Templum Pacis Vespasiani

Andrew Cohen

April 16, 2012

CLAS 206

Professor Robinson
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Of the building projects undertaken by Roman emperors during their reigns, perhaps the

most important were the imperial fora, which asserted their power and legacies in the center of

the ancient city. Although there seems to be an accepted canon for a forum, each emperor’s

project differs in its attempted message and architectural features, adapted for the time period

and intended use.

Nero’s assassination in 68 and the Year of Four Emperors (68-69) eventually yielded

Vespasian as an emperor capable of leading Rome out of civil war and towards reclamation of

prosperity. Among Vespasian’s contributions to Rome’s city center was his great Templum

Pacis, or Temple of Peace that he added to the fora complex. By examining reconstructed

architectural features based on both extant structure and literary references, it is evident that the

Templum Pacis was both part of the Roman tradition and also an innovative structure, but likely

not intended to be a true forum in its function or from. Standard features of a forum include a

temple, enclosing walls, axial symmetry, and an open space, all of which the Templum has, but it

also has common features of other Roman building types. The colonnade structure, unraised

temple, formal gardens, libraries, and public display of material riches align the Templum Pacis

with designs of other public buildings like a porticus or park. The spoils of the Jewish Wars in

the Templum Pacis and the dedication of the complex to Pax, goddess of peace, clearly show the

peace within and outside of the empire that Vespasian’s reign established. In his addition to the

grand center of the city, Vespasian followed the example of parks like at the Theater of Pompey

and Porticus Liviae more than the tradition of the imperial fora.

The overall layout of the Templum Pacis is difficult to fully understand because only

small fragments of the original structure remain to be examined. The main source for seeing the
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Templum is the Forma Urbis, a marble plan of Rome from the Severan period of the 3rd century

CE, fragments of which reveal the Templum’s location and general structure. (Fig.1) Also,

construction of the Forum Transitorium under Domitian altered the northwest side of the

Templum, changing each interpretation of what the framing of the structure looked like.

Excavations of the original structure have revealed that the court was originally surrounded by a

colonnaded porticus around all 4 sides with the Temple of Pax set behind the portico on the

southeast side. (Anderson, 109) (Fig. 3) Before the Templum Pacis was built, this location next

to the Fora had been a public marketplace known as a macellum that was destroyed in the Great

Fire of 64 BCE. After the fire, it became part of Nero’s Domus Aurea, and then was given back

to the Roman people with the construction of the Templum. Excavating foundations of the site

indicate that, “Vespasian’s architect followed much of the macellum’s plan and reused its

foundations.” (Stamper, 157) This may help to explain why Vespasian chose a porticus structure

because both a porticus and macellum feature covered porticoes surrounding a central court.

(Fig. 5) Of other structures in Roman architecture, the Theater of Pompey, dedicated in 52 BCE,

features perhaps the most similar layout to that of the Templum. They both have porticoes

surrounding all four sides of a large rectangular garden with galleries that contained prized

artwork for visitors to admire and a temple to worship at. As the center for Senate meetings for a

time, the Theater of Pompey would have been a frequently visited site from its construction until

meetings were moved to the Forum and thus a good place for a public park-like display area.

Drawing upon the precedents of Pompey’s porticus may suggest that Vespasian’s Templum

Pacis was also intended to have leisurely function to compliment the administrative function of

the other Imperial Fora.

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These two fora that preceded Vespasian’s, the Forum Augusti and the Forum Iulium,

each had porticoes on two sides of their courts, but the use of fully surrounding porticus is

unique to the Templum Pacis within the imperial center. Katherine Gleason’s Porticus

Pomeiana suggests that the Porticus of Pompey may have been the original influence for

porticoes in the imperial fora. Perhaps beginning with the competition between Caesar and

Pompey, who both contributed public works to establish their legitimacy as sole ruler of Rome.

In response to Pompey’s theater, Caesar built his own porticus attached to the Forum Romanum

in 46 BCE and “Augustus would ultimately complete the Forum Iulium before initiating his own

beside it, and, perhaps as a result, he ensured that the porticus of his adopted father would be

viewed as an imperial forum, while Pompey’s would be a pleasure ground, a public park, to

become one of the many that Augustus and his successor would build throughout the Campus

Martius.” (Gleason, 26) Vespasian’s decision to follow the earlier porticus form shows a strong

statement of it as a structure more analogous to a leisure park or public monument to peace than

intended to be a typical forum. This contributes to the theme of peace represented in the

Templum and makes a liberal statement for a typically conservative Roman society.

The Templum Pacis maintains the tradition of both previous fora and porticus with an

axially oriented temple, which was dedicated to the goddess of peace and located on the

southeast side of the Templum so it faced the other Imperial Fora. The Temple of Pax is unlike

its precedents in the Fora, the Temple to Venus Genetrix in the Forum Iulium and the Temple to

Mars Ultor in the Forum of Augustus, in both its structure and meaning though. The temples of

the two previous imperial fora and the Templum Pacis were all built as indicator of military

victory, uniting them in a theme of triumph. The Temple to Venus Genetrix was vowed by
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Caesar at the Battle of Pharsalus, the Temple to Mars Ultor at the Battle of Philippi by Augustus,

and the Templum celebrated victory in the Jewish Wars, but the gods chosen to be honored said

more about the emperor’s intended legacy than about the wars being won. Venus Genetrix was

Caesar’s claimed heir and also provided contrast to the Venus Victrix featured in Caesar’s rival,

Pompey’s Theater. Mars Ultor marks vengeance achieved under Augustus by prosecuting

Caesar’s assassins and by returning the military standards from Parthia. Pax is chosen by

Vespasian so focus on the idea of the peace created all throughout the Roman Empire and in the

city of Rome under his reign. The treatment of the Temple of Pax is different than for the deities

featured in the Caesar’s fora, possibly attributed to the fact that Pax began to be recognized as a

goddess under Augustus seemingly more of a propaganda tool to promote peace than an actual

goddess to be believed in and worshipped.

Physically the most noticeable difference is the fact that the temple was unraised, so sat at

equal level to the porticoes along the other walls of the Templum complex. The temple was

separated from the porticus in its hexastyle columns that are taller than the columns of the

porticoes and also set at wider gaps more appropriate to their height. Reconstructions of the

temple also include the typical pedimental structure on the Temple of Pax, though it is unclear

whether there is enough evidence to know this for sure beyond the assumption of this temple

following canon. Instead of having an altar within the temple structure, there is instead evidence

for an open-air altar at the entrance to the temple that would have been used for offerings to Pax.

A three-dimensional reconstruction of the Templum gives an idea of the possible façade of the

Temple to Pax (Fig. 4) with the altar out in front. Prior to the construction of the Templum Pacis,

Pax only had a sanctuary in Augustus’s Ara Pacis in the Campus Martius, so this monument to

peace at the center of the city was a very strong statement. This may also explain the open-air
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altar, following Augustus precedent with the Ara Pacis to have the altar to peace uncovered,

perhaps to add to the connection between nature and peace.

A central open court space for walking is common to Fora, composing a large part of the

Forum Iulium and Forum of Augustus, but the Templum Pacis uses its open space in a different

way, showing off natural features that play into the theme of peace. The Forma Urbis indicates

orthogonally laid out rectangles forming rows of planters with walking spaces in between, filling

most of the open court space. Further excavations in recent years have revealed there to be 6

rows of 4 rectangles each and evidence of water channels traveling between them that likely

included some type of plant life. Guesses of exactly what these rectangles were have ranged

from simple basins to tree planters to shrub planters, but seed analysis by Meneghini has

concluded that they were in fact planters for Gallic roses. (Newsome, 174) The Gallic rose, as

its name implies, comes from Gaul, which was a Roman province, and being a foreign flower

reminds visitors of the expanse of the empire. Pliny’s Natural History notes that, “it is a

remarkable fact that ever since the time of Pompey the Great even trees have been figured among

the captives in our triumphal processions.” (Gleason, 19) The ability to manipulate water

features is also a sign of Rome’s power as Vespasian has the power to bring water into the city

center through imperial aqueducts and organize it into neat channels that water the rose planters.

Many interpretations of the possible layout of the court’s flora also include fountains as a part of

the planters, which may have been used to show additional control over water and nature, solidly

stating the power of Roman technology.

Like the Garden of Pompey at his theater, the rose planters would’ve given visitors a

chance to enjoy nature even in the city center, which was important to Augustus as well during

his imperial building projects. “Throughout the Augustan city, sacred groves and individual
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trees provided not only much-needed shade and urban punctuation, but also a living link with the

purity of the city's primeval past, when "once upon a time trees were the temples of the gods,"

and at the same time they affirmed the continuation of the golden age that was at hand.”

(Kellum, 211) Although not trees, having flora within the forum certainly draws upon this same

theme and links Vespasian’s public works to Augustus’s. The idea of nature expressing peace

was not a new idea created by Augustus though, nature had always played a large role in

traditional Roman values and its purity associated with both peace and piety. “Pliny describes

nature and peace in religious language in ways that are suggestive of a connection between

botany and a religious devotion to nature and its relationship with peace” (Pollard, 326) The

serenity of nature and ability for plants to thrive within the urban center shows peace and wealth

under the auspices of the gods, while also connecting to the traditional virtues of the res publica.

Again following a precedent of Pompey, Vespasian uses the rows of roses to provide a

natural-feeling space for people to walk around in while also using the vegetation as symbols of

the Empire’s power, but emphasizing peace. The well organized planters also give an axial

layout to the walkways of the Templum complex, thus drawing attention to the Temple of Pax as

the trees in the porticus of Pompey oriented visitors towards the Temple of Venus Victrix. (Fig

6) Although the temple was unraised, the lines of the planters would have no doubt oriented

visitors to face either the Temple of Pax or the other imperial fora past the porticus, ensuring that

the Templum is not a stand-alone structure, but part of the Imperial Fora complex. (Fig. 2) The

planters’ orientation subtly controls the visitor to focus on the temples of the gods that had made

Roman success possible and of course remind any Roman of the great leaders who oversaw the

construction of these temples, putting Vespasian in good company among the deified Julius

Caesar and Augustus.

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The libraries and impressive treasures displayed in the Templum Pacis, further the idea that

Vespasian constructed a unique forum that follows in the porticus tradition. Adjacent to the

temple on both sides were buildings believed to be libraries, perhaps one Roman and one Greek.

This repository of knowledge would have attracted intellectual Romans to spend time in the

Templum Pacis and enjoy the complex as an oasis of peace to learn within. The Porticus

Octaviae, built by Augustus in 27 BCE also featured libraries and important treasures, leading

Robin Darwall-Smith to call them both “open air museums.” (Darwall-Smith, 65) Vespasian’s

Templum Pacis complex may be read as a larger version of this “museum,” but with added

importance and message. Treasures displayed throughout the Templum exemplified military

strength and peace with pieces like the Menorah from Herod’s Temple at Jerusalem, indicating

Vespasian’s strong conquest over the Jews. Not only was there peace within Rome, but there

was also now peace in the province of Judea that had been revolting against Roman rule.

Showing military success helps legitimize Vespasian and his son Titus as the rulers of the

Roman Empire, so publically displaying the spoils of war was the most efficient way to

communicate this success to the Roman people.

In addition to the spoils of the Jewish Wars, Vespasian also placed all of the Greek art from

Nero’s Domus Aurea within the Templum Pacis to return it to public view. Carlos Noreña’s

Medium and Message in Vespasian’s Templum Pacis contributes to this claiming that works of

Athenians like Praxiteles, Kephisodos, and Parthenokles show Vespasian’s focus on displaying

Greek art, drawing similarities between himself and Augustus. (Noreña, 28) Unlike during the

Roman Republic, there was public acceptance of Greek influence in the imperial era, which

allowed Augustus to use Greek works to convey Roman meaning, such as a painting by Apelles
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of Alexander with a captive Polemos that was reminiscent of Augustus’ triumph over Antony.

(Pollitt, 166) In the Templum Pacis, Greek works are used to emphasize the fact that the riches

were now back on public display, taken away from the personal hoard Nero had established. Old

Greek works can also show Roman progress in their mastery of art to create a place like the

Templum worthy of holding these riches and also to express the dominance over Greek culture,

similar to the imperialistic message of the Jewish War spoils and Gallic roses. The porticoes

themselves can also be considered treasures of the Templum with an imperialistic message as

they were made of red Egyptian marble (Ward-Perkins, 66), which added more color to the court

and reminded visitors of Rome’s expansive, wealthy empire. Vespasian thus strongly

differentiates himself from the greedy reign of Nero that ended in chaos and establishes himself

as a benefactor to the people with works for public enjoyment like this Templum Pacis and the

Flavian Amphitheater he also began construction on during his imperial career. Creating a

museum-like area to display evidence of Roman power and peace clearly differs from the

example of the other fora, following in the example of porticus structures that were popular

under Augustus.

Overall, the Templum Pacis is a hybrid of Roman architecture that maintains the tradition

of an imperial forum in some ways, but its porticoes, temple, and garden courtyard show

influence from the earlier Roman porticus that served as a public park and display of peace.

Having succeeded an era of political unrest, ending the Year of the Four Emperors and quelling

Judea’s revolts in the Jewish Wars, Vespasian was strongly asserting that his reign would bring

universal peace under the dominion of a powerful and wealthy Roman Empire. Although many

Romans were against the idea of idle negotium, the structure served a strong purpose as an area
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that people could come to spend time and appreciate the artwork that was featured here. The

focus on peace in the nature, temple to Pax, and display of spoils from a victorious conquest

make the Templum Pacis the ultimate statement of peace in a structure that borrowed from its

predecessors, but was a distinctly new building promising a bright future for Rome under the

Flavian Dynasty.
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Works Cited

• Anderson, James C., Jr. "Domitian, the Argiletum, and the Temple of Peace." American

Journal of Archaeology. 86.1 (1982): pp. 101-110.

<http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/504296> [This article raises questions about how

the construction of the Argiletum and the Forum Transitorium under Domitian have
affected both the layout and interpretation of the Templum Pacis.]

• Darwall-Smith, Robert. Emperors and architecture: A Study of Flavian Rome. Brussels:

Collection Latomus, (1996): pp. 65 [Overview of Flavian architecture that examines the
Templum Pacis as a porticus structure following in the example of previous structures,
but adding a new Flavian theme.]

• Gleason, Kathryn L. “Porticus Pompeiana: A New Perspective on the First Public Park

of Ancient Rome.” Journal of Garden History 14. (1995) Pp. 13-27. [Describes the
architectural form of the porticus and its appearance in Roman architecture including the
Theater of Pompey. The porticus structure described is quite similar to the layout of the

Templum Pacis courtyard and surrounding colonnades.]

• Kellum, Barbara A. “The Construction of Landscape in Augustan Rome: The Garden

Room at the Villa ad Gallinas.” The Art Bulletin 76.2 (1994): pp. 211-214

<http://www.jstor.org/stable/3046020> [Provides an in depth look at plants in their usage

and meaning in imperial Roman art and architecture.]

• Newsome, David J. Rev. of “I Fori Imperiali: Gli scavi del Comune di Roma.” Viviane

Editore (2007) <http://www.rosetta.bham.ac.uk/issue6/i-fori-imperiali.pdf> [Presents

some of the newest discoveries at the Templum Pacis site, including more details about
the flora featured in the courtyard.]

• Noreña, Carlos F. “Medium and Message in Vespasian's Templum Pacis”: Memoirs of

the American Academy in Rome, Vol. 48, (2003), pp. 25-43.

<http://www.jstor.org.proxy.library.vanderbilt.edu/stable/4238803> [Lays out the

possible intended meaning of the Templum Pacis, particularly focusing on comparison to
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other representations of Pax and triumphal architecture.]

• Pollard, Elizabeth A. Pliny’s “Natural History and the Flavian Templum Pacis: Botanical

Imperialism in First-Century C.E. Rome.” Journal of World History, 20.3 (2009): pp.

308-338.

<http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_world_history/v020/20.3.pollard.html>
[Describes the use of plants in the Templum Pacis and concludes that plants are important
to establishing a message of imperialistic dominance.]

• Pollitt, Jerome J. “The Impact of Greek Art on Rome.” Transactions of the American

Philological Association, Vol. 108 (1978), pp. 155- 174.

<http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/284245.pdf?acceptTC=true> [Describes the

architectural influence of the Greeks on Roman imperial art and architecture, including
description of the Templum as a public place intended for viewing the treasures
Vespasian had accrued in the Jewish Wars as well as riches from Nero’s Domus Aurea.]

• Stamper, John. The Architecture of Roman Temples. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 2005. Pp. 157-159 [Includes in-depth description of the Templum Pacis and its

features, in particular the open area, rows of plants, and public display of riches.]

• Suetonius. “Vespasian.” Lives of the Caesars as translated by William P. Thayer. (2009)

<http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian*.
html> [Suetonius’s Lives describes Vespasian’s reign in detail and mentions the
Templum Pacis as a part of the emperor’s building project. It is only briefly mentioned,

but important in its inclusion.]

• Ward-Perkins, John B. Roman Imperial Architecture. Yale University Press, 1994. Pp.
66-67 [Provides descriptions of imperial construction projects undertaken and evaluates
each in their meaning with detail about the layout of the Templum Pacis and its relation
to Augustan precedents.