowledge of the final rate, two sets of and are
obtained from the plot and used, together with Eq. 2-13, to solve simultaneously for
.

Integrating Eq.2-13 between and , leads to

( )
(2-
14) in which the total infiltration depth above the line. Equation 2-14
enables the calculations of the infiltrations depth, assuming that the storm lasts long
enough for the equilibrium rate to be attained.

204
EXAMPLE 1
Assuming =10mm/h, =5mm/h, and =0.95 h-1, calculate the total infiltration depth
for a storm lasting 6h.
After 6h, the difference between instantaneous and final rate is negligible. Therefore, the
total infiltration depth is:

(10mm/h – 5mm/h)/.95h-1 + (5mm/h X 6h) =35.26 mm.

Typical infiltration rate at the end of 1h ( ) are shown in Table. Generally, these
values are reasonable approximations of final (i.e., equilibrium) infiltration rates.

TYPICAL VALUES
SOIL GROUP (mm/h)

Low (clays, clay loam) 0.25-2.50

Intermediate (loams, clay, silt) 2.50-12.50
High (sandy soils) 12.50-25.00

EXAMPLE 2

The infiltration rate curve will be as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Estimation of infiltration rate

205
 2.5

infiltration rate ( mm/hr)

2 ( )𝑒 𝑡
𝑓

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
time (h)

Recent developments in infiltration theory have sought to improve on Horton

model. Philip has proposed the following model:
⁄
( ⁄ ) (2-15)

in which instantaneous infiltration rate; an empirical parameter related to the

rate of penetration of wetting front ( the wetting surface characterized by a very high
potential gradient); an infiltration value that is close to the value of saturated
hydraulic conductivity at the surface; and time.

In Eq. 2-15, for , ; and for , . In practice, the initial

infiltration rate has a finite value. In spite of this limitation, Philip formula seems to be
good fit to experimental data. Integration of the Philip equations leads to

(2-16)

in which total depth of infiltration.

An infiltration model with a sound theoretical basis is the Green Ampt formula.
This equation describes infiltration rate under ponded water conditions as follows:

( ) (2-17)
in which infiltration rate in millimeters per hour; saturated hydraulic
conductivity in millimeters per hour; depth of ponded water in millimeters;
capillary pressure at the wetting front in millimeters; and vertical depth of saturated
zone in millimeters.

206
Infiltration equation

Percolation- is defined as the slow movement of water through the pores in soil or
permeable rock. In dry region it is negligible and under high rainfall it is high. Sandy
soils have greater percolation than clayey soil. Vegetation and high water table reduce the
percolation loss.

Percolation is important for two reasons:

1. This is the only source of recharge of ground water which can be used through
wells for irrigation
2. Percolating waters carry plant nutrients down and often out of reach of plant roots
(leaching)
Estimation of the Percolation Rate
 Lysimeters- a commonly used field method, may be used to determine
percolation rates as they provide direct and accurate measurement.

207
  12-inch-diameter percolation test method (Calif Test 749) is the preferred
method, however, the 6-inch-diameter test method can be used in cases where
site location limits the use of a backhoe. This method may involve hazardous
materials, operations and equipment.

3.5 GROUNDWATER STORAGE and FLOW of WATER

Groundwater Storage, Porosity, and Specific Yield

Groundwater occupies the cracks and pore spaces between rocks and mineral
grains below the land surface. In the saturated zone, essentially all of the pores are filled
with water. If a volume of saturated aquifer material is completely dried, the water
volume removed reflects the total porosity of the material, or the fraction of pore space
within the total volume of solids plus open spaces. This number can be surprisingly large;
some minerals and rock formations can have total porosities in excess of 50%. In the
unsaturated, or vadose, zone there can be significant amounts of water present, but the
voids are not completely filled.

However, some of the pore spaces may be too small or too poorly connected to
permit the water they contain to flow out easily. The effective porosity can be thought of
as the volume of pore space that will drain in a reasonable period of time under the
influence of gravity. Effective porosity is always less than total porosity, sometimes (as
in the case of clays) much less. "Good aquifers" tend to have values of effective porosity
in the range of 10-30%, although examples of higher and lower values can be found.
Figure 5 illustrates the relationship among the types of porosity and the volume of water
in storage.

208
Figure 5: A schematic illustration of an aquifer in which the total porosity in the
saturated zone is 30%, half of which is tightly held in small pores or mineral associations,
and half of which is in large pores that drain relatively easily. The latter fraction can be
pumped out, and is the effective porosity or specific yield. Illustration not to scale.

A characteristic closely related to effective porosity is the specific yield of the

aquifer, which is the volume of water per unit volume of aquifer that can be extracted by
pumping. Although there are some technical distinctions, effective porosity and specific
yield can be thought of as equivalent for most non-technical purposes.

Specific yield (SY) is clearly an important factor in water availability, and is the
factor that is used to convert saturated thickness (ST) to the actual volume of
groundwater available;

Volume = Area x ST x SY

At any given location, the porosity of the formation remains essentially constant,
but the volume of water in storage, the average local porosity, and the specific yield all
vary with changes in saturated thickness (water table elevation). Some of this variation
can be explained (and quantitatively predicted) on the basis of straightforward physical
principles, but some of it is due to local variations in the aquifer structure. This
hydrogeologic variability is difficult to predict or measure with detailed accuracy.

209
Groundwater Flow and Hydraulic Conductivity

Groundwater flow is very slow compared to surface water movement. A rough

average number often used for natural flow in the High Plains aquifer is a foot per day.
This is thousands of times slower than river flow (typically measured in feet per second),
and means that a 'parcel' of groundwater takes over a decade to move a mile, and about a
century to cross a township. This natural time scale underscores the importance of long-
term planning and management, and helps explain why resource depletion or
contamination cannot be quickly or easily rectified.

Groundwater, like surface water, flows 'downhill' in the direction determined by

the slope of the water table. Its rate of flow is determined by the steepness of the slope
and an aquifer characteristic called hydraulic conductivity. In a porous medium, flow is
described by Darcy's Law, an equation that relates the rate of flow to the slope (or
gradient) of the water table and the characteristics of the aquifer. This law is illustrated in
fig. 6, and is written as:

Q=AxKxG
where Q is the volume flow of water (for example, in cubic feet per day -- also
called flux), A is the vertical area of the aquifer through which the horizontal flow is
occurring, G is the gradient or slope of the water table in the direction of flow (difference
in elevation divided by horizontal distance), and K is the hydraulic conductivity -- a
constant of proportionality that describes how easily water flows through the medium.
The term permeability is closely related to hydraulic conductivity; in strict scientific
usage they have slightly different definitions, but for water in unconfined aquifers they
are essentially the same.

210
Figure 6: Illustration of the factors governing flow in groundwater systems -- the head
gradient, or slope of the water table, the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer, and the
area through which flow can occur.

Like specific yield, the hydraulic conductivity is related to but not solely
determined by the porosity of the aquifer. All of these characteristics may show
considerable variation over a variety of spatial scales. Because both specific yield and
hydraulic conductivity are typically measured from tests on individual wells, their
determination is relatively expensive and applies to the scale of the zone of influence of
the well -- which is much larger than local variations in the aquifer, but very small
compared to the whole aquifer, basin, etc.

3.5.1 HYDROLOGIC INVESTAGATION in DETERMINING SUBSURFACE

RESOURCE

Subsurface water comprises all water either in storage or flowing below the
ground. There are two types of subsurface water: (1) interflow takes place in unsaturated
zone, close to the ground surface, and (2) groundwater flow takes place in the saturated
zone, which may be either close to the ground surface or deep in underground
waterbearing formations. The surface separating the unsaturated and saturated zones is
referred to as the groundwater table, or water table.
Subsurface water occurs by infiltration and/or snowmelt into the ground. Once the
water is infiltrated, it can follow two paths: (1) move in general lateral direction within
the unsaturated zone close to the ground surface or (2) move in a general downward
direction and join the saturated zone.

Saturated and Unsaturated zone

Saturated zone - is a system with two phases (solid and liquid) where all pores are filled
with water.

Unsaturated zone - is a system with three phases (solid, liquid and gas) where only a part
of the ground is filled with water.

211
 Figure 7 Distinction between saturated and unsaturated zones [Musy, 2001]

The fundamental difference between saturated and unsaturated zones consists in different
hydraulic conductivities.

It can be distinguished:

 Water from soil representing water from the unsaturated zone, and which is the
transit bond between matter and substances. These processes are part of a
continuous cycle soil-plants-atmosphere.
 Subsurface water level is influenced by rain percolation regime or irrigation water
that crosses through the unsaturated zone.

Suspended and phreatic groundwater tables

The boundary between the unsaturated zone and saturated zone is water table.

Suspended formations appear in aeration zones above local impermeable lentils of

clay or marl; these groundwater tables are of shallow depth with volume variations
depending on the air temperature and the rainfall atmospheric regime.
Different types of groundwater tables can be distinguished:

 a free groundwater table is that in which the superior limit is the free surface.
 a captive groundwater table (artesian) is created by rainfall infiltration into
permeable rocks and accumulation between two impermeable layers. Usually
water is under pressure. For this reason the hydrostatic level is above the captive
groundwater table or even above ground level. Captive underground waters can
be frequently found in isolated deposits. They have physical and chemical
qualities that make them valuable for urban centre water supply.
 A semi-captive groundwater table has a semi-permeable coverage.

212
  A karstic groundwater table is formed in a region composed of carbonated and
soluble rocks (CaCO3). Due to the solubility process, new fissures (which allow
free water circulation through watershed) and caves (where water is stored) are
created.

Aquifer

An aquifer is a permeable geological pattern (soil or rock) with pores or

communicating fissures large enough to allow water to circulate under the effect of
gravity (sand, gravel, gritstone). The aquifer is therefore a groundwater reservoir.

The aquifer can be characterized by the following indexes:

 Effective porosity is the ratio between the "mobile" water volume at saturation
(liberated under gravity effect) and total volume of environment. Generally it
varies between 0.1 and 30%. The effective porosity is a parameter determined in
the laboratory or on the field.
 Storage coefficient is the ratio between the free or stored water volume of an
aquifer and hydraulic charge variations. The storage coefficient is used to
characterize the exploited water volume, and to regulate the groundwater storage
in reservoir voids. For captive groundwater this coefficient is extremely low.
 Hydraulic conductivity at saturation is a coefficient of Darcy's law and
characterizes the effect of flow resistance under friction forces. It is determined in
the laboratory or on the field.
 Transmissivity is the product between hydraulic conductivity at saturation and the
groundwater table's height.
 Diffusion characterizes the reaction speed of a groundwater table when disturbed
(stream level variation, aquifer level variation). It can be expressed by a ratio
between transmissivity and storage coefficient.

213
3.5.2 HYDRAULICS of FLOW of GROUNDWATER
Depending on whether the flow is steady or unsteady, and saturated or
unsaturated, the equations of groundwater flow can be formulated in one of the following
three ways: (1) steady-state saturated flow, (2) transient (i.e., unsteady) saturated flow,
and (3) transient unsaturated flow. Equations for steady-state and transient saturated flow
are described here. See [8] for details on transient unsaturated flow through porous
media.

Steady-state saturated flow

The law of conservation of mass for steady-state flow through saturated porous
media requires that the net fluid mass flux through a control volume be equal to zero, i.e.,
the inflow must equal the outflow. This leads to the equation of continuity:
( ) ( ) ( )
( )

in which the quantities are specific discharges in three orthogonal directions

and ,respectively. Assuming fluid incompressibility, ( ) is constant, and
consequently it can be eliminated from Eq. 11-15. Substitute of Darcy‟s law in Eq. 11-15
yields:

( ) ( ) ( )
( )

in which the quantities and are hydraulic conductivities and hydraulic gradients,
respectively.

For an isotropic medium, For a homogeneous medium,

( ) is constant, and it can be eliminated from Eq. 11-16. Given ⁄
⁄ and ⁄ in which hydraulic head, Eq. 11-16 reduces to:

( )

Equation 11-17 is the Laplace equation. The solution of this equation is a function
( ) is describing the value of hydraulic head at any point in a three-dimensional
flow field. For two-dimensional flow, the third term on the left side of Eq. 11-17 cancels
out, and the solution is a function ( )

Transient saturated flow

The law of conservation of mass for transient flow through saturated porous
media requires that the net fluid mass flux through a control volume be equal to the time
rate of change of fluid mass storage within the control volume. Therefore, the equation of
continuity, Eq. 11-15, is modified to

214
 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )

Assuming that the fluid is incompressible, ( ) is constant;, and it can be

eliminated from Eq. 11-18. Substitute of Darcy‟s law in Eq. 11-18 yields

( ) ( ) ( )
( )

For an isotropic medium, For a homogeneous medium,

( ) is constant. The time rate of change of porosity can be related to time rate of
change of hydraulic head by the following:

( )

Therefore, Eq. 11-19 reduces to [ ]

( )

Equation 11-21 is a diffusion equation, with ⁄ being the hydraulic diffusivity

of the aquifer [ ] The solution of this equation is a function
( )describing the value of the hydraulic head in three dimensions at any time. It
requires the knowledge of and or, alternatively, the basic fluid and aquifer
properties .

For the special case of a horizontal confined aquifer of thickness b, the third term on the
left side Eq. 11-21 drops out, with Eqs. 11-13 and 11-14:

( )

The solution of this equation is a function ( ) describing the value of

hydraulic head in two dimensions at any time.

215
RESOURCES FROM THE WEB:

http://www.kgs.ku.edu/HighPlains/atlas/apgengw.htm

http://agridr.in/tnauEAgri/eagri50/SSAC121/lec12.pdf

http://www.geol.wwu.edu/rjmitch/L8_soils_percolation.pdf

OTHERS:
Deodhar, M. J. 2008. Elementary Engineering Hydrology. Pearson Education
India

Subramaya. Engineering Hydrology. Third Edition. McGraw Hill.

216
CONCEPTS OF PROBABILITY
AND
STATISTICS HYDROLOGY

4.1. Basic Probability Concepts and Probability Models

4.1.1. Probabilistic Treatment of Hydrologic Data
4.1.2. Statistical Parameters
4.1.3. Probability Distribution
4.1.4. Frequency Analysis (using Gumbel Distribution)
4.2. Return Period, Design Storm, and Design Turn-off
4.2.1. Return Period
4.2.2. Design Storm
4.2.2.1. Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves
4.2.2.2. Rational Method

Submitted by:
Jhurace G. Planea

217
CONCEPTS OF PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS HYDROLOGY

4.1. Basic Probability Concepts and Probability Models

4.1.1. Probabilistic Treatment of Hydrologic Data

Random variable. It is a quantity used to represent probabilistic

uncertainty. It is usually denoted as X, is a variable described by a probability
distribution. Probability distribution is a function of the relative chance of
occurrence of each of all possible outcomes of the random variable and is
expressed in mathematical terms. In other words, the distribution specifies the
chance that an observation x of the variable will fall in a specific range of X. For
example, if X is the annual precipitation at a specified location, then the
probability distribution of X specifies the chance that the observed annual
precipitation in a given year will lie in a defined range, such as less than 40mm, or
40-50mm, and so on.

Population and sample. Observed value of x (variate) for a finite number

of years is known as sample of x. Say annual flood peaks or annual rainfall for 75
years gives the sample; on the other hand, population consists of the values of
annual flood peaks from time immemorial to eternity. The population parameters
can be estimated by means of parameters obtained from the sample, known as
sample parameters.

Sample space and an event. The set of all possible samples that could be
drawn from the population is called the sample space. An event is a subset of the
sample space (Figure 4.1.1.1.). For
example, the sample space for annual
precipitation is theoretically the range
from zero to positive infinity (though the
practical lower and upper limits are closer
than this), and an event A might be the
occurrence of annual precipitation less
than some amount, such as 40mm.

Figure 4.1.1.1. Events A and B are subsets of the sample space Ω.

Probability of an event. The probability of an event, P(A), is the change

that it will occur when an observation of the random variable is made. Thus, P(A)
is ni/N for ni is the number of occurrences of event A in N trials if N is sufficiently
large. The number of occurrences ni is the frequency, and ni/N is the relative

218
frequency. As the sample size is increased, the relative frequency becomes a
progressively better estimate of the probability of the event, that is,

( ) ( ) {1}
Such probabilities are called objective or posterior probabilities because they
completely depend on observations of the random variable. Others are called
subjective or prior probabilities because they estimate the chance that a future
event will occur based on their judgment and experience.

The probabilities of events obey certain principles:

1. Total probability. If the sample space Ω is completely divided into i non-

overlapping areas or events A1, A2, A3, …, Ai, then

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) {2}

2. Complementarity. It follows that if ̅ is the complement of A, that is, ̅

, then

( ̅) ( ) {3}

3. Conditional Probability. Suppose there are two events A and B as shown in

Figure 4.1.1.1. Event A might be the event that this year‟s precipitation is less
than 40mm, while B might be the event that next year‟s precipitation will be
less than 40mm. Their overlap is A⋂ , the event that A and B both occur, two
successive years with annual precipitation less than 40mm/year. If P(B|A) is
the conditional probability that B will occur given that A has already occurred,
then the joint probability that A and B will both occur, P(A⋂ ), is the product
of P(B|A) and the probability that A will occur, that is, ( ⋂ )
( | ) ( ), or

( ⋂ )
( | ) {4}
( )

If the occurrence of B does not depend on the occurrence of A, the events are
said to be independent, and ( | ) ( ). For independent events, from
{4},

( ⋂ ) ( ) ( ) {5}

219
Table 4.1.1.1. Annual Precipitation in College Station, Texas 1911-1979 (in)
Year 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970
0 48.7 44.8 49.3 31.2 46.0 33.9
1 39.9 44.1 34.0 44.2 27.0 44.3 31.7
2 31.0 42.8 45.6 41.7 37.0 37.8 31.5
3 42.3 48.4 37.3 30.8 46.8 29.6 59.6
4 42.1 34.2 43.7 53.6 26.9 35.1 50.5
5 41.1 32.4 41.8 34.5 25.4 49.7 38.6
6 28.7 46.4 41.1 50.3 23.0 36.6 43.4
7 16.8 38.9 31.2 43.8 56.5 32.5 28.7
8 34.1 37.3 35.2 21.6 43.4 61.7 32.0
9 56.4 50.6 35.1 47.1 41.3 47.4 51.8
If the precipitation events are independent from year to year, then the
probability that precipitation in successive years is simply the square of the
probability that annual precipitation in any one year.

( ) ( ) ( ) {6}
Example 4.1.1.1. The values of annual precipitation in College Station,
Texas, from 1911-1979 are shown in Table 4.1.1.1. and plotted as a time
series in Fig, 4.1.1.2. What is the probability that the annual precipitation R in
any year will be less than 35in? Greater than 45in? Between 35 and 45in?

Solution:
There are N=69 data. Let A be the event R<35.0in, B be the event R>45.0in.
The numbers of values in Table 4.1.1.1. falling in these ranges are nA =23 and
nB =19,

( ) ( )

( ) and; ( )

From Eq. {3},

( ̅) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

( )

220
 Example 4.1.1.2. Assuming that annual precipitation in College Station is an
independent process, calculate the probability that there will be two
successive years of precipitation greater than 45.0in.

Solution. Let C be the event that R >45.0in for two successive years. Since,
( ) , and assuming independent annual precipitation,

( ) [ ( )]
( )
( )

70.0
60.0
PRECIPITATION (MM)

50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
1922

1931

1973
1910
1913
1916
1919

1925
1928

1934
1937
1940
1943
1946
1949
1952
1955
1958
1961
1964
1967
1970

1976
1979
YEAR
Figure 4.1.1.2. Annual precipitation in College Station, Texas, (1911-1979)

Probabilities estimated from the sample data, as in Example 4.1.1.1. and

4.1.1.2., are approximate because they depend on the specific values of the
observations in a sample of limited size. An alternative approach is to fit a
probability distribution function to the data and then to determine the
probabilities of events from this distribution function.

4.1. 2. Statistical Parameters

Measures of Central Tendency. It is a measure that determines where the
group tends to cluster or to center that which best represents the entire group.
a) Mean. It is the average of all sampled data.

 Arithmetic mean
∑
̅

221
  Geometric mean
̅̅̅ ( )

 Harmonic mean
̅̅̅ ∑( )

where,
̅
̅̅̅
̅̅̅
b) Median. It is the value of the middle term after arranging the data
in ascending or descending order.

c) Mode. The value of the variate having the highest frequency.

Measure of Variability. It is a measure that determines the location (how
far) of the sampled data from the mean. (Note: represents a sample parameter)

a) Standard Deviation,

∑( ̅)
√

b) Variance, . It measures the spread of the data.

∑( ̅)

c) Range. It denotes the difference between the largest and smallest

values of the sample.

d) Coefficient of Variation,

Skewness (asymmetry). It is the lack of symmetry in a distribution.

a) Coefficient of Skewness,
∑( ̅)
( )( )

222
 b) Pearson’s Skewness,
( ̅ )

Example 4.1.2.1. Calculate the (a) sample mean, (b)sample standard deviation
and (c)sample coefficient of skewness of the data for annual precipitation in
College Station, Texas from 1950 to 1959. Data is given in Table 4.1.1.1.

Solution.

a. Mean
∑
̅

Table 4.1.2.1. Annual Precipitation in College Station, Texas 1950-1959 (in)

Year Precipitation (in) (x-x ) (x-x )² (x-x )³
1950 31.2 -4.650 21.623 -100.545
1951 27.0 -8.850 78.323 -693.154
1952 37.0 1.150 1.323 1.521
1953 46.8 10.950 119.903 1312.932
1954 26.9 -8.950 80.103 -716.917
1955 25.4 -10.450 109.203 -1141.166
1956 23.0 -12.850 165.123 -2121.824
1957 56.5 20.650 426.423 8805.625
1958 43.4 7.550 57.003 430.369
1959 41.3 5.450 29.703 161.879
total 358.5 1088.725 5938.719

b. Standard Deviation

∑( ̅)
√

10.999

223
 c. Coefficient of Skewness
∑( – ̅ )
( )( )

( )
( )( )( )

0.620

4.1. 3. Frequency and Probability Distribution Functions

Frequency histogram. Identical distributed observations in a sample

considering that each sample value is drawn from the same probability
distribution can be arranged to form a frequency histogram. To start with, the
feasible range of the random variable is divided into discrete intervals. Then, the
number of observations falling into each interval is counted. Finally, the result is
plotted as a bar graph. An example is shown in Figure 4.1.3.1. using the data from
the annual precipitation in College Station, Texas.

Table 4.1.3.1. Number of data within the interval of 5

Interval No. of Data
0 ‹x ≤ 5 0
5‹x ≤ 10 0
10 ‹x ≤ 15 0
15 ‹x ≤ 20 1
20 ‹x ≤ 25 2
25 ‹x ≤ 30 6
30 ‹x ≤ 35 14
35 ‹x ≤ 40 11
40 ‹x ≤ 45 16
45 ‹x ≤ 50 10
50 ‹x ≤ 55 5
55 ‹x ≤ 60 3
60 ‹x ≤ 65 1
65‹x ≤ 70 0
total: 69

224
 60 ‹x ≤ 65

PRECIPITATION INTERVAL (IN)

50 ‹x ≤ 55

40 ‹x ≤ 45

30 ‹x ≤ 35

20 ‹x ≤ 25

10 ‹x ≤ 15

0 ‹x ≤ 5
0 5 10 15 20
NO. OF DATA

Figure 4.1.3.1. Frequency histogram. It is formed by adding up the number of observed

precipitation values falling in each interval.

Most hydrologic variables are assumed to be continuous random processes, and the
common continuous distributions are used to fit historical sequence like in frequency
analysis.
Normal Distribution or Gaussian Distribution. It is a symmetrical, bell-shaped
frequency function. It involves estimating sample reliability by virtue of the
central limit theorem. There are two parameters used, namely, the mean and the
standard deviation. The PDF of the normal distribution is

( )
( )
√

where,

e = mathematical constant
approximated by 2.71828
= mean
= standard deviation

Any normal distribution can be

transformed into the standardized
normal distribution (z).

Figure 4.1.3.2. Graph for normal distribution

225
Table 4.1.3.2. Cumulative distribution table for the standard normal (Gaussian) distribution for
positive z

226
 Example 4.1.3.1. The annual maximum flows of a certain stream have been
found to be normally distributed with a mean 22,500 ft 3/s and a standard
deviation 7,500 ft3/s. Calculate the probability that a flow larger than 39,000
ft3/s will occur.

Solution.

From the table of normal distribution, yields P(z)=0.9861.

Therefore,

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )

Log-Normal Distribution. For certain natural phenomenon, values of

random variables don‟t follow a normal
distribution, but their logarithms do.

( )
( ) ( )
√

where, , and

Figure 4.1.3.3. Graph for log-normal distribution

Hydraulic conductivity, distribution of raindrop sizes in storm follow lognormal

distribution.

227
 Gamma Distribution. It is a distribution of sum of β independent and
identical exponentially distributed random variables.

( )
( )

where,

Skewed distributions
(like hydraulic conductivity)
can be represented using
gamma without log
transformation.

Figure 4.1.3.4. Graph for gamma distribution

Pearson Type III.
Named after the statistician Pearson, it is called three-parameter gamma
distribution. It is a distribution used to describe the pdf of annual maximum flows.

( ) ( )
( )
( )

where,

Log-Person Type III. If log X follows a Pearson Type III distribution,

then X is said to have a log-Pearson Type III distribution. This distribution is
developed as a method in fitting a curve to data.

( ) ( )
( )
( )

where,

228
 Extreme values (EV) are selected maximum or minimum values of sets of data.

EV Type I Distribution. This is also called Gumbel distribution. If M1,

M2,…,Mn be a set of daily rainfall or stream flow, and let X=max(Mi) be the
maximum for the year. If Mi are independent and identically distributed, then for
large n, X has an extreme value type 1.

( ) *

( )+

√
where, and

Figure 4.1.3.5. Graph for EV Type I distribution

Distribution of annual maximum stream flow follows an EV1 distribution.

EV Type II Distribution. This is also called Frechet distribution. For this distribution, x is
similarly bounded from above.

⁄
( ) * ( ) +

where, ( ) and,

EV Type III Distribution. If a variate x is described by the EVIII

distribution, then x is said to have a Weibull distribution.
⁄
( ) * ( ) +

where, ( ) and,

229
4.1. 4. Frequency Analysis

Extreme value distributions have been widely used in hydrology. In Great

Britain (Natural Environment Research Council, 1975), they form the basis for
the standardized method for flood frequency analysis. Storm rainfalls are most
commonly modeled by the Extreme Value Type 1 (Chow, 1953; Tomlinson,
1980), or commonly called Gumbel distribution.

( )
( ) ( )

[ ( )]
√
where, , and ̅

Using frequency formula:

√ √
̅ ( ) ( )( [ ( )])

√
̅ ( ){ [ ( )]}

Let:
̅

And introducing a frequency factor,

√
( )[ [ ( )]]

Therefore the frequency analysis equation using Gumbel distribution:

Example 4.1.4.1. The mean and standard deviation of an annual maximum

rainfall for a 20-hour storm is 0.649 in and 0.177 in, respectively. Calculate
10-year storm depth using frequency factor, .

Solution.
√
( )[ [ ( )]]

230
 √
( )[ [ ( )]]

Calculating 10-year storm depth:

( )

4.2. Return Period, Design Storms, and Design Turn-Off

4.2.1. Return Period

Return period is the recurrence interval (elapsed time) between successive

peak flows exceeding a certain flow, X. It is usually measured in years and is
denoted by T. For example, the probability of recurrence, P(X)=0.25. This implies
a 25% chance at least once in each year that the flood level will be reached or
exceeded.

( )

Thus, the probability of recurrence is just the reciprocal of the return period.

( ) ( )

The following general probability relations hold:

1. The probability that X will be equaled or exceeded in any year.

( )
2. The probability that X will not be equaled nor exceeded in any year.
( )
3. The probability that X will not be equaled nor exceeded in any of n
successive years.
( ) ( )
4. The probability that X will be equaled or exceeded at least once in n
successive years (also called risk).
( ) ( )

231
Example 4.2.1.1. What return period must a highway engineer use in
designing a critical underpass drain to accept only a 10% risk that flooding
will occur in the next 5 years.

Solution.
( ) ( )
( )

Example 4.2.1.2. What the probability of a flood not exceeding a 30-year old
flood during the next 6 years.

Solution.
( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) 0.816

232
SEATWORK: (Return Period)

The table shows data for annual maximum discharges of the Guadalupe River from 1935-
1978 in ft3/s.

(a.) Calculate the return period, T, of a 50,000 ft 3/s annual maximum discharge in
years.
(b.) What is the probability that the maximum discharge in the Guadalupe River
will exceed 50,000 ft 3/s in any year?
(c) Estimate the probability that the annual maximum discharge will exceed 50,000 ft 3/s
at least once during the next two years.

Solution:
(a.) Return
Year 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 period, T, of a 50,000 ft 3/s
0 55,900 13,300 23,700 9,190 annual maximum discharge
1 58,000 12,300 55,800 9,740
2 56,000 28,400 10,800 58,500
3 7,710 11,600 4,100 33,100
4 12,300 8,560 5,720 25,200
5 38,500 22,000 4,950 15,000 30,200
6 179,000 17,900 1,730 9,790 14,100
7 17,200 46,000 25,300 70,000 54,500
8 25,400 6,970 58,300 44,300 12,700
9 4,940 20,600 10,100 15,200
193 194 194 195 196 196 197 197
Exceedence Year 6 0 1 1942 8 1 7 2 7
Recurrence Interval
(year) 4 1 1 16 3 6 5 5

T = average of the recurrence interval

T = 5.125 years

233
(b.) Probability that the maximum discharge in the Guadalupe River will exceed
50,000 ft3/s in any year

( )

( )

(c.) Probability that the annual maximum discharge will exceed 50,000 ft 3/s at least
once during the next two years

( ) ( )
( )

4.2.2. Design Storm

Flood frequency analyses are used to predict design floods for sites along
a river. The technique involves using observed annual peak flow discharge data
to calculate statistical information such as mean values, standard deviations,
skewness, and recurrence intervals. These statistical data are then used to
construct frequency distributions, which are graphs and tables that tell the
likelihood of various discharges as a function of recurrence interval or
exceedence probability.
Storms have a distribution or pattern of rainfall intensities, called design
storm. It often starts and ends with lower intensities, with the maximum intensity
often occurring at some point after the storm has begun. Different sizes of storms
will result in different amounts of runoff and the selection of an appropriate
design storm is important.
The most common approach of determining the design storm event
involves a relationship between rainfall intensity (or depth), duration, and the
frequency (or return period) appropriate for the facility and site location.

4.2.2.1. Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves

Intensity – duration – frequency (IDF) curve is a graph of depth (intensity)

versus duration for different frequencies.

How to make an IDF Curve.

1. Get annual maximum series of precipitation depth for a given
duration, D.

234
 2. Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the D annual
maximum rainfall.

3. Determine the probability distribution of the D annual

maximum rainfall. Commonly used is the EV Type I or
Gumbel distribution frequency factor.

√
[ ( [ ])]

4. Calculate the design storm depth XT by using the following

frequency analysis equation:

where, = mean
 = standard deviation
= frequency factor

5. Calculate the average intensity ̅ .

6. Calculate different average intensities for various design storm

durations.

7. Construct the IDF curves.

Figure 4.2.2.1. Typical Intensity- Duration- Frequency Chart

235
 Example 4.2.2.1. Annual maximum values of 10-minute duration rainfall are
presented in the table. Construct an IDF curves for 2-, 5-, 10-, 50-, and 100-
year return period of the 10-minute rainfall.

Annual Maximum 10-minute Rainfall(in)

0.49 0.53 0.61 0.62 0.70
0.66 0.76 0.88 0.71 0.57
0.36 0.57 0.49 1.11 0.92
0.58 0.80 0.33 0.64 0.66
0.41 0.66 0.96 0.52 0.65
0.47 0.68 0.94 0.64 0.63
0.74 0.68 0.80 0.34 0.60

Solution.

Step 1. (Given)

Step 2. Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the 10-minute annual
maximum rainfall.

x (x-u) (x-u)² x (x-u) (x-u)²

0.49 -0.15886 0.02524 0.96 0.31114 0.09681
0.66 0.01114 0.00012 0.94 0.29114 0.08476
0.36 -0.28886 0.08344 0.80 0.15114 0.02284
0.58 -0.06886 0.00474 0.62 -0.02886 0.00083
0.41 -0.23886 0.05705 0.71 0.06114 0.00374
0.47 -0.17886 0.03199 1.11 0.46114 0.21265
0.74 0.09114 0.00831 0.64 -0.00886 0.00008
0.53 -0.11886 0.01413 0.52 -0.12886 0.01660
0.76 0.11114 0.01235 0.64 -0.00886 0.00008
0.57 -0.07886 0.00622 0.34 -0.30886 0.09539
0.80 0.15114 0.02284 0.70 0.05114 0.00262
0.66 0.01114 0.00012 0.57 -0.07886 0.00622
0.68 0.03114 0.00097 0.92 0.27114 0.07352
0.68 0.03114 0.00097 0.66 0.01114 0.00012
0.61 -0.03886 0.00151 0.65 0.00114 0.00000
0.88 0.23114 0.05343 0.63 -0.01886 0.00036
0.49 -0.15886 0.02524 0.60 -0.04886 0.00239
0.33 -0.31886 0.10167 22.71 1.06935

236
 Mean:
∑
in

Standard deviation:

∑( )
√ √ in

Step 3. Determine the probability distribution of the D-hr annual

maximum rainfall.
√
[ ( [ ])]
27

Step 4. Calculate the design storm depth XT.

Step 5. Calculate the average intensity for 2-year Return Period.

̅

For 2-year Return Period

Duration (min) Intensity (in/min)
1 0.620
2 0.310
3 0.207
4 0.155
5 0.124
6 0.103
7 0.089
8 0.077
9 0.069
10 0.062

237
 Step 6. Calculate different average intensities for 5-, 10-, 50-, and 100-
year return period design storm durations.
For 5-year Return Period
Duration (min) Intensity (in/min)
1 0.776
2 0.388
3 0.259
4 0.194
5 0.155
6 0.129
7 0.111
8 0.097
9 0.086
10 0.078
For 50-year Return Period
Duration (min) Intensity (in/min)
1 1.109
2 0.554
3 0.370
4 0.277
5 0.222
6 0.185
7 0.158
8 0.139
9 0.123
10 0.111
For 10-year Return Period
Duration (in) Intensity (in/min)
1 0.880
2 0.440
3 0.293
4 0.220
5 0.176
6 0.147
7 0.126
8 0.110
9 0.098
10 0.088
For 100-year Return Period
Duration (min) Intensity (in/min)
1 1.205
2 0.603
3 0.402
4 0.301
5 0.241
6 0.201
7 0.172
8 0.151
9 0.134
10 0.121
238
 Step 7. Construct the IDF curves.

IDF Curves
1.300

1.200

1.100

1.000 2-year Return Period

5-year Return Period
0.900
10-year Return Period
Average Intensity (in/min)

0.800 50-year Return Period

100-year Return Period
0.700

0.600

0.500

0.400

0.300

0.200

0.100

0.000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Duration (min)

4.2.2.2. Rational Method

The Rational method is typically used to determine the size of storm

sewers, channels, and other drainage structures. It is most effective in urban areas
with drainage areas of less than 200 acres. The highlight when using this method
is to get the peak discharge of a certain watershed. Peak discharge is the greatest
amount of runoff coming out of the watershed at any one time.

239
How to use the Rational Method.

Step 1: Determine the drainage area (in acres.)

If the watershed contains areas with different land use patterns,
determine the area of each portion of the watershed separately.
Step 2: Determine the runoff coefficient (Cr).
In general, areas with permeable soils, flat slopes, and dense
vegetation should have the lowest values, meaning that only a small
percentage of rainfall will turn into runoff in these areas. Areas with
dense soils, moderate to steep slopes, and sparse vegetation should be
assigned the highest values which means that most of the water falling as
rain will turn into runoff in these areas.
If the drainage area contains multiple land uses or soil conditions,
deciding on a C value becomes slightly more complicated. The drainage
area should be divided into sections, with an acreage calculated for each
section and a C value assigned to each section.

Values of Runoff Coefficient (C) for Rational Formula

Land Use C Land Use C
Business: Lawns:
Downtown areas 0.70 - Sandy soil, flat, 2% 0.05 - 0.10
Neighborhood 0.95 Sandy soil, avg., 2- 0.10 - 0.15
areas 0.50 - 7% 0.15 - 0.20
0.70 Sandy soil, steep, 7% 0.13 - 0.17
Heavy soil, flat, 2% 0.18 - 0.22
Heavy soil, avg., 2- 0.25 - 0.35
7%
Heavy soil, steep, 7%
Residential: Agricultural land:
Single-family 0.30 - Bare packed soil
areas 0.50 *Smooth 0.30 - 0.60
Multi units, 0.40 - *Rough 0.20 - 0.50
detached 0.60
Multi units, 0.60 - Cultivated rows
attached 0.75 *Heavy soil, no crop 0.30 - 0.60
Suburban 0.25 - *Heavy soil, with 0.20 - 0.50
0.40 crop 0.20 - 0.40
*Sandy soil, no crop 0.10 - 0.25
*Sandy soil, with
crop 0.15 - 0.45
Pasture 0.05 - 0.25
*Heavy soil 0.05 - 0.25
*Sandy soil
Woodlands
Industrial: Streets:

240
 Light areas 0.50 - Asphaltic 0.70 - 0.95
Heavy areas 0.80 Concrete 0.80 - 0.95
0.60 - Brick 0.70 - 0.85
0.90
Parks, cemeteries 0.10 - 0.25 Unimproved areas 0.10 - 0.30
Playgrounds 0.20 - 0.35 Drives and walks 0.75 - 0.85
Railroad yard areas 0.20 - 0.40 Roofs 0.75 - 0.95
Weighted average Cr is calculated as,
∑( )

Step 3: Determine the hydraulic length or flow path.

In order to determine the time of concentration of your property,

determine first the hydraulic length, or flow path. The hydraulic length is
the distance between the most
distant point in the watershed and
the watershed outlet.

The first step is to draw

the drainage patterns onto your
watershed map. Next, determine
the hydraulic path by finding the
longest route from a watershed
boundary to the outlet.

Step 4: Determine the types of flow (or flow regimes) that occur along the
flow path.

The flow regime is the way water flows across the surface of the earth.
There are three types of flow regime.

241
1. Overland flow, also known as sheet flow, is a shallow flow of water,
usually less than one inch deep, over plane surfaces. On topographic
maps, water will flow through a region as overland flow if the contour
lines do not show any V shapes to indicate streams. When visiting the
property, water will flow through a region as overland flow if you do
not see any gullies or streambeds in the region. The length of any type
of flow can be calculated by measuring the length of the flow on the
map and multiplying this length by the map scale. It is shown in
yellow line in the figure.

2. Shallow concentrated flow usually begins where overland flow

converges to form small rills or gullies and swales. This flow can exist
in small, man-made drainage ditches, paved or unpaved, and in curb
and gutters. Shallow concentrated flow occurs in regions with ditches
or gullies and flowing water is usually seen in these areas during
storms. This type of flow is represented in orange line in the figure.

3. Channel flow occurs where flow converges in gullies, ditches, and

natural or man-made water conveyances (including pipes not running
full.) Channel flow is assumed to exist in perennial streams or
wherever there is a well-defined channel cross-section. Channel flow
is the blue line at the western part of the figure.

Step 5: Determine the time of concentration (T c) for the drainage area.

The travel time for a portion of the hydraulic path is the length of
time it would take a drop of water to flow across that area of
land. The time of concentration equals the summation of the travel times
for each flow regime along the hydraulic path.
∑( )

There are numerous methods used to calculate the travel time for
each of the flow regimes. These methods use charts called nomographs.

For Overland Flow, Lo:

Travel time for overland flow can be determined by using

the Seelye chart. If the ground cover conditions are not homogeneous for
the entire overland flow path, determine the travel time for each ground
cover condition separately and add the travel times to get overland flow
travel time. Do not use an average ground cover condition.
242
 To use the Seelye Chart, first determine the length of overland
flow and enter it to the nomograph on the left axis ("Length in Feet") at
the appropriate point. Draw a line from this point to intersect the
appropriate "Coefficient of Imperviousness”. Extend the line from the
"Length in Feet" axis through the "Coefficient of Imperviousness" axis
and to the "Pivot Line". At the "Pivot Line", the drawn line will or will not
change its direction. From this point, we intersect the appropriate
"Percentage Slope", extending it to the "Inlet Time of Concentration in
Minutes" axis at a point which will show the travel time for overland
flow.

Seelye Chart

For Shallow Concentrated Flow, Lsc:

The first step is know the slope of the shallow concentrated flow
and whether the flow path is paved or unpaved to determine the velocity

243
of the flow using the “Average Velocities for Estimating Travel Time for
Shallow Concentrated Flow” Chart.
Next, enter value of the slope on the vertical axis ("Watercourse
slope") and draw a line horizontally until we intersect the "Unpaved" or
“Paved” line depending on the path condition. From this point, draw a
line vertically down to intersect the "Average velocity" axis.
Then calculate the travel time, Lsc:

Where: Lsc = travel time in minutes

L = length of shallow concentrated flow in feet
V = velocity in feet per second

244
For Channel Flow, Lc:
To determine the time travel for channel flow, first know the (a)
Length of channel flow in feet, (b) Height above the outlet of the most
remote point in the channel, and (c) Whether the channel is paved or not.
Two methods can be used to find the height of the most remove
point above the outlet.
(1.) If the channel is accurately drawn onto a topographic map, then
you can count the number of contour lines crossed by the channel
and calculate the elevation change accordingly. For example, if
there is a contour interval of 50 and your channel spans 4 contour
intervals, then the change in elevation is 200 feet.

(2.) If the length of the channel and the slope is known, just multiply
the length by the slope (in feet/foot). For example, a 800 foot long
channel with a slope of 0.25 has a change in elevation of 800
feet × 0.25 = 200 feet.

Then we simply use this data with the Kirpitch Chart to determine
the travel time. Enter value of the height above the outlet of the most

245
remote point in the channel and draw a line connecting to the value of
maximum length of travel extending to the “Time of Concentration” axis.
Note that if the channel is paved, multiply Lc by 0.2.

Step 6: Determine the intensity (i).

Getting the intensity requires the use of an IDF curve. There are
different IDF curves already made in each specific location/country. If the
country used is not present
in the list, just use the IDF
curve of a neighboring
country.

On the correct chart,

duration in minutes (time of
concentration) is found on
the horizontal axis. Then
draw a vertical line from
this point until it reaches the
correct IDF curve
depending on the return
period of storm curve
used. From this point, draw a line horizontally until it reaches the vertical
axis. That point now is the rainfall intensity.

Step 7: Determine the peak rate of runoff.

Since the drainage area, runoff coefficient (Cr), and rainfall

intensity are already known, the peak rate of runoff can be calculated
using the rational formula.

Where: Q = peak rate of runoff (ft 3/sec or m3/s)

Cr = runoff coefficient
i = average intensity of rainfall for T c of selected
design
storm (in/hr or mm/hr)
A = drainage area (acres)
Z = conversion factor, 1 for English and 360 for
Metric

246
Example 4.2.2.2. A project is to be built in southwest Campbell Country,
Virginia. The following information was determined from field measurement
and/or proposed design data:

Drainage Area: 80 acres

30% - Rooftops (24 acres)

10% - Streets and driveways (8 acres)
20% - Average lawns at 5% slope on sandy soil (16 acres)
40% - Woodland (32 acres)

LO = 200 ft. (4% slope or 0.04 ft./ft.); average grass lawn

LSC = 1000 ft. (4% slope or 0.04 ft./ft.); paved ditch
LC = 2000 ft. (1% slope or 0.01 ft./ft.); stream channel

Determine the peak runoff from the 2-year frequency storm.

Solution.

Step 1. Determine the drainage area.

( )

Step 2. Determine the runoff coefficient (Cr).

Area × C
Rooftops 24 × 0.9 = 21.6
Streets 8 × 0.9 = 7.2
Lawns 16 × 0.15 = 2.4
Woodland 32 × 0.10 = 3.2
Total 80 34.4

∑( )

247
Step 3. Determine the hydraulic length or flow path. (Already given)

Step 4. Determine the types of flow regimes.

a. Overland flow (LO) = 15 minutes (using Seelye chart).

b. Shallow concentrated flow (LSC):
1. Velocity = 4 feet/second (using Diagram 1).
2. LSC = 4.2 minutes (based on the following calculations).

( )

c. Channel flow (LC):

1. Change in elevation = 20 feet (based on the following
calculations).
2000 feet × 0.01 = 20 feet
2. LC = 13 minutes (using Kirpitch chart).

Step 5. Determine the time of concentration (T c).

∑( )

Step 6. Determine the intensity (i).

i = 2.3 in/hr (based on 2-year storm I-D-F curve for Pittsylvania
County).

Step 7. Determine the peak rate of runoff.

( )( )

79.12 ft3/s

248
 REFERENCES

Books / PDFs:

Chow, V. M. (1988). Applied Hydrology. Singapore: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Raghunath, H. (2006). Hydrology Principle, Analysis, Design. New Delhi: New Age
International (P) Limited Publisher.

Websites:

http://www.caee.utexas.edu/prof/maidment/CE374KSpring2011/Visual/DesignStorms.pp
tx

http://www.ce.utexas.edu/prof/maidment/GradHydro2010/Visual/DesignStorms.ppt

http://streamflow.engr.oregonstate.edu/analysis/floodfreq/

http://streamflow.engr.oregonstate.edu/analysis/floodfreq/meandaily_example.htm

http://water.me.vccs.edu/courses/CIV246/lesson11_3.htm

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 ROLE OF HYDROLOGY
IN WATER RESOURCES
PLANNING AND
MANAGEMENT IN THE
PHILIPPINES

5.1 Agencies involved in the Collection of Hydrologic Data

5.2 Problems of Watershed Management and Watershed
Protection

Submitted by:
Eunice A. Anque

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 Introduction

Hydrology is one of the earth sciences. It studies the waters of the earth, their occurrence,
circulation and distribution, their chemical and physical properties, and their relation to
living things.

The Philippines is abundantly endowed with water resources. It is bounded by the South
China Sea in the west, by the Philippines Sea (Pacific Ocean) in the east, by the Sulu Sea
and Celebes Sea in the south and by the Bashi Channel in the north. The country has
about 421 principal rivers, with drainage areas ranging from 40 to 25,469 square
kilometres, 59 natural lakes, numerous individual streams and four major groundwater
reservoirs, whose areas range from 6,000 to 10,200 square kilometres, which, when
combined with other reservoirs identified, would aggregate to an area of about 50,000
square kilometres, and more than 100,000 hectares of freshwater swamps. There are also
dams, schemes which are managed by responsible agencies.

The rivers are an important means of transportation and valuable source of water for
irrigation for the fields and farms through which they pass. The five principal river basins
(more than 5,000 km2) are: Cagayan River basin in north Luzon (25,469 km2), Mindanao
River Basin in Mindanao (23,169 km2), Agusan River basin in Mindanao (10,921 km2),
Pampanga River basin near Manila in Luzon (9,759 km2), and Agno River basin in Luzon
(5,952 km2).

The four major groundwater reservoirs Cagayan, 10,000 km2; Central Luzon, 9,000 km2 ;
Agusan, 8,500 km2; Cotabato, 6,000 km2. The groundwater resources are estimated at
180 km3/year, of which 80 percent (145 km3/year) would constitute the base flow of the
river systems. The total internal water resources would therefore amount to 479 km3/year.

Private wells are extensively used in rural areas for domestic purposes. Municipal
waterworks wells are drilled by the Local Water Utilities Administration for domestic
purposes and deep wells have been drilled by the National Irrigation Administration
(NIA) for irrigation purposes. There are three types of irrigation systems in the
Philippines: national irrigation systems (NIS), communal irrigation systems (CIS) and
private schemes. NIS schemes (646,519 ha in 1992) have been constructed and are
operated and maintained by the NIA. The cost of the system is borne entirely by the NIA;
farmers have to pay fees to cover operation and maintenance (O&M) expenditure. There
are about 150 NIS schemes spread throughout the country. Three main sub-types coexist,
differing by water origin.

Three large schemes (Magat, for a total area of 80,977 ha; Upper Pampanga, 94,300 ha;
and Angat Maasim, 31,485 ha) are backed by multipurpose reservoirs. Although
classified as single entities, they are actually conglomerates served by multiple diversion

251
structures which also utilize supplies from uncontrolled rivers crossing the irrigated area.
In 1989, the cropping intensity on these schemes was about 89 percent during the wet
season and 78 percent during the dry season.

Run-of-the-river diversion schemes, most of them relatively small. These diversion

schemes can be fairly complicated in detail, with several intakes and re-use systems
which often develop over time in response to observed drainage flows. The largest
schemes are located in the alluvial plains. In 1989, the cropping intensity on these
schemes was about 72 percent during the wet season and 54 percent during the dry
season.

Pump schemes. There are seven schemes irrigated only by pumps (about 10,200 ha are
equipped), and five large NIS schemes served mainly by gravity flow but which use
pumps for a part of their equipped area (about 12,800 ha).

CIS schemes (734,104 ha in 1992) have been created either by the farmers themselves
over the centuries, or more recently by the NIA and then turned over to the irrigation
associations for O&M. There are about 6 200 communal schemes, 46 percent of them in
the province of Ilocos (northwest Luzon), which reflects a long history of irrigation
through private initiative in this area. These schemes are predominantly diversion
schemes, although a few are served by small reservoirs built within the framework of the
SWIM projects. The average size of the communal schemes is about 115 ha, but ranges
from 40 to 4 000 ha. The smallest schemes are found in north Luzon, while in Mindanao
island these schemes are generally large, many of them being implemented by the
government settlement programs and then transferred to farmer groups. The association
bears 10 percent of the direct cost of construction, and pays back the balance within 50
years at a 10 percent interest rate.

Private schemes (about 152,128 ha in 1992) are generally supplied through pumping.
They find their origin in publicly assisted river lift and groundwater development
projects. These schemes are generally devoted to vegetable production during the dry
season and to supplementary irrigation to paddy during the wet season. Pump schemes
located along rivers have also been developed by private owners serving up to about 20
ha. Although this can be successful when supporting high value crops, many are no
longer used largely due to the high cost of O&M, particularly for paddy.

In the Philippines, a dam is considered large when the storage capacity exceeds 50
million m3 and the structural height is more than 30 m. Three of the large dams are
managed by the National Power Corporation (NPC) (Angat, Ambuklao, and Palangui IV
for a total capacity of 1,426 million m3), the two largest dams being managed by the NIA
(Magat - Magat River Integrated Irrigation System (MRIIS) and Pantabangan - Upper
Pampanga River Integrated Irrigation System (UPRIIS) for a total capacity of 3,196

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million m3). One large dam (La Mesa, 51 million m3) is managed by the Metropolitan
Waterworks and Sewerage System, which is also responsible for the management of a
small dam (Ipo with a capacity of 36 million m3 ). The NPC is also in charge of three
small dams (Agus II, IV and V for a total capacity of 27.7 million m3) while all other
small dams have been created with various objectives within the framework of the small
water impounding management (SWIM) projects, which are implemented by several
agencies.

If one were to add up the available supply of freshwater and compare it with the demand,
supply will exceed the demand. Though encouraging, this is also misleading because it
masks the impact of the growing demand. However abundant the water resources in the
country may be, there is still a tendency for them to become scarce. There is a need to
properly manage them so as to optimize their development in meeting the changing
patterns of consumption and increased use. Certain areas are already experiencing water
scarcity. Due to temporal and geographic variations, water may not be available at the
right time and place and seasonal water shortages may, therefore, occur. As a result, the
dependable streamflow of water that would be available 80-90 percent of the time will be
lower than the total runoff.

Furthermore, changes in the land use patterns, e.g., conversion of watersheds, rapid
urbanization, and increasing discharges of untreated wastes and various pollutants also
affect the availability of water for human consumption. For example, the rivers in Metro
Manila are heavily polluted and are fit only for navigation. Hence, their potential as
sources of water supply is then forfeited. Therefore, the Metropolitan Waterworks and
Sewerage System (MWSS) has to get its water supply from Angat River, which is located
in another river basin. Metro Manila, Cebu, Bulacan, Pampanga, Capiz, and Sorsogon are
considered as representative areas where the range of problems, regarding the
deterioration of water quality in wells yielding saline water, is present (NEPC, 1987).

Water Resources

Water resources is the water available, or capable of being made available, for use in
sufficient quantity and quality at a location and over a period of time appropriate for an
identifiable demand.

It include surface waters (i.e., coastal bays, lakes, rivers, and streams) and groundwater.
These may be used for drinking water, industrial processes, agriculture, and irrigation.
And also these provide opportunities for recreation, such as fishing, boating and
swimming. Tribes also use water resources to support and maintain traditional cultural
practices and ceremonies. Tribal governments are one of many governmental entities -

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tribal, state, and federal - that may be responsible for ensuring that the water is safe and
available in sufficient quantities for its intended purpose.

Ebarvia (1996) enumerates the water‟s different characteristics, which make it different
from other natural resources. First, water production involves economies of large scale;
and these are evident in water storage, conveyance, and distribution. Secondly, water is
mobile. Water occurs on both as stock and as flow. Surface water tends to flow,
evaporate, transpire, and seep, while groundwater exists as a stock usually subject to
rechange flows. Third, water is not entirely consumed by any particular user but by many
and varied entities. Lastly, water is nearly a universal solvent. It assimilates water and
pollutants.

Water Resources Planning

In order to have manageable units for comprehensive planning of water resources, the
National Water Resources Council divided the country into 12 water resources regions.
Major considerations taken into account in this regionalization were the hydrological
boundaries defined by physiographic features and homogeneity in climate of the different
parts of the country. However, in, fact, these water resources regions generally
correspond to the existing political regions in the country. Minor deviations dictated
basically by hydrography affected only the Ilocos, Cagayan Valley, and Central Luzon
regions in Luzon and the Northern Mindanao region in Mindanao.

Water Resources Management

Water resources management approaches vary from community to community depending

on various factors such as the source of water, size and population of the community,
needs of the population, and the water supply system integrity. For example, water
conservation may be a very high priority for some tribes, while other tribes may enjoy an
abundance of source water. But in all cases, there is a need to protect water resources and
manage them wisely.

Due to lack of storage facilities (reservoirs), the domestic and industrial sectors have
relied on groundwater to meet their water-demand requirements. Even the majority of the
water districts derive their water from the underground source, and aquifers in some areas
of the country are showing signs of overexploitation. Only MWSS gets 97 percent of its
water supply from surface water (from Angat River, located in Bulacan); but the reservoir

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is multipurpose and the allocation is divided among agricultural, hydroelectric power,
and water supply for the NCR. The allocation given to MWSS is not enough to meet the
demand in the NCR and other areas under the jurisdiction of MWSS. Thus, groundwater
resources – which have been relied on -- show increasing rates of extraction and the
water-balance computations indicate that groundwater in the NCR is being mined.
Groundwater mining is being allowed as a temporary measure to solve the current
availability limitations from surface water even if there is a critical threat from salt-water
intrusion and, possibly, land subsidence wherein the detrimental effects could be
irreversible.
Variability is also important on the water demand side, as on the supply side.
Agricultural needs do fluctuate, in response to the temperature and rainfall patterns over
the seasons of the year and over longer cycles. The areas served by the NIA vary between
the dry and wet seasons. Residential and industrial water uses also vary, depending on
daily, weekly, and seasonal considerations. Thus, both storage and distribution systems
and management institutions must be prepared to satisfy peak loads in high demand
periods.
In government services, each type of water use is managed by a separate agency.
However, there is a lack of coordination among the 32 agencies involved in water-related
activities. For example, irrigation, municipal water supply, power, and transportation are
managed by different agencies, each with its own interests. This set-up is not wrong; but
an overlying framework and a well-developed institutional system that will formulate
policies and provide the necessary water resources management must be put in place.
This fragmentation has resulted in the failure to consider cross-sectoral effects of water
activities and has led to waste and misallocation. Moreover, this has created confusion
among constituents who do not know which agency to approach regarding some local
water related problems.

The Irrigation Crisis Act (Republic Act No. 6978) signed into law in January 1991,
mandated the NIA to develop the remaining 1.5 million ha of irrigable lands within ten
years through the construction of irrigation projects including other related project
components. Irrigation, soil, and water management have been set as a priority on the
agenda of the Department of Agriculture. The Medium Term Philippine Development
Plan (1994-1998) also envisages a fast pace in irrigation development.

However, there are numerous economic and environmental problems.

There is growing water competition among the users: water supply, hydropower,
environment, fishing, and watershed management are competing with irrigation for
water. The NWRB was established in order to coordinate the use of water for the

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different purposes, but its action is hampered, in part, by a lack of reliable data on present
water resources and water use.

Erosion and siltation of the canals have resulted in high costs for the O&M of irrigation
schemes, and many are thus in need of frequent rehabilitation. The conversion of
agricultural lands to industrial or residential use has significantly reduced the area
equipped for irrigation which can actually be used for irrigated agriculture.

The high cost of energy hampers the development of pump irrigation systems. The
present pump systems are no longer economically viable if devoted solely to paddy.

In addressing these challenges, the NIA, together with the Department of Environment
and Natural Resources, is expected to: fully enforce existing laws on environmental
protection and conservation, in order to reduce erosion; establish institutional
arrangements with the NPC, the NEA and the electric cooperatives to reduce power rates
for pumps as a government subsidy to small farmers; and work with the Department of
Agrarian Reform, under the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law, to approve or
disapprove the transfer of agricultural lands to non-agricultural uses.

Activities related to water resources management are protecting and managing surface
waters (including reservoirs) and protecting groundwater. Water resources management
programs protect these waters from direct wastewater discharges and problems caused by
urban and agricultural runoff.

The Water Code of the Philippines and its implementing rules and regulations incorporate
the basic water policies. The following are the basic water policies being implemented:

1. The authority and responsibility for the control, conservation, protection,

development and regulation of the utilization of the country‟s water resources
belong to the state. These water resources include, among others, groundwater,
surface water, and water in the atmosphere.
2. Priorities in the use and development of water resources shall reflect current water
usage and also be responsive to the changing demands for water occurring under
developing conditions.
3. All water development projects shall be undertaken on a multipurpose concept,
using the river basin, or closely related river basin approach. Single-purpose
projects shall be implemented only when they are compatible with the
multipurpose concept and can be incorporated into the contemplated basin-wide
development program.
4. The identifiable beneficiaries of water resources development projects shall bear
an equitable share of repayment costs, commensurate with the beneficial use to be
derived from the project.

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 5. A continuing program of basic data collection, manpower development, and
research shall be maintained since these are indispensable components of water
resources development.
6. The NWRB shall formulae the guidelines, procedures, programs, rules and
regulations to implement the policies on water resources.

The 1976 Water Code of the Philippines revised and consolidated the laws governing
the ownership, appropriation, utilization, exploitation, development, conservation,
and protection of water resources which are subject to government control and
regulation through the NWRB.

5.1 Agencies involved in the Collection of Hydrologic Data

More than 30 government agencies and offices are said to be involved in performing
the different aspects or components of water resources management and development
in the country. These agencies function separately dealing mainly with each of the
sectors of water supply, irrigation, hydropower, flood control, pollution, and
watershed management (Dayrit, H, 2001).
The personnel in all agencies concerned must be properly informed of the
importance of monitoring and data collection for policy formulation and efficient
management of the water resources.

Examples of typical data-collection activities include:

 water stage
 streamflow
 rainfall
 ground-water levels
 water-quality parameters (e.g. temperature, specific conductance, dissolved
oxygen, pH)
 meteorologic parameters
 wet and dry atmospheric deposition

1. The NWRB (National Water Resources Board)

-is the lead government agency for the water sector in the Philippines, regarding
water resources and potable water; it is conferred with policy-making, regulatory and
quasi-judicial functions within the Philippine government.

257
 -coordinates the activities of the different agencies involved in the water sector
(irrigation, hydropower, flood control, navigation, pollution, water supply, waste
disposal, watershed management, etc.).

- In 1976, Presidential Decree No. 1067, otherwise known as the “Water Code of the
Philippines” was enacted. Based on the principles that: (a) “all water belongs to the
State”; and (b) the State may allow the use or development of its waters by
administrative concession”, the NWRB was instituted as a “water resource regulator”
tasked to regulate and control the utilization, exploitation, development, conservation
and protection of all water resources. The specific functions of the NWRB, as a
"Water Resource Regulator", include among others, (a) the issuance water permits
for the appropriation, and use of waters; and (b) adjudication of disputes relating to
the appropriation, utilization, exploitation, development, control and conservation,
protection of waters.

-other agencies perform policy formulation as it relates to their mandates;

 Agencies that have water related mandates:

 Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) for flood control and
drainage (this responsibility has recently been transferred to the Metro Manila
Development Authority)
 Department of Health (DOH) for sanitation
 Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) for watershed
protection and water quality
 Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG) for LGU-managed water
supply, and sewerage and sanitation systems and capability building
 National Power Corporation (NPC) for hydropower development
 National Irrigation Administration (NIA) and Bureau of Soils and Water
Management (BSWM) for irrigation development
 Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS) for water supply,
sewerage, and sanitation in Metro Manila and, partially, in its neighboring
provinces; and
 Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA) for the Water Districts which
manage water supply and sewerage systems.

 Agencies involved in water supply and distribution:

258
 the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage Services (MWSS) and its two
concessionaires (after it was privatized in 1997) for Metro Manila;
 the Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA) and its water district offices for
other cities and municipalities, servicing 58 percent of the total urban population
within its area of responsibility; and

 the Departments of Interior and Local Government (DILG) and Public Works and
Highway (DPWH) and local governments which manage community water
systems (usually involving point sources and piped systems with communal
faucets).

 Agencies that have the same function as resource regulators:

 The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) formulates

policies for the enforcement of environmental protection and pollution control
regulations. It is primarily responsible for the preservation of watershed areas and
ensures water quality with respect to rivers, streams and other sources of water.
 The Department of Health (DOH) is responsible for drinking water quality
regulation and supervision of general sanitation activities.
 is also performed by LGUs, as the Local Government Code of 1991 (Republic
Act No. 7160) devolved to local governments the power to discharge functions
and responsibilities of national agencies and offices such as the provision of basic
services and facilities including water supply systems (Section 17).

 Agencies involved in planning and policy formulation:

 The National Economic Development Authority (NEDA), NWRB, LWUA and

local government units. NEDA serves as the highest socio-economic planning and
policymaking agency of government. It ensures that programs of government
agencies are consistent with the government programs as laid out in the Medium-
term Development Plan, the Long-term Development Plan (also known as Plan
21) and the Medium-term Public Investment Programme.
 The National Irrigation Administration (NIA), the National Power Corporation
(NPC) and the Department of Energy are also involved in planning and water
infrastructure development with respect to the requirements of their respective
sectors (Dayrit, H, 2001).

259
 The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services
Administration (PAGASA), which conducts monitoring, data gathering, and
maintenance of information on rainfall and evaporation.

The Bureau of Research and Standards (BRS) of the DPWH, which is engaged in
monitoring and studies of water resources as well as water research and quality
standards.

The Forest Management Bureau (FMB), for watershed management with an

incidental purpose of flood control

And the National Electrification Administration (NEA), for mini-hydropower

generation.

5.2 Problems of Watershed Management and Watershed Protection

Watershed

- is a unique land area generally bordered by hills and ridges that ultimately
drains to a common basin or outlet such as a stream, river, lake, or wetland
(Walter et al., 2007). Watersheds consist of multifunction landscapes and are
composed of diverse but interconnected agricultural and non-agricultural land
units, drainage basins, and streams.
Since it is a natural system, watersheds transcend political boundaries. Rarely do
political boundaries follow the ridgeline. A watershed can encompass one or more
barangays, municipalities, or even regions (e.g., the headwaters of the Agusan
River Basin are located in Compostela Valley in Region 11 and the river
discharges into Butuan Bay). Therefore, the management of a watershed that
covers two or more political units requires the concerted efforts of the concerned
local government units (LGUs).

260
 Headwaters

Hills

Plains
Coastal
areas

Watershed management

- is the implementation of a set of resource management practices with the goal

of ensuring water quality while sustaining the ecosystem (Tomer, 2004).
Watershed management is interdisciplinary and seeks to balance human needs
with restoration of degraded lands or impaired water bodies, reduced pollutant
loading or natural resource preservation, and/or enhanced resilience to human-
induced and natural impacts.

In the Philippines, watersheds are tapped as vital sources of water supply for
domestic, irrigation, and industrial purposes. They also provide the socio-
economic base to a growing population and help maintain ecological balance,
minimize the occurrence of floods and droughts, and mitigate the effects of
adverse climatic changes. However, forest cover in many watersheds are now
dwindling and are considered in critical state due to overexploitation and
mismanagement (PCARRD, 1991).

A common goal of watershed management is to protect the environment while

maximizing the aesthetic, social and economic benefits of watershed.

Effective watershed management requires long-term planning and commitment on

the part of these stakeholders.

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Watershed management planning

- is a process that results in a plan or a blueprint of how to best protect and

improve the water quality and other natural resources in a watershed. Very
often, watershed boundaries extend over political boundaries into adjacent
municipalities and/or states. That is why a comprehensive planning process
that involves all affected municipalities located in the watershed is essential to
successful watershed management.

Problems of Watershed Management

The presence of various complex interacting natural components in a watershed is the

cause of conflicts. This is also the reason why it has been difficult to address the various
issues related to watershed management. These issues include: (a) how can a watershed
accommodate a growing population; (b) how can it sustain its support to an expanding
urban area; and (c) how does one properly allocate land and water for various uses while
ensuring that the water‟s quality and quantity suit the needs of the stakeholders. These are
a few of the various problems local watershed managers must face. In the Philippines,
local governments are tasked to help resolve the conflicts arising from this complex
ecosystem.

As demand increases and the supply of good quality water diminishes, more and more
communities will experience water shortages. At the same time, flooding has become
more frequent in some areas, supplying excessive amounts of water that these
communities do not need. Thus, the sayings: “thirst in the midst of plenty” and “scarcity
in times of need.”
Like other tropical countries, the Philippines is experiencing this extreme imbalance
between the demand for and supply of water. This disparity can be largely attributed to
human actions that adversely affect the water cycle. Over the last few years, a lot of effort
and resources have been poured by the government to watershed management in order to
overcome this problem and to ensure the steady supply of water to meet the ever-
increasing resource demand from competing users. Little has been achieved, thus far.
This only means that this effort entails more action and involvement from all sectors that
are to benefit from this endeavor.

The majority of watersheds have water quality problems, including excess nutrient
loading and the presence of pathogens and toxic chemicals; these problems have led to
habitat loss, invasive species incursion, fish kills, and can present public health threats.

Deforestation and the large-scale transformation of the original vegetation of the

country's forests to non-forestry purposes, coupled with inappropriate land-use practices,
have disrupted the hydrological condition of watersheds. Likewise, population growth,

262
pollution and indiscriminate development are depleting the nation‟s water sources. These
have brought about flash floods and prolonged drought.

Other adverse consequences are accelerated soil erosion, siltation of water bodies and
reservoirs, and poor water quality.

In the past, public awareness on watershed management opportunities for economic and
water resource development projects rarely existed. The public failed to appreciate the
inherent and vital role of watersheds in supplying water as well as providing other
economic benefits.

Watershed Protection

A watershed protection approach is a strategy to effectively protect and restore aquatic

ecosystems and protecting human health. This strategy recognizes watersheds as
physically defined units that are functionally distinct; that requires problem solving at the
watershed level, rather than at the individual water body or discharger level.

Among the most important ecosystems in terms of watershed protection are wetlands,
which filter pollutants, afford protection from floods, and are home to a wide diversity of
plants and animals. Also important are estuaries, which serve as both birthplace and
nursery for many species of fish and shellfish.

Concern government agencies may develop separate water quality programs and/or seek
to implement federal programs.

Conservation programs that aim to protect and conserve the forests and watersheds are
being organize by private and public organizations like Ilagan Watershed Conservation
Project, Santa Rosa River Watershed Management Project and also reforestation
programs are being funded.

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References

Dayrit, Hector. 2001. Formulation of a Water Vision. NWRB. In The FAO-ESCAP Pilot
Project on National Water Visions - From Vision to Action - A Synthesis of
Experiences in Southeast Asia. FAO/ESCAP 2001.
http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/004/AB776E/ab776e03.htm (accessed on March 8,
2007)

Ebarvia, M.C. The Economics of Water Resources. A Paper Presented for the Training-
Workshop on Valuation Methods of Economic Activities and Other Resources on
February 8-10, 1996, at City of Springs, Los Baños, Laguna.

Madrazo, Alma. 2002. Water Issues in the context of Sustainable Development. Paper
nd
presented during the 2 World Conference on Green Productivity, December 9 –
11, 2002, in EDSA Shangri-La, Mandaluyong City, Philippines. http://www.apo-
tokyo.org/gp/manila_conf02/resource_papers/narrative/alma_bella_madrazo.pdf
(accessed on April 17, 2007).

Tomer, M.D. 2004. Watershed Management. P. 306-314. In D. Hillel (ed.)

Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment (Vol. 4). Elsevier Ltd. Oxford, UK.

Walter, T, M. Dosskey, M. Khanna, J. Miller, M. Tomer, and J. weins. 2007.

The science of targeting within landscapes and watersheds to improve conservation

effectiveness. p. 63-89. In M. Schnepf and C. Cox (ed.) Managing Agricultural
Landscapes for Environmental Quality: Strengthening the Science Base. Soil Water
Conserv. Soc., Ankeny, Iowa.

(2008). Water profile of Philippines. Retrieved from

http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/156982

http://www.epa.gov/safewater/uic.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/list_of_protected_areas_of_the_philippines

http://www.sjrwmd.com/hydroconditionsreport/

http://wwf.org.ph/wwf3/programs/conservation/watershed

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