KEY

II B.Tech II Sem Supplementary / Betterment Examination, June 2018

AERODYNAMICS-I
Part-A
Answer 1 a)
Let K equal the number of fundamental dimensions required to describe the physical
variables. (In mechanics, all physical variables can be expressed in terms of the dimensions of
mass, length, and time; hence, K = 3.)
Let P1, P2, ... Pn represent N physical variables in the physical relation
F ( P1, P2, ... Pn) = 0
Then, the above physical relation Equation may be re-expressed as a relation of (N — K)
dimensionless products (called π products),
F(π1, π2, …. πn-k) = 0
The choice of the repeating variables, P1 P2,...Pk should be such that they include all the K
dimensions used in the problem. Also, the dependent variable should appear in only one of the n
products.
Answer 1 b)
The circulation is simply the negative of the line integral of velocity around a closed curve in
the flow; it is a kinematic property depending only on the velocity field and the choice of the
curve C.
Answer 1 c)

In general, a vortex filament can be curved, as shown in Figure. Here, only a portion of the
filament is illustrated. The filament induces a flow field in the surrounding space. If the
circulation is taken about any path enclosing the filament, a constant value F is obtained. Hence,
the strength of the vortex filament is defined as F. Consider a directed segment of the filament dl,
as shown in Figure. The radius vector from dl to an arbitrary point P in space is r. The segment dl
induces a velocity at P equal to

The above Equation is called the Biot-Savart law and is one of the most fundamental
relations in the theory of inviscid, incompressible flow.

Answer 1 d)
The wing on an airplane experiences a much higher pressure drag than an airfoil due to the
adverse aerodynamic effects of the wing tips. This additional pressure drag is called induced
drag. For short, stubby wings, the induced drag can be large.
Or
The local lift vector is aligned perpendicular to the local relative wind, and hence is inclined
behind the vertical by the angle αi,
 Consequently, there is a component of the local lift vector in the direction of Velocity; that is,
there is a drag created by the presence of downwash. This drag is defined as induced drag.

Answer 1 e)
Airfoil geometry can be characterized by the coordinates of the upper and lower
surface. It is often summarized by a few parameters such as: maximum thickness,
maximum camber, position of max thickness, position of max camber, and nose
radius.

Answer: 2 a)

The quantity: ρ V l / μ is called the Reynolds number. ρ is the fluid density, V is

the speed, μ is the fluid viscosity, and l is some characteristic length. This length is,
like the areas in the definition of dimensionless force coefficients, agreed on as a
standard by whoever is using it. So, we have chord Reynolds numbers which are
based on wing chord lengths or Reynolds numbers based on the diameter of a sphere,
or any other characteristic length that can be devised.
The Reynolds number is one of the most important and strange dimensionless
numbers. It varies over many orders of magnitude and expresses the importance of
viscosity: high Reynolds numbers can be achieved by decreasing the viscosity or
making the length or speed very large.
The Reynolds number, in a sense, represents a ratio of pressure to shear forces:
ρ V l / μ = ρ V2 / μ (V/l)
Answer: 2 b)

The limiting case of the Source and sink pair is called as Doublet Flow. At this Situation,
both source and sink coexists. The streamlines for such situations are given below.

Answer: 2 c)

For the steady flow over a given airfoil at a given angle of attack, nature adopts that
particular value of circulation which results in the flow leaving smoothly at the trailing edge.
This observation was first carried out by M. Wilhelm Kutta in 1902. Therefore, it has become
known as the Kutta condition.

We can summarize the statement of the Kutta condition as follows:

1. For a given airfoil at a given angle of attack, the value of F around the airfoil is such that the
flow leaves the trailing edge smoothly.
2. If the trailing-edge angle is finite, then the trailing edge is a stagnation point.
3. If the trailing edge is cusped, then the velocities leaving the top and bottom surfaces at the
trailing edge are finite and equal in magnitude and direction.
Answer: 2 d)

A finite wing is a three-dimensional body, and consequently the flow over the finite wing is
three-dimensional; that is, there is a component of flow in the spanwsie direction. To see this
more clearly, examine Figure, which gives the top and front views of a finite wing. The physical
mechanism for generating lift on the wing is the existence of a high pressure on the bottom
surface and a low pressure on the top surface. The net imbalance of the pressure distribution
creates the lift. However, as a by-product of this pressure imbalance, the flow near the wing tips
tends to curl around the tips, being forced from the high- pressure region just underneath the tips
to the low-pressure region on top. This flow around the wing tips is shown in the front view of
the wing in Figure.

Answer: 2 e)

In PIV, the velocity vectors are derived from sub-sections of the target area of the particle-
seeded flow by measuring the movement of particles between two light pulses:

The flow is illuminated in the target area with a light sheet. The camera lens images the
target area onto the sensor array of a digital camera. The camera is able to capture each light
pulse in separate image frames.
Once a sequence of two light pulses is recorded, the images are divided into small
subsections called interrogation areas (IA). The interrogation areas from each image frame,
I1 and I2, are cross-correlated with each other, pixel by pixel.
 The correlation produces a signal peak, identifying the common particle displacement, DX.
An accurate measure of the displacement - and thus also the velocity - is achieved with sub-pixel
interpolation.
A velocity vector map over the whole target area is obtained by repeating the cross-
correlation for each interrogation area over the two image frames captured by the camera.

Part-B

Answer: 3

Given, W = L = 20,000 N
b = 10 m
c = 1.5 m
V= 400 km/h = 111 m/s
P = 45 kPa
T = 00 C = 273 K
P
𝜌 = 𝑅𝑇 R= 287 J/kgK
45 ∗ 1000
𝜌=
287 ∗ 273

𝜌 = 0.574 kg/m3
 S = b*c= 10*1.5 =15 m2

L
𝐶𝐿 =
0.5 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝑉 2 ∗ 𝑆

20000
𝐶𝐿 =
0.5 ∗ 0.574 ∗ 111.12 ∗ 15

CL= 0.376 (Answer)

Answer: 4

Consider the two- dimensional body sketched in Figure. The chord line is drawn
horizontally, and hence the relative wind is inclined relative to the horizontal by the angle of
attack α. An xy coordinate system is oriented parallel and perpendicular, respectively, to the
chord. The distance from the leading edge measured along the body surface to an arbitrary point
A on the upper surface is Su; similarly, the distance to an arbitrary point B on the lower surface is
Sl. The pressure and shear stress on the upper surface are denoted by Pu and Tu respectively;
Similarly, Pl and Tl are the corresponding quantities on the lower surface.
At a given point, the pressure is normal to the surface and is oriented at an angle θ relative to
the perpendicular; shear stress is tangential to the surface and is oriented at the same angle θ
relative to the horizontal.

Consider an elemental surface area dS of this cylinder, where dS = (ds)(l) as shown by the
shaded area in Figure below. We are interested in the contribution to the total normal force N'
and the total axial force A' due to the pressure and shear stress on the elemental area dS. The
primes on N' and A' denote force per unit span. Examining both Figures, we see that the
elemental normal and axial forces acting on the elemental surface dS on the upper

On the lower body surface, we have

The total normal and axial forces per unit span are obtained by integrating above equations

Answer: 5

Consider a two-dimensional, incompressible flow where all the streamlines are straight lines
emanating from a central point O, as shown at the left of Figure. Moreover, let the velocity along
each of the streamlines vary inversely with distance from point O. Such a flow is called a source
flow. Examining Figure, we see that the velocity components in the radial and tangential
directions are Vr, and Vθ, respectively, where Vθ = 0. The coordinate system in Figure is a
cylindrical coordinate system, with the z axis perpendicular to the page.
 In a source flow, the streamlines are directed away from the origin, as shown at the left of
Figure. The opposite case is that of a sink flow, where by definition the streamlines are directed
toward the origin, as shown at the right of Figure. For sink flow, the streamlines are still radial
lines from a common origin, along which the flow velocity varies inversely with distance from
point O. Indeed, a sink flow is simply a negative source flow.
Volume Flow rate:

Λ defines the source length; it is physically the rate of volume flow from the source, per unit
depth perpendicular to the
Answer: 6

For Source flow,

But, the velocity potential for a source can be obtained as follows.

----------(1)

----------(2)
Comparing (1) and (2)

The stream function can be obtained as follows.

Using similar Process

Answer: 7

Consider an arbitrary inviscid, incompressible flow as sketched in Figure. Assume that all
body forces f are zero. Choose an arbitrary curve C1, and identify the fluid elements that are on
this curve at a given instant in time t1. Also, by definition the circulation around curve C1, is

𝛤1 = − ∫ 𝑉. 𝑑𝑠
𝑐1

Now let these specific fluid elements move downstream. At some later time, tj, these same
fluid elements will form another curve C2, around which the circulation is

𝛤2 = − ∫ 𝑉. 𝑑𝑠
𝑐2

Γ1 = Γ2. In fact, since we are following a set of specific fluid elements, we can state that
circulation around a closed curve formed by a set of contiguous fluid elements remains constant
as the fluid elements move throughout the flow. The substantial derivative gives the time rate of
change following a given fluid element. Hence, a mathematical statement of the above
discussion is simply which says that the time rate of change of circulation around a closed curve
consisting of the same fluid elements is zero. Along with its supporting discussion is called
Kelvin's circulation theorem

Starting Vortex
Answer: 8
Answer: 9
Answer: 10
Answer: 11

Wind tunnels may be classified based on any of the following:

(a)Speed, Mach no :They are classified as of low speed or high speed wind tunnels .In wind
tunnel parlance, high speed wind tunnels are those operating at speeds where compressibility
effects are important. They are also classified based on the Mach number of operation as
subsonic, transonic, supersonic or hypersonic wind tunnels.
(b)Mode of operation (Pressure storage, in-draft or Pressure vacuum type.)
(c) Kind of test section (T.S) - Open, Closed or Semi enclosed
Wind tunnel components

The important components of the wind tunnel are listed below;

Motor/Fan Driven unit: This is the air supply unit that drives the air flow in the wind
tunnel. Typically, the fan is axial/centrifugal type and the axial fan is a better choice in the closed
circuit tunnels since it produces a static pressure rise necessary to compensate for the total
pressure loss in the rest of the circuit. The fans with higher ratio of tip speed to axial velocity
generally produce the required pressure rise in a small blade area. The wind tunnels fitted with
blower are generally driven by a centrifugal impeller of squirrel-cage type. While in operation,
the fan draws air from the atmosphere through the honeycomb/screen section.

Settling chamber and flow straightener: It mainly comprises of honeycomb and screens as
combination. The main function is to reduce the turbulence and straighten the flow only in the
axial direction. In principle, the air can enter to the tunnel from any directions. But, only the
axial flow is desired in the test section. The main purpose of the screen is to reduce the turbulent
intensity in the flow and not to allow any unwanted objects to enter the tunnels. The honeycomb
can be made with cells or various shapes as shown in Fig.. These cells are aligned in the stream
wise direction in the settling chamber thereby straightens the flow.
 The honeycomb has a longer length that reduces the transverse velocity components of the
flow with minimal pressure drop in the stream wise direction. The minimum length required for
this honeycomb is six to eight times the cell size. The number of screens required in the settling
chamber depends on the flow quality requirement in the test section. Moreover, the power
requirement is more when the number of screens is increased. The preferable length of the
settling chamber is about 0.5 times the diameter of its inlet.
Contraction: The prime objective is to accelerate incoming flow from the settling chamber
and supplies it to the test section at desired velocity. This section essentially reduces the cross-
sectional velocity variation and maintains the flow uniformity. In general, small radius of
curvature is used at the entry to this section and curvature of large radius is considered at the exit
of the contraction section. However, the boundary-layer separation should be avoided at both the
ends of this section. The contraction length is expected to be small so that large contraction area
ratios are preferred.
Test Section: It is the basic element of wind tunnel on which all other designs are generally
made. All the aerodynamic models are mounted in the test section when the tunnel is operated
with desired flow velocity. Various shapes for the test section are considered for constructing the
wind tunnel viz. hexagonal, octagonal, rectangle etc. The test section is generally designed on the
basis of utility and aerodynamic considerations since cost of construction depends on the test
section area. Length of the test section is mostly equal to major dimension of the cross-section of
the same or twice of it. In addition, the test section should also be provided with facilities as per
the testing requirement. The test section velocity is generally specified as percentage variation
from the average of the cross-section. The ideal test section has steady uniform velocity at the
inlet, no cross flow, less or no turbulence and less operating cost.
 Diffuser: It is basically a duct with increase in area attached downstream of the test section.
After the test section, it is desired that the air must pass smoothly out of the test section. So, this
geometry is made to decrease the flow velocity and increase in pressure. In order to avoid flow
reversal, the exit pressure should be higher than the atmospheric in case of open circuit wind
tunnel. This is a very critical section in design since the incurred pressure rise reduces the power
requirement for the wind tunnel which is proportional to the cube of velocity. Hence maximum
pressure recovery to be achieved at least possible distance is the main objective of diffuser
design. In general practice, the cone angle of the diffuse is 7º or less so as to avoid boundary
layer separation.

Answer: 12

A hot-wire anemometer measures local instantaneous velocity based on principles of heat

transfer. However, it requires that the fluid itself be at a uniform temperature. It can be used to
measure three components of velocity and velocity fluctuations arising in turbulent flow. This is
possible because of the high speed of response of the hot-wire probe and the associated feedback
circuit. A hot-wire probe is used in gas flows, while a hot-film is used for liquid flow. The
hotwire has a limitation that it is insensitive to the flow direction. Further, it has a non-linear
input-output relationship which makes its sensitivity non-uniform over any velocity range. In
particular, the sensitivity decreases with increasing velocity.
The hot-wire probe is a platinum-coated tungsten wire, typically of diameter 5 micrometer
and about 4 micrometer length, supported between highly conducting prongs. Tungsten has high
temperature coefficient of resistance (i.e., resistance increases rapidly with temperature) and the
platinum coating affords strength as well as protection against corrosion of the thin wire
 The wire is maintained at a constant temperature higher than that of the ambient, by passing a
current through it. The flow past the probe cools it and momentarily reduces its temperature. The
change in temperature results in a change in resistance of the wire . This is sensed by a feedback
control circuit which passes more current through the wire to restore it to its original resistance
and temperature. The excess voltage required to maintain the wire temperature constant, when
exposed to a flow, is a measure of the flow velocity itself. This unique relationship between and
must be obtained by calibration, i.e. must be determined in a controlled experiment where
velocity is precisely known. Typical calibration curves for hot-wire are shown in Figure below in
which working temperature (Tw) and (T∞) denote the wire temperature and the local fluid
temperature respectively. In a calibration experiment, it is common to keep (Tw) and (T∞)
individually constant to generate each of the curves

Kings Relation:

Velocity sensitivity (King’s law coeff. A = 1.51, B = 0.811, n = 0.43)