A Laboratory Simulation of A Rotary Vacuum Drum Brownstock Washer

Western Michigan University
ScholarWorks at WMU
Master's Theses Graduate College
12-1987
A Laboratory Simulation of a Rotary Vacuum

Drum Brownstock Washer
Hugh E. Muller Jr.
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Muller, Hugh E. Jr., "A Laboratory Simulation of a Rotary Vacuum Drum Brownstock Washer" (1987). Master's Theses. 1252.
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A LABORATORY SIMULATION OF A ROTAR Y
VACUUM DRUM BROW NST OCK WASHER
by
Hugh E. M u l l e r Jr.
A Thesis
S u b m i t t e d to the
F a c u l t y of T h e G r a d u a t e C o l l e g e
In p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of the
r e q u i r e m e n t s for the
D e g r e e of M a s t e r of S c i e n c e
D e p a r t m e n t of P a p e r a n d P r i n t i n g
Science and Engineering

Kalamazoo, Michigan
D e c e m b e r 1987
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
A L A B O R A T O R Y S I M U L A T I O N OF A R O T A R Y
VACUUM DRUM BROWNSTOCK WASHER
Hugh E. Muller J r . , M.S.
Western Michigan University, 1987
Mass balances can quantify the d i l u t i o n and thick
ening of a l i q u o r / f i b e r suspension on a brownstock washer
However, the complex displacement process necessitates an
empirical approach. Given empirical data, washers can be
optimized through use of efficiency factors with m a ss bal
ances.
Because empirical data is difficult to ob t ai n , a lab
oratory washing method w as developed to e m p i r i c a l l y gener
ate displacement efficiencies on p u l p under m il l washer
conditions. Reproducible data generated by this method
resulted in a d i s p l a c e m e n t / d i l u t i o n function as seen on
mill washers. A laboratory simulation using mill samples
exclusive of problems for one vacuum drum, resulted in
comparable efficiencies with l es s than 10% error.
The relationship between dilution a nd displacement
was examined with a system constant. System constants,
which account for the inaccessible dissolved s o l id s por
tion in the e x i t i n g mat, w e re determined.
with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Much appreciation goes to S. D. Warren Paper Company,
Muskegon, MI, for supplying samples and data from their
b r o w n s t o c k w as he r .
I would like to p a r t i c u l a r l y thank Reid Miner of the
NCA SI , National Council of T he Paper Industry F or A i r and
Stream Improvement, for his suggestions and contribution
of insight into b r o w n s t o c k w a s h i n g . In a d d i t i o n , sincere
gratitude is due the e n t i r e staff of the NCASI, Central
Lakes Region, for th e ir timeless help with problems en
countered along the way.
An e x p r e s s i o n much greater t h an "special recognition"
goes to my wife, S u sa n , for h e r e n d u r a n c e a nd constant en
couragement. Recognition also goes to m y children, Alex
a nd Erin, whom unknowingly brought t h i ng s i nt o perspec
tive.
Hugh E. Muller Jr.
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A laboratory simulation of a rotary vacuum drum brownstock

washer
Muller, Hugh E., Jr., M.S.

Western Michigan University, 1987
U MI
300 N. Zeeb Rd.
Ann Arbor, MI 48106
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E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................ ii
LI ST O F T A B L E S ...... vii
L I ST OF FIGURES .............................................. viii
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION ................. 1
Problem .......................................... 1
Objective ....................................... 3
II. R E V I E W OF SELECTED LITERATURE .................. 4
History .......................................... 4
Rotary Vacuum Drum Washers .................. 5
Brownstock Washer Variables ................. 10
Shower Flow ......................... 10
Shower D i s t r i b u t i o n ....................... 11
Shower T e m p e r a t u r e ........................ 11
Production Rate ............................ 12
Defoamer Usage ............................. 12
Sheet Removal System ...................... 13
Drum Speed .................................. 13
Vat Consistency ............................ 14
Vat Level .................................... 14
D r u m V a c u u m ................................. 14
Black Li qu o r Characteristics ............... 15
Ta bl e of C o n t e n t s - - C o n t i n u e d
CHAPTER
Drainage Rate ..................... 16
Washer Losses .................................. 17
Types of S o d i u m .................. 17
Solute Removal ................................. 19
Mi cr o Washing .............................. 19
Macro Washing .............................. 21
Channeling and Mixing .................... 21
Solute A dso rption ...................... . 22
Washing Efficiency ............................ 25
Countercurrent Washing ................... 25
Washing Models ................ 26
Displacement Ratio ........................ 27
Norden Method .............................. 31
Dlmenslonless Mass Transfer

C o e f f i c i e n t ................................. 33
Pore Model Concept ........................ 35
Laboratory Simulation ........................ 36
III. D E S I G N AND METHODOLOGY ........................... 39
Construction of L a b o r a t o r y Washer ......... 39
Setting up the L a b o r a t o r y Washer .......... 44
Operating Procedure ........................... 46
Sample Analysis ................................ 48
Testing the L a b o r a t o r y Washer .............. 50
iv
r.
Table of Contents— Continued
CHAPTER
M i ll W a s h e r Simulation ....................... 53
IV. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS .......................... 57
Introduction ................................... 57
NaCl Tracer Run ............................... 60
Mock Mill Run .................................. 60
Mill Was h e r Simulation ....................... 72
Inaccessible Dissolved SolidsPortion .... 75
V. DISCUS SIO N OF RESULTS ............................ 85
N a Cl T r a c e r R un ............................... 85
Mock Mill Run ...................... 87
Mill Washer Simulation ....................... 91
Inaccessible Dissolved SolidsPortion .... 100
VI. SUMMARY OF RESULTS ................ 105
VII. CONCLUSIONS ......................................... 110
VIII. RECOMMENDATIONS .................................... 112
REFERENCES .................................................... 114
APPENDICES
A. S h o w e r F l o w as a F u n c t i o n of C y l i n d e r
P r e s s u r e ............................................. 117
B. Dissolved Solids Analyses for All R u n s ........ 118
C. NaCl Trace r Run Material B a l a n c e s ................ 121
D. Mock Mill Run M a t e r i a l B a l a n c e s .................. 122
E. Mill Washer Simulation Material B a l a n c e s ....... 125
I
Table of Contents— Continued
APPENDICES
F. Theoretical Laboratory Displacement Ratio

Calculation ............ 128
6. N a C l T r a c e r R u n a nd M o c k M i l l Run Confidence
E n v e l o p e s ................. 129
BIBLIOGRAPHY .......... 130
vi
L
LIST OF T A B L E S
1. Controllable Variables Affecting Drum Hashers ... 10
2. Run C o n d i t i ons --M ock Mill Run ....................... 52
3. Irapco V a c u u m D r u m Operating Conditions ........ 53
4. L ab W a s h e r Conditions for Simulation ....... 55
5. Regression Equations for M o c k Mill Run ............ 72
6. Results of Mean Lab a nd M e a n M i l l DRt-Tests .... 75
7. Theoretical L a b o ra tor y D isp l a c e m e n t Ratio

C o r r e c t i o n ............................................... 93
8. Vacuum and Time Adjustment Runs .................... 98
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Displacement Principle ............................... 6
2. Vacuum Drum Washer Phases .......................... . 7
3. Three Stage Brownstock Vac uum Drum Washing

S y s t e m .................................................. 8
4. Schematic of Pulp Suspension ........................ 23
5. Effect of pH on S o r b e d S o d i u m ...................... 24
6. Effect of S h o w e r s on DR .............................. 30
7. Effect of M a t C o n s i s t e n c y on D R .................... 30
8. P e r k i n s ' T h e o r e t i c a l and E m p i r i c a l DR as a
F u n c t i o n of DF ........................................ 31
9. Norden's Washing System .............................. 32
10. K l e i n ' s DR as a Function of WLR f or M a t

Formation ....... 36
11. Lee's Laboratory Displacement Washer ............. 38
12. Cross Sectional Zo ne s of a V a c u u m Drum ........... 40
13. Laboratory Vacuum Drum Brownstock Washer ........ 41
14. NaCl Tracer Run DR as a F u n c t i o n of W L R ........ 61
15. N a C l T r a c e r R un L N ( l - D R ) as a F u n c t i o n
of W L R .................................................. 62
16. M o c k M i l l Run, D r u m 1 DR as a F u n c t i o n
of W L R .................................................. 63
17. M o c k M i l l Run, D r um 2 DR as a F u n c t i o n
of W L R .................................................. 64
18. Mock Mill Run, Drum 3 DR as a Function

of W L R . 65
I
List of Figures— Continued
19. M o c k M i l l Run, D r u m 1 L N ( l - D R ) as a F u n c t i o n
of W L R .................................................. 66
20. M o c k M i l l Run, D r u m 2 L N ( l - D R ) as a F u n c t i o n
of W L R .................................................. 67
21. M o c k M i l l Run, D r u m 3 L N ( 1-DR) as a F u n c t i o n

of W L R .................................................. 68
22. M o c k M i l l Run, A l l D r u m s DR as a F u n c t i o n of
W L R ...................................................... 69
23. M o c k M i l l Run, A l l Drums L N ( l - D R ) as a F u n c t i o n

of W L R ................................................. 70
24. M o c k M i l l Run, A l l Drums L N ( l - D R ) as a F u n c t i o n

of W L R ' s Less T h a n 2.0 .............................. 71
25. MillWasher S imu lation C o m p a r i s o n of L ab and

M i l l DR 's ............................................... 73
26. MillWasher S imu lation C o m p a r i s o n of C o r r e c t e d

Lab a nd M il l D R ' s ..................................... 74
27. N a C l T r a c e r Run D R as a F u n c t i o n of W L R
E s t i m a t e of E q u a t i o n .................................. 77
28. M o c k and S i m u l a t i o n R u n C o m p a r i s o n , D r u m 1
E s t i m a t e of M o c k E q u a t i o n DR as a F u n c t i o n
of W L R .................................................. 78
E s t i m a t e of M o c k E q u a t i o n D R as a F u n c t i o n
of W L R .................................................. 79
E s t i m a t e of M o c k E q u a t i o n DR as a F u n c t i o n
of W L R .................................................. 80
31. NaClTracer Run L N ( l - ( D R / 0 .97)) as a F u n c t i o n

of W L R .................................................. 81
32. M o c k M i l l Run, D r u m 1 L N ( l - ( D R / 0 .7 7 ) ) as a
F u n c t i o n of W L R ..................................... 82
ix
I
M'
List of F i g u r e s — C o n t i n u e d
33. M o c k M i l l Run, D r u m 2 L N ( l - ( D R / 0 . 8 6 ) ) as a
F u n c t i o n of W L R .................................. 83
34. M o c k M i l l Run, D r u m 3 L N ( l - ( D R / 0 .82)) as a

F u n c t i o n of W L R •• 84
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Problem
The universal objective of w a s h i n g brownstock pulp is
to remove the m a x i m u m a m o u n t of soluble inorganic and dis
solved organic material by u s i n g the m i n i m u m q u a n t i t y of
fresh or p r o c e s s w at er . This removal results in: clean
er pulp that r e du c e s bleaching cost s, less pollutants car
ried to the sewer through subsequent operations, and re
covery of costly pulping chemicals. A sacrifice for this
must be m a d e h o w ev e r, as cleaner p ul p is the result of
increased amounts of w a s h wate r. This results in g r e a t e r
quantities of s te a m needed to e v a p o r a t e the w a s h w a t e r in
the filtrate. An improved efficiency in a w a s h i n g process
is seen if the l i q u o r dilution is m i n i m i z e d or k e p t con
stant while chemical recovery is increased.
The optimization of a washer's efficiency is a n im
portant cost i n c e n t i ve , however the resultant mill efflu
ent quality may dictate additional operational parameters.
A study by Wong, Wearing, and Uloth (_1) i l l u s t r a t e s a c as e
where brownstock washer dilution factor correlates with
toxicity, BOD, COD, s o di um , lignin, and color of black li
quor carry-over in the bleach plant effluent. Another
s t u d y at Paprlcan (2) indicated a similar correlation with
recommendations that future studies be m a d e in the labor
atory w i t h scaled down mill washing equipment. This rec
o m m e n d a t i o n w as m a d e because of the trouble they h a d in
acquiring mill samples for their research.
Two processes described by Perkins (jl) are involved
in the w a s h i n g of w o o d p ul p f ib er s : dilution of s t o c k in
the vat and thickening on a filter drum, and a subsequent
dilution or d i s p l a c e m e n t of the liquor in the fiber mat
with wash liquid. T he fabrication of a washing system
must be m a d e with th es e mechanisms in m in d . Ma ss balance
approaches can quantify the mechanism of dilution and
thickening a liquor/fiber suspension; however an e m p i r i c a l
approach is n e e d e d to e x p l a i n the complex displacement
process.
A displacement efficiency rating c an be determined
with empirical data a nd used in c o n j u n c t i o n with system
balances to a n a l y z e the carry-over of a s y s t e m and thus
optimize within operating parameters. The displacement
efficiency is a r e s u l t of m a n y independent and interde
pendent v a r i ab l es .
Lee (4) s t at e s that efficiency ratings ha ve mostly
been based on e m p i r i c a l d at a from existing s ys t e m s . In
addition, he e x p l a i n s that th es e ratings g i ve only g ro s s
approximations of the behavior of similar washing s y s t e m s.
He states that the usefulness of a n e f f i c i e n c y r a t in g
would be enhanced If It c o u l d be accurately predicted for
a particular washing s ys te m. Field studies t ha t result In
accurate efficiency ratings over a wide r an g e of dilutions
for d i f f e r e n t operating conditions and pulps are very dif
f ic ult, If n o t Impossible.
Objective
In this study, a laboratory washing method was de
veloped to e m p i r i c a l l y generate displacement efficiencies
on w o o d pulp f ib e r s under actual mill washer conditions.
I n it i a l l y , an a p p a r a t u s was constructed to s i m u l a t e the
displacement washing function as seen on a b r o w n s t o c k vac
uum d r u m w as h e r . The apparatus was then t e s te d to see if
It p e r f o r m e d in the m a n n e r as expected by thickening, and
displacement washing. A comparison study with mill sam
ples run through the apparatus a nd mill results was com
p l et e d to t e st for simulation feasibility. In a d d i t i o n ,
the relationship between displacement and d i l u t i o n was
examined. Ideally the displacement efficiency should be
ha ve as a function of dilution f or specific pulps under
different washing conditions.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF SELECTED LITERATURE
His tory
Development of the k r a f t Industry began with its
proposition by Dahl in D a n z i g in 1879, and the later con
struction of a m il l in 1891. This w as the first pulp in
dustry to r e a l i z e the n e c e s s i t y for recovering the e x p e n
si ve process chemicals. At t ha t time, the sulfite indus
try was operating with less expensive chemicals that w e r e
drained to the s e w e r in the b l o w pits.
In a d d i t i o n to r e c o v e r i n g expensive kraft chemicals,
it was important to o b t a i n a p u l p that was essentially
free of soluble impurities for the p r o d u c t i o n of strong
bleachable fibers. The oldest method of w a s h i n g p u lp be
g an w i t h the sulfite process by m e r e l y flooding the blow
pit pulp with water a nd allowing it to d r a i n . To solve
its technical wash/recovery problems, the kraft industry
borrowed the su ga r industry's diffuser method. This was
similar to the p r e s e n t day technique of w a s h i n g in the
d i g e s t er .
Later in the 1 93 0' s , filter washi ng w as Introduced to
alleviate problems that w e r e occurring with bleaching. It
was then found that minimal amounts of water could be u se d
if
in the p r o d u c t i o n of cleaner pu lp , resulting in h i g h e r ef
ficiency chemical recovery operations. After World War II
most of the n e w w a s h i n g installations in A m e r i c a were of
the filter type, while in E u r o p e the diffusion method pre
dominated.
Today th er e are many types of b r o w n s t o c k w a s h e r s in
use. They include the vacuum drum filter washer, the dif
fusion w a she r as m o r e commonly seen in a c o n t i n u o u s di
gester, the rotary pressure washer, the h o r i z o n t a l belt
washer, the w a s h p r e s s , and the extraction p r es s. It is
Intended here to f o c u s on the v a c u u m drum filter washer,
which is indicated by Rydholm (_5) to be the m a j o r method
of w a s h i n g in N o r t h America.
Rotary Vacuum Drum Washers
The washing of pulp is m o s t commonly accomplished
through the u se of rotary vacuum f i l t er s . A vacuum fil
ter, or drum, is Immersed in a v at and fed w i t h l ow con
sistency pulp. As the drum turns, a vacuum pulls from the
inside of the filter resulting in a d h e r e n c e of a pulp mat
to the surface. This is k n o w n as the d i l u t i o n / t h i c k e n i n g
phas e , resulting from prior heavy dilution to o b t a i n a low
consistency s l u r ry , followed by dewatering a nd m at forma
tion. As the drum rotates further, a set of showers spray
wash liquid onto the pulp mat. Displacement of the re
maining liquid in the pulp mat by the shower liquid
occurs here as shown in Fig. 1. Rotation continues with
vacuum a p p l i e d an d subsequent removal of the p u l p mat.
The phases described for a vacuum filter was h e r are
shown in Fig. 2. Extraction of li q ui d , as a r e s u l t of the
internal vacuum, occurs from the sheet formation zone to
the discharge zone. During discharge the differential
pressure must be removed so the sheet can break loose from
the drum. Valve-type f i lt e r s use a fixed valve in the
cylinder to a l l o w the application of v a c u u m in a ll zones
except discharge. The pulp mat is formed on a plastic or
metal face on the drum. T hi s filter media is between 25
and 40 mesh. The inlet s to c k to the v at is a t .75% to
2.5% o.d. ( ov e n dry) consistency, and the exit mat is at
10% to 20% o.d. consistency.
DISPLACEMENT
SHOWER
DIRECTION OF .WIRE
-o
PULP & DIRTY WATEI PULP & CLEAN
-UUU U U ////////*
yw\W'\ " '
• DIRTY WATER
(V A C U U M )
Fig. 1 Displacement Principle (Smo ok )
I
'®n
Fig. 2 Vacuum Drum Uasher Phases (Macdonald)
The relation of a v a c u u m d r u m to an entire washing
system is s e e n in Fig. 3. Although this Illustration is
for a three st ag e washer, washing systems c an have m or e or
less stages. P ul p from the digester is b l o w n i nt o the
blow tank at about 10Z fiber o.d., a nd there diluted to
about 4% o.d. with filtrate from the first drum washer
filtrate tank. This diluted pulp is t he n further diluted
by the first filtrate t an k in the k n o t t e r s to a b o u t 1. 25 %
o.d. f ib e r before washing. The l ow c o n s i s t e n c y pulp then
enters the v a t of the first washer drum. As previously
described, the p ul p is w a s h e d on the drum a nd exits to the
next drum. However, prior to the n e x t d ru m , a repulper
8
i'n n \ j ipn »
now
TANK
OICESTEJt
CH CH CH
IIQ U O * TAHKJ
A - S h o w e r #3 I - V at #3 Q - F i l t r a t e #3
S h o w e r #2 J - Repulper #1 R - M a t #1
B -
S h o w e r #1 K - Repulper #2 S - M a t #2
C -
D r u m #1 L - D r o p Leg #1 T - M a t #3
D -
M - Drop Leg #2 U - Evaporators
E - D r u m #2
D r u m #3 N - D r o p Leg #3 V - Decker
F -
Vat #1 0 - Filtrate #1 W - Proces s
G -
V a t #2 P - Filtrate #2 Water
H -
Fig. 3 Three Stage Brownstock Vacuum Drum Washing System
takes the h i g h e r mat consistency pulp and mixes it w i t h
filtrate f ro m the s u b s e q u e n t drum filtrate tank. This
thickening, displacement washing, and rediluting is re
peated f or the s e c o n d and t h ir d drum, and then the p u l p
sheet is discharged from the s ys t em .
The washwater enters the system through the showers
on the last drum. Because the pulp f l ow direction opposes
the shower flow, the system is t e r m ed countercurrent.
Shower liquid on the t hi r d stage is used in d i s p l a c i n g the
cleanest mat liqu i d . This displaced liquid or filtrate
then t ra v e l s to a f i l t r a t e ta nk and onto the next s ta g e
where the cycle is repeated f or the first sta g e . Filtrate
from the first stage is u s e d f or dilution, with the re
mainder s en t to c h e m i c a l recovery for e v a p o r a t i o n . In a d
dition to s h o w e r l i qu id , the filtrates f r om the second and
third d r u m s a re used f or dilution in the repulpers of the
first and second s ta ge s. An a p p r o x i m a t e dissolved solids
(DS) content of the s h o w e r liquid on the third stage and
the filtrate from the first stage is respectively 0 % and
16%.
Level indicators on the filtrate tanks maintain a
constant dilution of the shower liquid to the p ul p on all
three s ta g e s . The vacuum drums are elevated from the fil
trate or seal tanks. This e l e v a tio n allows for develop
ment of a v a c u u m as the filtrate f lo w s down the d r o p leg
from the drum to the s e al tank. Generally 20 to 30 ft
of vertical drop is required to d r a w the liquor and air
through the valve-type filters into the drop leg.
Brownstock Washer Variables
The degree of removal of dissolved solids a nd sol
u bl e inorganics in k r a f t p u lp is a f f e c t e d by several var
iables. These variables are described by K o r h o n e n (jj) as
being fi xe d by w a s h e r design and controlled during washer
operation. He classifies the controllable variables as
independent a nd interdependent. Independent variables are
classified as tho se which when manipulated do n o t have a
significant impact on o th er s . Interdependent variables
are those w h i c h a f f e c t other variables when altered. A
listing of these variables is shown in T a b l e 1.
Table 1
Controllable Variables Affecting Drum Washers
Independent Interdependent
Shower Flow Drum Speed

Shower Distribution Drum Vacuum
Shower T e m p era tur e V at C o n s i s t e n c y
P r o d u c t i o n R a te V at L e v e l
Defoamer Usage
Sheet Removal System
Shower Flow
The amou nt of shower flow is the m o s t important
variable which affects l o ss e s . Dilution factor is
expressed as the p o u n d s of excess shower liquid (i.e. over
that required for c o m p l e t e mat liquid displacement) per
pound of o ve n dry pulp. An increase in d i l u t i o n factor
r e s u l ts in recoverable chemical gains to a p o in t, where
the c o st of increased evaporation must be w e i g h e d . Regu
lation of the shower flow is usually accomplished by mea
suring the dissolved solids in the last s ta g e filtrate.
Shower Distribution
Distribution of the shower flow among the shower
pipes and number of shower pipes, (or w e i r structure and
location), all affect the q u a l i t y of shower flow. Com
pl et e shower coverage of the pulp mat is Important, as ar
eas of excess or insufficient flows will either "waste"
the fl ui d or r e s u l t in p o o r localized washing. Placement
of s h o we r bars which allows the p ul p mat to be flushed
back into the vat, results in inefficient dilution wash
ing. Also, plugging of shower pipes is common which can
again decrease shower efficiency.
Shower Temperature
Temperature of the w a s h liquid also affects a wash
er's efficiency. Washing is p o o r at b o t h cold tempera
tures and at those above the b o i l i n g point of the shower
l i q uid. At temperatures less than 60°C the fiber struc
ture is somewhat closed because the hemicellulose has not
r
12
softened. A high temperature will reduce efficiencies by
promoting flashing In the v a c u u m leg. The likelihood of
this occurring is In the first stage where the pulp Is
3 1 111 at a hi gh temperature from the p r e v i o u s cook.
P r o d u c t i o n R at e
The problem with production rate variations is that
shower dilution cannot always follow the c h a n ge s . This
results in both over and under dilution during the p r o
duction s wi ngs. A more reasonable dilution can be
achieved if a f e e d b a c k unit connecting p u lp f lo w c o n t r o l
to the w a s h e r , is installed. If this occurred, according
to K o r h o n e n (7), losses should increase linearly with
increased pu lp loading.
Defoamer U sa g e
A ir entrainment occurs as a result of a ir entering
the pulp mat on the w a s h e r face. T h is air allows the liq
uid to be driven from the mat, however it m u st be mini
mized to a v o i d the p r o b l e m of foaming. Entrainment is
present in b o t h the filtrate and in the pulp mat. Surfac
tants in d e f o a m e r s a re used to reduce the entrained a ir
and thus the foaming action, which results in improved
drainage. Also, an increased residence time in the fil
trate tanks allows for a reduction in foam.
13
Sheet Removal System
Sheet removal systems Include s t e a m a nd air doctors,
a nd take-off rolls. The take-off roll d oe s not always
clean the d ru m ' s surface, howe v e r liquor blowback Is n o t a
problem. Steam doctors result In b l o w i n g s o m e of the fil
ter p o c k e t liquor back Into the sheet at high pressures.
T he blowback on the steam doctor Increases with steam
p r e s s ur e . An Increase In f i l t r a t e liquor temperature, re
sulting In f l a s h i n g , c an a l s o occur on a s t e a m doctor.
A ir doctors give sufficient cleaning and are more econom
ical t ha n s t e a m d o c t o r s . Generally steam or air doctors
s h o u ld be operated at the lowest possible pressure that
r e su l t s in k e e p i n g the drum surface cle a n .
Drum Speed
Residence time a n d mat thickness are affected by drum
speed. Poor washing Is s e e n w i t h e i t h e r too thick or thin
a mat, therefore an optimal drum speed exists. At l ow
drum s pe e d s, a high vacuum due to r e d u c e d dilution flow
a nd increased fl ow resistance, results in l ow sheet con
sistency. Poor w a s hin g at low drum speeds can also be the
r e s ul t of easily occurring sheet plugging.Athigh drum
s pe ed s poor washing is the result of air entrainment, low
sheet diffusion time, and high blowback. Drum speed must
be optimized with the opposing factors, sheet diffusion
L ■ '
Ik
time a nd v at consistency in mi n d . Diffusion washing in
the vat is improved when drum speeds are increased, be
cause the vat consistencies can be reduced.
Vat Consistency
V at consistencies are changed by ma ni p u l a t i n g a dilu
tion v a l v e s e t t in g . As s t at e d , low consistencies result
in b e t t e r diffusion washing, a nd in a d d i t i o n , sheet forma
tion is i m p ro ve d , which results in b e t t e r drainage. At
higher consistencies poor formation a nd sheet plugging can
occu r . It is s e e n t ha t the interrelation between vat con
sistency and d ru m speed must be considered when tuning a
washer system.
Vat Level
Vat l ev el depends on d r u m speed a nd dilution v al v e
setting for a given rate of p r o d u c t i o n . Ideally the vat
level should be k e p t as high as possible to a l l o w for low
vat consistencies and relatively low drum speeds.
Drum Vacuum
Vacuum l e ve ls a re set by system design. Variables
which affect vacuum are shower flow, s ea l tank level, drop
leg h ei g h t , vat l e ve l, production rate, drum s p ee d , a nd
shower temperature. As v at consistency is Increased, vac
uum l ev e l s d e c r e a se . Washing problems can be detected by
monitoring vacuum l ev e ls . Decreased vacuum may indicate
seal leakages or flashing. Increased vacuum may result
from decreased drainage ra te s , or p l u g g i n g .
Black Liquor Characteristics
W o od s pe ci e s, cook liquor quantity and content, and
the degree of d e l i g n i f i c a t i o n a re responsible for the
characteristics of b l a c k liquor. Depending on the type of
wood, the p e r c e n t a g e of m a j o r components i.e. cellulose,
h e m i c e l l u l o s e , and l i g n i n, may vary. This variation is
carried on to the d i s s o l v e d organics in the black liqu or .
Kappa numbers relate the degree of lignin removal f r om a
cook, thus a low k a p p a relates to l o w e r amounts of lignin
left in the pulp. Less lignin l e ft in the pu lp results in
more dissolved in the black liquor. Chemicals which go
into a c o o k also end up as soluble inorganics in the black
liquor. In a k r a f t process, cooking chemicals comprised
of Na 2 S and N aO H end up as the following major components
in b l a c k liquor: ^ £ 0 0 Na O H , and NagS.
Black liquor in the b l o w pit is roughly at 16% d i s
solved s ol id s. According to S c h l o s s n a g l e ( 8 ), of that,
28-40% is inorganic a nd 60-73% is o r g a n i c . At lower dis
s o lv e d solids content, black liquor is v e r y foamy. As
concentration increases, viscosity increases from 0.5-100
cP. A decrease in v i s c o s i t y is seen with temperature ele
vati on . Specific gravities generally increase with
greater percent s oli ds . Temperature increases result in
lower specific gravities f or a given solids content. Dif
ferent r a t io s of organic to inorganic matter at a d e f i n e d
c o n c e n t r a t i o n and temperature result in different specific
gravities. Those wit h a high er organic content result in
an increased specific gravity.
Drainage Rate
In a w a s h i n g operation, a pulp's drainage rate, or
freeness is dependent upon pulp consistency, viscosity of
the l i qu i d , the a m o u n t a n d size of suspended material in
the l i qu i d, the fiber i ts e lf , type of cook, pH, additives,
and the force exerted on the m a s s . Freeness testing is
used primarily for m e a s u r i n g p u lp suspensions in r e g a r d
to p a p e r m a c h i n e formation. This method of measuring the
passage of l i q u id through a fibrous m at is n o t accurate
when used with washing equipment. Perkins (£) states that
the v a r i a b l e s mentioned above have such an e f f e c t on
drainage rate, that o n l y empirical measurements on e q u i p
ment which simulate and/or exactly duplicate mill condi
tions are reliable for a point in the system.
Entrained air p r e s e n t in the liquid portion of a
suspension can r e s ul t in a significant reduction in d r a i n
age. This is m o s t e v i d e n t when trying to displace a
strong black l i q uo r w i t h a weaker black liquor having air
in s u s p e n s i o n . Air bubbles block flow and reduce drainage
because they take on p r o p e r t i e s of a soli d. Acting as
s o l i d s, they are filtered out by the fiber mass.
Uasher Losses
As previously s ta te d , soluble inorganics a nd dis
solved organics a re w a s h e d out of the pulp on the w a s h e r s .
T he soluble inorganics have traditionally been reported as
s o da l o ss e s (salt c a k e — N a g S O ^ , or sodium). T he dissolved
organics consist mostly of lignin and a c id s.
Types of S o d i u m
Sodium l o s se s are determined f or a brownstock washer
so that a c o m p l e t e mill balance f or sodium can be made,
and also for evaluation of that washer's efficiency. As
explained by South and Gulley ( L O ) , to ta l sodium from a
washer sample consists of th re e parts: bound so d iu m , wash
water s od iu m, and w a s h a b l e s od i u m . The tot a l sodium from
a sample can be m e a s u r e d fairly easily with a flame spec
trophotometer; however c ar e must be used in that a measure
of only the sodium attributable from the pulping process
is being measured a nd not that, for Instance, f r om w e l l
water on a d e c k e r ' s s h ow e r . Bound sodium is the a m o u n t of
sodium that is a d s o r b e d onto the fibers. It is termed the
amount of s o d i u m that would remain with the p ul p if the re
were an i nf in it e number of conventional brownstock washing
stag es . Wash water sodium is t ha t p o r t i o n which is
introduced to the p ul p through the shower fl ui d . Washable
sodium can be a r r i v e d at by subtracting the bound a nd wash
water sodium from the to t al sodium. It is a m e a s u r e of
the sodium portion w h i c h c an be removed from the p u lp on a
w as h e r . This is the p o r t i o n that is u s e d for w a s h e r eval
uations .
A flame spectrophotometer test by S o u t h a n d Gulley
on l o b l o l l y p i ne p ul p at a k a p p a number of 65 resulted in
the following breakdown. Washable s al t cake accounted for
62.1%, wash water salt cake 8 . 6 %, a nd bound salt c ak e
29.3%. As previously discussed, an a p p r o x i m a t e organic/
inorganic dissolved solids ratio is 2:1. With that in
mind, in the a b o v e example, the bound salt cake portion is
significant.
Work by G r a h s (1_1) i n d i c a t e s that a d s o r p t i o n by lig
n in on the p u l p is n e g l i g i b l e . His results also show a
la r ge difference between the washing of lignin a nd sodium
in a l a b o r a t o r y displacement cell. Residence time of so
d i um in p a c k e d beds of p u l p was longer than t ha t of lig
nin. This is m o s t easily explained by the larger size of
the lignin molecules having smaller m as s transport times
between the flowing and stagnant liquors. It w as also
shown that the r a t io s of w a s h e d sodium and lignin vari e d.
Th is was demonstrated by simulation, by d e c r e a s i n g b ed
length and increasing flow velocity, resulting in in
creased lignin yields and decreased s od i u m .
19
T he ratio of s o d i u m to o r g a n i c matter washed out of
the p ul p may vary depending on wood species, cook condi
tions, a nd w a s h i n g conditions. It is therefore important,
recommends Perkins (_12), to m e a s u r e losses on a dry dis
solved solids per u n i t of p u lp b a s i s. At different loca
tio ns through the p r o c e s s , a determination of equivalent
sodium contents could be then made for the b l a c k liquor
dissolved s o l i ds concentration.
Solute Removal
Different mechanisms are responsible f or the washing
of a p ul p suspension. These fundamental mechanisms are
important to the understanding of w a s h i n g in a v a c u u m
drum. Several divisions between these washing mechanisms
c a n be made.
Micro Washing
Ranhagen (1_3) c l a s s i f i e s washing on two l ev el s: micro
or macro. On the m i c r o level black liquor is being moved
from the i n si d e of the fiber to the o ut s i d e . This move
ment is accomplished by three methods: diffusion, squeez
ing, and c h an g e s in s w e l l i n g .
In a pulp suspension s om e liquid does not participate
in physical flow. There is a l w a y s s o me that is trapped
between fibers and in fiber v o id s . T he movement of this
liquid into the flowing liquid occurs by diffusion. These
20
molecules of dissolved solids move from areas of h i g h e r to
lower concentration. Although diffusion Is slow, It s i g
nificantly Increases with a temperature Increase. Bubbles
of foam, as a result of a ir entrainment, can Inhibit dif
f u s i o n a nd decrease the w a s h e r ' s overall efficiency. Al
tho ug h the g r e a t e s t degree of diffusion occurs In the di
lution stage, diffusion Is ongoing throughout the d r um
zones where there is a concentration gradient.
T r i n h a nd C r o t o g i n o (_L4) w o r k e d on d e t e r m i n i n g the
rate of d i f f u s i o n in the dilution stage. They did this by
measuring solute concentrations of a stirring p ul p slurry
o ve r time. The measurements were made after a pulp sample
was introduced to a t a n k of deionized wat er . Their re
sults w e re t e r m ed as three mass transfer processes: mix
ing, ra pi d d i f f u s i o n , and slow leaching. Mixing of the
wash f lu i d a n d the p u lp within the lumens and between the
pu lp fibers occurred very quickly. An equilibrium value
of s o lu te r em o va l from the fibers was reached in 3 to 8
s e co n ds in p ul p s having consistencies less t ha n 15%. A
s lo w leaching phase occurred beyond the two d a y limit of
their experiment.
Squeezing liquid o ut of the fiber cavity occurs above
18% fi be r c o n t e n t. This phenomenon is s e e n in w a s h e r
presses and in w a s h zones of continuous digesters. A
change in pH v a l u e s can result in f ib e r contraction d ue to
variations in fiber wall thickness as the outside
21
dimensions r e m a in constant. At h i gh pH v a l u e s the fiber
w a ll Is u s u a l l y the thickest. Contraction begins at pH
values l es s than 13.
Macro Washing
Macro washing is the removal of the b l a c k liquor from
the p ul p suspension. Extraction which consists of m i x i n g
and dewatering is one method of removing the li q uo r . The
other method is d i s p l a c e m e n t , where a solid is b e i n g sep
arated from a solid with minimum dilution. Ideally with
plug flow all of the liquid in a pulp mat would be re
placed exactly by the shower l iq u id . I ns t e a d , the laminar
flow results in a v e l o c i t y gradient in the p o re struc
tures, i.e. f lo w ra te s may be less at the w a l l of a pore
due to v i s c o u s drag. Mixing of shower and m at liquid, and
channeling also contributes to a less than i d e al plug
flow.
Channeling and Mixing
Foam can channel the wash liquid through the mat so
that all of the f i b e r s are not washed properly. Lee (13)
states that m i x i n g c an occur from diffusion, and channel
ing w h i c h is induced by local variations in p e r m e a b i l i t y .
When channeling exists, the a m o u n t of m i x i n g attributable
to d i f f u s i o n is n e g l i g i b l e . The primary control of chan
neling is a r e s ul t of the differences in d e n s i t y between
the shower liqui d a nd the m a t liquid. Ideally the dis
placed l i q ui d s h o ul d have a higher density than the dis
placing liquid. Therefore, in a c o n v e n t i o n a l d ru m w a sh e r,
the shower l iq ui d should have a lower specific gravity
than the mat liquid.
He s u g ge s ts a mobility ratio, which is the r at i o of
the displaced liquid's mobility to the displacing liquid's
mobility. Mobility is defined as a ratio of the m e d i u m ' s
permeability to the fluid's viscosity. Channeling is self
perpetuating with mobility ratios greater than 1 a nd sup
pressed with r a ti os l e ss t ha n 1. He also f ou n d that
traces of h i g h m o l e c u l a r weight polymers in w a s h liquor
can r ed uc e channeling. Channeling can also be reduced by
uniform pulp packing in the blow pit or d i f f u s er .
Solute Adsorption
Dissolved substances in the liquor are a d s o r b e d onto
the fibe rs depending on the wood species and the type of
s ol ut e and its concentration. T he rate at w h i c h a d s o r p
tion can o c c u r is controlled by the particular sorption
equilibrium. Work by Hartler a nd Rydin (Lj>) has shown
that the L a n g m u i r isotherm can describe sodium adsorption.
This isotherm is n o n l i n e a r ; a limiting value of the sub
stance adsorbed is approached as the liquor concentration
in cr e as e s. A schematic of a pulp suspension by G u l l i c h s e n
a nd Ostman (17) showing the displacement action on f i b e rs
Is sho wn in Fig. 4. The immobile closed volume repre
sents a portion on the f ib e r surface in w h i c h the sodium
is s o r b ed (bound).
It w as found by R o s e n (1_8) that the d e g r e e of sodium
adsorption is a function of pH, degree of cooking, a nd
wood s p e ci es . Fig. 5 shows that the a m o u n t of sorbed so
d iu m d e c r e a s e s with a reduction in pH. T he m e c h a n i s m for
this is d e s c r i b e d by two f u n c t i o n a l groups in the pulp:
the f ir s t dissociating at a pH a b o v e 3, a nd the second at
pH v a l u e s above 9. The first functional g ro up , which is
influenced by w o o d s pe ci es , is completely dissociated and
has no further capacity for s o r p t i o n of sodium ions at a
pH of 6 or 7. T h i s is a carboscillc group, which is
1 - F lo w C h a n n e l, 2 - Im m o b ile
C lo s e d V o lu m e, 3 - F i b e r S o li d
Fig. 4 Schematic of P u l p Suspension
present on b o t h the carbohydrate and lignin fractions.
T he second functional group, attributable to p h e n o l i c
hydroxyls on the l i g n i n portion in the pu l p , is n ot af
fected by k a p p a n u m b e r or w o o d s pe c i e s . In c o n t r a s t to
H a r t l e r a nd R y d i n ' s work, Rosen Indicates t h at d i s s o l v e d
Bodium concentration h as only a minor influence on the
sorbed sodium in the w a s h e d pulp. This indicates that
changes in w a s h w a t e r quantity s h ou l d not have an effect
on sorbed soda. Also, with higher kappa numbers and
softwoods i n st e ad of hardwoods, an increase in s o r b e d
s o d i u m was seen. Wash temperature had no effect on the
sorbed s o d i u m l o s se s in the pulp.
O 10 ppm < N a <250 ppm
a 250 ppm < Na < 1300 ppm
~ .30
2 20
to
o
£ 10
cc
o
CO
pH
Fig. 5 Effect of pH on Sorbed Sodium
Washing Efficiency
Coutercurrent Washing
The displacement of c o o k i n g liquor with water is the
objective of w a s h i n g . As explained by T o m i a k a nd Lauzon
(JL_9) , s i m p l e washing differs from countercurrent washing.
Simple washing involves the percolation of a f i x e d bed of
pulp with wash water. In contrast, countercurrent washing
is the m u l t i p l e exchange of solute from the p u l p to the
w a s h wat er . H e re the p u lp is getting progressively
cleaner in the d i r e c t i o n opposed to the shower liquid be
coming dirtier. Mathematical explanations consisting of
the t h e or y of miscible fl ui d displacement from porous me
d ia u se d to e x p l a i n simple filter cake washing cannot be
used with complex countercurrent pulp washing. A uniform
starting concentration in a f i x e d bed, which is not the
case in pulp washing, was the b as i s of d e r i v a t i o n for
these equations. This fundamental theory can explain a
washing stage, however problems arise in connecting stages
and in introducing recycle streams. As of y e t there is no
universal notation system for the c o m p l e x mathematical ex
planations of countercurrent pulp washers. In a d d i t i o n ,
terminology specific to the p a p e r industry instead of that
used in g e n e r a l filter cake washing, complicates matters.
Countercurrent washing can be a n a l y z e d by two
approaches: the direct application of p h y s i c a l models
which describe the w a s h i n g process, and the u se of "black
boxes" t ha t split a w a s h i n g process into blocks for system
analysis by f o rm al mathematical treatment. Fundamentally,
physical models are preferred, however t he y a r e complex
for stagewise operations.
Washing Models
Solute sorption can contribute significantly to a
mill's overall s al t cake l o ss e s . Recovery operations
generally recover from 95-99% of the initial Na SO, . T he

2 4-
amount which is lo st due to s o r p t i o n varies between oper
ations and therefore must be determined individually based
on e x p e r i m e n t a l extraction techniques. Hartler and Rydin
(16) explained that at low concentrations a desorption of
the solute can occu r, necessitating efficiency models in
corporating a Langrauir isotherm. Rosen (1J3) indicates
that at higher concentrations desorption does not oc cu r
and subsequently Tomiak and Lauzon (^9) state that only
displacement washing occurs a nd volumetric wash rat io s
will a p p ly . In a d d i t i o n , Phillips (2J3) s t a t e s that n ea r
the 99% recovery rate, sorption can be n e g l e c t e d . Accord
ing to C u l l i n a n (2_1) , m o d e l s which have provision for sol
ute sorption, are too complex for design u se or e f f i c i e n c y
de t e r m i n a t i o n s .
Physical washing models were grouped by N o r d e n and
Viljakainen (22) into three categories: microscopic,
P .M . C . (perfect mixing cells), and m a c r o s c o p i c . Micro
scopic models which generally entail adsorption isotherms,
describe the a x i a l dispersion in a f i b e r bed. P.M .C . mod
els take into a c c o u n t the n u m b e r of perfect mixing c e l ls
across the cake, and macroscopic models involve the e f f i
ciency of a w a s h i n g s y st e m . T he latter two m o d e l s rely on
empiricism based on c o n c e p t s of perfect stages. In the
very leas t, the n o n u n i v e r s a l treatment in developing meth
ods to d e s c r i b e a washing process can lead to c o n f u s i o n .
D i s p l a c e m e n t Ratio
Macroscopic models are of a general concern in m e a
suring a system's operating efficiency. Perkins, W e l s h,
a nd Mappus (2_3) introduced a method of m e a s u r i n g efficien
cy based on a displacement ratio. Perkins, e t al. defined
the displacement ratio as the actual reduction of soluble
solids across the shower zone of e a c h stage compared to
the maximum possible reduction. Mathematically this can
be stated:
Displacement Ratio (DR) = (Cv - Cm)/(Cv - Csh) (1)
The displacement ratio is calculated based on the dis
solved solids portions of the vat liquid (Cv), the mat
liquid through squeezings (Cm), and the shower liquid
(Csh). When all of the m a t liquid in the sheet is re
placed by s h o w e r l i qu i d , a displacement ratio of 1 is
I
28
attained, i.e. there is a m a x i m u m reduction in d i s s o l v e d
solids.
D R can also be e x p r e s s e d as the fraction of liquid in
the m at on a n y stage which is of the t ot a l shower o r ig i n .
This is s ee n as:
DR = Ws/Wp (2)
Us e q u al s the w e i g h t of shower liquid with the p u l p leav
ing the w a s h e r a nd Up equals the total weight of liquid
with the p ul p leaving the w a sh e r .
Perkins, et al. also arrived at a theoretical corre
lation between the d i s p l a c e m e n t ratio a nd the s h o w e r flow,
or d i l u t i o n f ac to r, based on the n u m b e r of showers as a
series of p e r f e c t mixings. It is s ta t e d :
Ws/Wp = 1 - ( ( n W p ) / ( n + 1 ) ( W p + D F ) )n (3)
As explained Ws/Wp is equivalent to the displacement r at i o
and DF is the dilution factor which is d e p e n d e n t on the
number of showers, n.
DF = (lbs shower llquid-lbs mat liquid)/o.d. lbs fiber (4)
The dilution factor remains constant throughout a counter-
current washing system and therefore can be calculated at
the end or at a n y intermediate st ep . From the d e f i n i t i o n
it is s e e n that a dilution factor of 0 exists when the
29
shower liquid and the m a t liquid weights are equal; there
fore It 18 possible to h a v e a negative dilution f ac to r .
Note that w h e n operating a system at equilibrium, differ
ent drum discharge consistencies do n o t change a system's
dilution fa ctor. Fi g s . 6 a nd 7 Illustrate the c o r r e l a t i o n
and the e f f e c t of m a t consistency and number of s h o w er s .
Empirical curves were generated resulting In the same
f o r m as the theoretical curves as shown In Fig. 8. This
Indicates that the s h o w e r ' s washing a c t i o n or dilution
factor Is a f u n c t i o n of the same form of the equation that
was d e r i v e d. Theoretical and empirical data do n o t f a ll
exactly on the same curves because a washing operation Is
not perfect In r e g a r d to d i l u t i o n s a nd extractions. Mix
ing, channeling, and entrainment create conditions other
than Ideal.
Because the displacement ratio appeared to be a func
tion of the dilution factor, Perkins et al. expressed this
relationship as a c o n s t a n t multiplied by the theoretical
equivalent of the d i s p l a c e m e n t ratio.
Ws/Wp = K( 1 - ( ( n W p ) / ( n + l ) ( W p + D F ) ) n ) (5)
K is an e m p i r i c a l displacement constant which is a f u n c
tion of the independent variables in a w a s h e r operation.
K would be u n i q u e for a pulp specie In a g i v e n w a s h e r un
der specific operating conditions.
NUMBER OF SHOWERS
— "fc n«3
-------------n»3
._ __ t= n -2
0.6
05
0.4
t a x B.D. CONSISTENCY
u
IE
S 02
4 -3 -2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
M O TIO N FACTOR, LBS. UQUOR/BO. LB. PULP
Fig. 6 Effect of S h o w e r s on DR
09
CONSISTENCY B.D.
o 0.8 - J- b d l B X
■5 = - l4%
| 0.7
+
c
0.6
0.5
0.4 NO. OF SHOWERS (n) • 5
0.3
-4
DILUTION FACTOR, LBS. UO UO R/aD . LB. PULP
Fig. 7 Effect of M a t Consistency on D R
1.0 STAGE 1
EMPIRICAL
0.8 THEORETICAL D.R.

STAGE 2
0.7
'"■“ STAGE 3
a6
£ 05
I 04
15% CONSISTENCY
0.1 NO. OF SHOWERS - 5
DILUTION FACTOR
Fig. 8 Perkins' Theoretical and Empirical DR as a

Function of DF
Norden Method
Another macro approach to w a s h e r efficiency is the
Norden Method. This method is defined by Norden
(24^ 25^, 26) as the n u m b e r of mixing stages In series with
complete mixing of overflow a nd underflow as seen in
Fig. 9, that i8 required to a c h i e v e the same overflow and
underflow as that d e p a r t i n g from an actual washing s t ag e.
The un derflow would be the w a s h e r fe e d , (p u l p slurry) a nd
the o v e r f l o w is the shower feed.
Fig. 9 Norden's Hashing System
A derivation by M i n e r (2_7) of the N o r d e n efficiency f a c t or
for a single stage, n, is as follows:
En = (In (Li (X i - Yo)/(Lo(Xo - Y i) ) ) / (In ( V i /L o ) ) (6 )
Li = flow rate of i n c o m i n g liquid
Vi = flow rate of s h o w e r liquid
Lo = flow rate of l i q u i d l e a v i n g w i t h the m a t
X * concentration of m a t er ial in L
Y = concentration of m a t e r i a l in V
1 = washer Inputs of feed liquid and s h o w e r water
o = washer outputs of e x c e s s filtrate and mat l i q u i d
Hash liquor ratio is introduced by N o r d e n in the
denominator of e q u a t i o n 6:
WLR - v - Vi/Lo (7)
This is a r a t i o of the wash liquid from the shower to the
liquid remaining in t he d e p a r t i n g mat. In c o n t r a s t to the
dilution factor, the w a s h liquor ratio (WLR) has no
negative v al ues. When the quantity of s h o w e r liquid
equals the l i q ui d In the mat, there is a W LR of 1 which
would be a DF of 0. The WLR is simply a ratio of l i qu i ds
without taking the fiber fraction Into account.
Normally a Norden number Is g e n e r a t e d f or an e n t i r e
washing system by simply adding up the e f f i c i e n c i e s for
each stage. For a given stage the d i s p l a c e m e n t ratio Is
analagous to the N o r d e n n u mb e r . However, the Norden meth
od does not segregate the operations of repulping, dilu
t io n or c r o s s c u r r e n t washing, (dilution and thickening),
on e a c h drum. Nlerman (28) states t ha t In e s t i m a t i n g ef
ficiencies for a s y s t e m , the N o r d e n efficiency was a fu
tile ef f or t . It a p p e a r s that the Norden method without
data adjustment is too sensitive to g et realistic r es u lt s
from a reasonable number of samples. Although the N o r d e n
number is n o t as straightforward as the displacement ra
tio, it can be simpler to use especially when comparing
equipment. Also, according to B a l d u s (^9), the Norden
number is n o t q ui t e as dependent on w a s h liquor ratio as
the displacement ratio is. He also states that under a
constant wash l i q uo r ratio the displacement ratio r e ma i ns
valid when the q u a l i t y of w a s h liquid changes under rea
sonable conditions.
Dimensionless M as s Transfer Coefficient
Culllnan (30) explained where studies should be
targeted to a v o i d the ongoing confusion In d i f f e r e n t
washer efficiency techniques. He defines three efficien
cies that are interrelated: the local , s t ag e , and over
all. The lo ca l efficiency Is directly related to the sep
aration (displacement) process. A stage efficiency Is
most useful in c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the p e r f o r m a n c e of a f i l t e r
stage. An o v e r a l l efficiency is a ratio of numbers of hy
pothetical to a c t u a l stages w i t h no detail about the pro
cess. The Norden method is e s e n t i a l l y an overall effi
ciency and the d i s p l a c e m e n t ratio is at the level of a l o
c al efficiency.
Through his derivations he concludes with the follow
i ng relationship of d i s p l a c e m e n t ratio to a l oc a l effi
ciency, where E = local efficiency a nd N = WLR:
Dl - 1 - e (-E N > (8)
His observation is t ha t the local efficiency is g o v e r n e d
by a dimensionless mass transfer coefficient. This value
for a l o c a l efficiency t h en dictates the st a ge a nd overall
efficiency. This relationship can be compared to P e r k i n s '
original theoretical equation if the number of showers is
altered to a m i x i n g parameter. Concurrent with Perkins'
statement on finding a constant for a given pulp, Cullinan
suggests st u di e s be focused on a dimensionless mass trans
f er c o e f f i c i e n t dependent on p u l p mat structure, the
Reynolds number in the w a s h zone, and the Schmidt number
35
of the solute.
Pore M od e l Concept
Klein (M) developed a pore model linking the d i s
placement ratio to the w a s h liquor rati o. He defined a
pulp m at as having pores with equal resistance to l i q u i d
flow. As seen in Fig. 10, with complete plug flow a wash
liquor ratio of 1 would give a displacement ratio of 1,
i.e. all the l i q u id in the pulp mat is displaced when the
volume of a p p l i e d shower liquid is equivalent to that in
the discharged mat. Because of viscous d r a g at the pore
walls, laminar flow results which limits the displacement
ratio f r om a t t a i n i n g 1. Therefore the shower liquid
breaks through the p o r e structure before the w a s h liquor
ratio equals 1. He c a l c u l a t e d a break through point to be
where WLR -0.5. A relationship was t h en calculated:
DR = W LR w h e n WLR < 0.5 (9)
DR = (1 -1/40) when WLR > 0.5 (10)
He then w e n t on to a s s i g n formation i n de x e s (FI):
D R = f(FI, WLR) (11)
When the q u a l i t y of mat formation declines, the p ul p
washing efficiency becomes p oo r . A mat with poor forma
t io n has pores with varying radii and lengths. This vari
ation results in p r e f e r e n t i a l flow through the larger
f Ideal plug flow displacement
Formation Index (FI) * 1.0
*o
FI -0 .5
FI - 0.05
0.5
ui
ui
CO
0.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
WASH LIQUOR RATIO, 0 , lb. shower water/lb. iiquor discharged
Fig. 10 Klein's D R as a Function of U LR for M at Formation
pores, and thus a d e c r e a s e in e f f i c i e n c y . A formation in
dex of 1 r e fe rs to a u n i f o r m pore structure in a mat, and
those less than 1 refer to l es s uniform structures. An
i n d e x of 1 then r e l a t e s to a p e r f e c t formation resulting
in a m a x i m u m DR for a g i v e n W L R . It is Interesting to
note that K l e i n ' s approach is similar in c o n c e p t to
Perkins' and Culllnan's. Klein is a l s o w o r k i n g w i t h a
constant, in his c a se the formation index.
Laboratory Simulation
One w ay of d e t e r m i n i n g a mass transfer coefficient or
37
constant Is through the generation of empirical data with
a laboratory apparatus. Unfortunately most of the labor
atory studies h a ve focused on solute adsorption. Grahs
(32) constructed a displacement cell consisting of a cyl
i n d e r and movable piston with the Intent of u n d e r s t a n d i n g
differences in the w a s h i n g of different substances f r om
the pulp. R y d i n (22) also e x p e r ime nte d with a piston a nd
cylinder. He was interested in d i s s o l v e d solids content
on p r e s s i n g . Pellett (34) worked with solute flow through
an unconsolidated b ed of p o r o u s particles (viscose yarns)
using a cylinder, piston, a nd a photometric system to d e
termine changes in solute concentration.
Most recently, Lee has worked with a laboratory appa
ratus to c h a r a c t e r i z e the displacement process (3J>) • A
diagram of his apparatus consisting of a c y l i n d e r and pis
ton is seen in Rig. 11. A water j a c k e t was used to k e e p
the s a m p l e s at t e m p e r a t u r e s of t ho s e in a mill. The fiber
pads w er e repeatedly compressed to a thickness of 2.54 cm
to a l l o w f or reproducible results. Subsequently, dis
til le d w a t e r was used under pressure from a piston to d i s
place the liquid from the fiber pad, with collection of
the d i s p l a c e d liquid from an outlet at the b o t t o m of the
pad. Washing was carried out under differing conditions
of temperature, permeation rate, a nd fiber concentration.
It a p p e a r s that his method of shower liquid applica
tion d o e s not accurately simulate a mill d r um w a s h e r .
Wash water
inlet
Bleed line
Water
jacket -
Permeable
septum — Permeable
piston
inlet outlet
Fig. 11 Lee's Laboratory Displacement Washer
Instead of showering followed by v a c u u m filtration, his
apparatus forces liquid through the m a t with a p is t o n .
The superficial shower velocities attained in his appara
tus ra ng e from 0.0072 to 0 . 0 7 5 cm/s where those in m i l l
conditions are 0.24 to 0.71 cm/s. M i ll conditions are
arrived at assuming a specific loading of 0 . 6 9 2 o.d.

2 2
t p d/ f t or 0.1 57 g/cm . Velocity values w er e calculated
w i t h an average m at consistency similar to L e e ' s of 10Z
and a dilution factor of 0. Lee's apparatus, however, is
useful in that it p r o v i d e s information about the effects
of some washer operating variables.
CHAPTER I II
DESIGN A ND METHODOLOGY
Construction of Laboratory Hasher
An apparatus was constructed to a l l o w f or the gener
ation of empirical data in the laboratory under mill oper
ating variables. This system simulates the w a s h i n g of
pulp through one revolution on the vacuum drum: i.e. m at
formation, extraction, shower with extraction, extraction,
a nd f in a l discharge. In Fig. 12 a cross section of a d ru m
o p e r a t i n g at 3 rpm is show n. Residence times and the c o r
responding area for e a c h z on e are listed. The laboratory
washer presented here is o p e r a t e d w i t h similar zon es as
shown in Fig. 12, t a k i ng i nt o account the times and a re a s
and other necessary operating data. This apparatus can be
set up d i f f e r e n t l y to respond to z on e changes s ee n in o t h
er w a s h e r s at different loadings, dilutions, s pe e d s , temp
eratures, and vacuum le v el s .
In g e n e ra l , the laboratory washer consists of a
Buchner f un nel, a shower hea d, and a 2 L vacuum flask.
T he pulp is w a s h e d on the B u c h n e r by the shower head and
the f i l t r at e is c o l l e c t e d in the flask (see Fig. 13).
A shower head capable of throwing a 5 in. diameter
circular fan at a 6 in. distance from the p ul p mat surface
39
[
4-0
13
Vat F ee d
Diameter - 11.5 ft Width - 16.0 ft
Sections Residence at 3 RPM Circumference Area
1-6 Sheet Formation 7.50 8 13.55 ft 2 16 . 8 f

With Vacuum
7-8 E x t r a c t i o n 2.50 8 4.52 ft 72.3 f
With Vacuum
9-11 D i s p l a c e m e n t 3.75 8 6.77 ft 10 8. 4 f
With Vacuum
12- 14 R e e x t r a c t i o n 3.75 8 6.77 ft 10 8. 4 f
With Vacuum
15-16 Sh eet Discharge 2.50 8 4.52 ft 72.3 f
No V a cuum
Fig. 12 C ro s s Sectional Z on e s of a Vacuum Drum
41
I. ,
f -- -
A - Battery I - Buchner Funnel Q Laboratory Heater

B - Relays J - Vacuum Flask R V at S a m p l e
C - Ou tp u t Terminal K - Ring Stand S Shower Circuit
D - Computer L - Vacuum Solenoid T Vacuum Circuit
E - V a cuu m Pump M - Nitrogen Tank U V a cuum Line
F - Show er Solenoid N - Pr essure Gauge V Shower Line
G - Shower Head 0 - Shower Cylinder U N i t r o g e n L i ne
H - Buchner Spacer P - Uater Bath X P r e s s u r e Line
Fig. 13 Laboratory Vacuum Drum Brownstock Hasher
42
Is s w i t c h e d by an e l e c t r i c a l l y operated solenoid. Shower
flow rate is a l t e r e d by a pressure change on the s h o w e r
l i qu id which is h o u s e d in a n acrylic cylinder. T he pres
sure gradient is regulated by a cylinder of n i t r o g e n and
monitored by an e x t e r n a l pressure gauge.
T he Buchner f u nn e l , measuring 5-1/2 in. OD and 5 in.
ID is u s e d to s i m u l a t e the vat and drum s u r f ac e. A plas
tic insert can be p l a c e d inside the funnel to a l l o w for
Increased volumes of v a t s a mp l e . Inside the funnel a 5
in. diameter 10 x 10 metal wire mesh screen is p l a c e d fol
lowed by a 5 in. diameter 32 x 32 plastic mesh screen.
The w ir e mesh is u s e d to raise the p l a s t i c mesh off of the
Buchner filter hol e s, thus decreasing the possibility of
irregular f lo w p a t t e r n s such as channeling. T he plastic
mesh serves as the filtering m e di a , as seen on a v a c u u m
d r u m w as he r.
A vacuum pump is connected to a v a c u u m flask through
a similar solenoid which regulates the on/off f u nc ti on .
Vacuum levels are changed by simply changing the p u m p ' s
v a c uum. A quick connect on the vacuum line allows easy
removal of the f l a s k a nd funnel f or a n a l y s i s after a run.
T he shower head, Buchner f u nn e l, vacuum flask, and
solenoids are all m o u n t e d on a ring s t an d. T he acrylic
cylinder, ( sh ow e r reservoir), a nd v at sample a re m a i n
tain e d at operating temperatures in a 25 gallon galvanized
tub by a c i r c u l a t i n g laboratory heater. Shower liquid is
pumped throug h a fill valve into the shower reservoir by a
peristaltic pump. The water bath tub, and the shower line
running from the reservoir to the shower head, are insu
l at e d w i t h bubble pack.
A 12 V b a t t e r y is used to supply the current in the
circuits between the solenoids and the electromagnetic
relays. The relays operate the solenoids in response to
output from the computer. A computer is u s e d as a ti m e r
in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h an internal data translation board and
an externa l input/output terminal board which s en d s the
signal to the r e lays. The computer's software consists of
a file creator and a laboratory input/output data manager.
The shower f l ow rate is controlled by regulating the
gas pressure on the w a s h fluid. Flow rates must be cali
brated over several ranges of p r e s s u r e f or d i f f e r e n t sys
tems, because different liquids have different flow prop
e r t i e s. In turn, the shower remains on for a l e n g t h of
time, by the computer controlled solenoid, to simulate the
zone time the pulp is w a s h e d on a vacuum drum. Likewise,
a vacuum is pulled through the pulp mat for the zone times
necessary to s i m u l a t e a drum vacuum. T he vacuum and res
ervoir pressure are always on, however the inline solen
oids allow for designated open and closure of the line
flows. Solenoid operation may be controlled for a l l prac
tical purposes to 0 . 1 0 s, however possible l ag t i me s s u ch
as evacuation of the Buchner and filling of the shower
h ea d must be considered.
Initially an industrial shower head was u se d as a
showering device. Flow problems were encountered w i th
the head until a drilled aluminum plate was inserted in
the head followed by a packing of teflon boiling beads.
Prior to a c t u a l testing of the apparatus, the shower head
was calibrated with approximately 0% dissolved solids wa
ter. This worked f i ne for the NaCl tracer run o p e r a t i n g
at n e ar 0% dissolved solids in the shower l iq uid. How
ever, the introduction of 6% d i s s o l v e d solids black liquor
shower liquid in the mock mill run, resulted in an uneven
flow distribution a nd a delay in s t a r t - u p , and drainage
after the h e ad was shut off. In response, a small lawn
sprinkler head, which gave the required f l ow distribu
tions, was acquired and calibrated for approximately 0%
water and 6% b l a c k liquor dissolved s ol i ds . Calibration
curves for both shower heads are in A p p e n d i x 1.
Setting up the Laboratory Washer
Software files particular to a s p e c i f i c d r u m are
created for control of the vacuum and shower s o le n o i d s .
These files are c r e a t e d with regard to the operating zones
shown in Fig. 12. For example, the drum in Fig. 12 o p e r
ating at 3 rpm w o u l d have two fi le s created, one for the
shower a nd one for the vacuum, both 20 s long. The show
er file would be set up to trigger the shower solenoid to
open after a 10 s d e l ay . The solenoid would then remain
open for 3.8 s, and t h en close for the remaining 6.2 s.
The vacuum f il e would be c o n s t r u c t e d so that the v a c u u m
solenoid would open for the first 17.5 s and shut o ff for
the last 2.5 s.
Once a loading for a mill washer has been selected,
the correct loading f or the a p p a r a t u s c an be determined.
For example, a mill operating at a specific loading of

2 2
400 o.d. tpd/578 ft or 0.692 o.d. tpd/ft , similar to
2
Fig. 12, would have 0.3204 lbs/ft of oven dry pulp. In
comparison, the B u c h n e r w i t h a 5 in. ID has an a r e a of

2
0.1364 ft . At a similar loading to the mill drum, the
2 2
Buchner would n ee d 0.3204 lbs/ft x 0.1364 ft or 0 . 0 4 3 7
lbs or 19. 82 g of o.d. pulp. Operating at a desired vat
consistency of 2%, this translates to 991 g of a pulp
slurry needed for one run a t conditions noted.
Shower flows a re set up based on an estimate of
expected m at discharge consistency. For example, a mat
having a consistency of 1 8 . 25 % with a similar loading of
19 . 82 o.d. g of pulp would consist of 108 .6 g (19.82 o.d.
g/18.25%) of f i be r, dissolved solids, a nd w a t er . If the
s h o w e r was operating at a dilution factor of 2, a back
calculation would give the a m o u n t of w a s h liquid n e ed e d ,
X. Following is a n e x a m p l e which shows the c a l c u l a t i o n of
X to be e q u a l to 128.42 g.
46
DF = 2 = X g w a s h liquid - ( 1 0 8. 6 g fiber, dissolved
s ol i ds , and water - 1 9. 8 2 g o.d. fiber)/19.82 g o.d. f ib e r
The shower reservoir's pressure and computer file would
then be s et up to s u p p l y 128.42 g of shower liquid over a
designated zone time. If the shower zone time was 3.8 s,
then 1 28 . 4 2 g/3.8 s = approximately 33.8 ml/s. Therefore,
the p r e s s u r e would be adjusted to the a m o u n t necessary to
supply this flow. N ot e that the amount calculated for
dilution is a w e i g h t and that calibrated with the shower
is a v o l u me . In the testing of the a p p a r a t u s with the
NaCl tracer run, a direct g to ml conversion was made
because tap w a t e r w as used as the shower l i qu i d . However,
in the mock mill and mill simulation runs, specific grav
it i es were considered a nd a correction was made.
Operating Procedure
T he cylinder filled with shower liquid is p l a c e d into
the w a t e r bath. A 20 L bucket containing the vat s a m p le
is a l s o placed in the bath and t he y a re both brought to
the d e s i r e d operating temperature.
B o th the s h o w e r a nd vacuum fil es are set up a c c o r d i n g
to p a r t i c u l a r run specifications. The shower is tested at
the desired pressure to see if the correct dilution factor
has been obtained based on the a p p r o x i m a t e d m at discharge
consistency. The a m o u n t of vat pulp needed has been
determined for a g i v e n loading, and a tared 1 L beaker
and tri pl e beam balance have been prepared for that
w ei g ht .
T he vacuum pump is turned on a n d adjusted for the
correct v ac uu m. Next, the computer program is b r o u g h t to
a point where the "enter" key w i l l trigger the w a s h i n g
cycle. A spatula is u s e d to s t i r the vat p ul p thoroughly
to a c h i e v e a representative s am pl e. Using a plastic bea
ker, approximately 1 L of vat pulp is scooped out of the
c o n t a i n e r a nd poured into the t ar e d glass beaker until the
desired weight is obtained.
By triggering the shower solenoid, 10 to 20 ml of
shower liquid is w a s t e d to a b e a k e r to remove cooled f lu id
in the line. The flask a nd funnel with insert are quickly
moved o nt o the r in g stand and connected to the v a c u u m sol
enoid. The v at p u l p is poured into the funnel and the
computer is triggered to Initiate the c yc le . Note that
the vat sample does not drain excessively o ut of the fun
nel prior to the start of the cycle because the f l a s k is
airtight.
When the c y cl e is finished the flask and b e a k e r a re
disconnected, and the pulp pad is removed with a spatula
f r om the B uc hner. T he plastic mesh screen is peeled off
of the fi b e r pad, and t he n the pad is w e i g h e d on a top
loading scale. The pad is then placed in a r e c l o s e a b l e
plastic bag a nd labeled f or analysis. In a d d i t i o n , the
48
filtrate is thoroughly mixed a nd a 250 ml sample is ob
tained, covered, and labeled. Analyses of these samples
are done when the rest of the runs have been completed.
Samples are refrigerated if a n a l y s i s is n o t completed the
same day.
Sample Analysis
The p u lp mats are squeezed to o b t a i n a sample of the
mat liquor in a b e a k e r . This squeezing is a c c o m p l i s h e d by
hand with a v in y l medical glove. It is important to n ot e
that the w a s h i n g efficiency obtained using the m at liquor
dissolved s o li d s amount, is a f u n c t i o n of h ow one m e a s u r e s
washer l os s e s . For example, use of the squeezing tech
nique is variable among and between operators, dependent
on the h a n d pressure exerted in o b t a i n i n g a l i q u o r s am pl e.
In this study, all squeezings were performed by the same
operator with maximum pressure exerted.
The squeezed mat is then diluted in a 2 L b e a k e r with
distilled water and mixed with a lab mixer for 15 min.
The m ix e d pulp is t h en filtered on a f i l t e r p a p e r in a 6
in. Buchner funnel a nd continually washed with distilled
water until a conductance reading of less than 40 uv is
obtained. This value is comparable to a p p r o x i m a t e l y
0.002% remaining dissolved solids in the pulp. The washed
pulp mat is then d r i e d with the filter paper on a tin for
24 h in a d r y i n g oven at 105°C and then removed and
w ei g h ed . Subtracting the w e i g h t of the filter paper and
tin r e su l t s in the w e i g h t of pulp only.
The m at liquor sample is filtered at 12 in. Hg vacuum
through a Whatman 934-AH filter using a Millipore to re
move suspended s ol ids. A ny fiber that accumulates on the
filter is returned to the stirring p u lp sample. Also, the
filtrate sample is filtered to remove suspended s ol id s. A
dissolved solids analysis on the filtered ma t liquor and
filtrate samples a re run separately. Two dissolved so li d s
tests were performed on all samples except in the case of
the m il l washer simulation where 3 dissolved solids were
run w h e n possible. These samples were dried in tins for
24 h and then w e i g h e d . An a v e r a g e of the dissolved s o l i ds
run for a p a r t i c u l a r sample was used in f u r t h e r calcula
tions .
Pipeted 20 ml liquid samples were u s ed for dissolved
s ol id s analysis of the N a C l tracer runs and drums 2 and 3
of the m o c k mill runs. These samples resulted in a g/L
f i g ur e w h i c h was directly converted i nt o a p e r c e n t . It
was determined that this direct conversion did n ot m ak e a
significant difference in the displacement ratio. Howev
er, a weight ba si s yielding a direct percent was used for
d r um 1 of the mock mill run, and all of the m i l l washer
simulations. This is a c c o m p l i s h e d by w e i g h i n g a sample of
filtered liquor in a tin, drying it, a nd w e i g h i n g it a g a i n
to d e t e r m i n e content. This method was employed for ease,
an d a l s o to a v o i d any future discrepancy problems that
might occur with high dissolved solids liquor content, in
converting g /L to p e r c e n t .
Testing the Laboratory Washer
Two sets of te st s were performed to a n a l y z e the w a s h
er's operation: a NaCl tracer run a nd a mock m il l simula
tion run. T he NaCl r un w as performed to see if the appa
ratus was workable a nd could produce reproducible results
i.e. did the results indicate expected displacements as a
function of dilution changes. A mock mill simulation was
run to determine if the w a s h e r could produce expected re
sults under varying conditions as th o se s ee n on a three
s ta g e washer syBtem in a mill.
The NaCl tracer r un was set up based on a 11.5 ft x
16 ft w a s h e r operating with a load of 400 o.d. tpd at 3
rpm. An 8 L diluted blow p it p ul p sample f r om an inte
grated kraft mill was obtained and analyzed by the a b o v e
methods which resulted in the following c o nt e n t s : 4. 2 7%
fiber, 1.5 9% dissolved solids, and 94.14% wa te r . This
sample was then d i l u t e d with sufficient amounts of dis
tilled water and Na Cl , acting as a dissolved solids tra
cer, to a r r i v e at the following approximate contents: 2%
fiber, and 10% d i s s o l v e d solids. The sample was prepared
in this manner so t ha t w a s h a b i l i t y of the a p p a r a t u s at
different dilutions on a h i g h dissolved solids sample
c ou l d be e x a m i n e d .
Vacuum l e v e ls were set at 12 in. Hg, and vat and
shower temperatures were set at 66°C. Tap water with
0.023% dissolved solids was used as shower liquid at
three target dilution factors; -1, 2, and 5. According
to S t e e l and Torrie's (3j>) s t a t i s t i c a l procedures for
randomization, four runs for e a c h dilution factor were
randomly performed. Dilutions were based on an approxi
mate mat fiber content of 18.25% determined from previous
testing on pulp at 12 in. Hg v a c u u m l ev el s.
The m o c k m i ll simulation was also based on 11.5 ft x
16 ft w a s h e r w i t h a 4 00 o.d. tpd load operating at 3 rpm.
Samples were obtained f r o m an Integrated kraft mill oper
ating with a pulp f ee d of h a r d w o o d s , 40% dense (oak) and
the remainder p op la r, to a c o n t i n u o u s digester. A 40 L
sample of diluted blow pit p u l p a nd a 40 L s a m p l e of black
liquor evaporator f e ed w e re analyzed and mixed as required
to g iv e representative samples of v at p ul p a nd shower liq
uid for th re e s t a g es of a m i ll vacuum drum s y stem. Ini
tial a n a l y s i s of the blow pit pulp contained approximately
4.7% fiber , 4.0% dissolved s o li d s , and 91.3% water. The
heavy dissolved solids evaporator feed contained approxi
mately 17% dissolved solids.
Three runs were randomly performed for e a c h stage at
the f o l l o w i n g dilution factors: -1, 3, and 7. In
addition, where supplies allowed, extra runs were per
fo r me d . Dilution factors f or drums 1 and 2 were based on
a mat consistency of 16.4% and drum 3 was based on 18.0%.
Because of the h i g h e r specific gravity of high dissolved
solids shower l i q ui d o v e r water, a correction for v o l u m e
to w e i g h t was made for drums 1 and 2. This is necessary
because the s h o w er flows a re recorded as ml's and the dis
placement ratio is obtained from g's. Therefore, more er
ror occurs in a d i r e c t conversion from ml to g in h i g h e r
specific gravity shower liquids. A volumetric weight cor
rection of the s h o w e r liquid w as determined f or drum 1 to
be 1 .0 2 4 g/ral and for drum 2, 1.008g/ml. No correction
for drum 3 was necessary, as tap water was used as the
shower l iq ui d. Approximate run conditions for each d ru m
are in T a b l e 2.
Table 2
Run C o n d i t i o n s - - M o c k Mill Run
Drum 1 Drum 2 Drum 3
Vat F i b e r (%) 2 . 23 2.37 1.95

Vat D i s s o l v e d S o li ds (%) 11.19 5.07 1.75
S h o w e r D i s s o l v e d S o l i d s (%) 5.81 2.06 0.024
V a c u u m (in. Hg)
S h o w e r L i q u i d pH
Vat P u l p pH
12
12.4
12.9
10
11.8 —
10
—
12.3
S h o w e r L i q u i d °C 70 71 72
Vat P u l p °C 62 67 65
53
Mill Washer Simulation
The i n t en t of this simulation was to d e t e r m i n e if the
lab w a s h e r could generate similar results as s ee n on a
full scale w as h er . Inputs f or the lab w a s h e r w e r e actual
vat a nd shower samples off of a mill washer. The lab
washer ou tp ut s, m a t a nd filtrate samples, could then be
compared to s a mp l e s of m a t a nd filtrate from the m il l
washer ta ke n at times coinciding with the vat and shower
s am p li n g .
Sampling for this w a s done at the s a me mill that
donated the s a m p l es f or the m o c k m i l l runs. Each drum in
the three drum I mp c o washer system measured 9-1/2 ft in
diameter by 16 ft wi de , a n d w as operating at a loading of
318.6 o.d. tpd a nd a dilution of 5 6 0 gpm. Operating con
ditions at the time of sampling a re shown in T a b l e 3.
The s a m p l es we re taken continuously over a 1 -1 / 2 h
period. F or each stage, 4 sets of 20 L s a m p l e s were col
lected resulting in 12 sets of samples to be run through
the s i m u l at o r.
Table 3
Impco Vacuum Drum Operating Conditions
Vacuum (in. Hg) RPM Shower °C V a t ®C
D r um 1 4 5.5 46 66
Dr um 2 16 5.0 46 46
Drum 3 8 6.0 63 46
One sampling time consisted of Initially getting vat
samp l e s In the o r d e r of drum 1 through 3. These samples
were pumped Into large sample buckets by using a Guzzler
pump Immersed In the vat. Next, the mat samples were
tak en a b o u t 1/3 of the w ay In on the discharge side of
each drum with a l ar g e wooden paddle. This was also done
In the o r d e r of d r u m 1 to d r u m 3. These samples were dou
ble bagged in recloseable plastic bags. Although, indi
cated by S e r v i c e and S e y m o u r (^7), it Is desireable to o b
tain a m a t sample across the drum surface to rule out
problems with nonuniform sampling; in this application it
was physically impossible. A third s t ag e shower sample
was then put in a s a m p l e bucket. Filtrate from each
d ru m' s filtrate t a nk in the order of d ru m 1 to 3 was also
sampled and put in p l a s t i c buckets. Samples of shower
liquid from drum 1 and 2 could not be o b t a i n e d , therefore
filtrates from f i l t r a t e ta nk s 2 and 3 were substituted.
Sampling immediately restarted using the same technique
after completion of one sampling time.
A preliminary analysis of the sampled vats, mats,
filtrates, and drum 3 shower liquid was then completed.
According to the sample analysis procedures, one set of
tests was performed for each of the s a m p le s . Run condi
tions of the m il l drums became the conditions that w e re
used for each lab run. For example, a lab dilution factor
was calculated based on mill loadings and shower flow, and
mat fiber concentration in the mill f or that d r um a nd
time. The software f or vacuum and shower o p e r a t i o n was
s e t up for e ac h drum based on rpm a nd the w a s h i n g z on e s as
seen in Fig. 12. A volumetric weight correction for lab
shower f lo w s for e a c h drum w as calculated similarly as in
the m o c k m i l l run. They ar e 1. 01 1 g/ml, 0.995 g/ml, and
0.980 g/ml for dr u ms 1, 2, and 3 respectively.
Three laboratory runs were performed for each mill
s a mp l e time and drum. This amounts to 36 runs in total,
3 e a ch for the 4 ti me s seen on e a c h of the 3 drums. Addi
t i o na l specific conditions f or each s et of runs are in T a
b le 4.
Table 4
Lab W a s h e r Conditions f or S i m u l a t i o n
Drum/Time V a t °C Shower Vat pH Shower pH
62 62 13.3 12.8
1/2 62 62 13.4 12.8
1/3 62 62 13.6 13. 1
1/4 61 62 13.7 13. 1
2/1 58 46 12.8 11.8
2/2 52 52 13.0 12.0
2/3 50 52 13.0 12.0
2/4 48 52 13.0 12.0
3/1 62 62 11.8 7.4
3/2 62 62 11.8 7.4
3/3 60 63 12 .0 6.8
3/4 57 63 11.9 7.4
The significant data, (DR, DF, a nd WLR), obtained for
the three runs for e a c h time w a s then a v e r a g e d so a r e s u l
tant c o m p a r i s o n over 4 times f or each drum could be made.
The averaging was done only on data t h at p a s s e d a n A S TM
(38) outlier test at a 95% confidence level. This permits
the removal of any gross deviations in lab d at a points
that should n ot be used in comparison against mill d a ta in
the a s s e s s m e n t of the laboratory washer.
CHAPTER IV
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
Introduction
A dissolved solids analysis was c h o s e n as an Indica
tor of both dissolved organic and Inorganic material In a
fraction of liquid. This method was chosen because It Is
a measure of the t ot a l material In s o l u t i o n . Other meth
ods, such as measuring the conductivity of sodium Ions,
necessitate a correlation to the total dissolved s ol ids.
A material balance was completed for all tests run
through the lab w a s h e r . The following components were
known: m at w e i g h t a nd content, shower weight and content,
filtrate c o n te n t, and vat weight. Using this Information,
a back calculation was made to g i v e the a c t u a l Initial
conditions of the v a t for a particular run. This was done
because the assumption that vat samples from one container
over a set of runs are uniform, is e r r o n e o u s . During the
course of a run e v a p o r a t i o n occurs in the container,
which results in d i f f e r e n t consistencies. Also, each vat
sample scooped from the container does not result in the
same proportions of contents. The actual dilution factors
were calculated based on the a c t u a l fiber m at contents.
A displacement efficiency rating, displacement ratio,
57
and a m e a s u r e of dilution, wash liquor ratio, were calcu
lated so that a comparison of r e su l t s could be made. The
displacement ra t io w as chosen because it gives a straight-
f or w a r d indication of the physical processes occurring
during vacuum drum washing. Wash liquor rat io is u s e d be
cause it w o r k s well with displacement ratio in d e s c r i b i n g
their relationship. As explained, with complete plug flow
in a d i s p l a c e m e n t process, a wash liquor ra ti o of 1 would
yi e ld a displacement ratio of 1.
No te that w h e n calculating a displacement ratio, it
is b a s ed on the dissolved solids of the l iq ui d fraction
only and n ot the total fraction. Basing dissolved solids
on the total fraction, inclusive of fiber, decreases the
dissolved solids content, and is n o t permitted with
Perkins" definition of displacement ratio.
In a d d i t i o n to d e t e r m i n i n g the workability of the lab
w as h er , the likelihood of generating system constants from
the relationship of d i s p l a c e m e n t ratio and w as h l i q u o r ra
tio was examined. As previously discussed, Cullinan"s re
lationship is as f ol lo w s:
DR - 1 - e (-EN) or DR - 1 - .<-*<«*» U2,
A system constant governing the local efficiency, E, is
represented by k. N simply represents the w a s h l i q u o r
ratio.
Rearrangement of equation 12 y i e l d s the following
59
expression:
LN (1 - DR) = -k (WLR) (13)
This equation can be compared to the m o r e familiar equa
tion for a line, Y = MX + B. In this case LN (1 - DR)
would be e q u i v a l e n t to Y, the y-coordinate. WLR compared
to X, would be the x-coordinate. M, or the slope of the
line is c o m p a r a b l e to the constant, -k. In this case,
there is no B term, or y - i n t e r c e p t , because in the case of
DR a p p r o a c h i n g 0, the normalized expression of DR w o u l d be
0.
Therefore, equation 13 c a n be used as an a t t e m p t to
evaluate a system's relationship between displacement
ra t io and wash liquor ratio. The sl op e of the line, -k
would become a system constant dependent on the variables
discussed by Perkins and Cullinan. This constant could
explain h ow a d i s p l a c e m e n t ratio behaves as a function of
wash liquor r at i o for a specific pulp under specific wash
ing c o n d i t i o n s .
Dissolved solids analyses of all runs, i.e., the NaCl
tracer run, the mock mill run, and the m il l washer simula
tion a re in A p p e n d i x B. A material balance summary for
the N a C l tracer runs is in A p p e n d i x C. Appendix D in
c l u de s material balance summaries for d ru m s 1, 2, and 3 of
the m o c k m i l l runs. Material balance summaries of b o t h
m i ll a n d lab data for drums 1, 2, and 3 of the mill washer
I
6o
simulation are included in A p p e n d i x E.
N a Cl Tracer R un
The results for the N aC l tracer r un a r e in Figs. 14
and 15. Fig. 14 is a p l o t of the relationship, displace
ment ratio as a f u n c t i o n of w a s h liquor ratio, and Fig.
15 is an a t t e m p t to e x p l a i n their relationship with a
system c o n s t a nt . T he least squares linear regression is
Y = -0.038 -1.2 X. This equation has an F-value of 4 7 3 . 3
a nd a c r i t i c a l value of 4.93 at 9 5 % confidence.
Mock M il l Run
Figs. 16-18 illustrate the relationship between dis
placement ra t io and wash liquor ratio for d r u m s 1, 2, and
3 of the m o c k mill run. Equations of the lines for drums
1, 2, and 3 were obtained as a result of the p lo t s in
Figs. 19-21. A summary of all d ru m s indicating displace
ment ratio as a function of w a s h liquor ratio is in Fig.
22. Fig. 23 is an a t t e m p t to e x p l a i n the ir relationship
w i th a system constant. A summarized system constant for
those WL R 's less than 2.0 is shown in Fig. 24. T he equa
tions for these l in e s and th ei r level of significance at a
95% confidence level are in T a b l e 5.
NaCl TRACER RUN

Displacement Ratio vs Wash Liquor Ratio
0.9 -
0.8 - CP
0.7 -
0.6 -
0 .5 -
0.4 -
0.3 -
0.2 -
Ideal Plug Flow
Displacement
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Wash Liquor Ratio

Fig. 14 NaCl Tracer Run DR as a Function of W L R
NaCl TRACER RUN

LN(1—DR) vs Wash Liquor Ratio
- 0.1 038 1.2X

- 0.2 -
-0 .3 -
-0 .4 -
-0 .5 -
- 0.6 -
-0 .7 -
- 0.8 -
a -0 .9 -
-1 -
- 1.1 -
-1 .3 -
-1 .4 -
-1 .5 -
- 1.6 -
-1 .7 -
-1 .9
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Wash Liquor Ratio

Fig. 15 NaCl Tracer Run L N ( 1-DR) as a Function of W LR
ON
M
MOCK MILL RUN - DRUM 1

0.9 -
0.8 -
0.7
0.6 -
0.5 -
0.4 -
0.3 -
0.2 -
Ideal Plug Flow
Displacement
0.1
0 2 3 4
Wash Liquor Ratio
Fig. 16 Mock Mill Run, Drum 1 DR as a Function of W L R


0.9 -
0.8 -
0.7 -
0.6 -
0.5 -
0.4 -
0.3 -
0.2 -
Ideal Plug Flow
Displacement
0.1
0 1 2 3 4
Wash Liquor Ratio
Fig. 17 Mock Mill Run, Drum 2 DR as a Function of W LR

CD
TD
O
Q.
C
o
CD
Q.

0.9 -
0.8 -
0.7 -
s0c 0.6 -
c
V
E 0.5 -
V
u
o
a 0.4 -
m
S
0.3 -
0.2 -
Ideal Plug Flow
Displacement
0.1
0 2 3 4
Wash Liquor Ratio
Fig. 18 Mock Mill Run, Drum 3 DR as a Function of W L R

66
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OL £ B
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CM ^ (O CO T- CM •vf to CO CM CM
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a
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DRUM
pvi
Liquor Ratio
CO
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O- v-'
RUN
LN(1—DR) vs Wash
- CM
cr
ca
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MILL
5 3
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00 3
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Od
vo £ Od
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DRUM
Liquor Ratio
m
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oi
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LN(1—DR) vs Wash
9
cr
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s OS
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oo
■H
Pm
10 oo cv ID oo
( ya - L) N i
MOCK MILL RUN - ALL DRUMS

0.9 -
0.8 -
0.7 -
o 0.6
tr -
•M
c
V
E 0 .5 -
V
U
O
a 0 .4 -
n
0.3 -
0.2 -
Ideal Plug Flow
Displacement
□ Drum 1
+ Drum 2
O Drum 3
0 1 2 3 4
Wash Liquor Ratio
Fig. 22 Mock Mill Run, All Drums DR as a Function of W L R

70
6
O
GO O
c
9
ZD
OZ
O CO
CQ
OS
Q
< I
cr
QZ Z
L. ^
o
D
o* co
'-j e
ZD
« 2
QZ o a
5
vo c
fO 3
OS
o fNJ
vo £ OS
►J
O
O « -t
£ O
tn
CM
DO
0*
cm ■cl; co oo t- CM M; to 00 CM CM
d 0 d 0 I ^ I CM
I 1 I 1 I 7 I
(aa-ONi
MOCK MILL RUN - ALL DRUMS

LN(1 —DR) vs Wash Liquor Ratio
Y = -.275 656X
-0.2 H For WLR's Less Than 2.0
-0.4 H
-0.6 H
-0.8 H
EC
Q -1
I
-1 .2 H
-1 .4 H
-1.6 H
-1 .8 H
□ Drum 1
-2 H + Drum 2
O Drum 3
- 2.2
0 2 3 4
Wash Liquor Ratio

Fig. 24 M o c k M i l l Run, A l l D r u m s LN(l-DR) as a Function
of W L R ' 8 L e s s T h a n 2 . 0 -o
H*
Table 5
Regression Equations for M o c k M il l Run
D ru m Equation F-Value Critical Value
1 Y _ -0.698 - 0 .2 5 6 X 10.2 5.12

2 Y = -0.665 - 0 .3 8 6 X 24.9 4.96
3 Y = -0.416 - 0. 55 2 X 2 13 . 4 5.59
SUM Y = -0.620 - 0.367 X 61.6 4.17
*SUM Y = -0.275 - 0.656 X 144.2 4.38
* For WLR' s less t h an 2.0.
All data that was generated from the laboratory wash
er was u se d in the r e s ul t s. None of the d a ta had to be
rejected as a result of the outlier test previously men
tioned. There were no tests of the displacement ratio,
wa sh liquor ratio relationship in forming system constants
for this simulation, because the m il l wash liquor r a ti o s
encompassed o nl y a small range.
A comparison of the lab displacement rati os and the
mill displacement ratios and a corrected version a re seen
in Figs. 25 and 26. In T a b l e 6, a t - t e s t at a 95% confi
dence le ve l compares lab and mill displacement ratios.
Those tests which a re significant, indicate the m e a n s are
not e q u a l at this leve l. Therefore, the nonsignificant
tests suggest that the m e a n s m ay not be d i ff e r e n t .
MILL WASHER SIMULATION

Lab DR vs Mill DR
0.9 -
0.8 -
0.7 -
o
£
V 0.6 -
C
o
E
o 0 .5 -
u
o
a
n
0 .4 -
JD
o
_l 0 .3 -
Equivalence Line
0.2 -
□ Drum 1
0.1 + Drum 2
O Drum 3
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Mill Displacement Ratio
Fig. 25 Mill Washer Simulation Comparison of L a b and
Mill DR's
-v3
V jO
MILL WASHER SIMULATION

Corrected Lab DR vs Mil! DR
0.9 -
0.8 -
o
K
*> 0.7 -
ct>
E
e 0.6 -
u
o
a.
m 0.5 -
a
•Q
o
0.4- -
TJ
*V>
U 0.3 -
£
u
0
O Equivalence Line
0.2 ~
□ Drum 1
0.1 + Drum 2
O Drum 3
0 0.2 0 .4 0.6 0.8 1.
Mill Displacement Ratio

Fig. 26 Mill Washer Simulation Comparison of Corrected
L a b a nd M i l l D R ' s
Table 6
Results of M e a n Lab and Mean Mill DR t-Tests
Drum Uncorrected Lab DR Corrected Lab DR
1 significant signifleant
2 nonsignificant s ignifleant
3 significant nonsignificant
Inaccessible Dissolved Solids Portion
Cullinan's relationship (equation 12) did not giv e a
satisfactory system constant for the p l o t s for the mock
mill run. Apparently there is an inaccessible portion of
the dissolved solids content on w a s h i n g . Subsequently
when a mat sample is squeezed, this portion adds to the
concentration of the m a t l iq uor . The inaccessible portion
might be a t t r i b u t a b l e to d i f f u s i o n rates and that sodium
which is bound.
It a p p e a r s that the inaccessible dissolved solids
prohibits the displacement ratio from ever attaining 1.0.
In stead, an a s y m p t o t i c value less than one is reached for
a particular system. A modification of equation 12 to i n
clud e an asymptotic valu e, DRa, is as fol lo w s :
DR - D Ra 1 - e ("k (W L R » (14)
Rearrangement of equation 14 yields an expression
similar to e q u a t i o n 13:
LN (1 - (DR/DRa)) = -k (WLR) (15)
76
This equation again represents the more familiar equation
for a line, Y = MX + B. Likewise a system constant, or
slope is o b t a i n e d , and there is no y-lntercept.
In Figs. 27-30, an e s t i m a t e of an equation of the
line for DR as a function of W L R is g i v e n . This appears
for the N aCl tracer run, and drums. 1-3 of the m o c k mi ll
run respectively. In a d d i t i o n , both the lab and the. mi ll
displacement rati os for the m i l l washer simulation are
included in the plots for the mock mill runs. N ot e that
samples for the m o c k m i l l run and the mill washer simula
t io n w e r e obtained from the same mi ll. System constant
plots using equation 15, for the NaCl tracer run a n d drums
1-3 of the m o c k m i l l run, are respectively in Figs. 31-34.
NaCl TRACER RUN

0.9 H
0.8 H □P
0.7 H
0.6 H
-1.33WLR,
0.5 H
0.3 H
Ideal Plug Flow

0.2 H Displacement
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Wash Liquor Ratio

Fig. 27 NaCl T r a c e r Run D R as a Function of WLR
E s t i m a t e of E q u a t i o n
LAB + MILL WASHER COMPARISON - DRUM 1

Displacement Ratio vs Wa3h Liquor Ratio
0.9 -
O <J>
0.8 -
0.7 -
o
O' 0.6 -
c
© -1.4 4WLR,
E 0.5 -
e
u
o
a 0.4 -
n
0.3 -
Ideal Plug Plow

0.2 -
•Displacement
□ Mock Mill Run
0.1 + Washer Simulation/Lab Data
O Washer Simulation/Mill Data
0 2 3 4
Wash Liquor Ratio

Fig. 28 Mock and S i m u l a t i o n Run Comparison, D rum 1
Estimate of M o c k E q u a t i o n D R as a F u n c t i o n
of W L R ->3
oo

0.9 -
0.8 -
0 .7 -
Q
£ 0.6 -
c -1.27WLR,
V
E 0 .5 -
e
u
o
a 0 .4 -
n
Q
0.3 -
Ideal Plug Flow

0.2 -
•Displacement
□ Mock Mill Run
0.1 + Washer Simulation/Lab Data
0 1 2 3 4
Wash Liquor Ratio

Fig. 29 Mock and Simulation Run Comparison, Drum 2
Estimate of M o c k E q u a t i o n D R as a F u n c t i o n -
c -1.52WLR.
V
E 0.5
e
u
o
a 0.4
n
a
0.3
Ideal Plug Flow

0.2 Displacement
D Mock Mill Run
+ Washer Simulation/Lab Data
0.1
0 1 2 3 4
Wash Liquor Ratio

Fig. 30 Moc k and Si m u l a t i o n Run Comparison, D r u m 3
Estimate of M o c k E q u a t i o n D R as a F u n c t i o n
oo
of W L R o
81
a
o
•h
4J
a
e
9
«a
a
XT
o o\
00 a: .
o
I_ o
° ^
3 tti
•S' Q
_C I
m
• o>
u> S as
o
F
o i a*
►J
c
9
OS
n
<y
o o
CD
U
H BS
h3
r-l S*
O
«N <0 *M
o S= o
M
•H
B.
o K) + i n ® N o q o ) » - ^ N •
n ^ in 10 n oo
• • • i • «
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ! ■ « ■ - « - CN
((z .6 -/y a )-t)N i

LN(1—(D R /.7 7 )) vs Wash Ltquor Ratio
-1.44X
— 0*5 -
-1 -
-1 .5 -
N
N
\ -2 -
a:
a
-2.5 -
-3 -
-3 .5 -
-4 -
‘Note - One data point is missing
here, because DR exceeds .77
-4 .5
0 1 2 3 4
Wash Liquor Ratio

Fig. 32 M o c k M i l l Run, D r u m 1 L N ( l - ( D R / 0 .77)) as a
F u n c t i o n of W L R CD
to

LN(1 —(D R /.8 6 )) vs Wash Liquor Ratio
Y = -1.27X
-0 .5 -
-1
-1 .5 -
(0
00
-2 -
>
D
I -2 .5 -
-3 -
-3 .5
-4 -
*Note - Three data points are missing
here, because each DR exceeds .86
-4 .5
0 2 3 4
Wash Liquor Ratio

Fig. 33 H o c k M i l l Run, D r u m 2 L N ( l - ( D R / 0 . 8 6 ) ) as a
F u n c t i o n of W L R
00

LN(1 —(D R /.8 2 )) vs Wash Liquor Ratio
Y = -1.52X
-0 .5 -
1.5 -
N
(0
-2 -
>
Q
I ■2.5 -
T“
W
5
-3 -
-3 .5 -
—4- -
0 1 2 3 4
Wash Liquor Ratio

Fig. 34 M o c k M i l l Ru n, D r u m 3 LN(l-(DR/0.82)) as a
F u n c t i o n of W L R oo
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
NaCl Tracer Run
Results from this run a p p e a r to Indicate t ha t the lab
washer is functioning similarly to a f u l l scale vacuum
drum washer. As se en in Fig. 14, plotting D R as a func
tio n of WL R, minimal scatter occurs as the curve tape rs
of f to the right. This is in a g r e e m e n t with the theoret
ica l curve in Fig. 8 developed by Perkins. If perfect
plug flow occurred, the d at a points would follow the solid
li ne up to a DR and a WLR of 1. Instead a laminar flow
exists due to m i x i n g , channeling, a nd viscous drag at the
walls of the p or e structure resulting in a n o n l i n e a r in
crease of D R as dilution (WLR) Increases.
In Fig. 10, Klein illustrates t ha t at a f o r m a t i o n in
dex of 1, the relationship will deviate from linearity at
a WLR of 0.5. He terms this as a break through point ,
where plug f lo w no l o n g e r exists due to shower liquid pas
sing through the mat prior to c o m p l e t e displacement. The
tapering action in Fig. 14 b e g i n s at an approximate WLR of
0.5 which Is in a g r e e m e n t with Klein's proposed mode l.
The development of a s y s t e m constant w as examined in
Fig. 15. A highly significant equation indicative of the
85
86
s lo p e not equal to 0 f o r that line w as determined to be:
Y = -0.038 -1.2 X. Reiterating what was previously dis
c uss ed , Y or LN(l-DR), would be a function of X, the WLR,
a nd the system constant, -1.2 (the slope). For this the
ory the y - i n t e r c e p t should be 0 as e x p l a i n e d . In this
case a regression analysis of the data points results in
an a g r e e m e n t of the y - i n t e r c e p t , -0.038 nearing 0. There
fore the e x a m i n a t i o n of this relationship for the N a C l
tracer run, yields a system constant of - 1 . 2 for the pul p
that was washed, under the specific operating conditions
of this run. T his system constant would be c o m p a r a b l e to
a formation index value in K l e i n ' s pore model theory or a
mass transfer coefficient describing Cullinan's local ef
f i c ie nc y.
An e x a m i n a t i o n of mass balances in A p p e n d i x C for
this run indicates reproducible results as dilutions are
manipulated. For e x a m p l e , as target dilutions changed,
the respective groupings for dissolved solids in the fil
trate and mat liquor deviated as a whole. In a d d i t i o n , at
a constant vacuum, the fiber concentrations in the ma ts
were between 12% a n d 13% for all of the runs. However,
target dilution factors based on expected mat consisten
cies were higher t han actual dilution factors. This re
sulted from mat fiber concentrations being lower than what
w as used in the setup calculations.
Mock Mill Run
Once the lab w a s h e r proved operable with reproducible
re s u l t s , a st u d y involving different conditions as seen on
a multiple st a g e w a s h e r was undertaken. Initially it was
fo u n d t ha t the s h o w e r head used in the N a C l tracer r u n had
to be substituted for one t ha t c o u l d operate with high
dissolved s o li ds liquids. With the c o r r e c t i o n of this
problem, the a p p a r a t u s operated in the same manner as for
the N a C l tracer run.
In Fig. 16, a plot of D R as a function of W L R for
simulated drum 1 shows the general t re n d t hat is e x p e c t e d
from this relationship. At a p p r o x i m a t e l y a WLR of 0.5 the
tre nd away from plug flow exists. Likewise in Fig. 17 a n d
18 for simulated drums 2 and 3, the same general trend ex
ists. It should be n o t e d th at the range of w a s h liquor
ratio s for these runs extends approximately to 4.0, while
the N a C l tracer run stopped at 1.5.
Above a WLR of 2.0 in a l l three simulated drums, the
DR begins to level off. It is beyond this point th at a
further increase in d i l u t i o n does not result in a v a s t im
provement in w a s h e r efficiency. Dilution factors in m i l l s
are usually less than 3 or 4, or under a WLR of 2.0, as
unnecessary dilution translates to u n n e c e s s a r y evaporation
cos t s .
It a p p e a r s there is more scatter in the results
88
obtained when washing dirtier (higher dissolved solids)
pulp with dirtier wash l i qui d. This Is especially appar
ent in c o m p a r i n g simulated drums 1 and 3, as there Is v e r y
little scatter In d r u m 3. Higher liquid viscosities in
drum 1 could cause irregular flow patterns s u c h as chan
neling and mixing, resulting In v a r i a t i o n s In the d e g r e e
of w a s h i n g .
A comparison of the relationships of a l l th r e e simu
lated drums in Fig. 22 indicates much similarity. How
ev er , it is q u i c k l y noticed that overall efficiencies in
drum 1 are lower than the fairly equivalent drums 2 a nd 3.
This might be e x p l a i n e d again by the h i g h e r dissolved sol
ids liquids interacting in d r u m 1. According to M a c d o n a l d
(T9), in a m i l l vacuum drum washer the first d r u m has the
highest efficiencies, because the p ul p and liquid are rel
atively f ree of air, and the second and th i r d drums are
approximately equa l. This is a r e s u l t of subsequent en
trained air that decreases efficiencies in the following
dr um s . In the laboratory washer ai r entrainment was not
simulated, therefore simulated drums 2 and 3 do n o t have
an efficiency reduction.
In Fig. 8, a comparison of empirical data to P e r k i n s '
theoretical equation was made. Similarities a re seen in
comparing his plot to the summary in Fig. 22. In his
pl ot , drum 1 is h i g h e r than d r u m s 2 and 3 f or the r e a s o n
mentioned a b ov e. Drum 3 has higher efficiencies th an drum
2 because ther e Is a h i g h e r concentration of dissolved
s ol i d s entering drum 2 from the p r e c e d i n g drum. Uhen com
paring efficiencies for wash liquor ratios l es s than 2.0
in the lab washer summary, the following o cc ur s: effi
ciencies for a g i v e n WLR decrease from simulated drum 3 to
1. This is w h a t occurs with Perkins' data, except f or
drum 1. However, if a i r e n t r a l n m e n t was not considered in
Perkins' pl o t , the two plots would be similar, as drum 1
efficiencies would be less than drum 2, for the same rea
son that drum 2 w as l es s than drum 3. It m a y therefore be
hypothesized that as w a s h i n g stages become cleaner, the
DR/ULR relationship approaches theoretical.
It w a s also noticed that s c a t t e r is reduced from
simulated drum 1 to 3 w i t h the w a s h i n g of cleaner pulp in
the system cons t a n t plots. This reduction is s e e n as the
significance of the e q u a t i o n s increase in T a b l e 5 from
simulated drum 1 to 3. In all cases the y-lntercept did
not pass through 0, as in the N a C l tracer run. However,
as the w a s h i n g system became cleaner, and subsequently
scatter reduced, the y-intercept came closer to 0.
In the system constant plot for the NaCl tracer run,
the W L R v a l u e s did n o t exceed 1.5. The system constant
plots for the mock mill ru ns in Figs. 19, 20, and 21
have m a x i m u m WLR's near 4.0. As previously discussed,
above a WLR of 2.0 the OR d o e s not tend to i n c r e a s e .
In e x a m i n i n g the system constant plots in o n l y the r an g e
of increasing DR, i.e. less than a ULR of 2 . 0 (mos t m i l l
drum washers operate less than 2.0), new regression lines
would put the y-intercepts much closer to 0.
A summary in Fig. 23 of system constant p lo t s for
simulated drums 1, 2, and 3 shows a regression line for
all of the WLR 's . In Fig. 24 a regression line is shown
for only MLR values l es s t han 2.0. It is noted that the
y-intercepts for a l l the values and for th o s e ULR values
less than 2.0 are respectively -0.620 and -0.27 5.
It 18 s e e n f r o m these Intercepts, in a d d i t i o n to
significance levels (Table 5), that in a r e a s of i n c r e a s i n g
DR a n d ULR, (ULR < 2.0) the use of C u l l l n a n ' s system c o n
stant equation improves. Perhaps the equation does not
describe the entire relationship adequately, i.e. the de
viation fro m theoretical at ULR's greater th an 2.0, and
with dirtier washing systems. It m i g h t also be that the
laboratory washer does not have an e f f e c t i v e displacement
action at high wash liquor r at io s.
The re s u l t s of the N a C l tracer run might come closer
to a theoretical relationship th an the m o c k mill r un b e
cause it is a n easier system to w a s h . The NaCl tracer run
did not contain the a m o u n t of b l a c k liquor dissolved sol
ids as seen in the m o c k m i l l run. These black liquor sol
ids containing organics and inorganics are a highly v i s
co us difficult to w a s h s y ste m. The systems with higher
concentrations of black liquor might promote increased
viscous drag at the p o r e walls, resulting in a f u r t h e r de
parture from ideal plug flow. Interesting evidence is
seen when comparing similar WLR's of 1.5 between the runs.
Respectively, WL R ' s in, the N a C l tracer r u n a nd the mock
mill run resulted in a p p r o x i m a t e DR 's of 0 . 8 0 a nd 0.70.
T hi s may go b a c k to the hypothesis that cleaner washing
stages achieve closer to theoretical results.
A comparison of d i s s o l v e d solids for mat li q u o r ,
filtrate and vat in A p p e n d i x D indicate reproducible data
for a g i v e n ra ng e of dilutions. The system is responding
to c h a n g e s between drums as w o u l d be expected in a m i l l
washer. Input concentration changes between drums re
sulted in e x p e c t e d output concentrations. Actual dilution
factors f ell closer to the targeted values than w i t h the
NaCl tracer run.
T he averaging of d a t a from the three runs per time
p er d r u m encompassed all points with no o u t l i e r s . This is
indicative of the lab w a s h e r ' s reproducibility for a set
of c o n d i t i o n s . Four replications p er drum were then com
pared between the la b a n d mill for displacement ratio and
wash liquor ratio.
In Figs. 25 a n d 26 an u n c o r r e c t e d and corrected com
parison of displacement ratios is show n. If the ratios
were Identical, the data points would f al l on the diagonal
line. In the case of the uncorrected DR's, one time for
d r u m 2 is similar, with the rest of the p o i n t s in g r o u p
ings approximately 103? f r o m the equivalence line. Drum 3
in the c o r r e c t e d figure (see below for e x p l a n a t i o n of cor
rection) falls approximately on the line. The grouping
for drum 1 h as moved closer to the line, and dr um 2 is a c
tual ly further away.
A t-test of the drum means for lab and mi ll data in
Table 6 indicates that for the uncorrected displacement
ratios, drum 2 means may not be different, while the oth
ers are significantly different at a 5% erro r. T-tests
for the corrected displacement ratios indicate a signifi
cant difference for drums 1 and 2, and an indication that
the m e a n m a y not be different for d r u m 3.
A theoretical correction for the d i f f e r e n c e between
the lab and mill displacement ratios wa s developed based
on the f a c t that the lab w a s h e r was dewatering the mats to
a higher degree than the m i l l washer. Th e difference be
twee n lab a n d mill fiber concentrations can be s e e n in T a
ble 7. Although the vacuum levels in the lab w e r e s et in
accordance with the m i l l drop leg vacuum level, it is pos
sible that the a c t u a l vacuum under the w i r e in the mill
was less than what t he drop leg gauge recorded. A gauge
is recording a vacuum level in the d rop leg only, and n ot
that which occurs under the c y l i n d e r wire.
According to p l u g flow, all of the vat d i s s o l v e d
Table 7
Theoretical Laboratory Displacement Ratio Correction
brum / "MiTr“ a” Lab M at Mill L ab Uncorr Corr Corr

Time Fiber Z Fiber Z DR DR ZDiff L ab DR ZDiff
1/1 13.37 15 . 3 5 0.83 0.72 -13.3 0.76 - 8.4

1/2 14.09 15 . 5 8 0.85 0.70 -17.6 0.74 -12.9
1/3 14.91 16.40 0.85 0.77 - 9.4 0.80 - 5.9
1/4 14.08 16.09 0.85 0.73 -14.1 0. 77 - 9.4
1/Avg 14.11 15.86 0.85 0.73 -14.1 0.77 - 9.4
l/Dev 0.63 0.48 0. 01 0.0 3 0.03
2/1 12.42 19.2 4 0.72 0 .8 2 + 13.9 0.89 +23.6

2/2 12.68 19. 43 0.78 0. 80 + 2.6 0. 88 + 12.8
2/3 11.96 19. 17 0.68 0.82 +20.6 0.90 +32.3
2/4 14.28 18.81 0.8 0 0.79 + 1.3 0.85 + 6.3
2/Av g 12.84 19.16 0.75 0.81 + 8.0 0 .8 8 +17.3
2/De v 1.01 0. 26 0.06 0 .0 2 0.02
3/1 14.4 0 16.81 0.79 0. 69 -12.7 0.74 - 6.3

3/2 12.25 17.10 0.79 0.72 - 8.9 0.81 + 2.5
3/3 12.68 1 6. 8 0 0.79 0.71 -10. 1 0. 79 0.0
3/4 13.38 16 . 7 0 0.79 0. 74 - 6.3 0.80 + 1.3
3/Avg 13. 18 16. 85 0.79 0.72 - 8.9 0.79 0.0
3/D ev 0.9 4 0.17 0 .00 0 .0 2 0.0 3
solids in a pulp mat should be removed and replaced with
show er dissolved solids in the shower zone. Following the
sho w e r zone, the reextraction zone further removes some of
the shower liquid from the pad. The hypothesis for this
correction is that the lab w a s h e r is removing more of the
s h ow er liquid than w h a t occurs in the m i l l samples. T he
resultant mat squeezing th en shows a higher dissolved sol
ids content in the lab, because the entrained liquid is
be i n g s q u e e z e d in to a lower external mat liquid volume,
resulting in h i g h e r concentrations. Subsequently, higher
mat dissolved solids concentrations result in l o w e r
displacement ra tios, even though weights of the d i s s o l v e d
solids for c o m p a r a b l e mill and la b sample siz es may be the
same. The entrained liquid tha t is removed on s q u e e z i n g
may be that w h i c h was not completely diffused out of the
fiber. This l i q ui d might also be a t t r i b u t a b l e to d e s o r b
ing b o u n d sodium.
A corrected laboratory displacement ratio is a r e s u l t
of answering the q u e s t i o n : how m u c h e x tra water and dis
solved solids in the lab m a t is n e e d e d to e q u a l the re
spective components in the m i l l ma t? It m u s t be k e p t in
mind that this m a k e u p liquid contains the shower liquid
components of the m i l l sa m p l e . An e x ample of h o w this
c o r r e c t i o n was calculated is in A p p e n d i x F.
In T a b l e 7, no apparent trends between the lab a nd
mill fiber concentrations exist, except for the fact that
fiber concentrations are higher in the lab. Th is is es
pecially true for drum 2, comparing an average of 19.1 6%
in the lab to 1 2 . 84 % in the m i l l . Fiber deviations be
tw e e n times for the drums a re fairly smal l, more so in the
lab. Due to s a m p l e t im e s in the mill scattered only over
a 1-1/2 h p er io d, t he r e appears to be no system fluctua
tions as evidenced by the m i l l displacement ratios for
drum 1 and 3. In d r u m 2, the deviation rises to 0.0 6, in
sharp contrast to the other drums. Exclusive of d r u m 2,
the d i s p l a c e m e n t ratio deviations for the laboratory runs
a re approximately eq ua l .
There appears to be a couple of e x p l a n a t i o n s f or the
deviations in m il l displacement ratios for drum 2. The
fluctuations in the se displacement ratios are a direct
result of the dissolved solids in the m i l l mat samples for
drum 2, as seen in A p p e n d i x E. Sampling technique might
have resulted in i n a c c u r a c i e s , as the m a t w a s sampled in
only o ne area. However, one would expect similar devia
tion s for drum 1 and 3. The other explanation would be
that the d a t a obtained is representative, and problems
within that d r u m a re occurring.
One obvious question to a s k is, why is d r u m 2 opera
ting at a vacuum of 16 in. Hg, while d r u m 1and 3 are re
spectively 4 in. and 8 in.? Perkins (^0) e x p l a i n s that
generally vacuum levels run 7 in., 9 in., and 12 in. Hg
for drums 1, 2, and 3. Vacuums are lowest on the first
drum because drainage ra t e s are the h i g h e s t due to a lack
of a ir entrainment. Subsequent drums then have higher
vacuum l ev e l s because of entrainment of a i r in the sheet
on the first drum w h i c h is detrimental to f o r m a t i o n , and
thus reduces drainage. Because vacuum levels are left
unadjusted, readings other than ordinary can be used to
detect system problems. In this case, a high vacuum on
drum 2 may indicate operational problems with the inter
nals, plugging or m a t sealing, or severe entrainment prob
lems. P l u g g i n g can occur as a result of h i g h v a t consis
tencies, as s e e n for drum 2 in A p p e n d i x E, in c o m b i n a t i o n
with s lo w drum speeds. Drum 2's speed of 5 r p m was the
slowest of a ll the d r u ms. Internal problems might also
explain the variation in d i s s o l v e d solids found in sam
pling the mat, as th er e could be regions on the d r u m oper
ating with different vacuum and hence drainage levels.
Note that all three drums were operating with similar in
te r n a l s and identical service dates.
For w h a t e v e r reason it a p p e a r s th at drainage rates
are lowest in d r u m 2. Evidence for this appears in the
average mat fiber consistency for drum 2 being lower than
drum 1 and 3. However d ru m 2 has onl y a 0.35% lower aver
a ge mat fiber consistency than d r u m 3, a nd a resultant
large vacuum difference, 16 in. - drum 2 versus 8 in. -
drum 3. This might suggest th e r e are other problems oc
curring.
As n o t e d be f o r e , displacement ratios are highest for
the first d r u m a nd approximately equal for the second and
th ir d drum. The mill d ata is in a g r e e m e n t w i t h this, with
the e x c e p t i o n of d r u m 2 fluctuating. T he higher two val
ues in d r u m 2, (ti me 2 and 4), a re similar to v a l u e s for
drum 3.
Displacement ratios should be comparable between the
lab w a s h e r and the m i l l for d r u m 1 because entrainment is
not occurring in the mi ll . In d r u m 2 the laboratory wash
er has no p r o v i s i o n for simulating the entrainment which
is occurring in the mill. Entrainment is g r e a t e r for drum
2 than drum 3 because the p u l p suspension from drum 1
st i l l has approximately 4.5% dissolved solids and the
shower liquid at a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1% has air In It from the
drum 3 filtrate tank. As P e r k i n s (4JL) points out, the
amount and size of a i r bubbles as a result of a i r e n t r a i n
me nt , h as a controlling effect on d r a i n a g e , especially
when trying to d i s p l a c e a strong black liquor with a weak
er black liquor having air In s u s p e n s i o n . Approximately
1% dissolved s o l i d s .are in d r u m 3's vat, and virtually un
aerated shower liquid at near 0% d i s s o l v e d solids Is used.
Therefore, displacement ratio differences should be negli
gible for drum 3 between the m i l l a nd lab.
It is seen in T a b l e 7 th at d i s p l a c e m e n t ratios are
le ss for the lab than the m i l l in d r u m 1 and 3, and just
the opposite for drum 2. As stated, a correction factor
attempting to e q u a t e lab. and mill mat fiber concentrations
because of greater dewatering in the l a b w a s calculated.
This resulted in an increase for a ll of the lab displace
ment ratios. An u n c o r r e c t e d and corrected percent differ
ence of lab displacement ratios in comparison to m i l l dis
placement r a t io s is shown in T a b l e 7. A correction for
la b DR 's in d ru m 1 resulted in an overall improvement from
14.1% to 9 . 4 % w h e n compared to the mill DR ' s . Error went
from 8% to 17.3% in d r u m 2. Th is ov er correction may be a
result of two f a c t o r s : an increase in drainage rate in
the lab over the m i l l due to e n t r a i n m e n t effects in the
98
mill, a nd hypothesized unreliable mill d at a as Indicated
by a high level of v a c u u m on d r u m 2. When considering
only the higher two m il l DR v a l u e s in d r u m 2 tha t are
similar to drum 3, the c o r r e c t e d error is r e d u c e d from
17 .3 % to 9.6Z. The correction for drum 3 improved the
average difference from 8.9% to 0%.
Because mat dewatering was different between the m i l l
and lab, it was necessary to d e t e r m i n e if the lab w a s h e r
could achieve the s a m e m a t consistencies as seen on the
mill washer. An a t t e m p t at c o n t r o l l i n g m at fiber consis
tencies in the lab w a s made by vacuum and time a d j u s t
me nt s . A mill sample from drum 2, time 2, was run under
the s a m e parameters u se d for the simulation run. Besides
vacuum leve l, two v a c u u m durations after the shower zone
ends, were examined, i.e. 2.25 s, and 0.8 s. Th e results
are shown in T a b l e 8.
It is se en that the extent of m a t dewatering can be
controlled as a function of v a c u u m level, and duration
following the end of the showering zone. In a d d i t i o n to
Table 8
Vacuum and Time Adjustment Runs
V ac L e v e l / D u r a t i o n Lab Mat Fiber % M il l Mat Fiber %
2.5 in. Hg/2.25 s 12.18 12.68

4.5 in. Hg/2.25 s 14.50 12 .68
2.5 in. Hg/0.8 s 9.62 12 .6 8
4.5 in. Hg/0.8 s 13.23 12.68
7.0 in. Hg/0.8 s 15.48 12.68
these t es t runs, other runs were performed at h i g h e r vac
u um levels also indicating that the d e g r e e of m a t dewater
ing c a n be m a n i p u l a t e d .
Apparently in this mill washer simulation, the lab
vacuum levels did n o t correspond to l e v e l s seen under the
wi re in the mill. For example, 16 in. Hg wa s r e c o r d e d at
the drop leg for d r u m 2 in the m i l l resulting in a 12.68Z
mat fiber consistency. A comparable vacuum level for that
fiber consistency in the lab as seen in T a b l e 8 is b e t w e e n
2.5 in. and 4.5 in. Hg. However, one must keep in m i n d
that entrainment effects for drum 2 not simulated on the
lab w a s h e r , might raise this vacuum level range somewhat.
It s e e m s that a d i r e c t approach to this problem would
be to m e a s u r e vacuum levels under the wi re. This approach
does n ot seem feasible for the reasons of time, money and
technology involved in formulating a method. The next
best method would appear to p e r f o r m t es t runs on m i l l sam
ples so that a correlation between la b vacuum levels and
mil l mat consistencies could be obtained.
Although the laboratory apparatus was set up a c c o r d
ing to the m i l l o p e r a t i n g conditions, conditions in simu
lation a re not always duplicated. F or example, after the
mill samples were procured, a period of one month passed
before all the tests were complete. In that period fur
ther fiber degradation, sorption, and diffusion phenomenon
occur. A t h i g h pH's (>13), fiber walls swell and force
r -
100
liquid out, an d at lower pH's the w a l l s contract and draw
liquid In. In a d y n a m i c mill operation, where vat pH's in
the s e c o n d and third d r u m m ay be below pH 13, the fi be r s
do n o t have a chance to c o n t r a c t . However, during the
time the samples were obtained, and r un through the lab
wa s h e r , fiber contraction could have occurred. This would
have resulted In an uptake of liquid for drums 2 and 3,
that w o u l d h av e to d i f f u s e out during washing.
V at a nd shower temperatures that were controlled in
the lab did not e x a c t l y duplicate those seen in the mill.
Th e shower temperatures for d r u m 1 and the vat tempera
tures for drum 3 were both higher in the lab than the
mill. Although thes e differences were noted, according to
Perkins (^2), between 4 3 ° C and 88°C there is a n e g l i g i b l e
change in v i s c o s i t y . It is this change in v i s c o s i t y , es
pecially for temperatures less th an 40°C, that h i g h e r vis
cosity wash liquids reduce diffusion in the sheet, result
ing in a d e c l i n e in w a s h i n g efficiency.
Inaccessible Dissolved Solids Portion
As p r e v i o u s l y explained, the equation developed by
Culllnan (equation 12) did not satisfactorily explain the
DR/WLR relationship f or the m o c k mill run. In C u l l i n a n ' s
equation, the D R v a l u e s a re asymptotic to 1.0 w i t h in
creasing WLR. However, in the mock mill run, especially
with the h i g h e r dissolved solids washing sy st e m s , the D R ' s
a re asymptotic to a v a l u e les s than 1.0. There appears to
be an inaccessible dissolved solids portion in the ma t,
which is n o t w a s h e d out. However, when the mat sample is
squeezed for a dissolved solids analysis, this portion is
removed. This inaccessible portion increases the d i s
so lv e d solids concentration, and decreases the w a s h e r ' s
efficiency.
An attempt to e x p l a i n the D R / W L R relationship with
the inaccessible dissolved solids portion in m i n d was
made. A modification of equation 12 to incorporate the
asymptotic value, DRa, resulted in e q u a t i o n 14, which is
an e q u a t i o n for the line. Rearrangement of this equation
results in a n equation describing the system constant
(equation 15).
In Fig. 27 there is a n e q u a t i o n f or the li ne for DR
versus WLR f or the N a C l tracer run. The asymptotic value,
0.97, is very near the D R v a l u e of 1.0. Likewise, in Fig.
31, the system constant is equal to - 1 . 3 3 in comparison to
- 1 . 2 0 as seen in Fig. 15. T he asymptotic value obtained
here, and the system constant a re close to the v a l u e s ob
tained with Cullinan's original equation 12.
However, examination of the highest dissolved solids
system (drum 1) in the mock mill run, indicates an a s y m p
totic v a l u e of o n l y 0 . 7 7 and a system constant of - 1 .44 .
These values are se en in the plots for drum 1 in Figs. 28
and 32. In Fig. 28 the lab and mill data from the m i l l
102
washer simulation Is Included. The results from the lab
data for the m i l l washer simulation coincide with the mock
mill run data. Mill data from the m i l l w a s h e r simulation
again fell somewhat higher tha n the other data. The sys
tem c o n s t a n t p l o t in Fig. 32 is forced through 0 with a
slope, or constant, of - 1 . 4 4 . This is compared to a p r e
viously determined plot which did not go through 0. That
plo t, in Fig. 19, had a slope of - 0.2 56 .
In Fig. 29 an equation for drum 2 for the m o c k mill
r un is shown. In this system, the a s y m p t o t i c value has
increased to 0 . 8 6 in c o m p a r i s o n to 0. 77 seen in d r u m 1.
Both the lab and mill data for drum 2 from the m i l l washer
simulation fel l close to the mock mill run's equation of
the line. A system constant of - 1 . 2 7 in Fig. 33 is again
different than that previously obtained (-0.386) in Fig.
20.
The asymptotic value for drum 3 in Fig. 30 in the
mock mi ll run is 0 . 8 2 . In this plot the m i l l da ta from
the m i l l w a s h e r simulation fell higher th an the equation
for the line, and the lab data fell l o we r. A constant for
drum 3 in Fig. 34 is -1.52, compared to - 0 . 5 5 2 in Fig. 21.
It a p p e a r s th at the higher dissolved solids systems
have asymptotic values further from 1.0. This would sug
gest that in the se systems th e r e is a larger inaccessible
dissolved solids portion. The NaCl tracer run was the
cleanest system, and w as indicated as s u c h w i t h an
I
103
asymptotic value of 0.97. Perhaps the a b s e n c e of the
la r g e organic and inorganic portions attributable to b l a c k
liquor allowed for a n e a r theoretical occurrence.
Envelope confidence intervals are shown in A p p e n d i x 6
for those equations in Figs. 2 7 - 30. The confidence inter
v al for the N a C l tracer run does include the a s y m p t o t i c
value of 1.0. However, in the m o c k m i l l runs for a l l of
the simulated drum s, the confidence intervals did not in
clude 1.0. Thi s is Indicative of an inaccessible dis
solved solids portion that m u s t be accounted for by a
method other than C u l l i n a n ' s equation. In e x a m i n i n g the
confidence intervals of the slope, or system constant,
note that the scales are not identical. Respectively, the
intervals of the slopes for simulated drums 1-3 a re ap
proximately 1.5, 0.8, and 0.55. In the cleaner washing
systems for the m o c k mill run, a reduction in s c a t t e r is
evidenced by smaller Intervals. The Interval for the
slope in the N aCl tracer run is approximately 0.65.
The lab d at a generated in the m i l l washer simulation
appears to fit the same curves th at w e r e generated for the
mock mill run. This is e s p e c i a l l y apparent in Figs. 28
and 29. However in Fig. 30 the m i l l washer simulation lab
data falls lower th an the equation of the line for drum 3
of the m o c k mill run. This may be explained by the fact
th at in the m o c k m i l l run the average vat liquor percent
dissolved solids was 1.8%, while in the m i l l washer
simulation the a v e r a g e vat di s solved solids w as approxi
mately 1.0Z. Perhaps the larger amount of d i s s o l v e d sol
Ids available for w a s h i n g In the m o c k mill run resulted
a higher washing efficiency.
C H A P T E R VI
S U M M A R Y OF RESULTS
In the N aC l tracer run the results Indicate the lab
oratory washer is functioning in a g r e e m e n t with a mill
wa sh er , i.e. as dilution is increased, the w a s h i n g effi
ciency also increases. In a g r e e m e n t w i t h theoretical mod
els, with further increases in d i l u t i o n the.washing effi
ciency responds nonlinearly: as laminar, not plug flow e x
ists in the displacement zone. Changes in d i l u t i o n re
sulted in r e p r o d u c i b l e changes in data. Expected dilution
le v el s were not obtained because the a c t u a l mat fiber con
centrations differed from what was used as setup data.
Reproducible results and trends that c h a r a c t e r i z e a
vacuum dr um washer were seen in the m o c k m i l l run. How
ever, as the w a s h i n g system became dirtier, i.e. higher
dissolved solids in the p u l p and shower liquid, more da ta
scatter was seen. Als o, it w a s noticed that at a given
dilution, displacement ratios decreased in o r d e r from drum
3 to 1. Drum 1 efficiencies in a m i l l washer a re usually
the highest, due to e n t r a i n m e n t effects on the other
drums. Because the lab washer is n ot capable of simulat
ing e n t r a i n m e n t , there were no efficiency reductions seen
in d r u m s 2 and 3.
105
106
Increased scatter and efficiency reductions may be a
result of m i x i n g and channeling seen in those higher vis
cosity systems having the higher dissolved solids c on ten t.
It was hypothesized in a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h Perkin's dat a
that, as the w a s h i n g system becomes cleaner, the relation
sh ip between displacement ratio a nd dilution approaches
theor e t l c a l .
D a t a w as ve ry reproducible for the m i l l washer simu
la t i o n , as a ll data p o i n t s passed an outlier test.
T-tests indicated that the re may be no significant differ
ence between the lab a nd mill displacement ratios for drum
2. Uhen a correction was made to the lab data, the test
indicated ther e ma y be no significant difference between
the lab and mill displacement ratios on drum 3.
T he lab mat fiber consistencies, especially on d r u m
2, were being dewatered to a g r e a t e r degree than on the
mill vacuum drum w a s h e r . A c o r r e c t i o n was made based on
equivalent fib er consistencies between the mill and lab.
Apparently, the g r e a t e r dewatering occurring in the lab,
was a result of d i f f e r e n c e s in v a c u u m levels between the
vacuum drum washer and the lab washer.
Relatively sm a l l deviations were seen between m il l
displacement ratios f or drums 1 and 3, however on d rum 2
the results were quite variable. This deviation on d r u m 2
was a result of p r o b l e m s occurring within th at drum, or an
error in sampling. A check of laboratory vacuum levels
and respective mat dewatering Indicated th at to a c h i e v e
the f ib e r consistency of the m i l l mat, between 2.5 In. and
4.5 In. Hg w a s necessary, not 16 In. Hg, as recorded on
the w a s h e r ' s drop leg.
T he corrected lab displacement ratios for drum 1 we re
less than 10Z f rom the mi ll displacement ra t i o s , while on
drum 3 they w e r e approximately equal. The lab correction
for drum 2 Increased the e r r o r to o v e r 17Z from the
mill's displacement ratio. Although, when only the m i l l
DR's on dru m 2 that w e r e similar to d r u m 3 were consid
ered, the c o r r e c t e d error was reduced to 9.6%. The over
correction In dru m 2 may be a r e s u l t of the lab washer's
Inability to s i m u l a t e entrainment and/or Inaccurate mill
data, or a f l a w in the correction technique.
A highly significant equation resulting in a s y s t e m
constant for the Na Cl tracer run was determined. In this
equation the sl o p e of the line Is the system constant,
which is d e s c r i p t i v e of how the displacement ra t i o changes
as a f u n c t i o n of d i l u t i o n . This system constant is spe
cific for a specific pulp under specific operating condi
tions.
The equations for the system constant plots for the
mock mill simulation were not as significant as w i t h the
NaCl tracer run. Although as s c a t t e r was re duc e d , or on
the cleaner drums, the equations became more significant.
It w a s noticed in a s u m m a r y plot tha t when wash liquor
108
ratios only under 2.0 were considered, (the NaCl tracer
ru n' s maximum WLR was 1.5), the significance of the equa
t io n improved. Either the lab washer was not operating
properly at higher dilutions, or C u l l i n a n ' s system c o n
stant equation does not explain the deviation from theo
retical at wash liquor ratios greater than 2. Higher dis
placement ratios were seen for a wash liquor ratio in the
NaCl tracer run when compared to the m o c k mill run, again
perhaps cleaner washing stages function closer to a theo
retical level.
As discussed, the use of Cullinan's system constant
equation may not be a n a c c u r a t e method for describing de-^
viatlon from theoretical. It was hypothesized that an in
accessible dissolved solids portion In the mat liquor lim
its the displacement ratio from being asymptotic to 1.0.
A modification to C u l l l n a n ' s theoretical equation, re
sulted in a n e w equation that better explained the D R / W L R
relationship.
It a p p e a r s that the lower dissolved solids (cleaner)
stages have asymptotic values w h i c h are closer to 1.0.
Thi s is suggestive of larger Inaccessible dissolved solids
portions in the dirtier washing stages. Confidence inter
vals for all of the simulated stages in the mock mill run
di d n o t encompass the displacement ratio of 1.0. This in
dicates t hat in the w o r k presented here, Cullinan's equa
tion does n ot a c c o u n t f or the inaccessible dissolved
109
s o li ds portion. The confidence intervals for the sl opes,
or system constants, are indicative of a reduction in
scatter with cleaner stages, as e v i d e n c e d by smaller in
te rvals.
T he lab d a t a from the mill washer simulation fit w e l l
(exclusive of one stage) on the lines determined by the
equations in the m o c k mill run. The one stage was hypoth
esized to n o t fit as w e l l due to v a t liquor concentration
differences. The fit of this d at a between two d i f f e r e n t
sets of similar samples exemplifies the reproducible re
sults attainable with this l a bo ratory washer.
CHA P T E R VII
CONCLUSIONS
The laboratory apparatus tha t was constructed to sim
ulate the displacement function as seen on a b r o w n s t o c k
vacuum drum washer, generated reproducible da ta for a giv
en set of runs. In a d d i t i o n , the laboratory washer ap
pe a r s to be c a p a b l e of characterizing a displacement effi
ciency as a function of dilution for a pulp. Therefore in
its present state, the apparatus could be used to o p t i m i z e
an e x i s t i n g brownstock vacuum drum washer. The effect of
changes to b o t h p u l p c h a r a c t e r i s i t i c s , and w a s h w a t e r
quality and quantity, could be analyzed using the labora
tory w a s h e r .
It was not the so le in t e n t in e x a m i n i n g the r e l a ti o n
ship between wash 1 iquor ra t i o and dis p l a c e m e n t r a t i o , to
de te rmi ne a sys tern c o n s ta nt fo r tho se te st con di t i o n s .
The exercise was in i t i a t e d so that one could see how da ta
from an a p p a ra tu s s uch as this , cou Id be used in d e s c r i b-
ing a relati onship that o ccurs in a m i l l wa s h e r . Once a
rela t l o n s h i p is def i n e d f or a p u l p at particular o p e r a t ing
con d i t i o n s , e f f i c i e n c i e s and therefore carryover can be
optimized for a dilution with mass balances.
An inaccessible dissolved solids portion in the mat
110
Il l
liquor was Identified. This portion limits the displace
ment ratio from attaining a value of 1.0. The higher dis
solved s o l id s washing stages appeared to h a v e larger inac
cessible fractions, evidenced by th e i r m a x i m u m attainable
displacement r a t io s being furthest from 1.0.
Set up p a r a m e t e r s for this apparatus are dependent on
the d e s i r e d mat fiber consistency. If the desired mat fi
be r c o n t e n t is n o t a c h i e v e d , predetermined dilution is d e
viated from and hence an unrepresentative system e f f icien
cy r es u l t s . It is therefore important to p e r f o r m test
runs to d e t e r m i n e vacuum levels which a re necessary to a r
rive at similar m at fiber consistencies as seen in the
mill.
D ue to the n u m b e r of variables responsible fo r the
operation of a b r o w n s t o c k washer, it is e v i d e n t t ha t dy
namic simulation is difficult. Specific problems we re
seen with drum 2 in the mill washer simulation. In a d d i
tion the g e n e r a l problem of m a t consistency difference
between the m i l l and the lab for the m i l l washer simula
tion e x i s t s . It a p p e a r s that further research is needed,
so that the present identifiable problems with the labor
atory washer c an be corrected. With further evolvement of
the a p p a r a t u s , and g e n e r a t i o n of da ta bases f or specific
p ul p s under specific operating conditions, the g u e s s w o r k
in d e s i g n i n g a washing system for a p a r t i c u l a r end use m ay
be eliminated.
CHAPTER VIII
RECOMMENDATIONS
The next simulation study should focus around a mill
washer that a l l o w s for more representative sampling. Al
t h ou gh the m i l l samples In this study were fairly consis
tent, except for drum 2, variations In f i b e r c o n t e n t and
dissolved sol id s c an o c c u r across the discharge area of a
mat. In a d d i t i o n , variations also occur across shower
zones. Composite sampling in these areas might provide
mor e reliable data.
Prior to m i l l simulation, a development of a c o r r e l a
tion table between lab mat dewatering and lab vacuum is
necessary. T hi s would permit an a p p r o x i m a t e mat fiber
consistency to o c c u r in the lab washer as it did in the
mill, thus a l l o w i n g f or m o r e comparative res ul ts .
The shower head on the lab washer appeared to be
functioning satisfactorily, however the spray pattern was
not entirely full, l.e the pattern resembled that of a
shower, and n o t a shower bar. Also towards the e n d of
several runs, with high alkalinity shower li q u i d , the
ho le s in the head's face became erroded. It a p p e a r s that
a showering device t hat can give a 5 in. diameter, 0 to
100 m l / s full flow, at a 6 in. distance from the m a t
112
surface is r e q u i r e d : a difficult engineering problem.
Although conductivity measurements c a n be misleading
as to a c o m b i n a t i o n of organic and Inorganic content in a
liquid sample, it m i g h t be useful in this application.
The proper correlation between conductivity and dissolved
so l id s could reduce tedious lab analysis and thus increase
the usefulness of this apparatus.
A provision for simulating air entrainment in the
pulp and/or shower liquid should be Investigated. Injec
tion of a i r into the s a m p l e s prior to a ru n m i g h t be use
ful. Perhaps dissolved oxygen measurements taken from a
mill's drum could be correlated to a n a m o u n t to Inject in
lab sample s.
Hand squeezings provided a reproducible dissolved
solids content f or a m a t sample. However, different
squeezing techniques between operators result in v a r y i n g
contents. Therefore, to h e l p eliminate the dependency
of a washer's efficiency on the w a y dissolved solids is
measured, a method which minimizes error within and be
twe e n operators should be a d o p t e d .
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38. A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y of T e s t i n g M e t h o d s , A S T M S t a n d a r d s
on P r e c i s i o n a n d B i a s f o r V a r i o u s A p p l i c a t i o n s ,
D 2 7 7 7 , 2nd e d i t i o n , P h i l a d e l p h i a , 1985, p. 55.
39. M a c d o n a l d , R. G., T h e P u l p i n g of W o o d , 2nd. e d i t i o n

Vol. 1, M c G r a w - H i l l , N e w Yor k, 1969, p. 485.
F i l t e r s , T a p p l P r e s s , A t l a n t a , 1986, p. 13.
A P P E N D IX A
SHOWER FLOW vs CYLINDER PRESSURE

Shower Head — NaCl Tracer Run
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APPENDIX C
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i i f l i c i n i m i c i i H K n i a i N i o j o i n I • i in i h i io i co
1 00 I O I CM I • i • IO I •I *1 *1 *1 *1 * i io i • i *i • i •
H M O « O IIO IO IH IM O IH IIA M O IIC IN IN IH IN in i n i c i o i h i o i
I | • I 0 I mI IHI I O I H I H I « a I t H I H I 00 I O I O I H I IM| 00
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APPENDIX D
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APPENDIX F
T h e o r e t i c a l L a b o r a to r y D is p la c e m e n t R a t i o C o r r e c t io n
LAB MAT M IL L MAT
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Show er W a te r
Shower W a te r
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___ Shower _DS_ _ Shower DS
.759 g 1 .5 1 5 g
V a t W a te r 1.30% 1.68% V a t W a te r
V a t DS V a t DS
1 1 .2 0 g 1 1 .2 0 g
F ib e r 19.24% 12.42% F ib e r
DR = .8 2 DR = .7 2
The t o t a l m i l l m at com ponets e q u a l 9 0 . 1 8 g .

The com ponets o f t h e l a b m at e q u a l 5 8 . 2 1 g , th u s
g i v i n g a m ake -u p g u a n t i t y o f : 9 0 . 1 8 g - 5 8 . 2 1 g
= 3 1 . 9 7 g o f d is s o lv e d s o l i d s and w a te r fro m t h e
show er l i q u i d . By u s in g e q u a tio n 2 , a new DR f o r
th e l a b m at can be c a l c u l a t e d . DR = Ws/Wp
The show er w a te r and d is s o lv e d s o l i d s , and v a t

w a te r and d is s o lv e d s o l i d s a r e c a l c u l a t e d b y sub
t r a c t i n g t h e f i b e r ( 1 1 . 2 0 g) fro m t h e t o t a l q u a n t i t y
( 5 8 . 2 1 g) w h ic h e q u a ls 4 7 . 0 1 g . From t h e above
d e f i n i t i o n o f DR, t h e c o n t r i b u t i n g show er w a te r and
d is s o lv e d s o l i d s can be c a l c u l a t e d : 4 7 . 0 1 g ( . 8 2 ) =
38.5 g.
T h e re fo re : D R = ( 3 8 . 5 g + 3 1 . 9 7 g ) / ( 4 7 . 0 1 g + 3 1 . 9 7 g ) = .8 9
(
128
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( a s y m p to te )
a)
4J
o
cu i
e 1 ■
>1
0 1,0
tn 99% 95%
cd
B e s t E s t im a t e
d ra
05
a
0. 5 0.5
0.93 1,13 1.33 1.53 1.73 1,93 0.64 1.04 1.44 1.84 2.24 2.64
APPENDIX
k(slo p e) 9 9/ 95 % C o n fid e n c e k(slope) 99/95% C o n fid e n c e
N>
vo
G
1,5 1.5 h
Mock M i l l Run - Drum 2 Mock M i l l Run - Drum 3
DRA (asym p to te)

0]
+)
o
+>
%
>i 1.0 1.0 -
tn
nt
0.5 L
Q
0.87 1.07 1.2? 1.47 1.6? 1.87 1.12 1.32 1.52 1.72 1.92 2.12
k(slo p e) 9 9 / 9 5 % C o n fid e n c e k(slope) 99/95% C o n fid e n c e
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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A Laboratory Simulation of A Rotary Vacuum Drum Brownstock Washer

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Western Michigan University

A Laboratory Simulation of a Rotary Vacuum

Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/masters_theses

Western Michigan University

Hugh E. Muller J r . , M.S.

Western Michigan University, 1987

Mass balances can quantify the d i l u t i o n and thick­

ening of a l i q u o r / f i b e r suspension on a brownstock washer

However, the complex displacement process necessitates an

empirical approach. Given empirical data, washers can be

optimized through use of efficiency factors with m a ss bal

Because empirical data is difficult to ob t ai n , a lab

oratory washing method w as developed to e m p i r i c a l l y gener

ate displacement efficiencies on p u l p under m il l washer

conditions. Reproducible data generated by this method

resulted in a d i s p l a c e m e n t / d i l u t i o n function as seen on

mill washers. A laboratory simulation using mill samples

exclusive of problems for one vacuum drum, resulted in

comparable efficiencies with l es s than 10% error.

The relationship between dilution a nd displacement

was examined with a system constant. System constants,

which account for the inaccessible dissolved s o l id s por­

tion in the e x i t i n g mat, w e re determined.

Much appreciation goes to S. D. Warren Paper Company,

Muskegon, MI, for supplying samples and data from their

I would like to p a r t i c u l a r l y thank Reid Miner of the

NCA SI , National Council of T he Paper Industry F or A i r and

Stream Improvement, for his suggestions and contribution

of insight into b r o w n s t o c k w a s h i n g . In a d d i t i o n , sincere

gratitude is due the e n t i r e staff of the NCASI, Central

Lakes Region, for th e ir timeless help with problems en­

countered along the way.

An e x p r e s s i o n much greater t h an "special recognition"

goes to my wife, S u sa n , for h e r e n d u r a n c e a nd constant en­

couragement. Recognition also goes to m y children, Alex

a nd Erin, whom unknowingly brought t h i ng s i nt o perspec­

Hugh E. Muller Jr.

The following explanation of techniques is provided to help clarify markings or

2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a round black mark, it is an

4. For illustrations that cannot be satisfactorily reproduced by xerographic

A laboratory simulation of a rotary vacuum drum brownstock

Muller, Hugh E., Jr., M.S.

1. Glossy photographs or pages_____

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4. Illustrations are poor copy______

5. Pages with black marks, not original copy._ i /

6. Print shows through as there is text on both sides of page______

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15. Dissertation contains pages with print at a slant, filmed as received

L I ST OF FIGURES .............................................. viii

II. R E V I E W OF SELECTED LITERATURE .................. 4

Rotary Vacuum Drum Washers .................. 5

Brownstock Washer Variables ................. 10

Shower Flow ......................... 10

Production Rate ............................ 12

Defoamer Usage ............................. 12

Sheet Removal System ...................... 13

Mass balances can quantify the d i l u t i o n and thick

which account for the inaccessible dissolved s o l id s por

Lakes Region, for th e ir timeless help with problems en

goes to my wife, S u sa n , for h e r e n d u r a n c e a nd constant en

a nd Erin, whom unknowingly brought t h i ng s i nt o perspec