cpiu] dke vkSj Ldwfyax % ,d fpaaru

Mh- olark

vuqokn: ;ksxsUnz nRr

{ks=kh; izkjafHkd f'k{kk lalkèku dsanz (RRCEE)

dsanzh; f'k{kk laLFkku
fnYyh fo'ofo|ky;] fnYyh-110007
Source: D. Vasanta (2004), Childhood, Work and Schooling: Some Reflections,
Contemporary Education Dialogue, Volume 2:1, Monsoon 2004, pp 5-29

Mh- olark (2004), cpiu] dke vkSj Ldwfyax% ,d fpaaru, Contemporary Education Dialogue,
Volume 2:1, Monsoon 2004, pp 5-29. vuqokn% ;ksxsUnz nRr, {ks=kh; izkjafHkd f'k{kk lalkèku
dsanz, dsanzh; f'k{kk laLFkku, fnYyh fo'ofo|ky;] fnYyh 110007

© Copyright RRCEE, 2008

Regional Resource Centre for Elementary Education (USRN-DU)
Room No. 106, CIE Annexe
Academic Research Centre
Guru Tegh Bahadur Marg
University of Delhi
Delhi-110007

Telefax: 27667434
Tel: 27667030, Extn: 426
Email: usrn.du@gmail.com
www.eledu.net

Translation Supported by: Sir Ratan Tata Trust, Bombay House, Homi Modi Street, Mumbai 400001
 cpiu] dke vkSj Ldwfyax % ,d fpaaru
Mh- olark

lkjka'k % vke èkkj.kk gS fd Ldwyh f'k{kk cPpksa ds 'kks"k.k dk lcls cM+k bykt gSA fiQj Hkh gekjs
lkeus ,sls thou&txr gSa tgka cPpksa ds dke djus dks cky etnwjh ugha dgk tk ldrk vkSj Ldwy
o dke ds chp ges'kk Vdjko ugha jgrkA ,yhesaVªh f'k{kk ds lkfodhZdj.k ds lanHkZ esa bl eqís ls
lacafèkr LFkkfir èkkj.kkvksa ij iqufoZpkj t:jh gS D;ksafd bl izfØ;k esa fofoèk lkekftd&lkaLÑfrd
ifjos'k ls vkus okys cPps ,d gh nk;js esa [kM+s gksrs gSaA vkaèkz izns'k ds ljdkjh Ldwyksa ds vè;;u
ls izsfjr bl ipsZ esa cgqr lkjs nLrkostksa dh leh{kk ds vkèkkj ij ;s nyhy nh xbZ gS fd fodkl
euksfoKku] f'k{kk] dY;k.k uhfr vkSj cPpksa ls lacafèkr dkuwuksa esa eè;oxhZ;] xksjs] iq#"k 'kgjh cpiu
dks gh ^LokHkkfod* ekuk tkrk gSA u dsoy fo'ks"kKksa dh jk; bl èkkj.kk ls izHkkfor jgrh gS cfYd
lkaLÑfrd rkSj&rjhds vkSj joS;s Hkh bl ls dkiQh gn rd fuèkkZfjr gksrs gSaA blds ckn ;g ipkZ mu
nwljs thou ifjos'kksa dks lkeus ykrk gS tks cpiu esa fufgr fofoèkrk dks mtkxj djrs gSa] bl èkkj.kk
dks pqukSrh nsrs gSa fd Ldwy ,d fu"i{k nk;jk gS vkSj cpiu ls lacafèkr Hkzkafr;ksa dks iq"V djus o
cPpksa ds 'kks"k.k dks c<+kok nsus esa oSf'od jktuhfrd&vkfFkZd rkdrksa o varjkZ"Vªh; dY;k.kdkjh
rkdrksa dh Hkwfedk dks mtkxj djrk gSA

T;knkrj laLÑfr;ksa esa Ldwyh f'k{kk dks cpiu dk ^lkekU;* fgLlk ekuk tkrk gSA vke èkkj.kk gS fd
Ldwyh f'k{kk ds tfj, cPpksa] [kklrkSj ls xjhc rcdksa ds cPpksa ds 'kks"k.k ij jksd yxkbZ tk ldrh
gSA tks yksx bl ckr ij ;dhu j[krs gSa mudk ;g Hkh ekuuk gS fd Ldwfyax dh otg ls cPpksa ds
le; esa eka&cki dk fgLlk fleV tkrk gSA ijarq ,sls yksx bl ckr ij è;ku ugha nsrs fd [kqn Ldwy
Hkh cPpksa ij u, rjg ds fu;a=k.k LFkkfir dj nsrs gSaA ftu cPpksa dk dke cky etnwjh dh ifjHkk"kk
esa ugha vkrk muds thou ifjos'k ij gq, vè;;uksa dk fu"d"kZ gS fd Ldwfyax vkSj dke ds chp
ges'kk lhèkk Vdjko ugha gksrk vkSj cgqr lkjs cPpksa ds fy, ;s nksuksa vyx&vyx nk;js gSa tks
,d&nwljs ds fy, iwjd dk dke djrs gSaA fygktk] Ldwyksa esa xjhc rcds ds cPpksa dh c<+rh la[;k
dks ns[krs gq, t:jh gS fd ge cpiu] dke vkSj Ldwfyax ls lacafèkr dqN LFkkfir èkkj.kkvksa ij
iqufoZpkj djsaA cpiu ls lacafèkr lkfgR; dh leh{kk vkSj vkaèkz izns'k ds ljdkjh Ldwyksa ij fd, x,
,d vè;;u2 dh leh{kk ds vkèkkj ij bl ipsZ esa ^vkn'kZ cpiu* dh voèkkj.kk rFkk Ldwfyax ,oa
cPpksa ds dke ij mlds vlj dh ppkZ dh xbZ gSA
eSa lqcg lk<+s ikap cts mBrh gwaA ?kj esa >kMw yxkrh gwa vkSj crZu èkksrh gwaA eSa eqag
èkksdj pk; ihrh gwaA fiQj eSa nwljs ?kjksa esa ?kjsyw dke djus tkrh gwaA 11 cts ogka ls

Regional Resource Centre for Elementary Education, USRN-DU 1

 ykSVrh gwaA esjk Ldwy nksigj 12 cts 'kq: gksrk gS vkSj ikap cts NqV~Vh gks tkrh gSA
lk<+s ikap cts eSa ?kj ykSVrh gwaA blds ckn esa [kkuk cukrh gwa vkSj ?kj ds nwljs dke
fuiVkrh gwaA jkr ds lk<+s vkB cts rd eSa viuk gkseodZ iwjk djrh gwa] [kkuk [kkrh
gwa vkSj lk<+s ukS&nl cts rd lks tkrh gwaA
ifj;kstuk Ldwy ¶,u¸ dh d{kk 8 dh ,d Nk=kk
nks lky yacs vè;;u ds nkSjku vkaèkz izns'k ds 10 ljdkjh Ldwyksa ds 300 ekè;fed Ldwy ds cPpksa
dh nSfudp;kZ ds fooj.k ls eq>s vglkl gqvk fd bu cPpksa dh ftanxh mu eè;oxhZ; cPpksa dh
ftanxh ls cgqr vyx gS ftudks eSa vkerkSj ij ns[krh FkhA eSa bl vè;;u dk fgLlk Fkh blfy,
eq>s lcls cM+k iQdZ ;g fn[kkbZ fn;k fd ^dke* ds o;Ld ifjos'k esa ges'kk xjhcksa ds cPps gh
fgLlsnkjh djrs gSa Hkys gh os ?kjsyw dke gksrs gSa ftuds fy, mUgsa dksbZ ru[okg ugha feyrhA muds
nSfud thou dk fooj.k lkekU; :i ls thou fodkl vkSj [kklrkSj ls cpiu ds ml izpfyr
fooj.k ls dkiQh vyx Fkk ftldk eSaus fodkl euksfoKku dh ikB~;iqLrdksa esa vè;;u fd;k FkkA
,slk yxrk gS fd Ldwyh ikB~; iqLrdsa fy[kus okyksa vkSj f'k{kk lacaèkh uhfr fuekZrkvksa ds tgu esa Hkh
;gh izpfyr èkkj.kk,a FkhaA rks D;k vkn'kZ cpiu tSlh dksbZ pht okdbZ gksrh gS\ D;k dksbZ ^jk"Vªh;
cPpk* gksrk gS ftldks è;ku esa j[kdj f'k{kk dh :ijs[kk rS;kj dh tkrh gSA vxj okdbZ ,slk gS rks
og (vkn'kZ) cPpk dSlk gS\ Ldwfyax ds ckgj os dkSu ls foe'kZ gSa tks vkn'kZ cpiu dh voèkkj.kk
dks vkSj iq"V djrs gSa\ Ldwfyax vkSj f'k{kk'kkL=k ds fy, blds D;k fufgrkFkZ gSa\ ;s dqN ,sls loky
gSa tks ;gka eSaus bl mEehn ds lkFk mBk, gSa fd muls Ldwy f'k{kk lacaèkh ekStwnk cglksa esa vkSj
xgjkbZ iSnk gksxhA
vkn'kZ cpiu
euksfoKku esa cPps ges'kk gh lcls egRoiw.kZ fo"k; lewgksa esa jgs gSaA f'k{kk vkSj ikyu&iks"k.k ls
lacafèkr fdrkcsa if'pe esa lksygoha lnh esa gh fy[kh tkus yxh Fkha vkSj rc ls vkt rd fodkl
euksfoKku esa izpfyr cPpksa dh Nfo;ka yxkrkj cnyrh jgh gSa (vkSj foLr`r ppkZ ds fy, ns[ksa
fjpM~lZ 2002)A fodkl euksfoKku tSfod ,oa i;kZoj.kh; dkjdksa ls euq"; dh cukoV] fopkjksa vkSj
vkpj.k esa vkus okys cnykoksa dk vè;;u djrs gq, lkekU; ekuo fodkl dh lkoZHkkSfed izfØ;kvksa
dks lkeus ykus dk iz;kl djrk gS (cVjoFkZ 2002)A cPps dks ,d vèkwjs o;Ld ds :i esa ns[kk
tkrk gS ftls fodflr gksus vkSj ^o;Ld tSlk* cuus dh t:jr gSA eku fy;k tkrk gS fd fodkl
dh ;g izfØ;k mu yacor~ vkSj {kSfrt lacaèkksa dh ekiQZr vkxs c<+rh gS ftuesa gj cPps dks nkf[ky
gksuk gh gSA yacor lacaèkksa dk eryc cPps vkSj fdlh ,sls O;fDr ds chp cuus okys lacaèkksa ls gksrk
gS tks cPps ds eqdkcys T;knk rkdroj gSfl;r esa gksrk gSA eka&cki] f'k{kd ;k vU; o;Ld blh
Js.kh esa vkrs gSaA {kSfrt lacaèk vis{kr;k T;knk lerkijd gksrs gSa D;ksafd ;s lacaèk viuh mez ds
lnL;ksa] cjkcj dh lÙkk okys lnL;ksa ds chp curs gSaA euksoSKkfudksa dk ekuuk gS fd cPps vius

Regional Resource Centre for Elementary Education, USRN-DU 2

yacor~ lacaèkksa ds tfj, lkekftd {kerk,a lh[krs vkSj xzg.k djrs gSa tcfd {kSfrt lacaèk mUgsa vkilh
lg;ksx] izfrLièkkZ vkSj varjaxrk dk gquj fl[kkrs gSaA 'kS'ko voLFkk esa gh 'kq: gks tkus okyh
lekthdj.k gh ;g izfØ;k o;Ld gksus rd tkjh jgrh gSA tSlk fd dbZ 'kksèkdrkZvksa us dgk gS vkSj
uhps fp=k 1 esa n'kkZ;k x;k gS] ;g cPps (;kuh tSfod dkjd) vkSj ifjos'k (;kuh lkekftd
dkjd) ds chp ,d&nwljs dks izHkkfor djus okyh ,d lrr izfØ;k gksrh gSA
fp=k 1
le; 1 le; 2 le; 3

cPpk cPpk cPpk cPpk

ifjos'k ifjos'k ifjos'k ifjos'k

lzksr % eSlj ,oa feykWu (1999)

bl {ks=k esa ifjos'k 'kCn dks dkiQh O;kid vFkZ esa ifjHkkf"kr fd;k x;k gSA dbZ ckj bldk vk'k;
HkkSfrd ifjos'k ;k ifjokj ls gksrk gS rks dbZ ckj Hkkoukvksa lsA gky ds le; rd fodkl vuqlaèkku
dk eq[; tksj vewrZ ,dy cPps ij jgk gS (vkSj fooj.k ds fy, ns[ksa fLeFk] dksch ,oa CysM~l
1998_ eqbZj 1999_ eSlj ,oa feykWu 1999)A
fodkl euksfoKku dsoy euksfoKku dk mi&fo"k; ugha gSA bl {ks=k dh lekykspuk djrs gq, ceZu
(1997) us dgk gS fd fodkl euksfoKku fl¼karksa dh fofoèkrk us cPpksa ds LoHkko] xq.kksa]
euksoSKkfud fodkl o ifjorZu izfØ;kvksa vkSj ikfjokfjd thou ls lacafèkr ppkZvksa dks vkil esa
my>k fn;k gSA ;s fl¼kar dsoy iz;ksx'kkyk ;k ikB~;iqLrdksa rd lhfer ugha FksA os dY;k.kdkjh
is'ksojksa ds fy, ,d eq[; lalkèku FksA fodkl euksfoKku us tks izsQeodZ miyCèk djk;k gS mlls
LokLF; is'ksojksa (lkeqnkf;d euksfpfdRld uls±] euksoSKkfud vkfn)] fo'ks"k f'k{kkdfeZ;ksa vkSj f'k{kk
euksfoKku ij vkèkkfjr izf'k{k.k ikus okys fu;fer Ldwy vè;kidksa ds rkSj&rjhdksa ij dkiQh vlj
iM+k gSA ysfdu ;g Kku bu is'ksojksa dk ,dek=k lzksr ugha gSA ;g mu rjhdksa ls lapfjr gksrk gS ftu
rjhdksa ls ge efgykvksa dh if=kdkvksa] Lo;a lgk;rk iqLrdksa vkSj f[kykSuk m|ksx vkfn ds tfj,
cPpksa] vfHkHkkodksa vkSj vU; ifjtuksa ds :i esa vius vuqHkoksa dks 'kDy nsrs gSa (,sjht 1962_ ceZu
1997 esa m¼`r ceZu 1991_ flaxj 1992)A blls ikyu&iks"k.k] cPps ij fu;a=k.k] jktdh; lgk;rk
dh ;ksX;rk] euksfpfdRldksa rd jsiQjy vkfn ls lacafèkr iQSlys Hkh izHkkfor gksrs gSaA ceZu (1997)
dk dguk gS fd cPpksa ds fodkl dh dgkuh lkaf[;dh; fooj.kksa dks lkekftd uqL[kksa (ftlls r;

Regional Resource Centre for Elementary Education, USRN-DU 3

gksrk gS fd D;k lkekU; gS vkSj D;k foÑr gS) esa cnyus dk ,d cgqr rkdroj lkèku gSA bl
izdkj] oxhZ; foHksnksa dks derj ;k Js"Brj ekus tkus okys eè;oxhZ; ekudksa ls ,d fopyu ds :i
esa ns[kk tkrk gSA felky ds rkSj ij] ^laosnu'khy ekr`Ro*] ^cPps dks dsaæ esa j[kuk* vkfn
voèkkj.kkvksa vkSj ml lkekftd oxZ ds ckjs esa lksp dj rks nsf[k, ftl ij mUgsa ykxw fd;k tkrk
gSA oxZ] tsaMj vkSj lkaLÑfrd vlekurkvksa dks LokHkkfod vkSj iQyLo:i vifjgk;Z dh rjg fn[kk;k
tkus yxrk gSA vfHkHkkodksa vkSj cPpksa] firk vkSj ekrkvksa] f'k{kdksa vkSj fo|kfFkZ;ksa ds chp cuus okys
lÙkk lacaèkksa dks fljs ls utjvankt dj fn;k tkrk gSA bu lÙkk lacaèkksa dks LokHkkfod ekuk tkrk gSA
Msoht+ (1990) us okWdjMkbu vkSj ywlh (1989) dk gokyk nsrs gq, nyhy nh gS fd tc eè;oxhZ;
eka vius cPpksa dks ^lgh phtksa* dh bPNk djuk fl[kkrh gSa vkSj ;s ;dhu fnykrh gSa fd os viuh
fcYdqy futh] fugk;r Hkhrjh bPNkvksa ds vkèkkj ij phtksa dk pquko dj jgs gSa rks okLro esa os mu
cPpksa dks de Lora=k cuk nsrh gSaA muds cPps bl ckr ls okfdiQ ugha gks ikrs fd bPNk dh mudh
^viuh* lajpuk lkekftd rkSj ij fdl rjg curh gSA
gekjs thou esa vkus okys vU; iM+koksa ds foijhr fdlh Hkh nh gqbZ laLÑfr esa cpiu dh voèkkj.kk
dks dkuwuksa] lkekftd fu;eksa vkSj vudgh ijaijkvksa ds tfj, dk;e j[kk tkrk gSA ;g ,d
lacaèkkRed Js.kh gS ftlesa cPpk og lc dqN gksrk gS tks o;Ld ugha gksrkA o;Ldksa esa cPpksa tSls
vkpj.k dks ,d jksx] ,d rjg ds izfrxkeh O;ogkj ds :i esa ns[kk tkrk gSA o;Ldksa ds foijhr
cPps dks detksj vkSj fuHkZj (fgiQktr dk t:jrean)] xSj&ftEesnkj vkSj vKkuh ekuk tkrk gS tks
dsoy miHkksx dj ldrk gS] iSnk dqN ugha dj ldrkA ;s cpiu dh dqN ,slh eq[; fof'k"Vrk,a gSa
tks 'osr eè;oxhZ; vesfjdh lekt esa izpfyr gSa (gkWySaM 1986)A ml lekt dh n`'; laLÑfr
(Vsyhfotu] fp=k] foKkiu vkfn) Hkh bl fufeZfr dks gh iq"V djrh gSA
cPpksa dh rLohjksa ls lacafèkr Vkbe&ykbiQ cqd (y'k 1986) esa ,d vè;k; ^xSfVax fn fLifjV vkWiQ
pkbYMgqM vkWuVw fiQYe* (cpiu dh Hkkouk dks rLohjksa esa mrkjuk) ds uke ls gSA bl 'kh"kZd dks
ns[kdj gh ,slk yxrk gS ekuks cpiu dk dksbZ Hkwrgk vuSfrgkfld lkj feyrk gks ftls vkius ,d
ckj rLohj esa mrkj fy;k rks dkiQh gSA MksukYM j'k dk ,d rdZ ;g gS fd is'ksoj cky iQksVksxzkiQh
us vius mRiknksa ds tfj, ges'kk cPpksa vkSj cpiu ds Lo:i dh ekStwnk fopkjèkkjk dks gh iqf"V vkSj
oSèkrk iznku djus dk iz;kl fd;k gSA bl fopkjèkkjk ds eè; esa ;g fo'okl dke djrk gS fd
(d) cPpksa dks [ksyuk rks pkfg, ysfdu dHkh dke ugha djuk pkfg, D;ksafd dke o;Ldksa dh
xfrfofèk gS] rFkk ([k) cPpksa ds ikl dksbZ ;kSu Kku ugha gksuk pkfg, vkSj tc mUgsa ;g Kku feys
rks Hkh og fu;af=kr vkSj uhjl rjhdksa ls gh feyuk pkfg, & elyu Ldwy esa lsDl ,tqds'ku vkfnA
;kuh cpiu ,d ,slh pht gS ftls lkekftd :i ls fufeZr vkSj ykxw fd;k x;k gSA y'k dk ekuuk
gS fd ;g o;Ldksa }kjk vius O;kid lkekftd fgrksa dks è;ku esa j[kdj jph xbZ laLFkk gSA gkWySaM
(1986) us vesfjdk esa ckY;koLFkk dh fopkjèkkjk ds fuekZ.k vkSj iks"k.k esa foKkiuksa dh Hkwfedk dk
foLr`r fo'ys"k.k fd;k gSA gkWySaM dk ekuuk gS fd bl rjg dh fufeZfr;ka u dsoy o;Ldksa vkSj

Regional Resource Centre for Elementary Education, USRN-DU 4

cPpksa ds chp LokHkkfod] rdZlaxr vkSj iwjh rjg oSèk fn[kkbZ nsus okys exj xSj&cjkcj lacaèkksa dh
LFkkiuk djrh gSa cfYd os gesa ckY;koLFkk ds ckjs esa ,d lkekU; rLohj xzg.k djus vkSj fo'ks"k
ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa jgus okys fo'ks"k cPpksa ds ckjs esa lkspus ls grksRlkfgr Hkh djrh gSaA bl rjg dk
lkekftd Kku èkhjs&èkhjs okLrfod cPpksa ds lkFk gekjs vius vknku&iznku dk Hkh fgLlk cu tkrk
gSA
bl ckr dks cM+s iSekus ij ekuk tk pqdk gS fd ckY;koLFkk ls lacafèkr izHkqRo'kkyh fopkjèkkjkvksa dk
:i&cuko laLÑfr&fof'k"V gksrk gSA fiQj Hkh] xSj&if'peh lektksa esa ckY;koLFkk fodkl ds #>kuksa ls
lacafèkr tkudkfj;ksa ;k C;kSjksa ij vkèkkfjr izdk'ku cgqr de gSaA ikB~;lzksrksa esa miyCèk lk{;ksa ds
vkèkkj ij dDdM+ (1980) dk dguk gS fd Hkkjrh; ijaijk esa cPpk oSpkfjd :i ls ,d ewY;oku
vkSj Lokxr ;ksX; euq"; gS ftlds izfr o;Ldksa dks lqj{kk] izse vkSj iwjk è;ku nsuk pkfg,A dDdM+
dh jk; esa Hkkjrh; ijaijk dh fof'k"Vrk bl ckr esa ugha gS fd if'peh ijaijkvksa dh rjg o;Ldksa
vkSj cPpksa ds vkilh lacaèkksa dks lekthdj.k ds :i esa fpf=kr fd;k tk, cfYd bls ,d ,slh
varfØZ;k ds :i esa n'kkZ;k tkrk gS tks o;Ld&cky bdkbZ ij tksj nsrh gSA muds ,d gkfy;k fucaèk
& ^ekWMfuZVh ,s.M iQhesy pkbYMgqM* (vkèkqfudrk vkSj yM+fd;ksa dk cpiu) esa dDdM+ (1997)
dk dguk gS fd c<+rs vkèkqfudhdj.k vkSj ifjokj ds Hkhrj Hkwfedkvksa ds vkilh lacaèkksa esa cnyko
dh otg ls cPpksa ds izfr lqj{kkRed yxko dh ijaijkxr fopkjèkkjk xgjs ncko esa igqap xbZ gSA
Hkkjrh; lanHkZ esa cpiu ls lacafèkr lhfer vè;;uksa dh leh{kk djus ds ckn 'kekZ (2003 % 42)
dk fu"d"kZ gS fd ^Hkkjrh; cPpksa ds ckjs esa O;ofLFkr nh?kZdkfyd vkadM+ksa dh deh ds lkFk&lkFk
,d ijs'kkuh ;g gS fd cPpksa dks le>us ds fy, if'peh fodkl euksoSKkfud Jsf.k;ksa dk fcuk
lksps&le>s vk;kr fd;k tk jgk gSA*
vkn'kZ ckY;koLFkk ij dqN vkifÙk;ka
fdlh Hkh laLÑfr esa ifjokj vkSj jkT;] nksuksa gh cPps ds fodkl dks r; djus vkSj mls ,d
^vkn'kZ* cPps ds :i esa LFkkfir djus esa ftEesnkj gksrs gSaA mUuhloha lnh dh 'kq#vkr esa ^fuèkZu
oxks±* ds cPpksa ds fy, 'kq: gqvk f'k'kq fo|ky; vkanksyu_ 19oha lnh ds mÙkjk¼Z dk izQkW;csy ;k
fdaMjxkVZu vkanksyu_ 1920 ds n'kd esa vk;k ulZjh Ldwy vkanksyu vkSj 1960&70 ds n'kdksa esa
ukjhoknh vkanksyu }kjk is'k dh xbZ ifjokj ds ckgj cPpksa dh ns[kHkky dh ekaxksa us ^cPpksa dh
ifjfèk;ksa* vkSj ^cky&dsafær* f'k{kk'kkL=k dk fuekZ.k fd;k gS (bu èkkj.kkvksa dh lekykspuk ds fy,
ns[ksa flaxj 1992)A uhnjySaM~l esa muds vius vuqlaèkku ds fu"d"kks± vkSj fodkl euksoSKkfudksa }kjk
cpiu ds ckjs esa is'k fd, x, if'peh fl¼karksa dh lekykspuk ds vkèkkj ij ,yh flaxj dh nyhy
gS fd cky fodkl dk if'peh n'kZu fyaxksa] oxks±] u`tkrh; lewgksa vkSj ihf<+;ksa ds chp cuus okys
lÙkk lacaèkksa dks iwjh rjg utjvankt djrk gSA vesfjdk dk ftØ djrs gq, ceZu (1997) us crk;k
gS fd dqN le; igys rd fodkl euksfoKku esa firk ds :i esa iq#"kksa ij [kkl è;ku ugha fn;k
tkrk FkkA fodkl lacaèkh lkfgR; esa firkvksa dks izk;% mudh vuqifLFkfr ds tfj, gh n'kkZ;k tkrk

Regional Resource Centre for Elementary Education, USRN-DU 5

FkkA bl ckr dks dsoy ySafxd Hkwfedk fodkl] [kklrkSj ls yM+dksa ds lanHkZ esa gh ,d leL;k ekuk
tkrk gSA fygktk] if'pe ds ,dy ifjokjksa esa cPpksa dh ns[kHkky dk ftEek cqfu;knh rkSj ij
vdlj eka ds daèkksa ij gh fn[kkbZ nsrk gSA Ldkj (1999) dk dguk gS fd nwljs fo'o ;q¼ ds ckn
efgyk dkexkjksa dks lkoZtfud {ks=k ls csn[ky dj fn;k x;k Fkk rkfd ;q¼ ls ykSVus okys iq#"kksa ds
fy, ukSdfj;ksa dh O;oLFkk dh tk ldsA fczVsu esa mlh le; ;q¼dkyhu Ms&ulZfj;ksa dks Hkh can fd;k
tk jgk FkkA eka ds Li'kZ ls lacafèkr fl¼kar [kwc iQys&iwQys vkSj fnu Hkj eka&cki ds laj{k.k ls oafpr
jgus okys cPpksa ds ckjs esa uSfrd viQjkriQjh cgqr T;knk FkhA cPpksa dks ikyus esa ekavksa dh liQyrk
;k foiQyrk vVykafVd ds nksuksa rjiQ cgqpfpZr eqík cu xbZ Fkh D;ksafd tgka eka ukdke gks tkrh Fkh
ogka jkT; dks mfpr lsokvksa dh O;oLFkk djuh iM+rh Fkh (vesfjdh lanHkZ esa cPpksa dh ns[kHkky ds
bfrgkl ds vU; fooj.kksa ds fy, ns[ksa] mijksDr)A
fczVsu vkSj vesfjdk] nksuksa gh ns'kksa esa dY;k.kdkjh ^lgk;rk* ges'kk pkSdlh dks vkSj c<+k nsrh FkhA
bl ckr dks n'kkZus ds fy, lcls vPNk mnkgj.k ,d vesfjdh jkT; esa feyrk gSA ogka ,d v'osr
vdsyh eka dks bl otg ls tsy dh ltk lqukbZ xbZ Fkh D;ksafd mlus vi;kZIr@vlaosnu'khy ekr`Ro
fn;k FkkA mldk vijkèk ;g Fkk fd tc mldk csVk ?kj esa fdlh dks crk, fcuk lkbfdy ij cSB
dj ?kweus fudy x;k vkSj dbZ ?kaVs ckn ykSVk rks mlus csVs dh fiVkbZ dj nh FkhA ,su vkjusV
iQX;wZlu (2002) uked ,d v'osr ih,pMh 'kksèkdrkZ us bl dgkuh dks vius iQhYM uksV~l esa ntZ
fd;k Fkk (ewy ikB esa ;g dgkuh dfork ds :i esa 25 iUuksa esa Fkh) ftUgsa ckn esa iQX;wZlu us
viuh iqLrd & cSM Cok;t % ifCyd LdwYl bu fn esfdax vkWiQ CySd eSlD;wfyfuVh & esa 'kkfey
dj fy;k FkkA D;ksafd mijksDr yM+dk Ldwy esa Hkh ^fljnnZ* ekuk tkrk Fkk blfy, ljdkj dh
nyhyksa dks vkSj cy feykA iQX;wZlu us ftl C;kSjs dks ^iQhYM uksV~l* ds uke ls Nkik Fkk mldk ,d
laf{kIr va'k bl izdkj gS %
;s esjk cPpk gS
mUgksaus canwdsa fudky yh Fkha
eSa D;k djrh\
;s esjk cPpk gS!
vc eq>s esjk cPpk ikyus dk lyhdk er crkvksA
ml oDr eSa m[kM+ xbZ FkhA iqfyl okyh
og mldh dksgfu;ka vkSj ?kqVus tkap jgh FkhA
og fNyk iM+k Fkk
ysfdu oks eSaus rks ugha fd;k FkkA
vkSj mUgksaus fy[k fy;k
mldh ihB ij cky cjkcj [kjksap gS

Regional Resource Centre for Elementary Education, USRN-DU 6

brus bap yach
esjh gkyr rks ---
eSaus og ugha fd;k Fkk
mldh cgu us fd;k Fkk
,d fnu os yM+ jgs Fks
vkSj cgu us HkkbZ dks [kjksap fn;kA
mUgksaus i<+ dj esjs gd lquk,A
esjs gkFk ihB ij ckaèk fn,A
gFkdfM+;ka yxk nhA
vkSj esjh gkyr ---
D;ksa\
D;k fd;k Fkk eSaus\

vius 'kksèki=k esa] bl eka vkSj mlds csVs ls ckrphr ds vkèkkj ij iQX;wZlu us nyhy nh gS fd
cpiu dks o;Ldrk ls vyx vkSj fHkUu voLFkk ds :i esa ekuus dh izpfyr n`f"V & ftlesa cPps
dks o;Ldksa okyh fparkvksa ls cpk;k tkrk gS & lHkh oxks± ds ckjs esa lgh ugha gSA ^,d [kjkc
eksgYys* esa iyus&c<+us dk eryc ;g gksrk gS fd cpiu dks ,d fparkeqDr voLFkk ds :i esa izkIr
djus dk vkn'kZ vlaHko cu tkrk gSA
xkSjryc gS fd 20oha lnh esa cky fodkl vè;;uksa dk dsaæfcanq ,d vewrZ ,dy cPps dh txg
la;qDr eka&ckyd bdkbZ ij bl izdkj dsafær gks x;k Fkk fd mlesa eka euksoSKkfud vuqlaèkku dk
fo"k; Hkh Fkh vkSj ekè;e Hkh (ceZu 1997)A bl bdkbZ ds vè;;u esa ,d [krjk ;g Fkk fd blesa
Hkh cPps ds fodkl dh ftEesnkfj;ksa esa jkT; vkSj ifjokj ds chp tkuk&igpkuk Hksn dk;e Fkk
(mijksDr)A bl vè;;u esa cPps vkSj mldh ns[kHkky djus okys & ;kuh eka & ds chp cuus okys
lacaèkksa esa lkekftd dh voèkkj.kk dks ladqfpr dj fn;k x;k FkkA fygktk] futh&lkoZtfud dk Hksn
nksckjk iSnk gqvk vkSj O;fDrokn rFkk mnkj ekuookn dh ,d ,slh ubZ èkkjk lkeus vkbZ tks jkT; dks
cPpksa dh ns[kHkky dh ftEesnkjh ls vktkn dj nsrh FkhA bldk urhtk ;g gqvk fd ftu v'osr
yksxksa ds thou esa 'osr eè;oxhZ; fLFkfr;ka ugha Fkha] muesa ls T;knkrj dks ,sls ns[kk tkus yxk ekuks
os chekj yksx gksaA ckY;oLFkk dh ifjfèk;ksa ;kuh vkokl] Ldwy Hkou vkSj Ldwy ds le;] rFkk
euksjatu dh ifjfèk;ksa vkfn dks fu;af=kr djrs gq, jkT; fdlh Hkh lekt esa ckY;koLFkk dh eq[;èkkjk
dh fopkjèkkjk dks Hkh izHkkfor djrk gSA dqN 'kksèkdrkZvksa dk dguk gS fd jkT; cktkj dks Hkh
fu;af=kr djrk gS ftlesa ckY;koLFkk dk fuekZ.k vkSj miHkksx fd;k tkrk gS (okMZ 1990] uqbZosugqbZl
1999, esa m¼`r)A

Regional Resource Centre for Elementary Education, USRN-DU 7

fujkfJr@lM+dksa ij iyus okys cPps
^fujkfJr cPpksa* dh voèkkj.kk dh vkykspuk djrs gq, uqbZosugqbZl (1999,) us ^oSf'od ckY;koLFkk
,tsaMk* ij Hkh ppkZ dh gS tks varjkZ"Vªh; cky dY;k.k laLFkkuksa (;wusLdks] ;wfulsiQ] MCY;w,pvks]
vkbZ,yvks) dh nsu gSA mudk dguk gS fd ;s ,tsafl;ka ckY;koLFkk ds ftu vkèkqfud vkn'kks± dks
izksRlkgu nsrh gS os ,dy ifjokj vkSj jk"Vª jkT; dh ekiQZr cuus okys ckY;koLFkk ds cktkj ij
vkèkkfjr FksA mnkgj.k ds fy,] chloha lnh dh 'kq#vkr esa vesfjdk esa ckY;koLFkk dk eryc Fkk
fd cPpksa dks Je ls ckgj fudkyk tk, vkSj mUgsa ekavksa dh ns[kHkky dk miHkksDrk cuk;k tk,A ;g
voèkkj.kk LokLF; chek vkSj reke euksoSKkfud] cky fpfdRldh; ,oa 'kS{kf.kd lgk;rkvksa vkSj
fo'ks"kKrkvksa rd iQSyh gqbZ Fkh (t+Syht+j 1994)A 1960 ds n'kd rd ;wfulsiQ Hkh jk"Vª jkT;ksa dks
lkiQ&liQkbZ] iks"k.k vkSj Vhdkdj.k vfHk;kuksa ds tfj, f'k'kq e`R;q nj ij vadq'k yxkus esa enn nsrk
FkkA mldk iQksdl eq[; :i ls xzkeh.k bykdksa ij jgrk FkkA lÙkj ds n'kd rd vkrs&vkrs ;g
Li"V gks x;k fd ftl rjg ds vkèkqfudhdj.k ij tksj fn;k tk jgk Fkk og eqV~Bh Hkj izHkq oxZ vkSj
fnuksafnu iSQyrs gkf'k;kbZ xjhcksa ds èkzqohdj.k dks ugha jksd ldrkA tgka ,d rjiQ gkf'k;kbZ rcds
miHkksx dh ifjfèk ls ckgj Fks ogha nwljh rjiQ 'kgjksa us vklkuh ls ml ifj"Ñr O;ogkj dks viuk
fy;k tks cpiu dks miHkksx ds ,d izfrf"Br {ks=k esa cny nsrk FkkA uqbZosugqbZl (1999,) dk dguk
gS fd cpiu ls lacafèkr izfr"Bkiw.kZ oLrqvksa vkSj lsokvksa dks gkfly djus dh pkg dsoy vkS|ksfxd
mÙkjh ns'kksa rd gh lhfer ugha FkhA nf{k.kh ns'kksa ds 'kgjksa esa Hkh bls vPNh izfrfØ;k feyhA blus
'kgjksa dh thou 'kSyh rFkk xjhcksa ds mu gkykr ds chp iQklyk vkSj c<+k fn;k ftlesa xjhc vius
cPpksa dks iky jgs FksA
vLlh vkSj uCcs ds n'kdksa esa ckgj ls Fkksis x, <kapkxr lek;kstu dk;ZØeksa ds tokc esa dfFkr
fodkl'khy ns'kksa ds T;knkrj jkT;ksa us vius dY;k.k dk;ZØeksa dks NksM+ fn;k vkSj lkjk tksj viuk
th,uih c<+kus esa yxk fn;kA fodkl'khy ns'kksa us 'kgjksa dk ^fodkl* djds vFkZO;oLFkkvksa dks etcwr
cukus dk y{; gkfly fd;kA bldh otg ls ukSdfj;ksa dh ryk'k esa cM+s iSekus ij yksx 'kgjksa dh
rjiQ iyk;u djus yxsA lM+dksa ij xjhcksa ds cPpksa dh HkhM+ c<+rh xbZ tks dqyh] lCth&Hkkth okys
;k dkjksa dh lkiQ&liQkbZ ds dkeksa esa 'kgjh vFkZO;oLFkk esa viuk fgLlk <wa< jgs FksA tc ;s ekewyh
dekbZ okys dke&èkaèks Hkh ugha cps rks mUgsa Hkh[k ekax dj ;k os';ko`fÙk ds tfj, thus ds fy,
etcwj dj fn;k x;kA tSls&tSls mÙkj&nf{k.k ds vkfFkZd lacaèk dBksj gksrs x, ;g Li"V gksrk x;k
fd varjkZ"Vªh; leqnk; dks ^fodkl* dk loky vHkh Hkh vius ,tsaMk ij lcls mQij j[kuk gksxkA
uqbZosugqbZl (mijksDr 39) ds eqrkfcd] bl dke ds fy, u dsoy uSfrdrk dh nqgkbZ nh xbZ cfYd
ekuokfèkdkjksa] lân;rk vkSj ijksidkj tSls ewY;ksa dk Hkh lgkjk fy;k x;kA ysfdu vc xjhch ds
lzksrksa ij è;ku nsuk egRoiw.kZ ugha jgkA mldh txg èkhjs&èkhjs fujksèkd ^ekuorkoknh* iz;klksa us ys yh
FkhA ;gh og le; Fkk tc xSj&ljdkjh laxBu fodkl ds {ks=k esa (fujkfJr cPpksa ds lanHkZ esa)
nkf[ky gks jgs FksA xSj&ljdkjh laxBuksa dh bl vken dk ,d iQk;nk ;s Fkk fd nf{k.k ds ns'kksa esa

Regional Resource Centre for Elementary Education, USRN-DU 8

fons'kh lgk;rk iz;klksa dks ykxw djus ds fy, ljdkj ij fuHkZj jgus dh t:jr ugha Fkh D;ksafd mls
vdq'ky] [kphZyk vkSj vfo'oluh; lkèku eku fy;k x;k Fkk (vkSj fooj.k ds fy, ns[ksa] mijksDr)A
D;ksafd xSj&ljdkjh laxBu cPpksa dh iwjh vkcknh dks lqj{kk iznku djus ds ljdkjh y{; dks iwjk
ugha dj ldrs Fks blfy, n{krk dk fopkj is'k fd;k x;k tks cPpksa ls lacafèkr mu uo&mnkjoknh
voèkkj.kkvksa ls mitk Fkk ftuesa cPpksa dks lqj{kk dh vko';drk ls eqDr viuk [k;ky j[kus esa
l{ke O;fDr;ksa ds :i esa ns[kk tkrk FkkA bl èkkj.kk dks dsoy rHkh cy fey ldrk Fkk tc
lgk;rk ds fy, pqus x, fujkfJr cPpksa dks ^n{krk* vkSj ^vkgr eklwfe;r* (uqbZosugqbZl us
^dkWEihVsal* vkSj ^vlkWYVsM bukslsal* 'kCnksa dk bLrseky fd;k gS) ds feJ.k ds :i esa is'k fd;k
tk,A vFkkZr] ;s fn[kk;k tk, fd os brus dq'ky gSa fd lhfer lsokvksa ls Hkh dkiQh ykHk mBk ldrs
gSaA fygktk] muds fy, vkSipkfjd dh txg vukSipkfjd Ldwfyax] Hkkstu vkSj diM+ksa dh txg dke
vkSj dtsZ] vkSj laLFkkxr lgk;rk dh txg xSj&laLFkk;h lsok,a gh dkiQh FkhaA tSlk fd uhps m¼`r
vihy ls irk pyrk gS] oSf'od xjhch ds izfr bl u, miHkksDrkoknh joS;s esa yxko vkSj uSfrdrk
gh eq[; ckrsa Fkha (;g vihy 2002 esa fn xkftZ;u vkSj lso fn fpYMªu iQkmaMs'ku] fczVsu }kjk
la;qDr jk"Vª vfèkos'ku ds ekSds ij cPpksa ds ckjs esa rS;kj fd, x, ,d fo'ks"k nLrkost dk fgLlk
FkhA)
nqfu;k Hkj esa ftanxh cgqr lkjs cPpksa ds fy, ,d tksf[ke gSA dqN ns'kksa esa cPpksa
ds ikl lq[kh] LoLFk] lqjf{kr vkSj f'kf{kr gksus ds ekSds T;knk gksrs gSaA dqN ns'kksa esa
fLFkfr vyx gSA ;gh dkj.k gS fd cky tksf[ke mik; (lhvkj,e) fodflr fd,
x, gSa (;wfulsiQ }kjk 1999 esa bdV~Bk fd, x, vkadM+ksa ds vkèkkj ij) ftuesa tUe
ls 18 lky dh mez rd ds nqfu;k ds lkjs cPpksa ds dY;k.k ij è;ku fn;k x;k
gS---A bu x.kukvksa ds fglkc ls lcls [kjkc 20 ns'k uD'ks ij fpfUgr fd, x, gSa--
-A ;gka lkiQ ns[kk tk ldrk gS fd dqN egk}hi vkSjksa ls csgrj gSaA felky ds rkSj
ij] buesa ls T;knkrj ns'k mi&lgkjk vizQhdk ds gSa tcfd ;wjksih; ns'kksa esa ;q¼ ds
ckn Hkh] elyu] ;wxksLykfo;k esa] cPps dkiQh csgrj izn'kZu dj jgs gSaA
vxj vki ekgokj fliQZ 3 ikSaM dh enn djsa rks cgqr lkjs cPpksa ds fy, csgrj
ftanxh gdhdr cu ldrh gSA
;gka cky tksf[ke mik;ksa dh x.kuk ds iQkewZys ij loky mBkus dh t:jr ugha gSA bl ppkZ ds fy,
t:jh ckr ;g gS fd bl rjg ds mik; nqfu;k Hkj esa cpiu ds vuqHkoksa dh fof'k"Vrkvksa dks iksaN
nsrs gSaA
,e CySd }kjk fyf[kr iqLrd fpYMªsu iQLVZ % fn LVksjh vkWiQ ;wfulsiQ] ikLV ,s.M izstsaV (vkWDliQksMZ
;wfuoflZVh izsl] 1996) esa crk;k x;k gS fd ;wfulsiQ esa dke djus okys fo'ks"kK ^laiw.kZ cPps* dh
t:jrksa dk vkdyu djrs gSaA CySd }kjk fy[kh xbZ dgkuh ds C;kSjksa esa tkuk bl ipsZ ds fglkc ls

Regional Resource Centre for Elementary Education, USRN-DU 9

mi;qDr ugha gksxk blfy, ;gka ,d [kkl le; ij cpiu dh ,d fuf'pr Nfo dks ifjHkkf"kr djus
esa varjkZ"Vªh; cky dY;k.k ,tsafl;ksa }kjk fuHkk;h xbZ Hkwfedk dk laf{kIr C;kSjk gh dkiQh gksxkA
1960&61 esa ;wfulsiQ us ^cPpksa dh t:jrksa* ij ,d ,sfrgkfld losZ{k.k fd;k FkkA blesa MCY;w,pvks
(LokLF; lacaèkh vko';drkvksa) ,iQ,vkbZ (iks"k.k lacaèkh vko';drkvkas)] ;wusLdks (f'k{kk lacaèkh
vko';drkvksa)] vkbZ,yvks (izf'k{k.k lacaèkh vko';drkvksa) vkSj la;qDr jk"Vª lkekftd ekeys C;wjks
(lekt dY;k.k lacaèkh vko';drkvksa) ls Hkh enn yh xbZ FkhA ekuk tkrk gS fd jk"Vªh; fodkl
;kstukvksa ds lanHkZ esa ^laiw.kZ cPps* dh t:jrksa ij tksj nsus okys bl losZ{k.k dh fjiksVZ us nqfu;k ds
cPpksa dh enn ds ckjs esa ;wuhlsiQ ds utfj;s dks Økafrdkjh :i ls cny fn;k FkkA lÙkj ds n'kd
esa ;wfulsiQ us xSj&vkSipkfjd f'k{kk ds fy, Ldwyksa dk ,d vè;;u fd;kA bldh fjiksVZ dks ^cuus
ds fy, lh[kuk* (yfu±x Vw ch) dk uke fn;k x;k FkkA bl nLrkost ls ^ewyHkwr f'k{kk* (csfld
,tqds'ku) dh voèkkj.kk lkeus vkbZA ;g ewyHkwr f'k{kk izR;sd cPps ds fy, t:jh joS;s] fuiq.krkvksa
vkSj Kku dk U;wure iSdst FkhA blesa lh[kus ds izfr ldkjkRed joS;s_ ewyHkwr lk{kjrk vkSj vad
Kku_ i;kZoj.k dh oSKkfud le>nkjh_ ifjokj ds ikyu&iks"k.k] ?kj pykus vkSj vkthfodk ds fy,
dkedkth Kku dks 'kkfey fd;k x;k FkkA tSlk fd CySd crkrs gSa] bl iSdst ds lcls eq[; xzkgd
os yksx Fks tks Ldwy ugha tk ik, Fks ;k chp esa gh i<+kbZ NksM+ pqds FksA buesa ls T;knkrj efgyk,a
FkhaA
vLlh ds n'kd 'kq: gq, esa dtZ vkSj lek;kstu izHkkoksa ds pyrs fodkl'khy ns'kksa esa f'k{kk ij gksus
okys [kpsZ esa Hkkjh fxjkoV vkbZ gSA bl ckj fiQj ;wuhlsiQ us cPpksa dh mÙkjthfork vkSj izkjafHkd
ckY;oLFkk f'k{kk ds ckjs esa tkudkfj;ksa ds izpkj&izlkj ij tksj fn;kA cky LokLF; fo'ks"kKksa ds lkFk
lykg&e'kfojs ds vkèkkj ij ^thou ds fy, rF;* (iSQDV~l iQkWj ykbiQ) ds uke ls ,d nLrkost
rS;kj fd;k x;kA vLlh iUuksa ds bl nLrkost esa tUe dk le; r; djus] lqjf{kr ekr`Ro] Lruiku]
cky fodkl] Vhdkdj.k] isfp'k] eysfj;k vkSj ,M~l ds ckjs esa tkudkfj;ka nh xbZ FkhaA ;g nLrkost
bl Kku dks yksxksa rd igqapkus okyh 'kS{kf.kd izfØ;kvksa ds fy, ,d 'kkWVZdV FkkA 1989 esa izdkf'kr
^thou ds fy, rF;* bruh liQy jgh fd mlds igys laLdj.k dh ikap Hkk"kkvksa esa 2]75]000
izfr;ka lky Hkj ds Hkhrj fcd pqdh Fkha (fooj.k ds fy, ns[ksa] ;wfulsiQ 1991)A bldk nwljk
laLdj.k 1993 esa vk;kA bl ckj 176 Hkk"kkvksa esa 90 yk[k ls T;knk izfr;ka Nkih xb±A crk;k tkrk gS
fd 1995 rd vkrs&vkrs 200 Hkk"kkvksa esa bldh 1 djksM+ ls T;knk izfr;ka Ni pqdh FkhaA u,
laLdj.k esa izkjafHkd ckY;koLFkk fodkl ij ,d vè;k; vyx ls tksM+k x;k FkkA bl nLrkost dks
cgqr lkjs ns'kksa ds Ldwyh ikB~;Øe esa Hkh 'kkfey fd;k x;kA felky ds rkSj ij] caxykns'k :jy
,MokalesaV desVh (chvkj,lh) us izkFkfed f'k{kk O;oLFkk ls ckgj NwV x, cPpksa ds fy, ,d
xSj&vkSipkfjd f'k{kk dk;ZØe ykxw fd;k tks dkiQh liQy jgkA chvkj,lh us caxykns'k ds cPpksa dh
fLFkfr;ksa dks è;ku esa j[krs gq, bl iSdst esa nh xbZ tkudkfj;ksa dk vius fglkc ls bLrseky fd;k

Regional Resource Centre for Elementary Education, USRN-DU 10

FkkA 22 xzkeh.k leqnk;ksa esa chvkj,lh }kjk pyk, x, izk;ksfxd Ldwyksa esa 70 izfr'kr yM+fd;ka Fkha
(CySd 1996 % 231)A
;gka xkSj djus okyh ckr ;g gS fd ^ekud cPpk* vkSj ^vkn'kZ cpiu* tSls fopkj varjkZ"Vªh;
lgk;rk ,tsafl;ksa }kjk fuèkkZfjr vkSj izlkfjr gksrs gSa rkfd os vius vuqnkuksa ds forj.k vkSj fuxjkuh
ij è;ku j[k ldsaA ;wfulsiQ dh bl dgkuh ls nks vkSj ckrsa fudy dj vkrh gaSA igyh] D;ksafd gj
cPpk vkn'kZ cpiu ugha th ldrk blfy, jkT; dks ,sls cPpksa dh f'k{kk ds fy, 'kkWVZdV lkspus
gksaxs tks bl [kkds esa ugha lekrsA bl oSdfYid 'kS{kf.kd iSdst dk Lo:i bl ckr ij fuHkZj djsxk
fd ykHkkfUorksa esa T;knkrj yM+fd;ka gSa ;k yM+ds (;wfulsiQ }kjk rS;kj fd, x, ^ewyHkwr f'k{kk* ds
U;wure iSdst esa ifjokj dk ikyu&iks"k.k djus vkSj ifjokj pykus ls lacafèkr Kku blhfy, fn;k
x;k Fkk D;ksafd igys ls ;g r; Fkk fd bl dk;ZØe dk ykHk mBkus okys fo|kfFkZ;ksa esa ls T;knkrj
yM+fd;ka gksaxh)A pqukaps] xkSj djus okyh nwljh ckr ;g Fkh fd [kklrkSj ls nf{k.k ds ns'kksa esa cpiu
,d [kkl ySafxd Nfo ls caèkk gksrk gSA
u dsoy Ldwy esa [kjkc izn'kZu ds ihNs cfYd cPpksa dks fHk{kko`fÙk vkSj lM+dksa ij dke djus ds
fy, ckè; djus ds ihNs izkjafHkd ckY;koLFkk ns[kHkky dh deh dkiQh egRoiw.kZ gksrh gSA laHkor%
blh ckr dks è;ku esa j[krs gq, ,d uhfr rS;kj dh xbZ ftldk nqfu;k Hkj ds cPpksa dh ftanxh ij
Hkkjh vlj iM+kA iQyLo:i 1989 esa la;qDr jk"Vª cky vfèkdkj duosa'ku (lhvkjlh) ikfjr fd;k
x;k ftl ij Hkkjr lfgr 190 ls T;knk ns'kksa us nLr[kr fd, Fks (mijksDr % 226)A bl duosa'ku esa
18 lky ls de mez ds O;fDr dks ^cPpk* ds :i esa ifjHkkf"kr fd;k x;k FkkA nqfu;k dh ljdkjksa
esa ls T;knkrj bl ckr ij lger Fkha fd cPpksa dks fdu phtksa dk vfèkdkj gS rFkk jkT;ksa vkSj
ns[kHkky djus okyksa dh D;k ftEesnkfj;ka gksrh gSaA bl lgefr dks bl rjg ls lw=kc¼ fd;k x;k gS
fd mÙkjthfork vkSj fodkl ls ysdj lqj{kk vkSj lgHkkfxrk rd cPps ds thou ds lkjs ljksdkjksa dks
^vkn'kZ* :i esa vfHkO;Dr vkSj js[kkafdr fd;k x;k gS (fclsy 2003 % 51)A
bl ppkZ ls Li"V gS fd ^fo'ks"kK* (euksoSKkfud] lekt'kkL=kh] lkekftd dk;ZdrkZ vkSj cky
dY;k.k vfèkdkjh) 'kgjh cpiu ds ,d [kkl ekWMy dks è;ku esa j[krs gSaA ;g ,slk ekWMy gS tks
?kj ds lqjf{kr okrkoj.k ij vkèkkfjr gSA mlesa ,d iRuh ;k eka dh yxkrkj mifLFkfr vkSj dkj[kkuksa]
nÝrjksa] Ldwyksa vkSj nqdkuksa dh Ük`a[kyk ds vuq:i ,d nSfud :Vhu vfuok;Z gSA ,d lgh cpiu
dh O;oLFkk dks lkdkj djus ds fy, ;s lkjs rF; vfuok;Z gSa D;ksafd ckY;koLFkk dk cktkj ?kj vkSj
Ldwy esa dsafær gksrk gS (uqbZosugqbZl 1999 ,)A lkekftd igpku ds fuèkkZj.k esa cqfu;knh egRo j[kus
okys foiqy yksd (LFkkuh;) Kku dks cpiu ds egRoiw.kZ rRo ds :i esa fojys gh dHkh txg nh
tkrh gSA mnkgj.k ds fy,] iQX;wZlu (2001) us cgqr izHkkoh <ax ls bl ckr dks Li"V fd;k gS fd
xjhcksa ds cPps ,d [kkl HkkSfrd ,oa lkekftd ifjos'k esa vius Kku] izs{k.k vkSj O;ogkj ls yksd
Kku vftZr djrs gSaA D;ksafd bl lh[k dk bLrseky vkSj fodkl Bksl ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa gksrk gS blfy,
bu cPpksa ds fy, ;g f'k{kk Ldwyh Kku ds eqdkcys T;knk mi;ksxh izrhr gksrh gSA ;gh Kku vkSj

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mldh lajpuk,a ml O;k[;kRed [kkds ds :i esa dke djrh gSa ftuds tfj, gkf'k;kbZ i`"BHkwfe ds
cPps viuh eqBHksM+ksa] O;ogkjksa] Ldwyh vuq"Bkuksa] ikB~;p;kZ vkSj izkfèkdkj dks le>uk lh[krs gSa (ns[ksa
LVhMeku 1997)A xjhcksa ds cPpkas dks vkèkqfudrk ds fy, fu.kkZ;d egRo j[kus okys ckY;koLFkk
izrhdksa dks vftZr djus ds fy, izsfjr djus dh ctk; gesa mu fu:i.kksa dks csinZ djuk pkfg, tks
muds thou dh egRoiw.kZ phtksa dk fu"ksèk djrs gSa (uqbZosugqbZl 1999,)A ceZu (1995) ;s Hkh
ekurs gSa fd bu fufeZfr;ksa ds ihNs fNis eè;oxhZ; ekudksa ij Hkh loky mBk;k tkuk pkfg,A blds
fy, ,sls vè;;u gksus pkfg, tks ckY;koLFkk ds o`gÙkj lkaLÑfrd fu:i.kksa dks lkeus yk,aA
ckY;koLFkk ds varlk±LÑfrd fu:i.k
e;ky (1999) us cPpksa vkSj cpiu ls lacafèkr le>nkfj;ksa ds dqN fodYi is'k djus ds mís'; ls
u, iz;klksa ij ppkZ dh gSA [kklrkSj ls mUgksaus 16 vkS|ksfxd ns'kksa esa fd, x, ,d O;kid vè;;u
dk o.kZu fd;k x;k gS tks cPpksa dh fLFkfr ls lacafèkr gSA bl vè;;u esa cPpksa dh oSèkkfud vkSj
lkekftd&vkfFkZd fLFkfr] ihf<+;ksa ds chp lalkèkuksa ds caVokjs vkSj cPpksa dh xfrfofèk;ksa ij è;ku
fn;k x;k gSA fczVsu esa 'kq: dh xbZ bl ifj;kstuk dh ewy izLFkkiuk ;g gS fd cPpk dksbZ izkÑfrd
Js.kh ugha gksrk cfYd cPpk D;k gS vkSj cpiu dks dSls ft;k tkrk gS] ;s ckrsa o;Ldksa ds
rkSj&rjhdksa] mís';ksa vkSj laLÑfr;ksa ls fuèkkZfjr gksrh gSaA
vkuany{eh vkSj ctkt (1981] oh:: 2001 esa m¼`r) us okjk.klh ds eksfeu valkjh leqnk; ds
cPpksa dh ftanxh dk ekuo'kkL=kh; vè;;u fd;k FkkA mUgksaus mÙkj Hkkjr ds bl js'ke cqudj leqnk;
ds 209 cPpksa dk vè;;u fd;kA 'kksèkdrkZvksa dk dguk Fkk fd bl leqnk; esa pkj lky dh
NksVh&NksVh yM+fd;ksa dh vkoktkgh Hkh fu;af=kr gksrh gSA mUgsa eksgYys ds dsoy ifjfpr ifjokjksa esa
tkus dh NwV gksrh gSA mUgsa ?kj esa gh jgus vkSj ?kjsyw dke lh[kus ds fy, izksRlkfgr fd;k tkrk gSA
6 lky dh mez rd T;knkrj yM+fd;ka lkiQ&liQkbZ] crZu èkksuk vkSj HkkbZ&cguksa dh ns[kHkky djuk
lh[k tkrh gSaA 9 lky dh mez esa mUgsa fcuk insZ ckgj tkus dh NwV ugha feyrhA 13 ;k 14 lky dh
mez esa ;kuh ;kSoukjHk@I;wcVhZ ij igqapus ds dqN le; ckn gh mudks C;kg fn;k tkrk gSA 'kknh
yM+fd;ksa ds cpiu dk vkSipkfjd lekiu gksrh gSA blds foijhr yM+dksa dks rhu ;k pkj lky dh
mez ls cqukbZ dh dyk fl[kkuh 'kq: dj nh tkrh gSA 10 lky dh mez rd T;knkrj yM+ds fdlh
dq'ky cqudj ds ikl dke djus yxrs gSaA 13&14 lky dh mez rd lHkh yM+ds Lora=k :i ls
cqukbZ djuk 'kq: dj nsrs gSaA yM+dksa dks leqnk; ds èkkfeZd thou ls Hkh ifjfpr djk;k tkrk gSA
muesa ls dqN enjlksa (èkkfeZd Ldwy) esa Hkh tkrs gSaA
oh:: (2001) us Hkkjrh; ifjos'k ls lacafèkr dqN vU; vè;;uksa dk mYys[k djrs gq,
^o;Ld&cPpk uSjar;Z* (dqekj 1993) dks Hkkjrh; lanHkZ esa ckY;oLFkk dk fof'k"V igyw crk;k gSA
bl voèkkj.kk dh Ñ".k dqekj }kjk dh xbZ O;k[;k ds vuqlkj nSfud thou esa cPps dks o;Ld
ifjfèk dk fgLlk ekuk tkrk gSA ;g ckr lHkh lkekftd oxks± ds ckjs esa lgh fn[kkbZ nsrh gSA [kklrkSj

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ls Ñf"k vFkZO;oLFkk ds lanHkZ esa dqekj dk rdZ gS fd o;Ld&cPpk uSjar;Z vFkZO;oLFkk esa vk,
cnykoksa ls izHkkfor gqvk gSA mUgksaus bl ckr dk [kklrkSj ls mYys[k fd;k gS fd xzkeh.k csjkstxkjh us
dke dh ryk'k esa cM+s iSekus ij 'kgjksa dh vksj iyk;u dks c<+kok fn;k gS vkSj gks ldrk gS fd
blls Hkh cPps dh nqfu;k esa ikfjokfjd o;Ldksa dh la[;k de gqbZ gSA
dqekj dk dguk gS fd ledkyhu 'kgjh Hkkjr esa nks ijLij fojksèkh rkdrsa cPps ds lekthdj.k dks
izHkkfor djrh gSa % ,d rjiQ rks ifjokj vkSj nwljh rjiQ Ldwy] ehfM;k o cktkjA
rkdsbZ (1999) us vkaèkz izns'k ds ,d xkao esa fd, x, vius vè;;u dk mYys[k fd;k gSA bl
vè;;u ds tfj, cPpksa ds ^thou txr* esa muds }kjk fd, tkus okys dkeksa vkSj Ldwyh f'k{kk ij
muds vlj dks le>uk pkgrs FksA 1994 ls 1997 ds chp rkdsbZ us tks vè;;u fd;k gS mlls irk
pyrk gS fd bl xkao ds cPps bl rjg ds dke djrs Fks % ikuh ykuk] eosf'k;ksa dh ns[kHkky djuk]
[kkuk cukuk] [ksrh ds dke vkSj vU; (HkkbZ&cguksa dh ns[kHkky vkfn)A bl xkao ds cPpksa }kjk fd;k
tk jgk dke muds lekt dh thou lajpuk esa xgjs rkSj ij xqaFkk gqvk Fkk] ;g muds lekthdj.k
dk ,d egRoiw.kZ fgLlk Fkk] blls ifjokj dks dsoy vizR;{k :i ls enn fey jgh Fkh (D;ksafd
buesa ls fdlh Hkh dke ds fy, dksbZ osru ugha fn;k tkrk)A rkdsbZ dk rdZ gS fd bu cPpksa ds
dke dks ^cky Je* dh Js.kh esa ugha j[kk tk ldrkA D;ksafd dke dk Lo:i iwjs rkSj ij LFkkuh;
lekt dh lajpuk vkSj thou 'kSyh ij vkèkkfjr gS blfy, gesa bl rjg ds dkeksa ls Ldwfyax ij
iM+us okys izHkkoksa dks le>us ds fy, bl lekt dh thou 'kSyh dk vPNh rjg vè;;u djuk
pkfg,A rkdsbZ ds vè;;u ls Li"V gksrk gS fd o;Ld ;k cPps ds thou txr dk Ldwy dh nqfu;k
ls dksbZ lacaèk ugha gksrkA ;gka rd fd Ldwy esa i<+k, tkus okys lcdksa esa Hkh nksuksa vyx&vyx
txr gksrs gSaA nwljh rjiQ eè;oxhZ; 'kgjh i`"BHkwfe ds cPps lkiQ ns[k ldrs gSa fd muds thou ds
dbZ vk;ke mudh ikB~;iqLrdksa esa Hkh izfrfcafcr gksrs gSaA
cPpksa ds dke vkSj Ldwfyax ds vkilh lacaèkksa dh iM+rky djus okys ,d vkSj vè;;u dk gokyk
uqbZosugqbZl (1999ch) us fn;k gSA dsjy ds etnwj oxhZ; cPpksa ds ,d lewg dk vè;;u djrs gq,
mUgksaus crk;k gS fd vius ifjokj ds lnL;ksa ds lkFk dke (eNyh idM+uk vkSj tqV dh jfLl;ka
cukuk) djus okys cPpksa ds thou esa Ldwy vkSj dke ds chp Vdjko ugha gSA ysfdu mUgsa ,slk
yxrk gS fd ifjokj esa cPpksa dh Hkwfedk dks ysdj o;Ldksa ds joS;s vkSj vkdka{kkvksa dks le>us ds
fy, vkSj vè;;u t:jh gSA
lqts+u fclsy (2003) us 1997&98 ds nkSjku <kdk] caxykns'k ds ifjèkku m|ksx esa dke djus okys
7&14 lky dh mez ds 225 cPpksa ds ckjs esa bdV~Bk fd, x, vkadM+ksa dh ppkZ dh gSA ;g
ekuo'kkL=kh; vè;;u cPpksa ds thou vuqHkoksa vkSj ckY;koLFkk dh mudh ifjHkk"kkvksa ,oa Nfo;ksa ij
dsafær FkkA fc'ksy ekurh gSa fd caxyk Hkk"kk esa ckY;koLFkk (pkbYMgqM) ds fy, dksbZ ,d
'kCn@okD;[kaM ugha gSA T;knkrj cPps bl ckr dks le>rs gSa fd muds thou esa Lok;Ùkrk de gSA

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muds fy, fookg cpiu dh lhek dks ikj dj ysus dk ,d laLdkj gSA vè;;u esa fy, x, cPpksa
us vius ifjokjksa dks lgkjk nsus] lh[kus vkSj [ksyus tSlh t:jrksa dk mYys[k fd;k FkkA gkjfdu fcy
dk mYys[k djrs gq, fc'ksy crkrh gSa fd vesfjdh O;kikfjd ikcafn;ksa dh èkedh ds dkj.k nqfu;k
Hkj esa fu;kZrksUeq[kh m|ksxksa ls cPpksa dks gVk fn;k x;k gSA bldk ,d urhtk ;g gqvk fd caxykns'k
ds yxHkx 10]000 cPps ,sls Ldwyksa esa tkus yxs ftUgsa [kklrkSj ls mudh t:jrksa dks è;ku esa j[kdj
cuk;k x;k FkkA nwljh vksj 50]000 ls 2]00]000 cPps ,sls Fks tks bl ?kVukØe dh otg ls
vkthfodk dk viuk lcls vkd"kZd fodYi xaok cSBs FksA fc'ksy bl ?kVuk dks bl ckr dk
mnkgj.k ekurh gSa fd cpiu dh oSf'od lkekftd fufeZfr jk"Vªh; vkSj LFkkuh; ljksdkjksa dks fdruk
detksj dj nsrh gSaA mudk fu"kd"kZ gS fd lkekftd uhfr ds rRoksa dks cPpksa dh lfØ; lgHkkfxrk
ds vkèkkj ij r; fd;k tkuk pkfg, vkSj mUgha ds ekè;e ls ykxw fd;k tkuk pkfg,A mudk ,d
fu"d"kZ ;g gS fd bl rjg dh lkekftd uhfr;ksa dks fuèkkZfjr djus esa gesa thou ifjfLFkfr;ksa]
ifjokj] leqnk; vkSj jk"Vªh; mís';ksa ij fopkj djuk pkfg,A
Hkkjr esa {ks=kh;] èkkfeZd vkSj tkrh; igpkuksa dh cgqyrk cpiu dh dbZ Nfo;ksa dks tUe nsrh gSA
fiQj Hkh] gekjs ikl cpiu dh ftl Nfo ds ckjs esa lcls T;knk tkudkfj;ka gSa og fganw èkeZ ls gh
lacafèkr gSa (okWY'k 2003)A ;gh og Nfo gS tks ikB~;iqLrdsa fy[kus okyksa vkSj uhfr fuekZrkvksa ds
tgu esa gksrh gSA ;gh og Nfo gS tks cky dY;k.k is'ksojksa vkSj laxBuksa dks izsfjr djrh gS (vUos"kh
2003)A
byS;k (1996) us viuh iqLrd OgkbZ vkbZ ,e ukWV , fganw (eSa fganw D;ksa ugha gwa) esa dq#ek leqnk;
esa yM+dksa vkSj yM+fd;ksa ds tkrh; izf'k{k.k dk ftØ fd;k gSA bl leqnk; ds NksVs&NksVs yM+dksa dks
HksM+ ikyu xfrfofèk;ksa dh Hkk"kk fl[kkbZ tkrh gSA os lh[krs gSa fd vyx&vyx HksM+ksa dks dSls
igpkuk tkrk gS_ HksM+ksa dks fdl rjg dh chekfj;ka gks ldrh gSa_ mu chekfj;ksa dk dkSu lh
ouLifr;ksa ls bykt fd;k tk ldrk gS_ HksM+ksa ds izlo ds le; D;k djuk pkfg,_ mUgsa fdl rjg
dh ?kkl f[kykuh pkfg,_ vkSj HksM+ksa dh mQu dSls mrkjh tkrh gS vkfnA yM+fd;ksa dks fl[kk;k tkrk
gS fd cPpksa dh ns[kHkky dSls djsa_ fepZ dh filkbZ dSls gksrh gS] èkku dwVuk] mQu vkSj dkaVksa dks
vyx&vyx djuk] mQu ls èkkxk cukuk_ vkSj feV~Vh ds dPps crZuksa esa [kkuk cukus dk D;k <ax
gksrk gS] vkfnA byS;k ds fooj.k ls fdlh [kkl lkekftd oxhZ;@tkrh; lewg esa ySafxd Hkwfedkvksa ds
fodkl dh varjax >yd feyrh gSA muds fooj.k ls irk pyrk gS fd blh rjg dh xfrfofèk;ka
euksoSKkfud Locksèk dk fodkl djrh gSaA ysfdu] tSlk fd LVhMeku (1997) us Hkh dgk gS]
xSj&izHkqRo'kkyh leqnk;ksa ds fooj.k vkSj vuqHko dHkh vfèkÑr nLrkostksa (tSls cky euksfoKku dh
ikB~;iqLrdsa ;k uhfr nLrkost) esa nkf[ky ugha gks ikrsA
xjhc ifjokjksa ds cPps [kqn eglwl djrs gSa fd ^dke* muds nSfud thou dk fgLlk gS vkSj mUgsa nks
oDr dh jksVh tqVkus esa fgLlk caVkuk pkfg,A vkaèkz izns'k esa gSnjkckn fLFkr uylkj ykW ;wfuoflZVh }kjk

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 cky vfèkdkj lafèk (lhvkjlh) ij 2001 esa rS;kj dh xbZ fjiksVZ esa ,d ckWDl dk 'kh"kZd Fkk &
^gesa dke D;ksa ugha djuk pkfg,\* blesa ,d NksVs ls Ldwyh yM+ds us dgk Fkk %
Ldwy ls ykSV dj ge dke D;ksa u djsa\ rhu cts ds ckn ge D;k djsa\ eSa rhu
lky dh mez ls gh eka&cki ds lkFk [ksrksa esa tkus yxk FkkA eSa xk;&HkSal vkSj
cdfj;ka pjkrk gwaA tc eSa muds lkFk tkrk gwa rks eSa [ksrh&ckM+h ds ,sls dke lh[k
ysrk gwa ftuds fy, cPpksa dks 15 #i, izfr ?kaVk fey tkrk gS (cM+ksa dks 20 #i,
izfr ?kaVk feyrk gS)A vxj eSa ;s lc uk d:a rks D;k irk eSa [ksrh djuk Hkh Hkwy
tkmaQ vkSj i<+kbZ ls Hkh eq>s dksbZ vkenuh u gksA
okWY'k us fn[kk;k gS fd vaxzsth f'k{kk us vktknh ls igys (1870&1947) Hkkjrh; cpiu dks fdl
rjg cny fn;k FkkA og crkrs gSa fd fczfV'k 'kklu ds nkSjku Hkkjr esa cpiu dh tks ubZ lajpuk,a
vkSj vuqHko lkeus vk, os Lora=k 'kgjh Hkkjr esa iyus&c<+us okys Hkkjrh; cPpksa dh ftanxh dk ,d
LFkk;h fgLlk cu pqds gSaA fygktk] vkt ds cPps vHkh Hkh ,d ,slh f'k{kk O;oLFkk ls tw> jgs gSa
tks ifjokj vkSj leqnk; ls Lora=k pyrh gSA os vHkh Hkh ,d dkWLeksikWfyVu vkèkqfudrk vftZr djus
ds la?k"kZ esa O;Lr gSaA vxys fgLls esa eSa bl ckr ij fopkj d:axh fd fdl rjg vfèkdkjksa dk
foe'kZ Hkh bu la?k"kks± dh mis{kk djrk gS vkSj mlds LFkku ij bl rjg ds iz;klksa ls Ldwfyax o
f'k{kk'kkL=k ij iM+us okys udkjkRed fufgrkFkks± dh mis{kk djds ,d ^vkn'kZ cpiu* dks LFkkfir
djrk gSA
Ldwfyax vkSj f'k{kk'kkL=k ds fy, fufgrkFkZ
lHkh cPps vius thou esa fofHkUu voljksa ij o;Ldksa ds vuqdwy ekuh tkus okyh ftEesnkfj;ksa ds
laidZ esa vkrs gSaA iQyLo:i] os vius cpiu dks vyx&vyx rjhdksa ls vuqHko djrs gSaA tks yksx
cky vfèkdkj ds utfj;s dh odkyr djrs gSa os cpiu dks vuqHko djus esa vkus okyh bu
fHkUurkvksa vkSj muls cPpksa esa iSnk gksus okys vkRecksèk ij è;ku ugha ns ikrsA tks cPps dke ds
o;Ld txr esa fgLlsnkjh djrs gSa (Hkys gh mUgsa osru u feyrk gks) mudks bl rjg ds cPpksa ds
:i esa n'kkZ;k tkrk gS tks viuh eklwfe;r [kks pqds gSa vkSj ftudk cpiu fNu pqdk gS] tks vHkkxs
gSa (CySU'ksV 1996] fc'ksy 2003 esa m¼`r)A yksd uhfr;ksa ds fo'ks"kK ekurs gSa fd ;s cPps ftl rjg
dk Je djrs gSa og ,d f'k{kk ds :i esa mUgsa vkxs c<+k jgk gS vkSj ;g f'k{kk eè; oxZ ds
xSj&dkedkth cPpksa dks feyus okyh f'k{kk ds led{k gksrh gS (lsaVj iQkWj ifCyd ikWfylh LVMht
1993_ othj 2000)A uoacj 1989 esa la;qDr jk"Vª egklHkk }kjk ikfjr vkSj fnlacj 1992 esa Hkkjr
ljdkj }kjk LohÑr dh xbZ cky vfèkdkj lafèk (lhvkjlh) esa dgk x;k gS fd 18 lky ls de
mez dk dksbZ Hkh euq"; cPpk gksrk gS vkSj lhvkjlh esa fn, x, cPpksa ds vkfFkZd] lkaLÑfrd vkSj
lkekftd vfèkdkjksa dks ykxw djus ds fy, lHkh ljdkjsa mfpr dkuwuh] iz'kkldh; ,oa vU; dne
mBk,axhA bl ckr ds fy, ljdkjksa ij dksbZ ncko ugha gS fd os fofHkUu leqnk;kas ds fy, bu

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vfèkdkjksa ds vFkZ vkSj fufgrkFkks± dks Hkh le>saA vkpZMZ (1993) crkrs gSa fd dksbZ lekt vius cPpksa
ds ckjs esa fdl rjg lksprk gS vkSj vxj mUgsa vfèkdkj fn, tk ldrs gSa rks mu vfèkdkjksa ds ckjs
esa fdl rjg ls iQSlys ysrk gS] ;g ckr ml ^lekt* ij fuHkZj djrh gSA
nhIrk vpj (1999) us vius ,d vizdkf'kr ys[k esa nyhy nh gS fd Ldwyh f'k{kk ,d dfYir
'kgjh] lo.kZ] mPpoxhZ;] fganw] yM+ds ds :i esa fu:fir ,d ^jk"Vªh; cPps* ij dsafnzr vkSj mlds
bnZ&fxnZ gh fufeZr gSA vkSifuosf'kd f'k{kk bl fopkj ij vkèkkfjr Fkh fd ?kj ugha cfYd Ldwy gh
og nk;jk gksrk gS tgka vkSifuosf'kd fo"k;ksa dks ykxw fd;k tk,xkA Hkkjrh; ckyd ds fuekZ.k dks
ifjokj@lekt ds ftEes ugha NksM+k tk ldrk FkkA bl izdkj ljdkjh@ljdkj }kjk foÙkiksf"kr Ldwy
cPps ds mQij ,d vfHkHkkodh; lÙkk dk izn'kZu djrs Fks vkSj ifjokj rFkk futh {ks=k ds vlj dks
U;wure lhek esa j[kuk pkgrs FksA ysfdu Lora=krk ds ckn gq, jk"Vªh; iz;klksa esa cPps ds ykyu&ikyu
esa ifjokj@leqnk; ds izHkko dks iwjh rjg utjvankt djus dh bPNk ugha FkhA vpj dh nyhy gS fd
,d jk"Vªh; ukxfjd dh jpuk esa l{ke O;kogkfjd f'k{kk laLFkku ds :i esa xq#dqy ekWMy dk mn;
?kj ds vFkks± esa Ldwy dk Lo:i fuèkkZfjr djus dh jk"Vªoknh pkg dk gh ladsr gSA mudk dguk gS
fd ifjokj dh lajpuk ds tfj, jk"Vª ds iquuZohdj.k ds fy, cpiu dk lgkjk fy;k x;k gSA bl
u, ekudh; foe'kZ esa ifjokj dks Je vkSj vkuan ds chp vkewy i`Fkdrk ij vkèkkfjr ,d
vyx&Fkyx futh ifjfèk ds :i esa lkspk x;k FkkA jk"Vªh; ifjokj dh Hkh lo.kZ] eè;oxhZ; vkSj
'kgjh ifjokj ds :i esa gh dYiuk dh xbZA tc rd bl vfpfUgr ijarq vis{kr;k jk"Vªh; ifjokj dh
Nfo ,d oxhZ;@tkrh; fLFkfr ls esy [kk jgh Fkh rc rd bl ifjokj vkSj jk"Vªh;@jktdh; mís';ksa ds
chp dksbZ varfoZjksèk ugha Fkk D;ksafd ;s mís'; Hkh mlh oxZ@tkfr dh vofLFkfr ls mits FksA ftu
ifjokjksa dh oxhZ;@tkrh; fLFkfr Hkhrjh vkSj ckgjh] futh vkSj lkoZtfud] Je vkSj vkuan] cpiu
vkSj o;Ldrk dh l[r i`Fkdrk dks Lohdkj ugha djrh Fkh muds fy, jk"Vªh; ifjokj vkSj jk"Vªh;
mís';ksa ds chp cuus okyk ;g lg&lacaèk VwVus yxk FkkA vpj dk dguk gS fd blh fcanq ij
(vLlh ds n'kd esa fdlh le;) cky vijkèk] cky etnwjh vkSj fujkfJr cPpksa tSlh ifj?kVukvksa
dks iFkHkz"V ifjokjksa vkSj vi;kZIr Ldwfyax ls mith leL;kvksa ds :i esa fpfUgr fd;k tkus yxkA
bl rjg ds cPps jk"Vª }kjk x<+h xbZ cpiu dh fopkjèkkjk ds fy, ,d pqukSrh Fks D;ksafd os cpiu
dh igyh 'krZ & o;Ld lÙkk & dks eatwj djus ds fy, rS;kj ugha FksA vpj dk fu"d"kZ gS fd
jk"Vªokn }kjk fufeZr vkSj jkT; }kjk LohÑr cpiu dh fopkjèkkjk rFkk fHkUu izdkj ds cpiuksa vkSj
fHkUu izdkj ds ifjokjksa }kjk bl rjg dh fopkjèkkjk dks nh tk jgh pqukSrh ls tks vlkeatL; iSnk
gqvk gS mlh us cky etnwjh ls lacafèkr ekStwnk cglksa dks vkSj T;knk yksxksa ds lkeus yk fn;k gSA
^cPps* dh dkuwuh ifjHkk"kk mís'; vkSj ifjfLFkfr;ksa ds fglkc ls vyx&vyx gks ldrh gSA ;g ckr
bl rF; ls Li"V gks tkrh gS fd ckfyx gksus dh mez 14 lky (Je dkuwu) ls 21 lky (laifÙk
dkuwu] fookg vkSj vU; dkuwu) rd vyx&vyx ekuh tkrh gSA jkekLokeh (1996) dk rdZ gS fd
bl ekeys esa tkfr Hkh ,d Hkwfedk fuHkkrh gSA og dgrh gSa fd laifÙk vkSj vfHkHkkodrk tSls

Regional Resource Centre for Elementary Education, USRN-DU 16

 ekeys maQph tkfr;ksa dh nqfu;k dh pht gSa ftuds fy, varjkZ"Vªh; ekud vkSj duosa'ku ykxw gksrs gSa
ftlls cPpk 18 lky ;k ;gka rd fd 21 lky rd dh mez rd cPpk gh cuk jgrk gSA Jfed
oxZ ds cPps bu mnkj dkuwuksa ds nk;js ls ckgj gksrs gSaA jkT; Hkh mUgsa dqN O;olk;ksa (tSls eksVj
ifjogu] chM+h m|ksx] ckxku Je] [kku] vkfn) esa 14 lky dh mez esa Hkh dkuwuu dke djus dh
btktr nsrk gSA
cpiu dh bu dkuwuh voèkkj.kkvksa esa ekStwn varfoZjksèkksa ls Ldwyh f'k{kk ds {ks=k esa lfØ; cky
vfèkdkj dk;ZdrkZvksa ij vlj ugha iM+k gSA lhvkjlh esa mfYyf[kr vfèkdkjksa ds vkèkkj ij mudk
rdZ gS fd 14 lky ls de mez ds fdlh Hkh cPps dks dke ugha djuk pkfg, vkSj ,sls lkjs cPpksa
dks Ldwy esa gksuk pkfg,A mnkgj.k ds fy,] 1991 ls vkaèkz izns'k ds jaxkjsM~Mh ftys esa lfØ; ,e-oh-
iQkmaMs'ku (,eoh,iQ) [krjukd vksj xSj&[krjukd dkeksa ds chp ;k cPpksa ds dk;Z vkSj cPpksa ds
Je ds chp dksbZ iQdZ ugha ekurk (flUgk 2003)A
vfèkdkjksa ds n`f"Vdks.k ls izsfjr yksx mu ifjokjksa ds lkekftd ;FkkFkZ dks utjvankt dj nsrs gSa
ftuesa cPps ^dke* dh dksbZ ftEesnkjh ugha ysrsA dbZ vuqlaèkkuksa esa nyhy nh xbZ gS tc dksbZ xjhc
ifjokj vius ,d ;k lkjs cPpksa dks ^f'k{kk* ls fudkyus dk iQSlyk ysrk gS rks bl iQSlys dks
ifjokj ds lkekftd ;FkkFkZ ds vkèkkj ij lgh lanHkZ esa ns[kuk t:jh gks tkrk gS (mnkgj.k ds fy,
ns[ksa] ,aVuh ,oa xk;=kh 2002)_ rFkk cPps ds fodkl dks uqdlku igqapk ldus okys cky Je rFkk
cPps dks dqN {kerk,a] ftEesnkfj;ka vkSj ljksdkj fodflr djus esa enn nsus okys cky Je ds chp
iQdZ fd;k tkuk pkfg, (rkdsbZ 1999_ fy;srsu 2002)A dgus dk eryc ;g gS fd cky etnwjh
dks lacafèkr ifjokj }kjk LosPNk ls fy, x, iQSlys ds :i esa ns[kus dk eryc ml ifjokj dh
oapukvksa dks iwjh rjg utjvankt dj nsuk gksxkA pkbYM yscj ,s.M iwQM flD;ksfjVh fdrkc dh
leh{kk djrs gq, fy;srsu (2003) dk rdZ gS fd vxj lkoZtfud forj.k iz.kkyh (ihMh,l) etcwr
gks vkSj lacafèkr ifjokjksa dks lLrh dher ij vukt eqgS;k djk lds rks cky etnwjh dh leL;k ij
vadq'k yxk;k tk ldrk gSA mudk dguk gS fd Ldwy u tkus okys 8 djksM+ cPpksa esa ls dsoy 1-1
djksM+ cPps gh cky etnwjh dj jgs gSaA fygktk] gesa ckdh cPpksa dh Hkh fpark djuh pkfg, vkSj ;s
le>uk pkfg, fd os Ldwy D;ksa ugha tk jgs gSaA bldk eryc gS fd dsoy cPpksa ;k muds
ekrk&firk dks lacksfèkr djus okyh cky etnwjh fojksèkh ;kstuk,a liQy ugha gks ldrhaA ub ;kstukvksa
esa mu laLFkkuksa ij Hkh è;ku nsuk pkfg, tks ?kj ds Hkhrj vHkkoksa dks tUe nsrs gSaA
vkerkSj ij etnwj oxZ ds cPps vius eka&cki dh enn ds fy, ?kj dk dqN dke gkFk esa ys ysrs gSa
(f'kokth 2003)A bl izfØ;k esa os tks vfrfjDr Kku@fuiq.krk vftZr djrs gSa mlls Hkh mUgsa dksbZ
vkifÙk ugha gksrh tks ^eè;oxZ dsafær* Ldwyh ikB~;p;kZ dk fgLlk dHkh ugha cu ikrs gSaA vUos"kh
vè;;u esa fy, x, lk{kkRdkjksa ls irk pyrk gS fd bl rjg ds cPpksa dk vkRecksèk cgqr n`<+ gksrk
gS ysfdu eq[;èkkjk dh laLÑfr ls enn u feyus ds dkj.k o;Ld dk;Z txr esa lgHkkfxrk ls
mitk ;g vkRecksèk ges'kk ds fy, dqan gks tkrk gSA

Regional Resource Centre for Elementary Education, USRN-DU 17

ftu ifjokjksa esa dbZ ih<+h ls f'k{kk dh ijaijk jgh gS muds cPpksa ds ikl dbZ rjg ls ykHk dh
fLFkfr;ka gksrh gSa tks Ldwfyax ls vkSj iq"V gksrh gSaA nhik Jhfuokl (2000) us n'kkZ;k gS fd vej
fp=kdFkk us 1970&80 ds n'kdksa esa Hkkjr ds lSdM+ksa eè;oxhZ; cPpksa dh vkReNfo dks ,d [kkl
lkaps esa <ky fn;k FkkA ysfdu etnwj oxhZ; cPpksa dks Ldwyh ikB~;iqLrdksa esa dHkh viuh ftanxh dh
>yd ugha feyrhA mUgsa vius leqnk; ds yksxksa dh dgkfu;ka lquus ;k i<+us dk ekSdk dHkh ugha
feyrkA ,sls lkfgR; dk vHkko fpark dk fo"k; gksuk pkfg, tks ns'k ds vfèkdka'k yksxksa ds thou
txr dk o.kZu djrk gksA
vc rd dh ppkZ ls Li"V gS fd cpiu dh dksbZ lkoZHkkSfed ifjHkk"kk ugha gksrh vkSj i<+kbZ chp esa
NksM+ nsus dh otgsa fliQZ ^tcju* cky etnwjh ds eqís ls dgha T;knk O;kid gksrh gSaA vfèkdkjksa ij
dsafær n`f"Vdks.k fuf"Ø; gks pqds Ldwyksa] ltk ds rkSj ij ekjihV] foLFkkiu] U;wure iQhl pqdkus ;k
dkWih&isu [kjhnus dh v{kerk] leqnk; ds Hkhrj fo'okl?kkr dk Hkko] fodykaxrk vkSj le> esa u
vkus okyh ikB~;p;kZ tSls dkj.kksa dks utjvankt djrk gS (tSu ,oa vU; 2003)A tks yksx vfèkdkjksa
ds n`f"Vdks.k ij tksj nsrs gSa os f'k{kk dh varoZLrq ds vkykspukRed vè;;u dh dksf'k'k fojys gh
dHkh djrs gSaA bl ckjs esa dksbZ cgl ugha gS fd Ldwyh f'k{kk ds nk;js esa (ikB~;iqLrdksa esa) cPps
ds Locksèk dks fdl rjg lacksfèkr fd;k tk jgk gS] ;k cPps ds lkekftd ,oa lkaLÑfrd vk;keksa
dks fdl rjg ekU;rk nh tk jgh gS ;k nh tkuh pkfg,A Je dks Je dh 'krks± ds lkFk tksM+ nsus dh
otg ls vfèkdkjksa dh odkyr djus okys yksx okLro esa cky etnwjh dh tfVy leL;k ls fliQZ
eqag pqjkus dh dksf'k'k dj jgs gSaA rkfyc (2003) dk ;s loky okftc gS fd ^f'kf{kr eè;oxZ dks
lekt dk loZO;kih rcdk eku ysus Hkj ls ;g r; ugha gks tk,xk fd gekjs lekt esa dksbZ oxZ
foHkktu ugha gSA*
vxj ge ;s le>uk pkgrs gSa fd izkFkfed d{kkvksa esa Hkh cPpksa ds i<+kbZ tkjh j[kus dh nj bruh
de D;ksa gS rks gesa yM+dksa vkSj yM+fd;ksa] nksuksa ds ?kjksa vkSj Ldwyksa dks izHkkfor djus okyh LFkkuh;
ifjfLFkfr;ksa dk vè;;u djuk pkfg,_ gesa etnwj oxZ ds cPpksa ds thou txr dk vè;;u djuk
gksxk_ gesa euksfoKku] lekt'kkL=k] lkekftd dk;Z ,oa f'k{kk foHkkxksa ds fo|kfFkZ;ksa dks i<+k, tk jgs
cky fodkl ikB~;Øe vkSj f'k{kk'kkL=k dh lekykspuk djuh gksxhA gesa tkfr vkèkkfjr O;olk;ksa dh
lwph rS;kj djuh gksxh vkSj bl vk'k; ds C;kSjs bdV~Bk djus gksaxs fd mu leqnk;ksa esa cPpksa dk
lekthdj.k fdl rjg fd;k tk jgk gSA gesa ,sls fo|kfFkZ;ksa vkSj f'k{kdksa dh thofu;ka bdV~Bh djuh
pkfg, tks vius ifjokj esa i<+us&fy[kus okyh igyh ih<+h ds lnL; gSa rkfd ,slh phtksa dks f'k{kk
lkexzh esa 'kkfey fd;k tk ldsA gesa fofHkUu leqnk;ksa ds yM+dksa vkSj yM+fd;ksa ls oxZ] tkfr vkSj
tsaMj ls tqM+s eqíksa ij ckr djuh pkfg, D;ksafd cPps dh vkdka{kkvksa] Hkkoukvksa rFkk oxhZ; psruk ij
HkkSfrd vHkkoksa ds izHkkoksa ds ckjs esa gesa [kkl irk ugha gSA esjk ekuuk gS fd cPpksa ls lacafèkr
ekStwnk lekt'kkL=kh; ,oa euksoSKkfud vuqlaèkku ds ,tsaMk dks u, fljs ls fy[kus ds fy, ;s lkjh
tkudkfj;ka cgqr mi;ksxh lkfcr gksus okyh gSaA

Regional Resource Centre for Elementary Education, USRN-DU 18

fVIif.k;ka
1- ^dfjD;wyj VªkatsD'kal bu lsysfDVM xouZesaV LdwYl bu vkaèkz izns'k* 'kh"kZd 'kksèk ifj;kstuk
(lj jru VkVk VªLV] eqacbZ }kjk foÙkiksf"kr rFkk vUos"kh efgyk vè;;u vuqlaèkku dsaæ]
gSnjkckn }kjk lapkfyr) esa viuh fgLlsnkjh ls eq>s bl ipsZ esa mBk, x, eqíksa ij fopkj
djus dk ekSdk feykA bl ifj;kstuk esa cgqr lkjs yksxksa us dke fd;k gSA vUos"kh esa gh
blls igys izLrqr ipsZ dk tks elfonk is'k fd;k x;k Fkk ml ij bu lHkh lkfFk;ksa ls feys
lq>koksa dh eSa vkHkkjh gwaA bl ys[k esa tks Hkh fopkj O;Dr fd, x, gSa muds fy, eSa iwjh
ftEesnkjh ysrh gwaA eq>s MkWDVj 'kkjnk ckyxksikyu vkSj blls igys ds elfons ij ,d vuke
leh{kd }kjk nh xbZ fVIif.k;ksa ls tcnZLr ykHk gqvk gSA
2- ;g vè;;u (twu 2000 ls ebZ 2002 ds chp) gSnjkckn vkSj vkikl ds nl ljdkjh Ldwyksa
ij vkèkkfjr gSA bu nl Ldwyksa esa i<+us okys 300 cPpksa rFkk muds 120 vfHkHkkodksa ls
tkudkfj;ka bdV~Bk djus ds fy, iz'ukofy;ksa vkSj lk{kkRdkjksa dk lgkjk fy;k x;kA ftu
300 cPpksa ls geus lk{kkRdkj fy, muesa ls dsoy 40 dk dguk Fkk fd os Ldwy ds ckn
dksbZ dke ugha djrsA T;knkrj cPps osru ds fy, dke ugha dj jgs FksA mudk dke
vkfFkZd vkSj ikfjokfjd ftEesnkfj;ksa esa gkFk caVkus rd gh FkkA mudh nSfud fnup;kZ dk
vè;;u djus ij eq>s cpiu ds ckjs esa viuh le> ij iqufoZpkj dk ekSdk feyk gSA ;g
iwjk MsVkcsl ewy :i ls rsyqxw esa Fkk ftldk vaxzsth esa vuqokn gks pqdk gS vkSj mls bl
vè;;u ds fy, fo'ks"k :i ls rS;kj fd, x, ekbØkslkWÝV ,Dlsl MsVkcsl iSdst ds lgkjs
daI;wVjhÑr fd;k tk pqdk gSA ;g MsVkcsl vUos"kh ds iqLrdky; esa miyCèk gSA

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lanHkZ
vpj] Mh- (1999) iwvj fyfVy fFkaXl % VqoM~lZ ,su vaMjLVSafMax vkWiQ pkbYMgqM bu bafM;kA
laLÑfr vè;;u dk;Z'kkyk] [ktqjkgks esa 21&25 tuojh dks izLrqr ipkZA
,aVuh ih vkSj oh- xk;=kh (2002) pkbYM yscj % , ilZisfDVo vkWiQ yksdsy ,s.M dkaVsDLV]
bdkWukWfed ,s.M iksfyfVdy ohdyh] 28] i`"B 518&689-
vUos"kh (2003) dfjD;wyj VªkatsD'ku bu lsysDVsM xouZesaV Ldwy bu ,-ih-A lj jru VkVk VªLV] eqacbZ
esa tek djkbZ xbZ vizdkf'kr fjiksVZA
vkpZM] Mh- (1993) fpYMªsu] jkbV~l ,s.M pkbYMgqMA yanu % jVystA
,sjht+] fiQyhis (1962) lsapqjht vkWiQ pkbYMgqM] izQkalhlh ls vaxzsth esa jkWcVZ ckyfMx }kjk vuwfnr]
yanu % tksukFku dsiA
fclsy] ,l- (2003) ^fn lks'ky daLVªD'ku vkWiQ pkbYMgqM % , ilZisfDVo izQkWe caxykns'k*_ ,u-
dchj] th- ch- ukfclu rFkk vkj lqcze.;e (la-) pkbYM yscj ,s.M fn jkbV Vw ,tqds'ku %
uhM~l olsZt+ jkbV~l\ ubZ fnYyh % lst esaA
CySd] ,e (1996) fpYMªu iQLVZA fn LVksjh vkWiQ ;wfulsiQ] ikLV ,s.M izstsaV] vkWDliQksMZ] ;w-ds- %
vkWDliQksMZ ;wfuoflZVh izslA
ceZu] bZ- (1995) ^OgkV bt bV\ eslD;qfyfuVh ,s.M iQsfefuVh bu dYpjy fjizstsaVs'kal vkWiQ
pkbYMgqM*_ ,l foyfdalu ,oa lh fdflaxj] (la-) iQsfefuTe ,s.M fMLdkslZ] yanu % lst esaA
------------] (1997)] ^MsoysiesaVy lkbdksykWth ,s.M bV~l fMLdk¡VsaV~l*_ Mh- iQksDl ,oa vkbZ-
izsyslrsULdh (la-) fØfVdy lkbdksykWth % ,su baVªksMD'ku] yanu % lst ifCyds'ku esaA
cVjoFkZ] th- (2002) MsoysiesaVy lkbdksykWth % v LVqMsaV gSaMcqd] bZLV llsDl] ;w-ds- % lkbDyksth
izslA
lsaVj iQkWj ifCyd ikWfylh LVMht+ (1993) pkbYM yscj bu ,ih % , izksiQkby] gSnjkckn % Je ,oa
efgyk fodkl o cky dY;k.k foHkkx] vkaèkz izns'k ljdkj ds fy, lhihih,lA
iQX;wZlu] , , (2001) cSM CokW;t+ % ifCyd Ldwy bu fn esfdax vkWiQ CySd eSlD;qfyfuVh]
fef'kxu % ;wfuoflZVh vkWiQ fef'kxu izSlA
gkWySaM] ih- (1986) ^OgkV bt , pkbYM\*_ ih gkWySaM] ts Lisal ,oa ,l OgkVuh (la-) iQksVksxzkiQh
,s.M ikWfyfVDl % 2] yanu % dkWesfM;k ifCyf'kax xzqi esaA
byS;k] ds- (1996) OgkbZ vkbZ ,e ukWV , fganw\ dksydkrk] lkE;kA

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 tSu] ,l-] ,- ekFkqj] ,l- jktxksiky ,oa ts- 'kkg (2003) ^fpYMªsu] odZ ,s.M ,tqds'ku % fjfFkafdax
vkWu vkmV vkWiQ Ldwy fpYMªsu*_ vkj- xksfoank (la-) bafM;k ,tqds'ku fjiksVZ % , izksiQkby
vkWiQ csfld ,tqds'ku] ubZ fnYyh % vkWDliQksMZ ;wfuoflZVh izsl esaA
dDdM+] ,l- (1997) dYpj ,s.M lkbdh % lsysDVsM ,Llst+] fnYyh % vkWDliQksMZ ;wfuoflZVh izslA
------------] (1980) fn buj oYMZ % , lkbdks,ukfyfVdy LVMh vkWiQ pkbYMgqM ,s.M lkslk;Vh bu
bafM;k] ubZ fnYyh % vkWDliQksMZ ;wfuoflZVh izslA
dqekj] Ñ".k (1993) ^LVMh vkWiQ pkbYMgqM ,s.M iQSfeyh*_ Vh ,l ljLorh ,oa ch dkSj la-] áweu
MsoyiesaV ,s.M iSQfeyh LVMht bu bafM;k] ubZ fnYyh % lst esaA
fy;srsu] th ds (2002) pkbYM yscj bu bafM;k % fMl,UVsaxfyax ,lsal ,s.M lkWY;w'ku] bdkWukWfed
,s.M iksfyfVdy ohdyh] 28 fnlacj] i`"B 5190&95-
------------ (2003) pkbYM yscj ,s.M iwQM flD;ksfjVh % dfeax Vw fxzIl fon :jy pkbYM odZ
iqLrd dh leh{kk] vkj- jkepaæu ,oa ,y elwu }kjk la-] bdkWukWfed ,s.M iksfyfVdy
ohdyh] 16 vxLr] i`"B 3467&69-
y'k] Mh- (1986) ^fn OgkbV jx*_ ih- gkWySaM] tks Lisal ,oa flekWu okWVuh (la-) iQksVksxzkiQh ,s.M
iksfyfVDl % 2] yanu % dkWesfM;k ifCyf'kax xzqi esaA
e;ky] ch 1999 ^fpYMsªu ,s.M pkbYMgqM*_ ,l gqM] ch e;ky ,oa ,l vksfyoj (la-) fØfVdy
b';wt bu lks'ky fjlpZ % ikoj ,s.M izsT;wfMl] cfda?ke] vksiu ;wfuoflZVh izsl esaA
eSlj] Mh- ,oa ,l feykWu (la-) (1999) ,DlIyksfjax MsoyiesaVy lkbdksykWth % izQkWe bUiQsalh Vw
,Mksykslsal] yanu % vkjuksYMA
eqbZj] Mh- (1999) ^F;ksjht ,s.M eSFkM~l bu MsoysiesaVy lkbdksykWth*_ , LysVj ,oa Mh eqbZj (l-)
fn CySdosy jhMj bu MsoyiesaVy lkbdksykWth] vkWDliQksMZ] fczVsu % CySdosy ifCy'klZ daiuh
esaA
uqbZosugqbZl] vks (1999,) ^fn iSjkMkWDl vkWiQ fn dkWEihVsaV pkbYM ,s.M fn Xykscy pkbYMgqM
,tsaMk*_ vkj iQkMZu] MCY;w oku fcalcxZu ,oa vkj oku fnTd (la-) ekWMfuZVh vkWu ,
'kwfLVªax % Mk;esa'kal bu Xykscykbts'ku] dataD'ku ,s.M MsoyiesaV~l bu ,izQhdk ,s.M fc;k¡M]
yhMu ,oa yanuA bZvkbZMhvks,l esaA
------------ (1999 ch) fpYMªal ykbiQ oYM~lZ % tsaMj] osyiQs;j ,s.M yscj bu fn Msoyfiax oYMZ] ubZ
fnYyh % lks'ky lkb±l izslA
jkekLokeh] xhrk (1996) fn pkbYM ,s.M fn ykW] ;wfulsiQ vkSj vkaèkz izns'k T;wfMf'k;y vdkneh dh
fjiksVZA

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 fjpM~lZ] th- (2002) iqfVax lkbdksykWth bu bV~l Iysl % v fØfVdy fgLVkWfjdy fjO;w] nwljk
laLdj.k] yanu % jVystA
LVkj] ,l (1999) ^vesfjdu pkbYMds;j VqMs*_ , LysVj ,oa Mh eqbZj laikfnr fn CySdosy jhMj
bu MsoyiesaV lkbdksykWth] yanu % CySdosy esaA
'kekZ] Mh (la-) (2003) pkbYMgqM] iSQfeyh ,s.M lksf'k;ks&dYpjy psat bu bafM;k % jhbaVjizsfVax fn
buj oYMZ] ubZ fnYyh % vkWDliQksMZ ;wfuoflZVh izslA
f'kokth (2003) odZ fjLik¡flfcfyVh ,s.M fpYMsªu (rsyqxw)] Hkwfedk 51%5&10-
flaxj] bZ (1992) pkbYMds;j ,s.M fn lkbdksykWth vkWiQ MsoyiesaV] yanu] U;w;kWdZ % jVystA
flUgk] ,l- (2003) ^LdwYl ,st baLVhV~;w'kal iQkWj fn ,sfyfeus'ku vkWiQ pkbYM yscj % fn
,sDlihfj;al vkWiQ fn ,e oh iQkmaMs'ku bu fn jaxk jsM~Mh fMfLVªDV*_ ,u dchj ,oa vkj
lqczge.;u (la-) pkbYM yscj ,s.M fn jkbV Vw ,tqds'ku bu lkmFk ,f'k;k % uhM~l olsZt+
jkbV~l\ ubZ fnYyh % lst esaA
fLeFk] ih ds] ,p dksoh ,oa ,e CysM~l (1998) vaMjLVSafMax fpYMªsUl MsoyiesaV] rhljk laLdj.k]
yanu % CySdosy ifCy'klZ daiuhA
Jhfuokl] Mh (2000) vej fp=k dFkk % fgLVªh] eslD;qfyfuVh ,s.M fn dalksfyMs'ku vkWiQ fn
bafM;u fefMy Dykl (1969&1991) ih,pMh 'kksèki=k] gSnjkckn % lhvkbZbZ,iQ,yA
LVhMeku] lh ds (1997) ySaMLdsi iQkWj , xqM oweuS ] U;w czalohd] U;wtlhZ % jVtlZ ;wfuoflZVh izslA
rkdsbZ] ,- (1999) pkbYM odZ ,s.M Ldwfyax % , dsl LVMh vkWiQ vkaèkz izns'k foyst] fnYyh
fo'ofo|ky; esa nf{k.k ,f'k;k f'k{kk lEesyu esa izLrqr ipkZA
rkfyc] ,e- (2003) ^eksMl vkWiQ yfu±x&yscj fjys'kal % ,tqds'kuy LVªsVstht+ ,s.M pkbYM yscj*_
,u- dchj] th- ch- ukfclu rFkk vkj lqcze.;e (la-) pkbYM yscj ,s.M fn jkbV Vw
,tqds'ku % uhM~l olsZt+ jkbV~l\ ubZ fnYyh % lst esaA
;wfulsiQ (1991) iQSDV~l iQkWj ykbiQ % , izksxzsl fjiksVZ] U;w;kdZ % ;wfulsiQ] CySd 1996 }kjk m¼`rA
oh::] vkj (2001) vyhZ pkbYMgqM ,tqd's ku] ubZ fnYyh] lstA
okWdjMkbu] oh ,oa ,p ywlh (1989) MseksØslh bu fn fdpu] yanu % fojkxksA
okWY'k] ts (2003) bafXy'k ,tqds'ku ,s.M bafM;u pkbYMgqM M~;wfjax fn jkt] 1859&1947] ,tqds'ku
Mk;ykWx 1 (1) % 35&75-
ot+hj] js[kk (la-) (2000) fn tsaMj xSi bu csfld ,tqds'ku % ,uthvkst ,st+ psat ,tsaV~l] ubZ
fnYyh % lstA

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 ------------ (2002) uks Vw pkbYM yscj] ;sl Vw ,tqds'ku % vuiQksfYMax vkWiQ , xzkl:V~l ewoesaV bu
vkaèkz izns'k] bdkWukWfed ,s.M iksfyfVdy ohdyh] 28 fnlacj] i`"B la[;k 522&529-
ts+fyt+j] oh- ,- (1994) izkbflax fn izkblysl pkbYM % fn psaftax lks'ky osY;w vkWiQ fpYMªu]
fizalVu] ,u ts % fizalVu ;wfuoflZVh izslA

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