Human Memory

Understanding How Memory Works

Human memory is a vast and

fascinating topic which we will explore in this
lesson of the Introduction to Psychology
online course! In the last five lessons, you
have learned about the basics of psychology
including research methods, the brain and
behavior and states of consciousness. Now that you have a solid understanding
of those subjects, let's learn more about memory and forgetting.

Human memory involves the ability to both preserve and recover information
we have learned or experienced. As we all know, however, this is not a flawless
process. Sometimes we forget or misremember things. Sometimes things are not
properly encoded in memory in the first place. Memory problems can range
from minor annoyances like forgetting where you left your car keys to major
diseases that affect quality of life and the ability to function.

This lesson focuses on how memories are created, stored and retrieved. We'll
also look at some of the most common reasons why memory sometimes fails.

The syllabus for this week:

Here are the five main topics that we will focus on in this psychology lesson:

What is memory?

Memory retrieval

Forgetting

Why do we forget?
Tips for improving memory

Click the links below to read the articles and resources related to each topic in
this lesson. Remember, there's no homework.

Each of the lessons in this series is 100 percent self-directed, which means that
it is entirely up to you to read the article below and learn the information.

In today’s lesson, read through each of the following linked articles. For your
benefit, you might want to consider taking notes or bookmarking the articles so
you can review the information again later.

Good luck with today's lesson!

Memory Basics

What exactly is a memory? Essentially, memory is a complex process that

involves acquiring, storing, and recalling information. Not all memories are the
same, however.

Some memories are very brief, just seconds long, and allow us to take in
sensory information about the world around us.

Short-term memories are a bit longer and last about 20 to 30 seconds. These
memories mostly consist of the information we are currently focusing on and
thinking about.

Finally, some memories are capable of enduring much longer, last days, weeks,
months, or even decades. Most of these long-term memories lie outside of our
immediate awareness, but we can draw them into consciousness when they are
needed.
Learn more about what memory is, how it works and how it is organized in this
basic overview of memory.

Using Memory

To use the information that has been encoded into memory, it first has to be
retrieved. There are many factors that can influence how memories are retrieved
such as the type of information being used and the retrieval cues that are
present.

Of course, this process is not always perfect. Have you ever felt like you had the
answer to a question right at the tip of your tongue, but you couldn’t quite
remember it?

This is an example of a perplexing memory retrieval problem known as the tip-

of-the-tongue phenomenon.

Discover the basics of memory retrieval as well as possible problems with this
process in this overview of how memories are retrieved.

When Memory Fails

Forgetting is a surprisingly common event. Just consider how often you forget
someone’s name or overlooked an important appointment. Forgetting can
happen for a number of reasons including a failure to retrieve the information
from long-term memory.

Research has shown that one of the critical factors that influences memory
failure is time. Information is often quickly forgotten, particularly if people do
not actively review and rehearse the information.
Learn more about why this happens and discover some of the research into how
and why memory fails.

Why We Forget

Why do we forget information we have learned in the past? There are four basic
explanations for why forgetting occurs: retrieval failure, interference, failure to
store and motivated forgetting.

Sometimes information is simply lost from memory and in other cases it was
never stored correctly in the first place. Sometimes memories compete with one
another, making it difficult to remember certain information. In still other
instances, people actively try to forget things that they simply don’t want to
remember.

Learn more about these reasons why we forget.

Boosting Memory

No matter how great your memory is, there are probably a few things you can
do to make it even better. Fortunately, cognitive psychologists have discovered
a number of techniques that can help improve memory. Learn more about some
of these strategies and how you can apply these tips for improving your
memory.

Final Thoughts

Congratulations you have completed lesson six! The goal of this lesson is to
provide you with a basic understanding of how human memory works. By
learning the basics, you will be better prepared to know about the subject in
greater depth.
Once you feel that you have adequately studied and fully understand the
material included in this lesson, feel free to move on to lesson seven. However,
if you are still struggling with any of the concepts in this lesson, spend a few
days studying and reviewing the material before you continue to the next lesson
in the series.

Do you feel like you need some extra study help? Then be sure to check out
these helpful articles on psychology study tips and how to to take great
psychology notes.

Learn to Distinguish Between Implicit and Explicit

Long-Term Memory

As any student can tell you, sometimes it takes a lot of work and effort to commit information
to memory. When you're studying for a big exam, it might take hours of practice in order to
remember what you studied. However, some other events, details, and experiences enter our
memory with little or no effort. For example, on the way to class, you might hear an annoying
pop song on the radio.
Days later, you find yourself still humming that same tune.

Why does it seem like some things are so difficult to remember and other things so easy?
What's the difference?

Implicit and Explicit Memory

Information that you have to consciously work to remember is known as explicit memory,
while information that you remember unconsciously and effortlessly is known as implicit
memory. While most of the information you find about memory tends to focus specifically
on explicit memory, researchers are becoming increasingly interested in how implicit
memory works and how it influences our knowledge and behavior.

Explicit Memory

When you're trying to intentionally remember something (like a formula for your statistics
class or a list of dates for your history class), this information is stored in your explicit
memory. We use these memories every day, from remembering information for a test to
recalling the date and time of a doctor's appointment.

This type of memory is also known as declarative memory since you can consciously recall
and explain the information.

Some tasks that require the use of explicit memory include remembering what you learned in
your psychology class, recalling your phone number, identifying who the current president is,
writing a research paper, and remembering what time you're meeting a friend to go to a
movie.

Types of Explicit Memory

There are two major types of explicit memory:

1. Episodic memory: These are your long-term memories of specific events, such as what you
did yesterday or your high school graduation.
2. Semantic memory: These are memories of facts, concepts, names, and other general
knowledge.

Implicit Memory

Things that we don't purposely try to remember are stored in our implicit memory. This kind
of memory is both unconscious and unintentional. Implicit memory is also sometimes
referred to as nondeclarative memory since you are not able to consciously bring it into
awareness.

Procedural memories, such as how to perform a specific task like swinging a baseball bat or
making toast, are one type of implicit memory since you don't have to consciously recall how
to perform these tasks. While implicit memories are not consciously recalled, they still
influence how you behave as well as your knowledge of different tasks.
Some examples of implicit memory include singing a familiar song, typing on your computer
keyboard, brushing your teeth, and driving a car. Riding a bicycle is another great example.
Even after going years without riding one, most people are able to hop on a bike and ride it
effortlessly.

A Demonstration of How Each Kind Works

Here's a quick demonstration that you can try to show how implicit and explicit memory
work. Type the following sentence without looking down at your hands: "Every red pepper is
tantalizing." Now, without looking, try naming the ten letters that appear in the top row of
your keyboard.

You probably found it quite easy to type the above sentence without having to consciously
think about where each letter appears on the keyboard. That task requires implicit memory.
Having to recall which letters appear in the top row of your keyboard, however, is something
that would require explicit memory.

Since you have probably never sat down and intentionally committed the order of those keys
to memory, it's not something that you are able to easily recall.

Source

 Bauer PJ. Memory Development. In: Comprehensive Developmental Neuroscience: Neural

Circuit Development and Function in the Brain. Rubenstein JLR, Rakic P, eds.
Elsevier;2013:297-314. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-397267-5.09994-5.

What Is Procedural
Memory?
Procedural memory is a type of long-term memory involving how to perform different
actions and skills. Essentially, it is the memory of how to do certain things. Riding a bike,
tying your shoes, and cooking an omelet are all examples of procedural memories.

A Closer Look at Procedural Memory

Procedural memories start to form very early in life as you begin to learn how to walk, talk,
eat, and play.

These memories become so ingrained that they are almost automatic. You do not need to
consciously think about how to perform these motor skills; you simply do them without
much, if any, thought.

While it is easy to demonstrate these actions, explaining how and where you learned them
can be much more difficult. In many cases, you learn these skills during early childhood.
Learning how to walk is one great example. Once this action is learned, you do not need to
consciously remind yourself of how the process works. Your procedural memory takes over
and allows you to perform the skill without thinking about it. For activities like learning how
to drive or to ride a bike, you simply practice them so often that they become ingrained.

Examples of Procedural Memory

Some other examples of procedural memory include:

  Writing with a pen
 Typing on a keyboard
 Playing basketball
 Playing piano
 Swimming
 Walking

How Procedural Memories Are Formed

Procedural memories form when connections are made between synapses, gaps at the end of
a neuron that allow signals to pass. The more frequently an action is performed, the more
often signals are sent through those same synapses. Over time, these synaptic routes become
stronger and the actions themselves become unconscious and automatic.

A number of brain structures are associated with the formation and maintenance of
procedural memories. The cerebellum, for example, is associated with coordinating
movements and fine motor skills required for many activities such as drawing, painting,
playing a musical instrument, writing, and sculpting. The limbic system, another area of the
brain, is also known for coordinating many processes involved in memory and learning.

The Difference Between Procedural Memory and Declarative Memory

Procedural memory is considered a type of implicit memory. Implicit memories are those that
form without effort. When the lyrics to a popular song get stuck in your head, that's an
example of implicit memory at work. You haven’t expended any effort to learn the lyrics and
melody of the song. Simply hearing it in the background as you go about your day leads to
the formation of an implicit memory.

Declarative memories, on the other hand, are things that you intentionally remember and that
require conscious effort to bring into memory. Also known as explicit memory, this type of
memory involves things such as remembering information for a test, that you have a dentist
appointment and your home address.

Procedural memories are often difficult to explain. If someone asked you how you drive a car
or ride a bike, you might struggle to put it into words. If they asked you how to drive to your
house, however, you would probably be able to articulate the route fairly easily.
Remembering the physical process of how to do something (like drive a car) is a procedural
memory while remembering the route you have to take to get somewhere is a declarative
memory.