Raw logs showing resistivity porosity overlay.

Red shading indicates possible hydrocarbon

zones. The density or density porosity (solid red curve) is placed on top of the deep resistivity
curve (dashed red curve). Line up the two curves so that they lie on top of each other in
obvious water zones. If there are no obvious water zones, line them up in the shale zones. If
the porosity curve falls to the LEFT of the resistivity curve, as in Layers A and B, hydrocarbons
are probably present.

To find hydrocarbon indications and obvious water zones, compare deep resistivity to
porosity, by mentally or physically overlaying the density porosity on top of the resistivity log.
High porosity (deflections on the density log to the left) and high resistivity (deflections to the
right) usually indicate oil or gas, or fresh water. See red shaded area on resistivity track on the
log above.

Layer A above is a shaly sand and has medium porosity. Layers B and C are clean sands and
have high porosity. All other layers are shale with no useful porosity.

The average of density and neutron porosity in Layers B is 24 %; Layer C is 19%. This is close
to the final answer because there is not much shale in these zones. The average in Layer A is
16 % - much higher than the truth due to the influence of the shale in the zone. The density
porosity is about 11%, pretty close to the core data. Therefore all our analysis must make use
of shale correction methods.

Low resistivity and high porosity usually means water, as in Layer C. Known DST, production,
or mud log indications of oil or gas are helpful indicators.

Layer B and Layer A show crossover when the porosity is traced on the resistivity log, so
these zones remain interesting. In fresher water formations, it is often difficult or impossible to
spot hydrocarbons visually. If it was easy, log analysts would be out of work!

Crossover on the density neutron log sometimes means gas (not seen on the above example).
Watch for rough hole problems, sandstone recorded on a limestone scale, or limestone
recorded on a dolomite scale, which can also show crossover – not caused by gas.

Water zones with high porosity and low resistivity are called “obvious water zones”. Fresh
water may look like hydrocarbons, particularly in shallow zones. The lack of SP development
will often help distinguish fresh water zones. Low porosity water zones may not be obvious.

Crain’s Rule #5: Approximate Water Saturation (SWa) in an obvious hydrocarbon

zone is estimated from: SWa = Constant / PHIe / (1 - Vsh)

where Constant is in the range from 0.0100 to 0.1200.

Use 0.0400 as a first try in sands, 0.0600 to 0.0800 in shaly sands, and 0.0250 in intercrystalline
carbonates.

Water saturation is usually calculated from the Archie equation or a shale corrected version of
it. This is not easy to do with mental arithmetic. An easier estimate of water saturation can be
made in obvious hydrocarbon zones by using a method attributed to Buckles, and it is
commonly used by reservoir engineers in a hurry.

Crain’s Rule #6: On Limestone Units logs, the density neutron separation for
limestone is near zero, dolomite is 8 to 12 porosity units, and anhydrite is 15 or more.
Sandstone has up to 7 porosity units crossover.
On Sandstone Units logs, separation for sandstone is near zero, limestone is about 7 porosity
units, dolomite is 15 or more, and anhydrite is 22 or more.

Visual determination of lithology (in addition to identifying shale as discussed earlier) is done
by noting the quantity of density neutron separation and/or by noting absolute values of the
photo electric curve. The rules take a little memory work.

You must know whether the density neutron log is recorded on Sandstone, Limestone, or
Dolomite porosity scales, before you apply Crain’s Rule #5. The porosity scale on the log is a
function of choices made at the time of logging and have nothing to do with the rocks being
logged. Ideally, sand-shale sequences are logged on Sandstone scales and carbonate
sequences on Limestone scales. The real world is far from ideal, so you could find any
porosity scale in any rock sequence. Take care!

SANDSTONE SCALE LOG

Sand – shale identification from gamma ray and density-neutron separation. Small amounts of
density neutron separation with a low gamma ray may indicate some heavy minerals in a
sandstone. Most minerals are heavier than quartz, so any cementing materials, volcanic rock
fragments, or mica will cause some separation. Both pure quartz (no separation) and quartz
with heavy minerals (some separation) are seen.

LIMESTONE SCALE LOG

 Lithology identification is accomplished by observation of density neutron separation and the
gamma ray response, along with a review of core and sample descriptions.

The photoelectric effect is often a direct mineralogy indicator.

 Crain’s Rule #7: PE below 1 is coal, near 2 is sandstone, near 3 is dolomite or shale,
and near 5 is limestone or anhydrite. The high density (negative density porosity) of anhydrite
will distinguish anhydrite from limestone. High gamma ray will distinguish shale from dolomite.

SUMMARY OF
LITHOLOGY RULES

ROCK N–D N–
D PE GR
(SS) (LS)
SAND 0 -
7 2 LO
LIME 7 0 5 L
O
DOLO 15+ 8+ 3
LO
ANHY 22+ 15+ 5
LO
SALT - 37 -
45 4.5 LO
SHLE 20+ 13+ 3.5
HI

Memorize this table, or

keep a copy in your wallet.
Practice the skill and use it
in your daily work.

THINK LIKE A DETECTIVE:

1. Find the evidence
2. Assess the evidence
3. Postulate all
possibilities
4. Eliminate the
impossible
5: Select the answer that
fits best with the evidence

Remember: logs are not

perfect and these rules are
not perfect. Adjust the
rules to suit your
experience. Mineral mixtures are common, so think in terms of what is possible in each case.

On the log at the right, the evidence and conclusion is shown for 6 layers with different
lithology.

This is a LIMESTONE scale log

RULE EXCEPTIONS: High GR log readings coupled with density neutron log readings
that are close together, are a sign of radioactive sandstone or limestone. To tell radioactive
dolomite zones from shale zones, use a gamma ray spectral log, since the density neutron log
will show separation in both cases. The PE value can help differentiate between radioactive
dolomite and chlorite shale but not between dolomite and illite rich shale. High thorium values
on the gamma ray spectral log indicate the shale.

Crain’s Rule #8: If it is porous, it is probably permeable. A quicklook equation for

permeability in intergranular or intercrystalline porosity is: Perm = 100 000 * (PHIe^6) / (Sw^2).

To find signs of permeability, look for indications of porosity, mudcake shown by the caliper,
separation on the resistivity log curves, known production or tested intervals, sample
descriptions, and hydrocarbon shows in the mud.

A quicklook equation for permeability is:

Perm in milliDarcies = 100 000 * (Porosity ^ 6) / (Water Saturation ^ 2)

Crain’s Rule #9: If the logs are noisy, blame it on fractures.

To check for indications of fractures, look for sonic log skips, density neutron crossover in
carbonates, hashy dipmeter curves, hashy resistivity curves, or caved hole in carbonates.

Crain’s Rule #10: Check your work and revise your assumptions, then refine rules for
each project.

Computer systems are often provided to do the arithmetic and plot the answers. A diagram
depicting the analysis steps in more detail is shown below. These steps cover only the data
processing sequence involved in getting answers from the analysis of the raw data. Both
novice and experienced analysts should review these illustrations to gain an understanding of
how complex the processing and communication paths really are. If you use computerized log
analysis, you should know how the program works.
 Whether you use computer analysis software, spreadsheets, or calculators, you will be
following the flow chart in this illustration. Looks complicated, but if you can see the step-by-
step procedure streaming down the middle, and the feedback loops on both sides, you will
understand the scope of the petrophysicist's job.

In any step by step procedure, there is a need to calibrate each step as it is performed. This
reduces labor and dead end processing paths. The control data is usually the core, test,
production, geological and engineering data available from a well or its nearby offsets.

Unfortunately, much of the needed control data is not available for many zones, so calibration
is seldom perfect. Even when calibration data is available, the match to log analysis results
may be weak, so be prepared to use good judgment to modify or reconcile your initial
assumptions to improve the comparison.
Some "ground truth", such as core data, has its own data quality problems. It cannot and
should not be used indiscriminately to force log analysis results to some preconceived
solution.