API Recommended Practice 10B Recommended Practice for Testing Well Cements : The

industry-standard document that provides guidelines for testing methods for cements and
cement formulations for use in well cementing. These recommended procedures are commonly
modified to address the specific conditions of a particular well.
API Specification 10A – Specification for Cements and Materials for Well Cementing :
The industry standard document that specifies requirements for API well cements and
specification-testing methods.
abrasion test : A laboratory test to evaluate drilling-grade weighting material for potential
abrasiveness. The test measures weight loss of a specially shaped, stainless-steel mixer blade
after 20 minutes at 11,000 rpm running in a laboratory-prepared mud sample. Abrasiveness is
quantified by the rate of weight loss, reported in units of mg/min. Mineral hardness, particle
size and shape are the main parameters that affect abrasiveness of weighting materials. Some
crystalline forms of hematite grind to a higher percentage of large particles than do other forms
and are therefore more abrasive. Hematites are harder than barites, grind courser and are more
abrasive. Thus, a hematite that is proposed as a weighting material for mud is typically a
candidate for abrasion testing.
absolute volume : The volume a solid occupies or displaces when added to water divided by
its weight, or the volume per unit mass. In the oil field, absolute volume is typically given in
units of gallons per pound (gal/lbm) or cubic meters per kilogram (m3/kg).
Accretion : The mechanism by which partially hydrated cuttings stick to parts of the
bottomhole assembly and accumulate as a compacted, layered deposit.
acetic acid : An organic acid used in oil- and gas-well stimulation treatments. Less corrosive
than the commonly used hydrochloric acid, acetic acid treatments can be more easily inhibited
or retarded for treatments of long duration. This is necessary particularly in applications
requiring the protection of exotic alloys or in high-temperature wells. In most cases, acetic acid
is used in conjunction with hydrochloric acid and other acid additives. It can also be used as a
chelating agent.

Acid : Pertaining to an aqueous solution, such as a water-base drilling fluid, which has more
hydrogen ions (H+) than hydroxyl ions (OH-) and pH less than 7.
2. n. [Well Workover and Intervention]
A generic term used to describe a treatment fluid typically comprising hydrochloric acid and a
blend of acid additives. Acid treatments are commonly designed to include a range of acid
types or blends, such as acetic, formic, hydrochloric, hydrofluoric and fluroboric acids.
Applications for the various acid types or blends are based on the reaction characteristics of
the prepared treatment fluid.
Acidity : A chemical property of an aqueous system that implies that there are more hydrogen
ions (H+) in the system, or a potential to produce more hydrogen ions, than there are hydroxyl
ions (OH-), or potential to produce hydroxyl ions.
acrylamide acrylate polymer : A linear copolymer of acrylate (anionic) and acrylamide
(nonionic) monomers, also called partially-hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (PHPA). The ratio of
acrylic acid to acrylamide groups on the polymer chain can be varied in manufacturing, as can
molecular weight. Another variable is the base used to neutralize the acrylic acid groups,
usually NaOH or KOH, or sometimes NH4OH. A concentration of approximately 10 to 30%
acrylate groups provides optimal anionic characteristics for most drilling applications. High-
molecular weight PHPA is used as a shale-stabilizing polymer in PHPA mud systems. It is also
used as clay extender, either dry-mixed into clay or added at the rig to a low-bentonite mud.
PHPA can also be used to flocculate colloidal solids during clear-water drilling and for
wastewater cleanup. Low molecular-weight PHPA is a clay deflocculant.
acrylamide polymer : A linear, nonionic polymer made of acrylamide monomers,
CH2=CHCONH2 . High molecular-weight polyacrylamides are used as selective flocculants
in clear-water drilling, low-solids muds and wastewater cleanup. Polymers made of smaller
molecules are used as clay deflocculants in water muds, which can contain hardness ions.
Polyacrylamides are not nearly as sensitive to salinity and hardness as the anionic polyacrylates
(SPA). Also, being nonionic, they are not as powerful for flocculation or deflocculation
applications. Acrylamide polymers are, however, susceptible to hydrolysis and release
ammonia under hot, alkaline conditions.
acrylamido methyl propane sulfonate polymer : A copolymer of 2-acrylamido-2methyl
propane sulfonate and acrylamide. AMPS polymers are highly water-soluble anionic additives
designed for high-salinity and high-temperature water-mud applications. (Alkyl-substituted
acrylamide can be used instead of ordinary acrylamide, which lessens its vulnerability to
hydrolysis at high temperature and high pH.) Polymers from 0.75 to 1.5 MM molecular weight
are suggested for fluid-loss control in these difficult muds. Reference: Perricone AC, Enright
DP and Lucas JM: "Vinyl Sulfonate Copolymers for High-Temperature Filtration Control of
Water-Base Muds," SPE Drilling Engineering 1, no. 5 (October 1986): 358-364.
acrylate polymer : Linear, anionic polymer made from the monomer acrylic acid,
CH2=CHCOO- H+. The acrylic acid groups are evenly spaced along the chain. Acrylic acid
polymer neutralized with NaOH is sodium polyacrylate (SPA). Polyacrylates are best utilized
in soft water with low salinity to achieve the best dispersion and full chain elongation. Even
low concentrations of hardness ions, for example, Ca+2, precipitate polyacrylates. Low
molecular-weight polyacrylates are used as clay deflocculants. High molecular weight
polymers are used for fluid-loss control and as a clay extender. As an extender, SPA is added
to bentonite at the grinding plant. It is also used at the rig in low-solids mud. Divalent cations
can negate its benefits as a clay extender. SPA is highly efficient when used to flocculate
colloids in native-solids muds, clear-water muds and wastewater cleanup. The polymer chain
links together colloidal solids that can be removed by gravity settling in shallow pits or by
applying hydrocyclone, centrifuge or filtration techniques.
active sulfide : A compound of sulfur that contains the S-2 ion. Sulfides can be generated from
soluble iron sulfide minerals or from sulfate-reducing bacteria. The term "active sulfide" is
used to denote compounds that revert to the highly toxic H2S gas when acidified with 2-molar
citric acid solution, as opposed to inert sulfide, which is stable. Active sulfides include calcium
sulfide and bisulfide formed when H2S reacts with lime in an oil-base mud. Their accumulation
constitutes a safety concern at the rig because of the risk of reverting to H2S gas should an
acidic influx occur. They may be converted to inert sulfides by adding zinc oxide.
activity of aqueous solutions : The escaping tendency, or vapor pressure, of water molecules
in an aqueous solution compared with that of pure water, typically abbreviated aw. Activity is
expressed mathematically as the ratio of two vapor pressures: aw = p/po, where p is vapor
pressure of the solution and po is vapor pressure of pure water. The ratio ranges from near 0 to
1.0 and corresponds to percent relative humidity (% RH) of air in equilibrium with the aqueous
solution. For pure water, aw = po/po = 1.00 and RH = 100%. By increasing the concentration
of salt (or other solutes) in the solution, aw decreases, because vapor pressure of the solution
decreases. However, aw never reaches zero. Known-activity, saturated-salt solutions are used
to calibrate RH meters. Measuring RH of air above an oil mud is a simple way to measure the
activity (salinity) of its water phase. Adjusting the salinity of the water phase is a way to control
movement of water into or out of shales that are being drilled with an oil mud. Chenevert
related aw in oil mud to RH above the mud sample and devised a practical test using an
electrohygrometer to measure RH, called the "Chenevert Method."
acyclic compound : One of a group of organic compounds of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) in
which the carbon atoms have linear, branched chain (open), or both types of structures.
Aliphatics, as they are informally called, can be divided into paraffinic (saturated) and olefinic
(unsaturated) chain types. The simplest paraffinic aliphatic is methane, CH4. The simplest
olefinic aliphatic is ethylene, C2H6. In drilling fluids, particularly oil-base muds, the amounts
and types of hydrocarbon in the mud can be an important parameter in overall performance of
the mud.
Aerobic : Referring to a condition or a situation in which free oxygen exists in an environment.
2. adj. [Drilling Fluids] Referring to a condition or a situation or a living creature, such as a
bacteria, in which oxygen is required to sustain life.
Agglomeration : The formation of groups or clusters of particles (aggregates) in a fluid. In
water or in water-base drilling fluid, clay particles form aggregates in a dehydrated, face-to-
face configuration. This occurs after a massive influx of hardness ions into freshwater mud or
during changeover to a lime mud or gyp mud. Agglomeration results in drastic reductions in
plastic viscosity, yield point and gel strength. It is part of wastewater cleanup and water
clarification. Alum or polymers cause colloidal particles to aggregate, allowing easier
separation.
Aggregate : Group or cluster of particles in a fluid. In water or in water-base drilling fluid,
clay particles form aggregates in a dehydrated, face-to-face configuration. This occurs after a
massive influx of hardness ions into freshwater mud or during changeover to a lime mud or
gyp mud. Aggregation results in drastic reductions in plastic viscosity, yield point and gel
strength. It is part of wastewater cleanup and water clarification. Alum or polymers cause
colloidal particles to aggregate, allowing easier separation.
Aggregation : The formation of groups or clusters of particles (aggregates) in a fluid. In water
or in water-base drilling fluid, clay particles form aggregates in a dehydrated, face-to-face
configuration. This occurs after a massive influx of hardness ions into freshwater mud or during
changeover to a lime mud or gyp mud. Aggregation results in drastic reductions in plastic
viscosity, yield point and gel strength. It is part of wastewater cleanup and water clarification.
Alum or polymers cause colloidal particles to aggregate, allowing easier separation.
air cut mud : A drilling fluid (or mud) that has gas (air or natural gas) bubbles in it, resulting
in a lower bulk, unpressurized density compared with a mud not cut by gas. The density of gas-
cut mud can be measured accurately using a pressurized mud balance. Defoamer chemicals
added to the mud or a mechanical vacuum pump degasser can liberate the trapped gas. The
derrickman periodically measures mud density and communicates the results to the driller via
an intercom, typically reporting something like "9.6 heavy," "10.4," or "13.2 light," indicating
more than 9.6 pounds per gallon, 10.4 pounds per gallon, or less than 13.2 pounds per gallon,
respectively. Each tenth of a pound per gallon is referred to as a "point" of mud weight. Note
that for this low-accuracy measurement, no direct mention of gas cut is made. A gas cut is
inferred only if the mud returning to the surface is significantly less dense than it should be. In
the case of the mud logger's measurement, "units" of gas (having virtually no absolute meaning)
are reported. For the mud logger's measurement, a direct indication of combustible gases is
made, with no direct correlation to mud weight.
aliphatic compound : One of a group of organic compounds of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H)
in which the carbon atoms have linear, branched chain (open), or both types of structures.
Aliphatics, as they are informally called, can be divided into paraffinic (saturated) and olefinic
(unsaturated) chain types. The simplest aliphatic, paraffinic hydrocarbon is methane, CH4. The
simplest aliphatic, olefinic hydrocarbon is ethylene, C2H6. In drilling fluids, particularly oil-
base muds, the amounts and types of hydrocarbon in the mud can be an important parameter in
overall performance of the mud.
Alkaline : Pertaining to an aqueous solution, such as a water-base drilling fluid, which has
more hydroxyl ions (OH-) than hydrogen ions (H+) and pH greater than 7.
Alkalinity : A chemical property of an aqueous system that implies that there are more
hydroxyl ions (OH-) in the system, or a potential to produce more hydroxyl ions, than there are
hydrogen ions (H+), or potential to produce hydrogen ions.

alkalinity test : A measure of the total amount of hydroxyl ions in a solution as determined by
titration with standardized acid. This test is a well-known water-analysis procedure to estimate
hydroxyl, carbonate ion and bicarbonate ion concentrations. There are two pH endpoints, P and
M, in this titration, corresponding to phenolphthalein and methyl orange indicators. The "P"
endpoint is at pH 8.3 and the "M" endpoint is at pH 4.3. Each is reported in units of cm3
acid/cm3 sample. For water samples and very simple mud filtrates, P and M data indicate OH-
, HCO3- and CO3-2 concentrations, but an alkalinity test is unreliable for analyzing complex
mud filtrates. The API has established standards for conducting alkalinity tests.
Alum : A series of double salts of aluminum sulfate and potassium sulfate with the formula
Al2(SO4)3·K2SO4·nH2O. Alum is used as a colloidal flocculant in wastewater cleanup.
aluminum stearate : The salt of aluminum hydroxide and stearic acid (saturated C-18 fatty
acid) with the formula Al(O2C18H35)3. It is a grease-like solid. When mixed with oil (for
example, diesel oil) and the mixture sprayed onto the surface of a foamy water mud, it helps
the gas bubbles break out of the mud.
Amides : A group of organic chemicals with the general formula RCO-NH2 formed from
reactions of ammonia (NH3) and a carboxylic acid, RCOO-H+. "R" groups range from
hydrogen to various linear and ring structures. Amides and polyamides are emulsifiers and
surfactants, many of which are made from fatty acids.
Amines : A group of organic chemicals that are analogs of ammonia (NH3), in which either
one, two or three hydrogen atoms of ammonia are replaced by organic radicals. General
formulas are: (1) primary amines, RNH2, (2) secondary amines, R1R2NH, (3) tertiary amines,
R1R2R3N and quaternary amines, R1R2R3 R4N+X (where X represents an anion). Amines
are organic bases (mildly alkaline) and react with acids to form nitrogenous, organic salts.
Amines made from fatty acids are emulsifiers and oil-wetting agents for oilfield chemicals.
AMPS : A copolymer of 2-acrylamido-2methyl propane sulfonate and acrylamide. AMPS
polymers are highly water-soluble anionic additives designed for high-salinity and high-
temperature water-mud applications. (Alkyl-substituted acrylamide can be used instead of
ordinary acrylamide, which lessens its vulnerability to hydrolysis at high temperature and high
pH.) Polymers from 0.75 to 1.5 MM molecular weight are suggested for fluid-loss control in
these difficult muds. Reference: Perricone AC, Enright DP and Lucas JM: "Vinyl Sulfonate
Copolymers for High-Temperature Filtration Control of Water-Base Muds," SPE Drilling
Engineering 1, no. 5 (October 1986): 358-364.
Anaerobic : Pertaining to systems, reactions or life processes of species, such as bacteria, in
which atmospheric oxygen is not present or not required for survival.
Anhydrite : A member of the evaporite group of minerals and the soft rock comprising
anhydrite formed by precipitation of calcium sulfate from evaporation of seawater. Anhydrite
can also form through the dehydration of gypsum, another sulfate mineral found in evaporites.
Anhydrite may occur as a cap rock above salt domes.
aniline point test : A test to evaluate base oils that are used in oil mud. The test indicates if an
oil is likely to damage elastomers (rubber compounds) that come in contact with the oil. The
aniline point is called the "aniline point temperature," which is the lowest temperature (°F or
°C) at which equal volumes of aniline (C6H5NH2) and the oil form a single phase. The aniline
point (AP) correlates roughly with the amount and type of aromatic hydrocarbons in an oil
sample. A low AP is indicative of higher aromatics, while a high AP is indicative of lower
aromatics content. Diesel oil with AP below 120°F [49°C] is probably risky to use in oil-base
mud. The API has developed test procedures that are the standard for the industry.
Anion : A negatively charged ion. Clay surfaces, groups on polymer chains, colloids and other
materials have distinct, negatively charged areas or ions. Anionic characteristics affect
performance of additives and contaminants in drilling fluids, especially water muds, in which
clays and polymers are used extensively.
Anionic : Related to negatively charged ions. Clay surfaces, groups on polymer chains,
colloids and other materials have distinct, negatively charged areas or ions. Anionic
characteristics affect performance of additives and contaminants in drilling fluids, especially
water muds, in which clays and polymers are used extensively.
Anode : The half of a battery that is positively charged and to which anions migrate by
electrostatic attraction. Half of an electrolytic corrosion cell in metal is called the "anode," from
which metal dissolves, often leaving pits. The anode is the part of a corrosion cell in which
oxidation occurs.
Antifoam : A mud additive used to lower interfacial tension so that trapped gas will readily
escape from mud. Mechanical degassing equipment is commonly used along with defoamer.
Octyl alcohol, aluminum stearate, various glycols, silicones and sulfonated hydrocarbons are
used as defoamers.
antifoam agent: A mud additive used to lower interfacial tension so that trapped gas will
readily escape from mud. Mechanical degassing equipment is commonly used along with
defoamer. Octyl alcohol, aluminum stearate, various glycols, silicones and sulfonated
hydrocarbons are used as defoamers.
API : Abbreviation for American Petroleum Institute, a trade association founded in 1919 with
offices in Washington, DC, USA. The API is sponsored by the oil and gas industry and is
recognized worldwide. Among its long-term endeavors is the development of standardized
testing procedures for drilling equipment, drilling fluids and cements, called API
Recommended Practices ("RPs"). The API licenses the use of its monogram (logo), monitors
supplier quality assurance methods and sets minimum standards for materials used in drilling
and completion operations, called API Specifications ("Specs"). The API works in conjunction
with the International Organization of Standards (ISO).
API cement : One of several classes of cement manufactured to the specifications of the
American Petroleum Institute (API) Specification 10A. Classes of API cement are A, B, C, D,
E, F, G and H.
API fluid loss test : A test to measure static filtration behavior of water mud at ambient (room)
temperature and 100-psi differential pressure, usually performed according to specifications
set by API, using a static filter press. The filter medium is filter paper with 7.1 sq. in. filtering
area. A half-size cell is sometimes used, in which case the filtrate volume is doubled.
API water : The amount of mixing water specified in API Specification 10A for specification
testing of cement to meet API requirements. This amount is not intended to be a guide for mix
water requirements in field applications.
apparent viscosity : The viscosity of a fluid measured at a given shear rate at a fixed
temperature. In order for a viscosity measurement to be meaningful, the shear rate must be
stated or defined.
aromatic content test : One of two quantitative analysis procedures for measuring aromatic
content of base oils for use in oil mud as proscribed by the API. Results of the two aromatic
content tests may differ because of the way the two gas-chromatography techniques separate
and identify aromatics. The Institute of Petroleum (IP) instruments are more widely available
than the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) instruments, and the Institute of
Petroleum method measures trace levels better than the more complex ASTM method.
aromatic hydrocarbon : A type of compound containing hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged
in a symmetrical 6-carbon ring structure with single (C-C) and double (C=C) bonds alternating
around the ring. Rings are single, multiple or fused and can have other chemical groups
attached in place of hydrogen. Benzene, C6H6 is the simplest single-ring aromatic, napthalene,
C10H8, the simplest fused-ring aromatic and toluene is the simplest aromatic, having an alkyl
side chain, C6H5-CH3. Xylene, a common oilfield chemical, has two methyl side chains,
C6H4-(CH3)2. Aniline is the simplest aromatic amine, C6H5-NH2 and is used in the aniline
point test. Aromatic hydrocarbons in oils used to prepare oil-base mud can damage elastomers
and increase the toxicity of the fluid. The aniline point test is used for screening oils to infer
aromatic content.
asphaltic mud additive : A group of high-viscosity or solid hydrocarbons obtained from
naturally occurring deposits or from the residue of petroleum refining, commonly used as
additives for oil-base and water-base muds. Molten asphalt can be further processed by heating
and passing air through the melt to oxidize and polymerize its components. Cooled, air-blown
asphalt is glassy and can be ground. It has a high softening point and polar sites that offer
emulsion-stabilizing qualities and affinity for clays and shales.
ASTM : The designation of a standard developed by ASTM International. Until 2001, ASTM
was an acronym for the American Society for Testing and Materials, but the organization
changed its name to ASTM International to reflect its global scope as a forum for development
of international voluntary consensus standards Some API procedures for drilling fluids are
similar to ASTM procedures.
Attapulgite : A needle-like clay mineral composed of magnesium-aluminum silicate. Major
deposits occur naturally in Georgia, USA. Attapulgite and sepiolite have similar structures and
both can be used in saltwater mud to provide low-shear rate viscosity for lifting cuttings out of
the annulus and for barite suspension. Attapulgite and sepiolite are sometimes called "salt gel."
Attapulgite has no capability to control the filtration properties of the mud. For use as an oil
mud additive, the clay is coated with quaternary amine, which makes it oil-dispersible and
provides gel structure but does not improve the filter cake, unlike organophilic bentonite clay.
AV : Abbreviation for apparent viscosity. The viscosity of a fluid measured at a given shear
rate at a fixed temperature. In order for a viscosity measurement to be meaningful, the shear
rate must be stated or defined.
Bactericide : An additive that kills bacteria. Bactericides are commonly used in water muds
containing natural starches and gums that are especially vulnerable to bacterial attack.
Bactericide choices are limited and care must be taken to find those that are effective yet
approved by governments and by company policy. Bactericides, also called biocides, can be
used to control sulfate-reducing bacteria, slime-forming bacteria, iron-oxidizing bacteria and
bacteria that attacks polymers in fracture and secondary recovery fluids. In polymers, the
degradation of the fluid is controlled, thus avoiding the formation of a large biomass, which
could plug the formation and reduce permeability.
balanced activity oil mud : An oil-base mud in which the activity, or vapor pressure, of the
brine phase is balanced with that of the formations drilled. Although long shale sections may
not have a constant value for vapor pressure, aw, the oil mud will adjust osmotically to achieve
an "average" aw value. Dynamic (autopilot) balance of mud salinity and drilled shales is
maintained because as water moves into or out of the mud, it also moves out of or into the
shale. As water transfer continues during drilling, the mud's water phase will be either diluted
or concentrated in CaCl2 as needed to match the average aw value of the shale section and
cuttings exposed to the mud. Reference: Chenevert ME: "Shale Control With Balanced-
Activity Oil-Continuous Muds," Journal of Petroleum Technology 33, no. 11 (November
1970): 1370-1378.
Barite : A dense mineral comprising barium sulfate [BaSO4]. Commonly used as a weighting
agent for all types of drilling fluids, barites are mined in many areas worldwide and shipped as
ore to grinding plants in strategic locations, where API specifies grinding to a particle size of
3 to74 microns. Pure barium sulfate has a specific gravity of 4.50 g/cm3, but drilling-grade
barite is expected to have a specific gravity of at least 4.20 g/cm3 to meet API specifications.
Contaminants in barite, such as cement, siderite, pyrrhotite, gypsum and anhydrite, can cause
problems in certain mud systems and should be evaluated in any quality assurance program for
drilling-mud additives.
barrel equivalent : A volume of 350 cm3. In mud laboratory experiments, 350 cm3 is the
volume chosen to represent 42 US gallons (1 oilfield barrel) [0.159 m3], so that 1.0 gram mass
represents 1.0 lbm. This is a convenient concept for mud technicians to use when mixing or
pilot-testing mud samples. For example, in preparing a mud formulation or for pilot-testing
purposes, adding 1.0 gram to 350 cm3 of fluid is the experimental equivalent of adding 1.0 lbm
to 42 US gallons (1.0 bbl) of fluid.
Baryte : Alternate spelling of barite.
base exchange: Quantity of positively charged ions (cations) that a clay mineral (or similar
material) can accommodate on its negative charged surface, expressed as milliequivalents per
100 grams. CEC of solids in drilling muds is measured on a whole mud sample by a methylene
blue capacity (MBC) test, which is typically performed to specifications established by API.
CEC for a mud sample is reported as MBC, methylene blue test (MBT) or bentonite equivalent,
lbm/bbl or kg/m3.
base oil : Refers to the continuous phase in oil-base drilling fluids. Oil-base drilling fluids are
water-in-oil emulsions in which water is the dispersed phase and oil is the dispersion, or
continuous, phase. Oil-to-water ratios (OWR) in oil-base drilling fluids vary from 65/35 to
95/5.
base slurry : A conventional cement slurry used as the cementitious component of a foamed
cement slurry.
BBL or bbl : An abbreviation for oilfield barrel, a volume of 42 US gallons [0.16 m3].
Bc : The pumpability or consistency of a slurry, measured in Bearden units of consistency (Bc),
a dimensionless quantity with no direct conversion factor to more common units of viscosity
Bearden units of consistency : The pumpability or consistency of a slurry, measured in
Bearden units of consistency (Bc), a dimensionless quantity with no direct conversion factor
to more common units of viscosity.
Beneficiate : To improve a mineral or ore for its designed use through chemical treatments or
mechanical processes. For example, barite and bentonite clay minerals are beneficiated in order
to help them meet specifications for use in drilling fluids.
Beneficiation : Chemical treatment or mechanical processes that improve a mineral or ore for
its designed use. For example, barite and bentonite clay minerals are beneficiated in order to
help them meet certain specifications for use in drilling fluids.
Bentonite : A clay mineral that is composed principally of three-layer clays, such as
montmorillonite, and widely used as a mud additive for viscosity and filtration control.
Commercial bentonite ores vary widely in amount and quality of the swelling clay, sodium
montmorillonite. Ores of lower quality, those with more calcium-type montmorillonite, are
treated during grinding by adding one or more of the following: sodium carbonate, long-chain
synthetic polymers, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), starch or polyphosphates. These help
make the final product meet quality specifications. Unfortunately, the additives may not remain
effective in "the real mud world" when in use at the rig due to hardness ions in the water, high
temperature, bacterial attack, mechanical shear-degradation and other factors that can render
these additives ineffective.
bentonite equivalent : A term used to express the results of the methylene blue test, which
determines the amount of clay-like materials in a water-base drilling fluid based on the amount
of methylene blue dye absorbed by the sample. Results are reported as "MBT" and also as
"lbm/bbl, bentonite equivalent" when performed to API specifications.
Bicarb/Bicarbonate : A compound containing the bicarbonate ion [HCOO-]. The term is
commonly used to refer to the ion itself. Bicarbonates are common constituents of drilling
fluids. The ions are in equilibrium with carbonate and CO2 gas.
bichromate salt : A type of salt in which chromium atoms are in the plus-7 valence state, such
as potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7.
Bingham plastic model : A two-parameter rheological model widely used in the drilling fluids
industry to describe flow characteristics of many types of muds. It can be described
mathematically as follows:
τ = YP + PV(γ),
where
τ = shear stress
γ = shear rate
YP = yield point
PV = plastic viscosity.
Fluids obeying this model are called Bingham plastic fluids and exhibit a linear shear-stress,
shear-rate behavior after an initial shear stress threshold has been reached. Plastic viscosity
(PV) is the slope of the line and yield point (YP) is the threshold stress. PV should be as low
as possible for fast drilling and is best achieved by minimizing colloidal solids. YP must be
high enough to carry cuttings out of the hole, but not so large as to create excessive pump
pressure when starting mud flow. YP is adjusted by judicious choices of mud treatments. The
direct-indicating rotational rheometer was specifically designed to apply the Bingham plastic
fluid model.
Bioaccumulation/Bioconcentration : The concentration of a particular substance in a living
organism, possibly with harmful effects. The likelihood of this occurring is expressed as the
bioaccumulation potential and can be estimated by the octanol/water partition coefficient,
expressed as logPOW. This test is commonly required on drilling fluid additives in the North
Sea area and other countries following the Oslo and Paris Commission (OSPAR) regulations.
Values of logPOW below 3 indicate no bioaccumulation tendency; values between 3 and 6
indicate that bioaccumulation is possible, providing the substance is small enough to pass
through the cell wall (mol. wt. < 600). This may be confirmed by a bioconcentration test in
which a population of animals is exposed to the product.
Bioassay : A laboratory test or other assessment utilizing a living organism, such as mysid
shrimp, to determine the effect of a condition to which the organism is exposed. Such tests are
performed under controlled environmental conditions and duration. Bioassay tests of drilling
fluids are required by governmental agencies throughout the world prior to discharge of mud
or cuttings. The organisms used in bioassays are those found in the area that would be most
affected by contact with the proposed drilling fluid. The dosage of interest is typically the lethal
concentration, known as LC50, that will kill 50% of the population of organisms in a given
period of time. Chronic bioassay tests indicate sublethal effects, such as changes in growth or
reproduction of the organism over a longer period of time.
biochemical oxygen demand : The amount of oxygen consumed by biodegradation processes
during a standardized test. The test usually involves degradation of organic matter in a
discarded waste or an effluent.
Biocide : An additive that kills bacteria. Bactericides are commonly used in water muds
containing natural starches and gums that are especially vulnerable to bacterial attack.
Bactericide choices are limited and care must be taken to find those that are effective yet
approved by governments and by company policy. Bactericides, also called biocides, can be
used to control sulfate-reducing bacteria, slime-forming bacteria, iron-oxidizing bacteria and
bacteria that attacks polymers in fracture and secondary recovery fluids. In polymers, the
degradation of the fluid is controlled, thus avoiding the formation of a large biomass, which
could plug the formation and reduce permeability.
Biodegradation : The process by which complex molecules are broken down by micro-
organisms to produce simpler compounds. Biodegradation can be either aerobic (with oxygen)
or anaerobic (without oxygen). The potential for biodegradation is commonly measured on
drilling-fluid products to ensure that they do not persist in the environment. A variety of tests
exist to assess biodegradation.
Biopolymer : A polymer produced by a strain of bacteria. The most common type, used in
drilling and completion operations, is a polysaccharide biopolymer known as XC polymer.
black list : List of products considered unsuitable by the Oslo and Paris Commission (OSPAR)
for discharge, including mercury, cadmium and 'persistent oils and hydrocarbons of a
petroleum origin.' OSPAR, formerly known as PARCOM, is a group of experts who advise
North Sea countries on environmental policy and legislation. The group has been influential in
establishing North Sea legislation on drilling fluids that has served as the model for other
operating areas. The Commission has published lists of environmentally acceptable and
unacceptable products, referred to as the "green," "grey" and "black" lists. The inclusion of
hydrocarbons in the black list has been the driving force behind the reduction of oil discharges
in the North Sea and elsewhere and has serious implications for the use of oil and synthetic
fluids.
Blaine fineness : The particle size or fineness of a cement in cm2/g or m2/kg, usually
determined from air permeability tests using a device known as a Blaine permeameter. Fineness
affects the hydration rate (setting) and the requirements for the amounts of water, retarder and
dispersant.
bland coring fluid : A coring fluid formulated with components that are not likely to alter the
wettability in the pores of the rock sample and that has low dynamic filtration characteristics.
These qualities help retain the core's native properties and can retain some (or all) of the
reservoir's fluids [water, oil and gas (gas only if kept under pressure)]. Bland water-base fluid
is formulated to make the filtrate resemble the connate water in the reservoir. Keeping ionic
composition and especially the pH matched to the reservoir water is most important. Thus,
strong alkaline agents and clay deflocculants are avoided when designing bland coring fluids.
Bland oil-base fluids should contain no water phase, and the base oil should resemble the
reservoir oil. (Reservoir crude is used in some cases.) Amine, amide, phosphonated and
sulfonated emulsifiers and the powerful oil-wetting agents are also avoided. Fatty acid soaps
are chosen to emulsify the trace of water that is likely to be encountered. Additives that
minimize dynamic filtration rate must be chosen. Setting mud density and bit hydraulics to give
equivalent circulating density close to the reservoir pressure helps avoid filtrate invasion into
the core. Designing core bits to core as fast as possible also limits filtrate invasion ahead of the
bit.
BOD : The amount of oxygen consumed by biodegradation processes during a standardized
test. The test usually involves degradation of organic matter in a discarded waste or an effluent.
Bomb : Slang term for a type of pressure vessel.
bond log : A log that uses the variations in amplitude of an acoustic signal traveling down the
casing wall between a transmitter and receiver to determine the quality of cement bond on the
exterior casing wall.
bottomhole circulating temperature : The temperature at the bottom of a well while fluid is
being circulated, abbreviated BHCT. This is the temperature used for most tests of cement
slurry in a liquid state (such as thickening time and fluid loss). In most cases, the BHCT is
lower than the bottomhole static temperature (BHST), but in some cases, such as in deep water
or in the arctic, the BHCT may be higher than the BHST.
bottomhole static temperature : The undisturbed temperature at the bottom of a well,
abbreviated as BHST. After circulation and after the well is shut in, the temperature approaches
the BHST after about 24 to 36 hours, depending on the well conditions. The BHST is the
temperature used in most tests in which the cement slurry is required to set or is set.
bottoms up mud sample : A sample of mud from the deepest or current drilling depth of a
well. The term refers particularly to a mud sample that has experienced stagnant conditions at
the bottom of the hole, including the temperature, pressure and other conditions at that depth.
A bottoms-up sample is commonly collected after a trip out of the hole or if an influx of
formation fluid is suspected
Breaker : A chemical that reduces the viscosity of a fluid by breaking long-chain molecules
into shorter segments. Drilling fluids are commonly emulsified or contain long-chain
molecules that have sufficient viscosity to carry cuttings to surface. After the drilling fluid has
done its job, a breaker may be added to reduce the viscosity of the fluid by breaking down the
long chain molecules into shorter molecules. A surfactant may be added to an emulsion to
reduce its viscosity.
bridging agent/bridging material : Solids added to a drilling fluid to bridge across the pore
throat or fractures of an exposed rock thereby building a filter cake to prevent loss of whole
mud or excessive filtrate. Bridging materials are commonly used in drilling fluids and in lost
circulation treatments. For reservoir applications, the bridging agent should be removable-
common products include calcium carbonate (acid-soluble), suspended salt (water-soluble) or
oil-soluble resins. For lost-circulation treatments, any suitably sized products can be used,
including mica, nutshells and fibers. These products are more commonly referred to as lost-
circulation material (LCM).
Brine : A general term that refers to various salts and salt mixtures dissolved in an aqueous
solution. Brine can be used more strictly, however, to refer to solutions of sodium chloride. We
prefer to use brine as a general term. The emulsified calcium chloride [CaCl2] solution (or any
other saline phase) in an oil mud is referred to as "brine" or "brine phase." The oil/brine ratio,
abbreviated OBR, is used to compare solids content and salinities of oil muds. Clear brines are
salt solutions that have few or no suspended solids.
bromide brine : An aqueous solution of sodium, calcium or zinc bromide salt or mixtures of
these salts. These dense aqueous solutions are used for well completion and workover purposes.
bromocresol green : An indicator used in place of methyl orange in alkalinity tests. It is green
at pH values over 4.3, but yellow when pH is less than 4.3.
Brookfield viscometer : A cone-and-plate rheometer designed to measure viscosity of non-
Newtonian fluids at low shear rates and with more accuracy than is attainable with a 6-speed,
direct-indicating viscometer. Such low shear-rate data are needed for designing muds with
improved hole-cleaning properties and to minimize sag of weighting material. (Brookfield is a
mark of Brookfield Engineering Laboratories, Inc.)
Buffer : A chemical system that resists a change in pH. It comprises three components: water,
weak acid (or weak base) and salt of the weak acid (or salt of weak base). In a buffered system,
the concentration of H+ and OH- ions remain relatively constant because they are in
equilibrium with one or more of the other two components, even with the addition of acids or
bases.
buffer solution : Any aqueous solution that contains a buffer mixture (weak acid or weak base
and salt of the weak acid or base) to maintain constant or almost constant pH of the system.
buffered mud : A type of mud that contains the three components that form a chemical buffer,
whether by design or by coincidence. Buffering results from components that react with the
added OH- ions (or added H+ ions) forming slightly soluble or slightly ionized compounds.
Water is one component of a buffer and various ions are the other components, such as
bicarbonates, carbonates, lignite, lignosulfonate, silicate and sulfide. Clay solids are buffers
because of their ability to accept or donate H+ ions on their surface. The pH of a buffered mud
will not increase as fast as expected after addition of caustic soda, for example.
buffered solution : A solution used in analyses to hold pH at or above or below a certain value,
as in the titration for magnesium versus calcium ions.
bulk volume : The volume per unit mass of a dry material plus the volume of the air between
its particles.
by weight of blend : Describing the amount (in percent) of a material added to cement when
the material is added based on the total amount of a specific blend, often abbreviated as BWOB.
Alternate Form: BWOB
by weight of cement : Describing the amount (in percent) of a material added to cement, and
is often abbreviated as BWOC. BWOC is the method used to describe the amount of most
additives in the dry form.
by weight of water :Describing the amount (in percent) of a material added to a cement slurry
based on the weight of water used to mix the slurry. Commonly abbreviated as BWOW, this
convention normally is used only for salt [NaCl].
By pass : The act of passing the mud around a piece of equipment, such as passing mud returns
around the shale shaker screens or going around a hydrocyclone device. From a mud-
engineering viewpoint, this can be a bad practice because it can allow drill solids to degrade
and accumulate as fines to the degree that they might cause mud problems.
By passed mud : Mud that is left somewhere in the wellbore when some other fluid is pumped
into the well. This can occur when pumping an oil mud into a well to displace a water mud.
The bypassed water mud becomes a contaminant in the oil mud when it gets mixed into the
circulating system. Drilling mud may be bypassed behind a casing or a liner when pumping
cement into the casing or wellbore annular region. This mud-contaminated cement might not
set up and might not isolate zones satisfactorily.
Cake : The residue deposited on a permeable medium when a slurry, such as a drilling fluid,
is forced against the medium under a pressure. Filtrate is the liquid that passes through the
medium, leaving the cake on the medium. Drilling muds are tested to determine filtration rate
and filter-cake properties. Cake properties such as cake thickness, toughness, slickness and
permeability are important because the cake that forms on permeable zones in the wellbore can
cause stuck pipe and other drilling problems. Reduced oil and gas production can result from
reservoir damage when a poor filter cake allows deep filtrate invasion. A certain degree of cake
buildup is desirable to isolate formations from drilling fluids. In openhole completions in high-
angle or horizontal holes, the formation of an external filter cake is preferable to a cake that
forms partly inside the formation. The latter has a higher potential for formation damage.
cake thickness : A measurement of the thickness of the filter cake, usually recorded in 32nds-
inch. Under dynamic conditions, filter-cake thickness depends on rate of deposition versus
erosion caused by fluid circulation and mechanical abrasion by the rotating drillstring.
Typically, the filter cake will reach an equilibrium thickness in the wellbore. In laboratory tests,
however, filter cake is built under static conditions with no erosion.
calcium bromide : A compound of formula CaBr2 used in conjunction with calcium chloride
[CaCl3] in completion operations to make solids-free brines with densities in the range 11.5 to
14.5 ppg.
calcium carbonate : A compound with formula CaCO3 that occurs naturally as limestone.
Ground and sized calcium carbonate is used to increase mud density to about 12 lbm/gal [1.44
kg/m3], and is preferable to barite because it is acid-soluble and can be dissolved with
hydrochloric acid to clean up production zones. Its primary use today is as a bridging material
in drill-in, completion and workover fluids. Sized calcium carbonate particles, along with
polymers, control fluid loss in brines or drill-in, completion and workover fluids. Insoluble
calcium carbonate is the precipitated byproduct of mud treatments used for removal of either
Ca+2 or CO3-2 by addition of the other ion.
calcium chloride : A highly soluble calcium salt of formula CaCl2 used to make drilling and
workover fluids or brines with a density range from 8.33 to 11.6 lbm/gal [1.39 g/cm3] at
saturation. CaCl2 can be blended with other brines, including sodium chloride [NaCl], calcium
bromide [CaBr2] and zinc bromide [ZnBr2]. Emulsification of CaCl2 brine as the internal
phase of oil-base or synthetic-base mud is an important use because the brine provides osmotic
wellbore stability while drilling water-sensitive shale zones
calcium contamination : A contamination problem caused by Ca+2 ions, usually occurring in
fresh water, seawater and other low-salinity and low-hardness mud systems. Soluble calcium
comes into a mud from various sources: gypsum- or anhydrite-bearing strata, unset cement and
hardness ions in make-up water or from an influx of formation water. Ca+2 can flocculate
colloidal clays and precipitate large anionic polymers that contain carboxylate groups, such as
an acrylate polymer. On the other hand, some mud types tolerate calcium, in which case
calcium is not considered a contaminant.
calcium hydroxide : A chemical with formula Ca(OH)2, commonly called slaked lime. Lime
is used in lime muds and as a treatment to remove carbonate ions. It is used as a stabilizing
ingredient in oil- and synthetic-base mud, essential to formation of fatty-acid soap emulsifiers.
It is an alkaline material that can be carried in excess to neutralize hydrogen sulfide [H2S] and
carbon dioxide [CO2]
calcium mud : A class of water-base drilling fluid that utilize dissolved Ca+2 as a component.
Examples are lime mud, gyp mud and calcium chloride [CaCl2] mud. The latter is rarely used,
but is based on solutions of CaCl2 that, in high concentration, can impart density up to 11.6
lbm/gal (1.39 g/cm3) and has been touted as providing shale inhibition.
calcium oxide : A chemical with formula CaO, commonly called quick lime or hot lime. When
hydrated with one mole of water, it forms slaked lime, Ca(OH)2. Quick lime is used in
preference to slaked lime at oil mud mixing plants because it generates heat when it becomes
slaked with water and therefore speeds up emulsification by the reaction to form calcium fatty-
acid soap.
calcium sulfate : The chemical CaSO4, which occurs naturally as the mineral anhydrite.
Gypsum is the dihydrate mineral form, CaSO4·2H2O. Anhydrite and gypsum (commonly
called gyp) are found in the subsurface and drilling even small stringers of these minerals can
upset a freshwater or seawater mud. Gyp muds, lime muds and oil muds tolerate these salts
best. CaSO4 is used as a mud treatment when no pH increase is needed to remove carbonate
ion contamination in freshwater and seawater muds. (Lime increases pH when added for this
purpose.) Gypsum and lime treatments are often used together to keep pH in the proper range.
The test for determining the dissolved and undissolved calcium sulfate in a gyp mud requires
two titrations with the strong EDTA reagent and Calver II® indicator when performed to API
standards. It also requires a retort analysis for water content in the mud in order to calculate
CaSO4 content, lbm/bbl.
calcium test : A quantitative analytical procedure for water-mud filtrate and for calcium in an
oil mud.
capillary suction time test : A type of static filtration test for water-base drilling fluid that
measures the filtration rate (time for free water to pass between two electrodes) using filter
paper as the medium. It is used primarily to indicate filter-cake permeability, but data from the
test have been used to study how clays and shales react in filter cakes and how brines of various
types affect clays in a filter cake.
capillary tube viscometer : An instrument for measuring the viscosity of a fluid by passing
the fluid at a known pressure gradient or velocity through a length of tubing of known diameter.
The viscosity of base oils for oil muds, which are Newtonian fluids, is measured using a glass
capillary tube in a thermostatic bath, when performed according to API procedures.
carbon dioxide : The compound with the formula CO2. An odorless gas, carbon dioxide [CO2]
is widely distributed in nature and is a minor component of air. It is highly soluble in water and
oil, especially under pressure. In water, it occurs as carbonic acid, a weak acid that can donate
one or two hydrogen ions in neutralization reactions that produce bicarbonate [HCO3-] and
carbonate [CO3-2] salts or ions. CO2, being an acid in water, reacts instantly with NaOH or
KOH in an alkaline water mud, forming carbonate and bicarbonate ions. Similarly, it reacts
with Ca(OH)2 (lime) to form insoluble calcium carbonate and water.
carbonate ion : An anion with formula CO3-2. Carbonate chemistry involves a pH-dependent
equilibrium between H2O, H+, OH-, CO2, HCO3- and CO3-2. At low pH, carbon dioxide
[CO2] dominates. As pH rises from acidic toward neutral, HCO3- ions dominate. As pH rises
above neutral, CO3-2 ions dominate. If no component is lost from the system (such as CO2
gas evolving), changing pH up and down continually reverses the relative proportion of the
carbonate species. Carbonates play several important roles in water mud chemistry. One role
is the corrosion of metals by acidic CO2. A second is the formation of calcium carbonate
[CaCO3] scale on surfaces by carbonate and calcium ion reactions. Another role is in the
chemistry of deflocculated mud, where bicarbonate ions prevent attachment of deflocculants
such as lignosulfonate, onto clay edge charges.
carbonate test : An analytical procedure to determine the concentration of carbonate species
using the Garrett Gas Train (GGT) when performed to API specifications. A water mud filtrate
sample is put into the GGT. N2 or N2O is the carrier gas. A CO2 Drdger tube is used to measure
the total carbonates released as CO2 when sulfuric acid is added to the chamber containing the
sample. Total carbonates are measured by the amount of CO2 evolved in the test.
carboxymethyl hydroxyethylcellulose : A cellulose polymer that contains anionic
carboxymethyl and nonionic hydroxyethyl groups added by ether linkages to the OHs on the
cellulose backbone. This polymer has seen limited use in drilling mud, but more use in brines
and completion fluids.
Alternate Form: carboxymethyl hydroxyethylcellulose, CMHEC
carboxymethyl starch : A natural starch derivative. CMS is used primarily for fluid-loss
control in drilling muds, drill-in, completion and workover fluids. It is slightly anionic and can
be affected by hardness and other electrolytes in a mud. CMS is similar to CMC
(carboxymethylcellulose) in method of manufacture and many of its uses. The linear and
branched starch polymers in natural starch react with monochloroacetic acid in alkaline
solution, adding carboxymethyl groups at the OH positions by an ether linkage. By adding the
carboxymethyl groups, the starch becomes more resistant to thermal degradation and bacterial
attack.
Carboxymethylcellulose : A drilling-fluid additive used primarily for fluid-loss control,
manufactured by reacting natural cellulose with monochloroacetic acid and sodium hydroxide
[NaOH] to form CMC sodium salt. Up to 20 wt % of CMC may be NaCl, a by-product of
manufacture, but purified grades of CMC contain only small amounts of NaCl. To make CMC,
OH groups on the glucose rings of cellulose are ether-linked to carboxymethyl (-OCH2-COO-
) groups. (Note the negative charge.) Each glucose ring has three OH groups capable of
reaction, degree-of-substitution = 3. Degree of substitution determines water solubility and
negativity of the polymer, which influences a CMC's effectiveness as a mud additive. Drilling
grade CMCs used in muds typically have degree-of-substitution around 0.80 to 0.96.
Carboxymethylcellulose is commonly supplied either as low-viscosity ("CMC-Lo Vis") or
high-viscosity ("CMC-Hi Vis") grades, both of which have API specifications. The viscosity
depends largely on the molecular weight of the starting cellulose material.
carrying capacity : The ability of a circulating drilling fluid to transport rock fragments out of
a wellbore. Carrying capacity is an essential function of a drilling fluid, synonymous with hole-
cleaning capacity and cuttings lifting. Carrying capacity is determined principally by the
annular velocity, hole angle and flow profile of the drilling fluid, but is also affected by mud
weight, cuttings size and pipe position and movement.
Cathode : The negative terminal of an electrolytic cell or battery.
Cation : A positively charged ion.
cation exchange capacity : Quantity of positively charged ions (cations) that a clay mineral
(or similar material) can accommodate on its negative charged surface, expressed as
milliequivalents per 100 grams. CEC of solids in drilling muds is measured on a whole mud
sample by a methylene blue capacity (MBC) test, which is typically performed to specifications
established by API. CEC for a mud sample is reported as MBC, methylene blue test (MBT) or
bentonite equivalent, lbm/bbl or kg/m3.
Cationic : Related to positively charged ions.
caustic extraction test : A test used to determine if a barite sample contains caustic-soluble
sulfide or carbonate minerals.
caustic potash : The common name for potassium hydroxide [KOH]. Caustic potash is used
in potassium-based water muds to increase pH and alkalinity and to help maintain the K+ ion
concentration. As the name implies, it is highly caustic and gives off heat when dissolved in
water. Caustic potash is hazardous to use without proper training and equipment.
caustic soda : The common name for sodium hydroxide [NaOH]. Caustic soda is used in most
water-base muds to increase and maintain pH and alkalinity. It is a hazardous material to handle
because it is very caustic and gives off heat when dissolved in water. Proper training and
equipment are needed to handle it safely.
Cavings : Pieces of rock that came from the wellbore but that were not removed directly by
the action of the drill bit. Cavings can be splinters, shards, chunks and various shapes of rock,
usually spalling from shale sections that have become unstable. The shape of the caving can
indicate why the rock failure occurred. The term is typically used in the plural form.
cellulosic polymer : A drilling-fluid additive used primarily for fluid-loss control,
manufactured by reacting natural cellulose with monochloroacetic acid and sodium hydroxide
[NaOH] to form CMC sodium salt. Up to 20 wt % of CMC may be NaCl, a by-product of
manufacture, but purified grades of CMC contain only small amounts of NaCl. To make CMC,
OH groups on the glucose rings of cellulose are ether-linked to carboxymethyl (-OCH2-COO-
) groups. (Note the negative charge.) Each glucose ring has three OH groups capable of
reaction, degree-of-substitution = 3. Degree of substitution determines water solubility and
negativity of the polymer, which influences a CMC's effectiveness as a mud additive. Drilling
grade CMCs used in muds typically have degree-of-substitution around 0.80 to 0.96.
Carboxymethylcellulose is commonly supplied either as low-viscosity ("CMC-Lo Vis") or
high-viscosity ("CMC-Hi Vis") grades, both of which have API specifications. The viscosity
depends largely on the molecular weight of the starting cellulose material. Reference: Hughes
TL, Jones TG and Houwen OW: "The Chemical Characterization of CMC and Its Relationship
to Drilling-Mud Rheology and Fluid Loss," SPE Drilling & Completion 8, no. 3 (September
1993): 157-164.
Centipoise : A unit of measurement for viscosity equivalent to one-hundredth of a poise and
symbolized by cP. Viscosity is the ratio of shear stress to shear rate, giving the traditional unit
of dyne-sec/cm2 for Poise. In metric (SI) units, one cP is one millipascal-second.
Centrifuge : An item of solids-removal equipment that removes fine and ultrafine solids. It
consists of a conical drum that rotates at 2000 to 4000 rpm. Drilling fluid is fed into one end
and the separated solids are moved up the bowl by a rotating scroll to exit at the other end.
Centrifuges generally have limited processing capacity (50 to 250 gpm) but are useful for
processing weighted drilling fluids and can remove finer solids than can a hydrocyclone or
shaker screens. They can also be used for water clarification or for processing oily cuttings.
CERCLA : Abbreviation for "Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and
Liability Act" of 1980. CERCLA is an expansion of RCRA, "Resources Conservation and
Recovery Act" of 1976. These acts of the US Congress outline responsibilities of operators for
transportation, storage, treatment or disposal of regulated "hazardous substances," which
include certain oilfield materials.
cesium acetate : A salt of cesium hydroxide and acetic acid, with formula CH3COO-Cs+, used
to make high-density completion fluids. It has neutral to alkaline pH in water solutions and has
better temperature stability than cesium formate.
cesium formate : A neutral to slightly alkaline salt of cesium hydroxide and formic acid having
the formula HCOO-Cs+. It is extremely soluble in water. An 82 wt.% cesium formate solution
has a density of 2.4 g/cm3 [19.9 lbm/gal]. It has shown favorable health, safety and
environmental (HSE) characteristics in laboratory tests and has applications as a drill-in,
completion or workover fluid. Cesium formate can be mixed with less expensive potassium
formate to make clear brine mixtures with a density range from 1.8 to 2.4 g/cm3. Formates
have temperature stability in the range of 375°F [190°C], depending on the duration of
exposure to such a temperature.
chelating agent : A chemical used to bind metal ions to form a ring structure. Chelating agents
stabilize or prevent the precipitation of damaging compounds. In the oil field, chelating agents
are used in stimulation treatments and for cleaning surface facilities. They are also used to treat
or remove scale or weighting agents in reservoir drilling fluids. During acid or scale-removal
treatments, various compounds may be dissolved in the treatment fluid. As the acid reacts and
the pH increases, reaction products may precipitate as a gelatinous, insoluble mass. Should this
occur within the formation matrix, it is almost impossible to remove and permanent
permeability damage may occur. Chelating agents prevent precipitation by keeping ions in a
soluble form until the treatment fluid can be flowed back from the formation during cleanup.
Typical oilfield chelating agents include EDTA (ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid), HEDTA
(hydroxyethylenediamine triacetic acid), NTA (nitriolotriacetic acid) and citric acid.
chemical barrel : A 20- to 50-gallon [3.2- to 7.9 m3] container for liquid mud additives,
usually located above the suction pit on a drilling rig. The chemical barrel is used to slowly
dispense various types of liquids into the active mud system. It has traditionally been used to
add caustic (NaOH or KOH) solution at a slow and steady rate in order to maintain a uniform
pH throughout a circulating mud system. Adding caustic solution is an especially risky
operation and the proper design and use of the chemical barrel for safety is vitally important.
Derrickmen must be informed of the dangers, proper protective clothing and safety rules to
follow when using the chemical barrel.
chemical oxygen demand : The amount of oxygen needed to oxidize reactive chemicals in a
water system, typically determined by a standardized test procedure. COD is used to estimate
the amount of a pollutant in an effluent. Compare to biochemical oxygen demand, BOD.
Chenevert Method : The name given by API to the electrohygrometer method for testing oil
mud and cuttings samples for water-phase activity, aw.
chloride test : A titration procedure standardized by the API to quantitatively determine Cl-
(chloride ion) concentration by using silver nitrate as titrant with potassium chromate as the
endpoint indicator.
chromate salt : A type of salt in which chromium atoms are in the plus-6 valence state, such
as potassium chromate, K2CrO4. Chromium compounds of various types have been used in
lignite and lignosulfonate and other mud additives to enhance thermal stability. Since the late
1970s, they are prohibited in muds to be discarded offshore and in other environmentally
sensitive areas of the US.
chrome free : Pertaining to a mud additive (usually lignosulfonate or lignite) that does not
contain any chromium compounds.
chrome lignite : A lignite that has been treated (admixed or reacted with) chromic or chromate
salt, such as potassium or sodium chromate or dichromate or chromic chloride. Also, chrome
lignite may contain added (sometimes reacted) KOH or NaOH. Chromed mud additives have
largely been eliminated from usage in the US because of environmental concerns. Chrome
lignite was more temperature-stable than plain lignite in clay-based water muds.
chrome lignosulfonate : A lignosulfonate that has been treated by mixing or reacting into the
molecular structure some form of chromium (either chromate or chromic salt). Although still
used today in less environmentally sensitive areas, it has been replaced by iron or calcium
lignosulfonates. Ferro-chrome lignosulfonate is a popular type of deflocculant that contains
iron and chromium salts.
chromic salt : A salt of chromium in which chromium atoms are in the plus-3 valence state,
such as chromic chloride, CrCl3. Chromic compounds are considered less harmful to the
environment than chromates (plus-6 valence) because they are at a low oxidation state and not
highly reactive.
circulation time : The elapsed time for mud to circulate from the suction pit, down the wellbore
and back to surface. Circulation time allows the mud engineer to catch "in" and "out" samples
that accurately represent the same element of mud in a circulating system. Circulation time is
calculated from the estimated hole volume and pump rate and can be checked by using tracers
such as carbide or rice granules.
citric acid : An organic acid, properly called 2-Hydroxy-1,2,3-propanetricarboxylic acid, with
formula C6H8O7. Citric acid is used to reduce the pH of drilling fluids and hence for treatment
of cement contamination. It also acts as a polymer stabilizer.
Clathrate : A crystalline solid consisting of water with gas molecules in an ice-like cage
structure. The general term for this type of solid is clathrate. Water molecules form a lattice
structure into which many types of gas molecules can fit. Most gases, except hydrogen and
helium, can form hydrates. C1 to nC5 hydrocarbons, H2S and CO2 readily form hydrates at
low temperature and high pressure. Heavier hydrocarbons may also enter the structure but do
not form hydrates by themselves. Gas-cut muds can form hydrates in deepwater drilling
operations, plugging BOP lines, risers and subsea wellheads, causing a well-control risk. Gas
hydrates are thermodynamically suppressed by adding antifreeze materials such as salts or
glycols. A common practice is to use 20 to 23 wt.% NaCl. Nucleation and growth of hydrates
can be dynamically inhibited by certain polymers or surfactants. Gas hydrates are found in
nature, on the bottom of cold seas and in arctic permafrost regions. Drilling into these can be
hazardous, but they offer another source of hydrocarbons for future exploitation.
Clay : A large family of complex minerals containing the elements magnesium, aluminum,
silicon and oxygen (magnesium, aluminum silicates) combined in a sheet-like structure. Clays
are mined from surface pits as relatively pure deposits and used for bricks, pottery, foundry
molds and in drilling fluids among other uses. Clays, as claystones, shales and intermixed with
sands and sandstones make up the largest percentage of minerals drilled while exploring for oil
and gas. Sodium bentonite is a useful additive for increasing the density of drilling muds, but
other clay types are considered contaminants to be avoided and removed. Individual clay
platelets can be viewed only with an electron microscope. Crystal structures are also
determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD). The atomic structure of the clay group of layered
silicate minerals varies from two-layer to three-layer or four-layer (mixed-layer) structures.
One of the structural layers is a plane of silicon dioxide tetrahedra (silicon at the center and
oxygen at all four corners of the tetrahedron). The other structural layer is a plane of aluminum
hydroxide octahedra (aluminum at the center and hydroxides at all six corners). The tetrahedral
and octahedral layers fit one on top of the other, with oxygen atoms being shared as oxide and
hydroxide groups.
clay extender : A class of polymers added to a drilling-grade clay mineral during grinding, or
added directly into a clay-based mud system, to enhance the clay's rheological performance. In
concept, clay-extender polymers achieve the type of rheology needed for fast drilling with
fewer colloidal solids and lower viscosity at high shear rate (at the bit). This is the concept of
a "low-solids, nondispersed mud" system. Extenders are usually long-chain anionic or nonionic
polymers that link clay platelets together in large networks. Anionic polymers are highly
effective but can be precipitated by hardness ions. Nonionic polymers are less effective but
also much less sensitive to hardness ions. Excessively long, linear polymers may break up
under mechanical shearing. Either by precipitation or breakup, extender polymers can quickly
become ineffective if poorly chosen and used improperly. A drilling-grade clay that has no
extender is that which meets the standard for API nontreated bentonite. API bentonite and
OCMA-grade API bentonite usually contain extender polymers.
clay water interaction : An all-inclusive term to describe various progressive interactions
between clay minerals and water. In the dry state, clay packets exist in face-to-face stacks like
a deck of playing cards, but clay packets begin to change when exposed to water. Five
descriptive terms describe the progressive interactions that can occur in a clay-water system,
such as a water mud. 1) Hydration occurs as clay packets absorb water and swell. 2) Dispersion
(or disaggregation) causes clay platelets to break apart and disperse into the water due to loss
of attractive forces as water forces the platelets farther apart. 3) Flocculation begins when
mechanical shearing stops and platelets previously dispersed come together due to the
attractive force of surface charges on the platelets. 4) Deflocculation, the opposite effect, occurs
by addition of chemical deflocculant to flocculated mud; the positive edge charges are covered
and attraction forces are greatly reduced. 5) Aggregation, a result of ionic or thermal conditions,
alters the hydrational layer around clay platelets, removes the deflocculant from positive edge
charges and allows platelets to assume a face-to-face structure.
clear brine : A general term that refers to various salts and salt mixtures dissolved in an
aqueous solution. Brine can be used more strictly, however, to refer to solutions of sodium
chloride. We prefer to use brine as a general term. Clear brines are salt solutions that have few
or no suspended solids.
clear water drilling : Drilling operations using a water-base drilling fluid that contains few
solids. Clear-water drilling is done in "hard rocks" in which density and fluid loss are not
critical. Rapid drilling rate is the incentive for using a solids-free mud. Fluid returned to the
surface must be screened and processed by hydrocyclones and centrifuges to remove larger
solids. Colloidal solids can be agglomerated by adding polymers and removing the aggregates.
Polymers such as acrylates, acrylamides and partially-hydrolyzed polyacrylamides are used.
They are added at the flowline as mud exits the well or added in pits downstream from the
flowline.
closed mud system : A mud and solids-control system in which the only discarded waste is
moist, drilled-up rock materials. Such systems are used for drilling wells in environmentally
sensitive areas. No reserve-mud pit is used in a truly closed mud system. Mud is continually
processed primarily by mechanical means, such as screening, hydrocycloning and centrifuging
to remove solids initially. A second stage to remove colloidal solids is by wastewater cleanup
techniques.
cloud point: The temperature at which a solution of a surfactant or glycol starts to form
micelles (molecular agglomerates), thus becoming cloudy. This behavior is characteristic of
nonionic surfactants, which are often soluble at low temperatures but "cloud out" at some point
as the temperature is raised. Glycols demonstrating this behavior are known as "cloud-point
glycols" and are used as shale inhibitors. The cloud point is affected by salinity, being generally
lower in more saline fluids.
cloud point glycol : A glycol that is soluble at low temperatures but starts to form micelles
(molecular agglomerates), thus becoming cloudy, as the temperature is raised. The temperature
at which this phenomenon occurs the cloud point is affected by salinity, being generally lower
in more saline fluids. Cloud point glycols are used as shale inhibitors. The purported
mechanism is that the glycol clouds out at higher downhole temperatures, coating the surface
of clays and preventing hydration.
CMC : A drilling-fluid additive used primarily for fluid-loss control, manufactured by reacting
natural cellulose with monochloroacetic acid and sodium hydroxide [NaOH] to form CMC
sodium salt. Up to 20 wt % of CMC may be NaCl, a by-product of manufacture, but purified
grades of CMC contain only small amounts of NaCl. To make CMC, OH groups on the glucose
rings of cellulose are ether-linked to carboxymethyl (-OCH2-COO-) groups. (Note the negative
charge.) Each glucose ring has three OH groups capable of reaction, degree-of-substitution =
3. Degree of substitution determines water solubility and negativity of the polymer, which
influences a CMC's effectiveness as a mud additive. Drilling grade CMCs used in muds
typically have degree-of-substitution around 0.80 to 0.96. Carboxymethylcellulose is
commonly supplied either as low-viscosity ("CMC-Lo Vis") or high-viscosity ("CMC-Hi Vis")
grades, both of which have API specifications. The viscosity depends largely on the molecular
weight of the starting cellulose material.
CMC-Hi Vis/HVT : A high viscosity grade of drilling-fluid additive used primarily for fluid-
loss control, manufactured by reacting natural cellulose with monochloroacetic acid and
sodium hydroxide [NaOH] to form CMC sodium salt. Up to 20 wt % of CMC may be NaCl, a
by-product of manufacture, but purified grades of CMC contain only small amounts of NaCl.
To make CMC, OH groups on the glucose rings of cellulose are ether-linked to carboxymethyl
(-OCH2-COO-) groups. (Note the negative charge.) Each glucose ring has three OH groups
capable of reaction, degree-of-substitution = 3. Degree of substitution determines water
solubility and negativity of the polymer, which influences a CMC's effectiveness as a mud
additive. Drilling grade CMCs used in muds typically have degree-of-substitution around 0.80
to 0.96. Carboxymethylcellulose is commonly supplied either as low-viscosity ("CMC-Lo
Vis") or high-viscosity ("CMC-Hi Vis") grades, both of which have API specifications. The
viscosity depends largely on the molecular weight of the starting cellulose material.
CMC-Lo Vis/LVT : A low viscosity grade of drilling-fluid additive used primarily for fluid-
loss control, manufactured by reacting natural cellulose with monochloroacetic acid and
sodium hydroxide [NaOH] to form CMC sodium salt. Up to 20 wt % of CMC may be NaCl, a
by-product of manufacture, but purified grades of CMC contain only small amounts of NaCl.
To make CMC, OH groups on the glucose rings of cellulose are ether-linked to carboxymethyl
(-OCH2-COO-) groups. (Note the negative charge.) Each glucose ring has three OH groups
capable of reaction, degree-of-substitution = 3. Degree of substitution determines water
solubility and negativity of the polymer, which influences a CMC's effectiveness as a mud
additive. Drilling grade CMCs used in muds typically have degree-of-substitution around 0.80
to 0.96. Carboxymethylcellulose is commonly supplied either as low-viscosity (""CMC-Lo
Vis"") or high-viscosity (""CMC-Hi Vis"") grades, both of which have API specifications. The
viscosity depends largely on the molecular weight of the starting cellulose material.
CMHEC : A cellulose polymer that contains anionic carboxymethyl and nonionic
hydroxyethyl groups added by ether linkages to the OHs on the cellulose backbone. This
polymer has seen limited use in drilling mud, but more use in brines and completion fluids.
CMS : A natural starch derivative. CMS is used primarily for fluid-loss control in drilling
muds, drill-in, completion and workover fluids. It is slightly anionic and can be affected by
hardness and other electrolytes in a mud. CMS is similar to CMC (carboxymethylcellulose) in
method of manufacture and many of its uses. The linear and branched starch polymers in
natural starch react with monochloroacetic acid in alkaline solution, adding carboxymethyl
groups at the OH positions by an ether linkage. By adding the carboxymethyl groups, the starch
becomes more resistant to thermal degradation and bacterial attack.
Coalesce : To grow, as in the process of droplet growth, through small drops merging when
they come in contact. If this occurs repeatedly, a continuous liquid phase forms. Through this
phenomenon, emulsions break and form two distinct liquid phases that tend to separate. In oil-
base mud, the water phase is dispersed as small droplets, with oil as the continuous (external)
phase. A stable oil mud will remain dispersed under normal drilling conditions because when
droplets contact each other, they do not coalesce due to the strong emulsifier film around each
droplet. However, when the emulsion film around each droplet becomes weakened, droplets
will begin to coalesce. If not corrected, this can lead to total emulsion breakdown with solids
becoming water-wetted.
Coalescence : The process of droplet growth as small drops merge together when they come
in contact. If this occurs repeatedly, a continuous liquid phase forms. Through this
phenomenon, emulsions break and form two distinct liquid phases that tend to separate. In oil-
base mud, the water phase is dispersed as small droplets, with oil as the continuous (external)
phase. A stable oil mud will remain dispersed under normal drilling conditions because when
droplets contact each other, they do not coalesce due to the strong emulsifier film around each
droplet. However, when the emulsion film around each droplet becomes weakened, droplets
will begin to coalesce. If not corrected, this can lead to total emulsion breakdown with solids
becoming water-wetted.
Coarse : Referring in the strict sense (API Bulletin 13C) to any particle larger than 2000
microns.
COD : The amount of oxygen needed to oxidize reactive chemicals in a water system, typically
determined by a standardized test procedure. COD is used to estimate the amount of a pollutant
in an effluent. Compare to biochemical oxygen demand, BOD.
Colloid/Colloidal suspension : A finely divided, solid material, which when dispersed in a
liquid medium, scatters a light beam and does not settle by gravity; such particles are usually
less than 2 microns in diameter. Some drilling fluid materials become colloidal when used in a
mud, such as bentonite clay, starch particles and many polymers. Oil muds contain colloidal
emulsion droplets, organophilic clays and fatty-acid soap micelles.
Colloidal : Referring to a finely divided, solid material, which when dispersed in a liquid
medium scatters a light beam and does not settle by gravity; such particles are usually less than
2 microns in diameter. Some drilling fluid materials such as bentonite clay, starch particles and
many polymers become colloidal when used in a mud. Oil muds contain colloidal emulsion
droplets, organophilic clays and fatty-acid soap micelles.
colloidal solids : Solid particles of size less than 2 microns equivalent spherical diameter, also
identified as clay by definitions in International Standards Organization ISO/CD 13501, par.
3.1.17. Because of extremely small size, these solids largely defy direct removal by mechanical
devices that rely on screening or gravitational forces. Their removal is aided by chemical
aggregation prior to gravity separation or filtration.
Consistency : A rheological property of matter related to the cohesion of the individual
particles of a given material, its ability to deform and its resistance to flow. The consistency of
cement slurries is determined by thickening time tests in accordance with API Recommended
Practice 10B and is expressed in Bearden units of consistency (Bc).
contact time : The elapsed time required for a specific fluid to pass a designated depth or point
in the annulus during pumping operations. Contact time is normally used as a design criterion
for mud removal in turbulent flow.
continuous phase : The continuous phase of an emulsion. The internal phase is the dispersed
droplets of emulsified fluid. Synonyms: external phase. Antonyms: internal phase
conventional mud : A term that, in the past, referred to a mud containing bentonite clay, water,
caustic soda and perhaps barite (as needed for density) usually with lignite or lignosulfonate
present. Modern drilling does not necessarily recognize this as a conventional mud because
polymer muds, special drill-in fluids and synthetic-base muds are now in common use. There
may not be a "conventional mud" today.
Copolymer : A polymer that is formed from two or more different structural units. Synonyms:
AMPS
copper carbonate : A compound, CuCO3, that was used as a sulfide scavenger for water-base
muds. However, it was found to be corrosive due to spontaneous plating of metallic copper
onto metal surfaces, causing pitting corrosion; it has largely been replaced by zinc compounds.
coring fluid : A specially designed fluid that is used for cutting cores with a core barrel and
core bit. Sometimes the fluid used is the drilling mud, but if cores are for special studies, the
coring fluid must be carefully designed to avoid damaging or altering the rock sample, such as
a bland coring fluid.
corrosion coupon : A specimen of test material to be used in a corrosion test, usually a metal
strip or ring shaped to fit into a testing cell or between joints of drillpipe. Rings, or coupons,
are weighed before and after exposure, and weight loss is measured. They are also examined
for pits and cracks. Corrosion products are analyzed to define the type of corrosion reaction.
Coupon : An abbreviation for corrosion coupon, a specimen of test material to be used in a
corrosion test, usually a metal strip or ring shaped to fit into a testing cell or between joints of
drillpipe. Rings, or coupons, are weighed before and after exposure, and weight loss is
measured. They are also examined for pits and cracks. Corrosion products are analyzed to
define the type of corrosion reaction. Synonyms: corrosion coupon
Creaming : The separation of phases of an emulsion with the lighter phase on top and denser
phase on bottom. When oil muds are stagnant, the less dense oil phase rises and the denser
aqueous phase settles. This behavior is not necessarily related to emulsion weakness, nor does
it portend breaking, as does coalescence.
critical rate : The minimum rate required to achieve turbulent flow.
Curing : The aging of cement under specific temperature and pressure conditions.
cut point : The particle size that has a specified chance of being removed by an item of solids
control equipment. Most commonly, D10, D50 and D90 cut points are specified corresponding
to 10, 50 and 90% chances of removal, respectively. Taken together, they approximate the
separation curve. If the percent is not specified, it is normally taken to be the D50 value. For
example, if the D50 of a shaker screen is 100 microns, then a particle of this size has an equal
chance of being removed or staying in the system. Larger particles are more likely to be
removed and smaller ones more likely to be retained in the underflow.
Cutt point : The spherical diameter corresponding to the ellipsoidal volume distribution of the
screen opening sizes as measured by image analysis techniques. Named after Al Cutt of Amoco
who developed the technique. Not to be confused with cut point.
Cuttings : Rock pieces dislodged by the drill bit as it cuts rock in the hole. Cuttings are distinct
from cavings, rock debris that spalls as a result of wellbore instability. Visual inspection of
rock at the shale shaker usually distinguishes cuttings from cavings.
cuttings lifting : Transport of rock fragments out of a wellbore by a circulating drilling fluid.
Carrying capacity is an essential function of a drilling fluid, synonymous with hole-cleaning
capacity and cuttings lifting capacity. Carrying capacity is determined principally by the
annular velocity, hole angle and flow profile of the drilling fluid, but is also affected by mud
weight, cuttings size and pipe position and movement.
CWA : Abbreviation for "Clean Water Act," a law passed by the US Congress to control the
discharge of contaminants, particularly oil, into the waters of the US.
cycle time : The elapsed time for mud to circulate from the suction pit, down the wellbore and
back to surface. Cycle time allows the mud engineer to catch "in" and "out" samples that
accurately represent the same element of mud in a circulating system. Cycle time is calculated
from the estimated hole volume and pump rate and can be checked by using tracers such as
carbide or rice granules.
DD : A surfactant-type mud additive intended to prevent formation shales and clays from
sticking to the drilling assembly and also to prevent gumbo shale from agglomerating and
plugging the annulus and flowlines. Some DDs are claimed to be mud lubricants that lessen
the torque and drag of the drillstring as it is rotated and moved up and down in the hole.
Deflocculant : A thinning agent used to reduce viscosity or prevent flocculation; incorrectly
called a "dispersant." Most deflocculants are low-molecular weight anionic polymers that
neutralize positive charges on clay edges. Examples include polyphosphates, lignosulfonates,
quebracho and various water-soluble synthetic polymers. Synonyms: thinner
Deflocculate : To reduce the viscosity of a suspension by adding a thinning agent, also known
as a deflocculant.
deflocculated mud : A clay-based, water mud that has had its viscosity reduced with a
chemical treatment; incorrectly, called a "dispersed" mud. The chemical used is a deflocculant,
not a dispersant. A well-known and effective clay deflocculant is lignosulfonate. The mud,
after being deflocculated, usually shows much improved filter-cake qualities with lower yield
point and gel strengths. Filter-cake quality is improved because when clays are deflocculated,
the platelets become detached from each other and can lie flat to form a thin, low-permeability
filter cake. Lowering yield point and gel strength may not always be desired and can be adjusted
by the amount of deflocculant added in each treatment. If yield point and gels are lowered too
far, suspension and cutting capacity of the mud are impaired.
Deflocculation : The act of reducing the viscosity of a suspension by adding a thinning agent,
also known as a deflocculant.
Defoamer : A mud additive used to lower interfacial tension so that trapped gas will readily
escape from mud. Mechanical degassing equipment is commonly used along with defoamer.
Octyl alcohol, aluminum stearate, various glycols, silicones and sulfonated hydrocarbons are
used as defoamers. Synonyms: antifoam, antifoam agent, foam breaker. Antonyms: foaming
agent
Dehydration : The loss of water from cement slurry or drilling fluid by the process of filtration.
Dehydration results in the deposition of a filter cake and loss of the slurrys internal fluid into a
porous matrix. The cement is not completely dehydrated because sufficient water remains to
allow setting of the cement.
Demulsifier : A chemical used to break emulsions (that is, to separate the two phases). The
type of demulsifier selected depends on the type of emulsion, either oil-in-water or water-in-
oil. Demulsifiers are used in the chemical analysis of oil and synthetic muds and to treat
produced hydrocarbons.
Derrickman : One of the rig crew members who gets his name from the fact that he works on
a platform attached to the derrick or mast, typically 85 ft [26 m] above the rig floor, during
trips. On small land drilling crews, the derrickman is second in rank to the driller. Larger
offshore crews may have an assistant driller between the derrickman and the driller. In a typical
trip out of the hole (TOH), the derrickman wears a special safety harness that enables him to
lean out from the work platform (called the monkeyboard) to reach the drillpipe in the center
of the derrick or mast, throw a line around the pipe and pull it back into its storage location (the
fingerboards) until it is time to run the pipe back into the well. In terms of skill, physical
exertion and perceived danger, a derrickman has one of the most demanding jobs on the rig
crew. Some modern drilling rigs have automated pipe-handling equipment such that the
derrickman controls the machinery rather than physically handling the pipe. In an emergency,
the derrickman can quickly reach the ground by an escape line often called the Geronimo line.
Dewatering : The process of removing water from water-base drilling mud. Dewatering can
involve chemical treatment for the flocculation and aggregation of solids followed by
mechanical separation, such as centrifugation, or mechanical treatments alone.
dichromate salt : A type of salt in which chromium atoms are in the plus-7 valence state, such
as potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7.
diesel oil mud : An oil-base mud with diesel oil as its external phase. Diesel-oil mud is the
traditional oil mud and has a history of excellent performance for drilling difficult wells. It has
been used because the base oil is low-cost and widely available motor fuel. In-gauge holes can
be drilled through all types of shales, salt, gypsum and other difficult strata using diesel-oil
mud systems. It is often the mud of choice for drilling high-pressure, high-temperature zones.
Diesel-oil muds usually contain from 5 to 40 vol.% emulsified brine water (except those that
are specially designed to have none). The water phase usually contains 20 to 40 wt.% dissolved
calcium chloride for shale control. Diesel-oil muds have been replaced in land drilling by
mineral-oil muds and offshore by synthetic-fluid muds. These newer muds have fewer health,
safety and environmental concerns compared to diesel oil.
diesel-oil plug : Another term for gunk plug, a slurry that consists of bentonite, cement or
polymers mixed into an oil; bentonite in diesel oil is commonly used as a gunk plug. A small
batch of the slurry is pumped down a well that has lost circulation to seal the leaky zone. The
gunk plug may or may not be squeezed by pressure into the zone. Water downhole interacts
with the bentonite, cement or polymers to make a sticky gunk.
differential sticking : A condition whereby the drillstring cannot be moved (rotated or
reciprocated) along the axis of the wellbore. Differential sticking typically occurs when high-
contact forces caused by low reservoir pressures, high wellbore pressures, or both, are exerted
over a sufficiently large area of the drillstring. Differential sticking is, for most drilling
organizations, the greatest drilling problem worldwide in terms of time and financial cost. It is
important to note that the sticking force is a product of the differential pressure between the
wellbore and the reservoir and the area that the differential pressure is acting upon. This means
that a relatively low differential pressure (delta p) applied over a large working area can be just
as effective in sticking the pipe as can a high differential pressure applied over a small area.
difficult to disperse : Pertaining to a cement that is not easily dispersed by a material known
as a dispersant. This term is commonly abbreviated as DTD.
difficult to disperse in salt : Pertaining to cement that is not easily dispersed by a material
known as a dispersant when the slurry is mixed with water containing a high concentration of
salt. The term is commonly abbreviated DTDS.
Dilution : The process of adding fresh mud (or liquid phase) in order to reduce the solids
content and maintain the properties of the drilling fluid in the active system.
dilution water : Also called make-up water, which is water added to maintain or dilute a water-
mud system. The added water may be fresh water, seawater or salt water, as appropriate for the
mud. Make-up water volume is an important parameter in a material balance check on solids
content and solids removal efficiency for a mud system. The amount of dilution strongly
influences mud economics. If soft make-up water is needed, treatments to remove hardness
ions should be done prior to adding the water to the mud to avoid clay flocculation and polymer
precipitation.
direct emulsifier : A chemical used in preparation and maintenance of an emulsion mud, which
is a water mud containing dispersed oil (or a synthetic hydrocarbon). Numerous types of
emulsifiers will disperse oil into water muds, including sulfonated hydrocarbons, ethyoxylated
nonylphenols, alkali-metal fatty-acid soaps, lignosulfonate, lignite and lignin at high pH. Even
clays, starch and carboxymethylcellulose aid emulsion mud stability.
direct indicating viscometer : The instrument used to measure viscosity and gel strength of
drilling mud. The direct-indicating viscometer is a rotational cylinder and bob instrument, also
known as a V-G meter. Two speeds of rotation, 300 and 600 rpm, are available in all
instruments, but some are 6- or variable-speed. It is called "direct-indicating" because at a given
speed, the dial reading is a true centipoise viscosity. For example, at 300 rpm, the dial reading
(511 sec-1) is a true viscosity. Bingham plastic rheological parameters are easily calculated
from direct-indicating viscometer readings: PV (in units of cp) = 600 dial - 300 dial and YP (in
units of lb/100 ft2) = 300 dial - PV. Gel strength is also directly read as dial readings in oilfield
units of lb/100 ft2.
Dispersant : A chemical that aids in breaking up solids or liquids as fine particles or droplets
into another medium. This term is often applied incorrectly to clay deflocculants. Clay
dispersants are various sodium phosphates and sodium carbonates aided by heat, mechanical
shearing and time. Powdered polymers are dispersed by precoating the particles with a type of
glycol to prevent formation of "fish-eye" globules. For dispersing (emulsification) of oil into
water (or water into oils), surfactants selected on the basis of hydrophile-lipophile balance
(HLB) number can be used. For foam drilling fluids, synthetic detergents and soaps are used,
along with polymers, to disperse foam bubbles into the air or gas.
Dispersion :
1. n. [Drilling Fluids]
The act of breaking up large particles into smaller ones and distributing them throughout a
liquid or gaseous medium. For example, in water-base drilling mud, dispersion is the act of
degrading clay materials, starches, carboxymethylcellulose, biopolymer, synthetic polymers or
oils into submicroscopic particles by applying mechanical energy, heat or chemical means. In
oil-mud emulsion terminology, dispersion is the act of forming a fine-grained emulsion of an
aqueous phase into an oil. This is usually accomplished with by mechanical shearing or heating
in the presence of surfactants. It also includes dispersing solids into an oil mud, such as barite
or organophilic clays. Mud viscosity increases as more and more platelets are dispersed. No
gel structure can form as long as mechanical shearing is in progress.
See: aggregation, clay-water interaction, colloid, colloidal solids, dispersant, hydrophilic, oil
mud, water-base drilling fluid
2. n. [Drilling Fluids]
A colloidal system, such as a drilling fluid, that has been dispersed. More generally, the term
applies to any two (or more) phase system in which one phase exists as small particles or
droplets dispersed in the second phase.
See: colloid, colloidal solids, dispersant, drilling fluid, hydrophilic
dissolved solids : In water analysis, the soluble components in a sample or the residue left after
evaporation of a sample. Dissolved solids are reported as ppm or mg/L. Dissolved solids are
included in retort solids and can be calculated from chemical analysis results by assuming that
all dissolved solids are either NaCl or CaCl2, or a mixture of the two.
Draeger tube : A type of gas detector tube that quantitatively measures a gas that is passed
through the tube by the length of the stain it generates chemically in the tube. Dräger tubes are
used in Garrett Gas Train tests for sulfides and carbonates.
drill in fluid : A special fluid designed exclusively for drilling through the reservoir section of
a wellbore. The reasons for using a specially designed mud are: (1) to drill the reservoir zone
successfully, often a long, horizontal drainhole. (2) to minimize damage and maximize
production of exposed zones. (3) to facilitate the well completion needed, which can include
complicated procedures. A drill-in fluid should resemble a completion fluid. It may be a brine
containing only selected solids of appropriate particle size ranges (salt crystals or calcium
carbonate) and polymers. Only additives essential for filtration control and cuttings carrying
are present in a drill-in fluid.
drill solids : Formation solids contained in a mud system, generally considered to be
detrimental to the drilling operation because they produce high plastic viscosity, yield point
and gel strengths and build poor-quality filter cakes. They also occupy space that is needed for
barite in high-density muds. Drill solids cause excessive wear in the mud pumps and other rig
equipment. Solids control is aimed at economically and efficiently removing drill solids. This
implies removal as soon as possible after they enter the mud system, while the particles are at
their largest size.
See: bypass, closed mud system, deflocculant, filter cake, gel st
drilled solids: Formation solids contained in a mud system, generally considered to be
detrimental to the drilling operation because they produce high plastic viscosity, yield point
and gel strengths and build poor-quality filter cakes. They also occupy space that is needed for
barite in high-density muds. Drill solids cause excessive wear in the mud pumps and other rig
equipment. Solids control is aimed at economically and efficiently removing drill solids. This
implies removal as soon as possible after they enter the mud system, while the particles are at
their largest size.
drill-in fluid : A special fluid designed exclusively for drilling through the reservoir section of
a wellbore. The reasons for using a specially designed mud are: (1) to drill the reservoir zone
successfully, often a long, horizontal drainhole. (2) to minimize damage and maximize
production of exposed zones. (3) to facilitate the well completion needed, which can include
complicated procedures. A drill-in fluid should resemble a completion fluid. It may be a brine
containing only selected solids of appropriate particle size ranges (salt crystals or calcium
carbonate) and polymers. Only additives essential for filtration control and cuttings carrying
are present in a drill-in fluid.
drilling detergent : A surfactant-type mud additive intended to prevent formation shales and
clays from sticking to the drilling assembly and also to prevent gumbo shale from
agglomerating and plugging the annulus and flowlines. Some DDs are claimed to be mud
lubricants that lessen the torque and drag of the drillstring as it is rotated and moved up and
down in the hole. Alternate Form: DD
drilling fluid : Any of a number of liquid and gaseous fluids and mixtures of fluids and solids
(as solid suspensions, mixtures and emulsions of liquids, gases and solids) used in operations
to drill boreholes into the earth. Synonymous with "drilling mud" in general usage, although
some prefer to reserve the term "drilling fluid" for more sophisticated and well-defined "muds."
Classifications of drilling fluids has been attempted in many ways, often producing more
confusion than insight. One classification scheme, given here, is based only on the mud
composition by singling out the component that clearly defines the function and performance
of the fluid: (1) water-base, (2) non-water-base and (3) gaseous (pneumatic). Each category
has a variety of subcategories that overlap each other considerably.
drilling mud : Any of a number of liquid and gaseous fluids and mixtures of fluids and solids
(as solid suspensions, mixtures and emulsions of liquids, gases and solids) used in operations
to drill boreholes into the earth. Synonymous with "drilling fluid" in general usage, although
some prefer to reserve the term "drilling fluid" for more sophisticated and well-defined "muds."
Classifications of drilling fluids has been attempted in many ways, often producing more
confusion than insight. One classification scheme, given here, is based only on the mud
composition by singling out the component that clearly defines the function and performance
of the fluid: (1) water-base, (2) non-water-base and (3) gaseous (pneumatic). Each category
has a variety of subcategories that overlap each other considerably.
drilling-fluid engineer : A person responsible for testing the mud at a rig and for prescribing
mud treatments to maintain mud weight, properties and chemistry within recommended limits.
The mud engineer works closely with the rig supervisor to disseminate information about mud
properties and expected treatments and any changes that might be needed. The mud engineer
also works closely with the rig's derrickman, who is charged with making scheduled additions
to the mud during his work period.
dynamic filter press : Equipment used to measure filtration under dynamic conditions. Two
commercial dynamic-filtration testers are available, one of which uses a thick-walled cylinder
with rock-like characteristics as the filter medium to simulate radial flow into a wellbore. The
other tester uses flat porous disks, such as paper or fused ceramic plates, as filter media. In a
dynamic test, filter cake is continually eroded and deposited. Data from this test include a
steady-state filtration rate measured during the test, and cake thickness, cake quality and return
permeability of the filter medium measured at the conclusion of a test. There is no API
standardized test equipment or procedure.
dynamic filtration : A filtration process in which the slurry being filtered is being circulated
over the filter cake, so that the cake is simultaneously eroded and deposited. The erosion rate
depends on the shear rate of the fluid at the face of the cake. If the shear rate remains constant,
cake thickness and filtration rate reach steady state, usually in a matter of hours. When the
conditions change, a new steady state will be established.
dynamic-aging test : A mud test in which the mud sample is mildly agitated by rolling (or
tumbling) for the duration of the test, usually performed at a selected high temperature.
Typically, the mud sample is sealed in a mud-aging cell and placed in an oven that will roll (or
tumble) the mud cells continually for a given period of time (often 16 hours or overnight). The
cooled mud is tested for properties. A rolled (or tumbled) mud sample simulates circulation in
the hole by pumping.