UNIT – 3

DATA SOURCE & MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS

1. Universe or Population: All the items under the field of inquiry are known as Universe or
Population.
2. Census Inquiry: A complete enumeration of all the items in the population is known as Census
inquiry.
3. Sample Design: A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a give population.
It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the
sample.
4. Unrestricted Sample: When each sample element is drawn individually from the population at
large, then the sample so drawn is known as unrestricted sample.
5. Restricted Sample: All the forms of sampling other than the unrestricted sample is known as
restricted sample.
6. Probability Sampling: Probability Sampling is the sampling technique in which every unit of the
population has given equal chance to be included in the study.
7. Non-Probability Sampling: Non-Probability Sampling is the technique in which the units of the
population are selected on the basis of personal judgment or chance.
8. Simple Random Sampling: A Simple random sample is a sample selected in such a way that every
element in the population has the same chance of being chosen.
9. Systematic Random Sampling: A Systematic Random Sampling is a sample which contains every
‘i’th element of the population. The first element is chosen randomly, the rest systematically.
10. Stratified Random Sampling: Stratified random sampling is also known as proportional random
sampling. This is a probability sampling technique wherein the subjects are initially grouped into
different classifications such as age, socioeconomic status or gender.
11. Strata or Subpopulations: The subsets into which the universe elements are divided are called
strata or subpopulations. The division is mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
12. Stratification: Most populations can be segregated into a number of mutually exclusive
subpopulations dividing the population to non-overlapping group (strata) is called stratification.
13. Proportionate Stratified Sampling: The number of observations in the total sample is allocated
among the strata in proportion to the relative number of elements in each stratum in the
population. The sample drawn is proportionate to the stratum’s share of the total population.
14. Disproportionate Stratified Sampling: It involves balancing the two criteria of strata size and
strata variability. With a fixed sample size, strata exhibiting more variability are sampled more
than proportionately to their relative size. Conversely, those strata that are very homogeneous
are sampled less than proportionately.
15. Cluster Sampling: If the total area of interest happens to be big one, a convenient way in which a
sample can be taken is to divide the area into a number of small non-overlapping areas and then
to randomly select a number of these areas. The total area can be divided into groups or clusters
of elements and some of the groups or clusters are selected randomly. This is called Cluster
Sampling.
16. Area Sampling: Area Sampling or Geographical Cluster Sampling is applied when the research
involves population identified from a geographical area.
17. Convenience Sampling (Accident Samples): Convenience Sampling is the sampling technique in
which the samples are taken based on the convenient of the researcher. Since this can produce,
ineffective, highly unrepresentative sample, high bias and systematic errors it is not
recommended.
18. Purposive Sampling: When one draws a non-probability sample that confirms to a certain
criteria, it is called purposive sampling.
19. Judgment Sampling: The Judgment Sampling is the non-probability sampling technique in which
the samples are chosen based on the judgment of experts or selecting cases with specific
purpose in mind. But the researcher doesn’t know whether the case selected represents the
population.
20. Quota Sampling: Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the
assembled sample has the same proportions of individuals as the entire population with respect
to known characteristics, traits or focused phenomenon.
21. Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling technique that is used by
researchers to identify potential subjects in studies where subjects are hard to locate.
Researchers use this sampling method if the sample for the study is very rare or is limited to a
very small subgroup of the population. This type of sampling technique works like chain referral.
It is also known as Chain referral, network or computational sampling.
22. Data: A collection of facts from which conclusions may be drawn is known as "statistical data".
The term data means groups of information that represent the qualitative or quantitative
attributes of a variable or set of variables.
23. Primary Data: Primary Data are those that are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus
happen to be original in character.
24. Secondary Data: This data is that which has been collected by someone else and which has
already been passed through the statistical processes. Thus studies made by others for another
purpose represent secondary data.
25. Internal Data: Internal data come from internal sources related with the functioning of an
organization or firm where records regarding purchase, production, sales, profits etc., are kept
on a regular basis.
26. External Data: The external data are the data which are collected and published by external
agencies. It includes to sources outside the organization. Eg: Books, periodicals, government
documents, reference books, encyclopedia, journals, magazines, government and non-
government reports.
27. Measurement: The process of assigning numbers or labels to different objects under study to
represent them quantitatively or qualitatively is called measurement.
28. Scale: A scale can be defined as a set of numbers or symbols developed in a manner so as to
facilitate the assignment of those numbers or symbols to the units under research following
certain rules.
29. Nominal Scale: A nominal scale uses numbers or letters so as to identify different objects. This
scale assigns numbers to each of these categories. Eg: Yes/No, Always/Sometimes/Never,
Male/Female.
30. Ordinal Scale: An ordinal scale is used to arrange objects according to some particular order.
Thus, the variable in the ordinal scale can be ranked. Likert’s scales and Thurstone techniques
are ordinal scales.
31. Interval Scale: In an interval scale, the intervals between the points on the scale are equal.
32. Ratio Scale: Ratio scales have a fixed zero point and also have equal intervals. Absolute zero
refers to the point where a score of zero can be assigned.
33. Scaling: Scaling is defined as a procedure for the assignment of numbers (or other symbols)m to
a property of objects in order to impart some of the characteristics of numbers to the properties
in question. (Scaling describes the procedure of assigning numbers to various degrees of
opinion, attitude and other concepts.)
34. Rank Order Scaling: It is the scaling technique in which the respondents are asked to put a set of
items in some kind of order. The order could be something like preference, liking, importance,
effectiveness, etc.
35. Summated Scale (Likert Scale): Summated scales consist of a number of statements which express either a
favorable or unfavorable attitude towards the given object. End points are typically “strongly agreed” and
“strongly disagreed”.
36. Semantic Differential Scale (Thurstone type scale): The Thurstone differential scale is a seven point rating
scale on which the end points are adjectives representing its opposites.
37. Validity: Validity is a extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is vital for a test to be
valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted.
38. Content Validity: A test is said to have content validity when the items on the test represent the entire
range of possible items the test should cover. Individuals test questions may be drawn from a large pool
of items that cover a broad range of topics.
39. Criterion-related Validity: A test is said to have criterion-related validity when the test is demonstrated to
be effective in predicting criterion or indicators of a construct.
40. Concurrent Validity: It occurs when the criterion measures are obtained at the same time as the test
scores. This indicates the extent to which the test scores accurately estimate an individual’s current state
with regards to the criterion.
41. Predictive Validity: It occurs when the criterion measures are obtained at a time after the test. Examples
of test with predictive validity are career or aptitude tests, which are helpful in determining who is likely
succeed or fail in certain subjects or occupations.
42. Construct Validity: A test is said to have construct validity if it demonstrates an association between the
test scores and the prediction of a theoretical trait. Intelligence tests are one example of measurement
instruments that should have construct validity.
43. Reliability: It refers to the consistency of a measure. A test is considered reliable if we get the same result
repeatedly.