The Geometry of Involute Gears

The Geometry of Involute Gears
J.R. Colbourne
The Geometry
of Involute Gears
With 217 Illustrations
Springer-Verlag
New York Berlin Heidelberg
London Paris Tokyo
J.R. Colbourne
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta
Canada T6G 2G8
Library of Congress Cataloging in publication Data

Colbourne. J.R.
The geometry of involute gears.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
I. Gearing. Spur. I. Title.
TJ 189.C65 1987 621.8'331 87-4843
© 1987 by Springer-Verlag New York Inc.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover I st edition 1987
All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied ill whole or in part without the
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987654321
[SBN-13: 978-1-4612-9146-6 e-[SBN-13: 978-1-4612-4764-7

00[: 10.1007/978-1-4612-4764-7
Table of Contents
Introduction
PART SPUR GEARS
1. The Law of Gearing 9

The Requirement for a Constant Angular Veloci ty Ratio 9
Rack and Pinion 13
Law of Gearing for Two Gears 19
Conjugate Profiles and the Basic Rack 23
2. Tooth Profile of an Involute Gear 24

Basic Involute Rack 24
Standard Pitch Circle 25
The Involute Tooth Profile 27
The Involute Function 30
Pressure Angle of a Gear 33
Tooth Thickness 41
Specifying a Spur Gear 49
3. Gears in Mesh 53
A Pinion Meshed wi th a Rack 53
A Pair of Gears in Mesh 65
Imaginary Rack 72
Fundamental Circles of a Gear 78
Advantages of the Involute Profile 79
4. Contact Ratio Interference and Backlash 83

Contact Ratio 83
Interference 91
Backlash 97
vi Contents
5. Gear Cutting I Spur Gears 110

Form Cutting 110
Shaping with a Pinion Cutter 112
Advantages of Generating Cutting 122
Shaping with a Rack Cutter 123
Hobbing 128
Cutter Tooth Tip Geometry 133
Undercutting 140
6. Profile Shift 148

Definition of Profile Shift 151
Geometric Design of a Spur Gear Pair 155
Alternative Names for Profile Shift 168
7. Miscellaneous Circles 174

Highest and Lowest Points of Single-Tooth Contact 174
Form Diameter 177
Undercut Circle 179
8. Measurement of Tooth Thickness 191

Gear-Tooth Vernier Caliper 192
Span Measurement 196
Measurement Over Pins 200
9. Geometry of Non-Involute Gears 207

General Theory 207
Fillet Shape Cut by a Rack Cutter 212
Fillet Shape of an Undercut Gear 216
Profile Modification 218
Fillet Shape Cut by a Pinion Cutter 221
10. Curvature of Tooth Profiles 229

Involute Radius of Curvature 229
Euler-Savary Equation 229
Gear Tooth Fillet Radius of Curvature 235
11. Tooth Stresses in Spur Gears 241

Contact Force Intensi ty 243
Contact Stress 244
Fillet Stress 248
Contents vii
12. Internal Gears 259

Tooth Profile of an Internal Gear 259
Meshing Geometry of an Internal Gear Pair 266
Tip Interference 272
Axial and Radial Assembly 275
Cutting Internal Gears 279
Shape of the Fillet 283
Undercutting 288
Rubbing 292
Geometric Design of an Internal Gear Pair 294
Measurement of Tooth Thickness 297
PART 2 HELICAL GEARS
13. Tooth Surface of a Helical Involute Gear 305

The Basic Helical Rack 309
Standard pi tch Cylinder of a Helical Gear 313
The Helix and the Involute Helicoid 318
The Generator Through Point A 331
Direction of the Normal to the Tooth Surface at A 337
Tooth Thickness 350
Tooth Profile in the Normal Section 359
Specifying a Helical Gear 362
14. Helical Gears in Mesh 366

A Pair of Helical Gears in Mesh 375
Contact Ratio 382
Backlash 387
position and Orientation of the Contact Line 393
15. Crossed Helical Gears 405

Rack and Pinion 406
A Crossed Helical Gear Pair 414
Path of Contact 423
Contact Ratio 432
Backlash 437
Tooth Contact Force and Bearing Reactions 445
viii Contents
16. Gear Cutting II Helical Gears 451

Shaping wi th a Pinion Cutter 451
Shaping wi th a Rack Cutter 454
Hobbing 457
Hobbing Machine Gear Train Layout 469
Use of a Differential in the Hobbing Machine 472
Theoretically Correct Shape for the Hob Thread 479
Geometric Design of a Helical Gear Pair 483
17. Tooth Stresses in Helical Gears 489

Tooth Contact Force 489
Contact Length 491
Contact Stress 502
Fillet Stress, and the Equivalent Spur Gear 508
Bibliography 525
Index 527
Notation
Lower Case Symbols
a Addendum
b Dedendum
c Clearance
e Profile shift
f Special function defined by Equation (13.89)
h Length on tooth of rack cutter
k Dimensionless factor
m Ratio
p pi tch
r Radius of circles not centered at the gear axis
s Coordinate, measured along path of contact
t Tooth thickness
u position of rack
v Velocity
w Space width; Tooth contact force intensity
x,y,z Coordinates
Upper Case Symbols
A Point on tooth profile

B Point where the involute meets the base circle; Backlash
C Gear center; Center distance
D Diameter
E Interference point; Young's modulus
F Face width
G Point where the generator meets the base cylinder
H End points of the contact path during cutting
I,J AGMA geometry factors
x Notation
Upper Case Symbols (continued)
K Dimensionless factor
L Lead
M Measurement over pins; Torque
N Number of teeth
P Pitch point; Diametral pitch
Q End points of single-tooth contact
R Radius of circles centered at gear axis; Polar coordinate
S Span measurement
T End points of the contact path
W Tooth contact force
X,Y Coordinates
Ital ic Symbols
m Module
n Uni t vector
p Posi tion vector
v Veloci ty vector
Greek Symbols
a General angle
Angular position of gear
Angle between involute tangent and tooth center-line
f Roll angle
Coordinates
Polar coordinate
Lead angle
Generator inclination angle; Poisson's ratio
p Radius of curvature
o Stress; Swivel angle
T Time
Profile angle; Pressure angle
Helix angle
w Angular velocity, measured in radians/sec
Shaft angle
Notation xi
Subscripts
b At the base cylinder

c Contact; Cutter
d At the defining circle of the equivalent spur gear
e Equivalent spur gear
f Fillet
g Gear
h Hob; At the highest point of the involute
i 1 or 2
n Normal
p At the pitch cylinder
r Rack; Rack cutter
s Standard; At the standard pi tch cylinder
t Transverse; Tensile
u Undercut
w At the load point
x,y,z In the x,y,z direction
F Face
L Limit
P Profile
R At radius R
T At the tip cylinder
L71, S In the L71,S directions
>.. In the direction of the helix binormal
In the direction of the helix tangent
Superscript
c Cutting
INTRODUCTION
Of all the many types of machine elements which exist

today, gears are among the most commonly used. The basic idea
of a wheel with teeth is extremely simple, and dates back
several thousand years. It is obvious to any observer that one
gear drives another by means of the meshing teeth, and to the
person who has never studied gears, it might seem that no
further explanation is required. It may therefore come as a
surprise to discover the large quantity of geometric theory
that exists on the subject of gears, and to find that there is
probably no branch of mechanical engineering where theory and
practice are more closely linked. Enormous improvements have
been made in the performance of gears during the last two
hundred years or so, and this has been due principally to the
careful attention given to the shape of the teeth. The
theoretical shape of the tooth profile used in most modern
gears is an involute. When precision gears are cut by modern
gear-cutting machines, the accuracy with which the actual
teeth conform to their theoretical shape is quite remarkable,
and far exceeds the accuracy which is attained in the
manufacture of most other types of machine elements.
The first part of this book deals with spur gears, which
are gears with teeth that are parallel to the gear axis. The
second part describes helical gears, whose teeth form helices
about the gear axis. The book is primarily about involute
gears, since this type of gear is by far the most commonly
used. However, the first chapter introduces the Law of
Gearing, which must be satisfied by any pair of gears, and the
statements made apply not only to involute gears, but are also
true for non-involute types of gear. There is one other
chapter of the book which also deals with non-involute gears.
Chapter 9 is on the general theory of gear tooth geometry, and
2 Introduction
is included in the book simply because the tooth profiles of

involute gears contain sections which are not involute. In
particular, the part of each tooth near its root, known as the
fillet, is not an involute, but its shape can be found from
the general theory of gears. And in some gears, small
alterations from the involute shape, known as profile
modifications, are made in the teeth, and again the final
shape of the teeth can be found by means of the general
theory.
In helical gears, the angle between the helix tangent
and the gear axis is known as the helix angle. Spur gears can
be regarded as helical gears, in which the helix angle is
zero. Since a spur gear is therefore simply a special case of
a helical gear, it might be asked why the two types should be
dealt with separately. However, the geometry of spur gears is
considerably simpler than that of helical gears, and it is
therefore convenient to describe it first. The cross-section
of a helical gear perpendicular to its axis, known as its
transverse section, is the same as the cross-section of a spur
gear, so a knowledge of spur gear geometry makes a good
starting point for the study of helical gears.
The treatment of spur gear theory in this book is fairly
conventional, except in one respect. No distinction is made
between a gear pair meshed at the standard center distance,
and one at extended centers. The terminology and the notation
are the same for both cases. In conformity with this
principle, the name "pitch circle" is always used for the
circle of a gear which passes through the pitch point, and its
radius is always represented by the symbol Rp' whatever its
value. It is important to make a clear distinction between the
pitch circle when a gear is in operation, and the pitch circle
when it is meshed with its basic rack, which is used as a
reference circle. For this reason, the pitch circle when the
gear is meshed with its basic rack is called the standard
pitch circle, and its radius is labelled Rs' where the
subscript s is used to indicate the word "standard".
Apart from this change, the definitions and notation in
this book have been chosen to conform as closely as possible
with those used in current North American practice. However,
a few additional alterations have been made, in cases where
Introduction 3
the existing terminology is confusing. For example, the

phrase "pre'ssure angle" is used at present for several
different angles. Its original meaning is the angle between
the line of action and the common tangent to the pitch
circles, but it is used also for the angle between the tooth
profile and the tooth center-line of a rack, and the angle
between the radius and the profile tangent of a gear tooth at
either the standard pitch circle or the pitch circle. In
addi t ion, the angle between the radi us and the prof i Ie
tangent at a typical radius R of the tooth profile is also
commonly known as the pressure angle. In current usage, all
these angles are called either the pressure angle or the
operating pressure angle, and they are all represented by the
symbol ~ when they are equal to the pressure angle of the
basic rack, and ~' when they are not. Over the years, several
attempts have been made to rename some of these angles, but
the proposed alternative names have not been widely accepted,
so in this book the name "pressure angle" has generally been
retained, while the notation has been altered to help
identify the particular angle that is referred to. The angle
between the radius and the profile tangent at a typical point
of the gear tooth profile is referred to as the profile angle
at radius R, and it is represented by the symbol ~R' The
profile angles of a gear at the standard pitch circle and the
pitch circle are called the pressure angle and the operating
pressure angle of the gear, with the symbols ~s and ~P' and
the pressure angle of the basic rack is represented by the
symbol ~r' Finally, the angle between the line of action and
the common tangent to the pitch circles is called the
operating pressure angle of the gear pair, and this is the
only angle for which the customary symbol ~ is still used.
The symbols for the different pressure angles are
distinguished by their subscripts, and the same convention is
used for all quantities, such as the circular pitch and the
tooth thickness, whose values are functions of the radius.
The subscripts R, s, p, or b are used whenever a quantity is
measured on a gear tooth at a general radius R, at the
standard pitch circle, at the pitch circle, or at the base
circle, and the subscript r applies to the corresponding
quantity measured on a rack tooth.
4 Introduction
The second part of the book deals with the geometry of

helical gears, and the treatment differs substantially from
the traditional approach. The sUbject is essentially
three-dimensional, and in the past the geometr ic theorems
have usually been proved with the help of projective
geometry. In other fields of mechanics, projective geometry
has been largely superseded by vector methods, and in the
author's opinion, most of the theorems relating to helical
gears can be proved far more easily using vector algebra than
using projective geometry. The entire description of helical
gears in this book is therefore given with the help of vector
theory. I t is believed that most younger engineers, and
today's engineering students, receive a more thorough
grounding in vector theory than they do in projective
geometry, and should therefore find thi s new approach to
helical gear geometry easier to understand.
The word "pitch" is used in this book in a manner which
differs slightly from the customary North American usage, and
is in fact based on current European practice. In North
America, the phrase "circular pitch" describes a particular
length on a spur gear, while "diametral pitch" is a quantity
used to indicate the tooth size, defined as the number of
teeth divided by the diameter of the standard pitch circle.
The original meaning of the word "pitch" is the distance
between similar objects that are repeated at regular
intervals. In this book, the word is only used in a manner
which conforms with the original meaning. The circular pi tch
of a spur gear is defined in the usual way, and the
corresponding lengths in a helical gear are called the
transverse pitch, the normal pitch, and the axial pitch. In
general, the diametral pitch is not referred to in this book,
since it is not a pitch in the sense described above. In order
to specify the tooth size of a gear we use the module, which
is the method used throughout Europe and Japan. However,
since the diametral pitch is still in common use in North
America, the relation between the module and the diametral
pitch is described in the text, and the diametral pitch is
used in some of the examples at the end of each chapter.
A list of references is provided, and this consists of a
number of books and articles which the author has found
Introduction 5
particularly helpful in his own study of gear geometry. In

addition, several articles are listed because they describe,
in considerable detail, certain topics which are only
outlined in this book. The list is not intended to include all
possible references, and no attempt has been made in the text
to identify a source for each idea or theorem. In some cases,
it would probably be very di ff icult to di scover where a
particular idea originated. When any reference is quoted in
the text, it is identified by a number in square brackets,
which refers to the number in the list of references at the
end of the book.
In the diagrams throughout the book, the gear tooth
profiles were drawn by a computer-driven plotter. The
remaining parts of the diagrams were drawn by Mr. Hiroshi
Yokota, of the University of Alberta. The author would like to
thank him for his excellent work. The author also wishes to
express his appreciation to the University of Alberta, and to
the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of
Canada, both of whom provided support for the project.
This book is about the theoretical geometry of involute
gears, and is not intended to replace the many books and
manuals that exist on the design of gears. However, the full
potential of the involute as a tooth profile can only be used
by a designer who has a good understanding of its fundamental
geometric properties. It is hoped that the book will
contribute to that understanding.
PART 1
SPUR GEARS
Chapter 1
The Law of Gearing
External and Internal Gears
A spur gear is a gear cut from a cylindrical blank, with

teeth which are parallel to the gear axis, as shown in
Figure 1.1. If the teeth face outwards, the gear is called an
external gear, and if they face inwards, like those of the
gear shown in Figure 1.2, the gear is known as an internal
gear.
Much of the geometric theory of gears applies equally to
both external and internal gears. However, for the sake of
clarity, this book is restricted to the subject of external
gears, except for a single chapter. The exception is
Chapter 12, where we will show which parts of the theory of
external gears are valid for internal gears, and we will
discuss the special features that apply only to internal
gears.
The Requirement for a Constant Angular Veloci ty Ratio
When two gears rotate together, as shown in Figure 1.3,

the teeth of each gear pass in and out of mesh with those of
the other gear, and this occurs in an area that lies somewhere
between the gear centers C1 and C2 . The teeth from the two
gears pass through the meshing area alternately, first one
from gear 1, then one from gear 2, and so on. Hence, if the
gears have N1 and N2 teeth, and during a certain time interval
T the number of teeth from each gear passing through the
meshing area is n, then the gears will make respectively
(n/N 1 ) and (n/N 2 ) revolutions. By expressing the number of
'0 The Law of Gearing
Figure'. ,. An external gear.
revolutions in radians and dividing by the time taken, we

obtain average- values for the gear angular velocities w,
and w2 ,
(...!l.)211' ( 1.1)
(w, ) average N, T
_ (...!l.) 211' (1. 2)
(w 2 )average N2 T
Figure '.2. An internal gear.

Constant Angular Veloci ty Ratio 11
where the minus sign indicates that the direction of rotation

for gear 2 must be opposite to that of gear 1. From Equations
(1.1 and 1.2), we can immediately obtain a relation between
the average angular veloc i ties,
- N (w ) ( 1. 3)
2 2 average
Equation (1.3) is true for all gears, whatever the shape

of the teeth. However, if the tooth shape is arbitrary, the
gears will not run smoothly. Suppose gear 1 is driving, and
turns at a constant angular velocity. In general, the angular
veloci ty of gear 2 wi 11 not be constant, but wi 11 be a
periodic function, repeating itself as each pair of teeth are
meshed, with an average value given by Equation (1.3). The
variation in angular veloci ty of gear 2 leads to vibrations in
the gear train, and will generally cause fatigue cracks to
form in the teeth, resulting in early failure of the gears.
Theoretical studies of gear tooth profiles date back to
the 16th Century, but for many years the craftsmen who cut
gears made no use of the knowledge that was available. Most
machinery was quite slow-moving, and vibration was not
considered important. Toward the end of the 18th Century,
Gear 2
Figure 1.3. A gear pair.

12 The Law of Gearing
machine designers began to make greater demands on the gears

in the machines they bui It. The gears turned faster than
before, and were more heavily loaded. Tooth breakage then
developed into a serious problem, and it became necessary to
choose tooth profiles which would allow the driven gear to
maintain a constant angular velocity, whenever the driving
gear angular velocity was constant. To achieve this end, the
angular velocity ratio (w 1/w 2 ) must remain constant at all
times, and not simply on average, as described by
Equation (1.3). The new requirement for the angular
veloci ties can be expressed by the equation,
( 1 .4)
The purpose of this chapter is to determine the

condition that must be satisfied by the meshing tooth
prof i les, if the gears are to have the constant angular
velocity ratio given in Equation (1.4). However, before
looking at the case of two gears meshing together, we will
consider that of a gear meshing with a rack.
J 1
1 r
Figure 1.4. A rack and pinion.
Rack and Pinion 13
Tooth thickness
= p/2
Pitch P
Space width
= p/2
Profile
angle ¢Ar /
Xr
Tangent at Ar
Figure 1.5. Rack pitch and profile angle.
Rack and Pinion
A rack is a segment of a gear whose radius is infinite.

I f the number of teeth N2 of gear 2 in Figure 1.3 were
extremely large, the radius of the gear would also be large,
relative to the tooth size, and the teeth near the meshing
area would lie almost on a straight line. In the limit, as N2
becomes infinite, the teeth would lie exactly on a straight
line, as shown in Figure 1.4.
When two gears mesh, the smaller of the two is called the
pinion, and the larger is usually referred to as the gear. Any
gear meshed with a rack is considered smaller than the rack,
since the rack is part of a gear with an infinite number of
teeth. Hence, it is common to speak of a rack and pinion.
Whereas a gear pair is used to transmit rotary motion between
shafts, a rack and pinion are used to convert rotary motion
into linear, or vice-versa. One well-known application is the
rack and pinion steering of many automobiles.
Part of a rack is shown in Figure 1.5. The pitch p is the
distance between corresponding points of adjacent teeth. If
we draw any line along the rack parallel to the line of teeth,
the intersection of this line with the tooth profiles will

determine the tooth thickness and the space width, measured
along that particular line. We define the rack reference line
as the line along which the tooth thickness and the space
width are equal, and since their sum is equal to the pitch p,
the tooth thickness and the space width measured along the
rack reference line must each be equal to (p/2). We now
introduce coordinates xr and Yr fixed in the rack, with their
origin on the rack reference line. The xr axis lies along a
tooth center-line, and the Yr axis coincides with the rack
reference line, as shown in Figure 1.5. A typical point of the
rack tooth profile is labelled Ar' and the tangent to the
tooth profile at this point makes an angle ~Ar with the x
axis. The angle ~Ar is called the rack profile angle a~
point Ar •
In relating the rack velocity to the pinion angular
velocity, the reasoning is identical to that used earlier for
two gears. During any time interval T, the number n of rack
teeth passing through the meshing area is equal to the number
of pinion teeth which pass through. Thus, average values for
the rack velocity vr and the pinion angular velocity ware
given by the following expressions,
!!E ( 1. 5)
T
(W)average ( 1. 6)
where vr is defined as positive in the upward direction, and W

is defined as positive when the angular velocity is
counter-clockwise.
The relation we require is obtained by eliminating (niT)
from Equations (1.5 and 1.6).
N ( 1. 7)
21r(w)average
Equation (1.7) is exactly analogous to Equation (1.3).

As with a pair of gears, the satisfactory operation of a rack
and pinion requires that the relation between vr and w should
remain constant. Hence, the tooth shapes must be such that vr
and w satisfy the following equation,
Rack and Pinion 15
vr Nw ( 1. 8)
p 271'
Figure 1.6 shows the rack tooth and pinion tooth

profiles, with points Ar of the rack and A of the pinion in
contact. Since the teeth remain in contact but do not
penetrate into each other, the velocity components of Ar and A
along the common normal must be equal. In order to describe
the velocities, we introduce a fixed set of unit vectors nt,
n~, and nS' The directions of n t and n~ are perpendicular and
parallel to the rack reference line, as shown in Figure 1.6,
and nS is perpendicular to the plane of motion. The unit
vector nnr' in the direction of the outward-pointing normal
to the rack tooth profile at point Ar' can then be expressed
in terms of n t and n~,
. IP Ar n
- 51n - cos IP Ar n ( 1. 9)
t ~
Since Ar is the contact point, the unit vector nnr lies

in the direction of the common normal. The velocity of Ar' and
its component along the common normal, are given by the
following two equations,
I..-Rack reference line
Common
tangent
x
Figure 1.6. The common normal at the contact point.

(1.10)
A
- cos ~ r vr (1.11)
where the dot indicates the scalar product between two

vectors.
If the vector from the pinion center C to point A is
(xnE+Yn~), then the velocity of point A and its component
along the common normal can be expressed as follows,
VA wnS x (xnE+Yn~) - wYn e + wxn~ (1.12)
A vA . ~ Ar - wX cos ~ Ar
wY Sln (1.13)
vn nnr
where the symbol x in Equation (1.12) indicates the vector

product.
We now equate the normal velocity components of Ar and A,
given by Equations (1.11 and 1.13), and use Equation (1.8) to
express the relation we require between vr and w. We then
obtain the following equation that must be satisfied by X
and Y, the coordinates of the contact point.
I-Rack reference line
Pinion pitch
circle
Figure 1.7. pitch point of a rack and pinion.

Rack and Pinion 17
y A
cot 1/1 r (1.14)
(x - ~)
211"
Equation (1.14) can be interpreted in the following
manner. There is a fixed point P, at a distance (Np/211") from C
on the line through C perpendicular to the rack reference
line, such that the slope of line PA is equal to cot I/I Ar • This
means that line PA makes an angle (11"/2 _I/iA q with the n~
direction, and it is therefore the common normal at the
contact point A, since the common tangent makes an angle I/IA r
with the n~ direction. The position of point P is shown in
Figure 1.7.
The result just proved is known as the Law of Gearing, as
it relates to a rack and pinion. It may be stated in the
following way. The condition that must be satisfied by the
tooth profiles of a rack and pinion, in order that the
relation between rack velocity and pinion angular velocity
should remain constant, is that the common normal at the
contact point should at all times pass through a fixed
point P. The position of P is at a distance (Np/211") from the
pinion center C, on the perpendicular from C towards the rack
reference line.
The point P is called the pitch point. The circle passing
through P whose center is at C is called the pinion pitch
circle, and its radius Rp is equal to the length CP,
(1.15)
In Equation (1.8), we gave the relation that we require

between the rack velocity and the pinion angular velocity. We
used that relation to prove the Law of Gearing, which lead us
to define the pitch point and the pinion pitch circle. Having
now derived an expression in Equation (1.15) for the pitch
circle radius, we can combine Equations (1.8 and 1.15), and we
obtain a simpler form for the relation between the rack
velocity and the pinion angular velocity,
(1.16)
The line in the rack which touches the pinion pitch

circle at P, as shown in Figure 1.7, is known as the rack
pitch line. When the pinion and rack are in motion, the
velocity of any point on the pinion pitch circle is equal
to RpW, and the velocity of any point on the rack pitch line
is equal to v r ' Since these velocities are equal, as we can
see from Equation (1.16), the motion of a rack and pinion is
identical to the motion that would be obtained if the rack
pitch line and the pinio~ pitch circle were to make rolling
contact with no slipping.
Ci rcular pi tch
The circular pitch of the pinion teeth at any radius R is

defined as the distance between corresponding points of
adjacent teeth, measured around the circumference of the
circle of radius R. Thus, the circular pitch PR at radius R,
which is shown in Figure 1.8, is given by the following
expression,
211'R (1.17)
N
In the case when the circular pitch is measured on the pitch
R
Circular pitch PR
at radius R
C
Circular pitch Pp
at the pitch circle
Figure 1.8. Circular pitch.

circle, we use the symbol Pp' and its value can be found by
substituting Rp in place of R in Equation (1.17).
211'Rp
Pp N (1.18)
When we replace the pitch circle radius Rp in this

equation by the expression given in Equation (1.15), it is
clear that the circular pitch of the gear at its pitch circle
is equal to the pitch p of the rack,
p (1.19)
This result can be used to provide an alternative definition

of the pitch circle of a pinion, when it is meshed with a
rack. The pitch circle can be defined as the circle on which
the pinion circular pitch is equal to the rack pitch p.
Law of Gearing for Two Gears
It was shown in the previous section that a rack and

pinion behave in the same manner as if the rack pitch line and
the pinion pitch circle were to make rolling contact with no
17
r-Pitch circle of gear 2
Pitch circle of
gear 1 - /nn
Common normal
TJ
C
Figure 1.9. pitch point of a gear pair.
slipping. We now investigate whether the same idea can be used

for two gears. First, we find two pitch circles which, if they
made rolling contact with each other, would provide the same
angular velocity ratio as the gears. And then we will
establish that the Law of Gearing also applies for a pair of
gears, or in other words, that the common normal at the tooth
contact point always passes through a fixed point.
Figure 1.9 shows two gears, with point Al of gear 1 in
contact with point A2 of gear 2. The distance C between the
gear centers is called the center distance. Parts of the pitch
circles have been drawn in, and their radii are shown as RPl
and Rp2 . The point where they touch is the pitch point P.
I f the pitch circles are to make rolling contact with no
slipping, their radii must satisfy the following equations,
C (1.20)
(1.21)
The angular velocity ratio that we require was given in

Equation (1.4),
(1.22)
Equations (1.21 and 1.22) imply that the ratio of the pitch
circle radii is equal to the ratio of the tooth numbers,
( 1. 23)
We now solve Equations (1.20 and 1.23), to obtain the radii of

the pi tch ci rc les,
( 1 .24 )
(1.25)
The pitch point P, which is the point where the pitch

circles touch, therefore lies on the line of centers and
divides C 1C2 in the ratio N1 :N 2 . We use this point as the
origin of a fixed system of coordinates E, ~ and S, with axes
in the directions shown in Figure 1.9. The position of the

contact point relative to the pitch point is then given by the
coordinates ~ and 1/.
As we did in the case of the rack and pinion, we write
down the velocities of points Al and A2 , and then equate their
components along the common normal. The direction nn of the
common normal, which is unknown at present, can be written in
the following form,
(1.26)
where s~ and s1/ are the components of nn in the coordinate

directions. Then the velocities of Al and A2 , and their
components in the normal direction, are given by the
following four equations.
Al
v = w 1n S x [(Rpl+~)n~+1/n1/]
v A2
( 1. 29)
( 1 .30)
A A
Equating the expressions for vn 1 and vn 2 , we obtain a relation
which must be satisfied by the vector components s~ and s1/'
o (1.31)
The expression between the square brackets is zero, as we can

see from Equation (1.21). The angular velocities w 1 and w2 can
never be equal, because for a pair of external gears the
angular velocities must be of opposite sign, and for a pinion
meshed with an internal gear, the pinion angular velocity
must be greater than that of the internal gear. Hence, the
term (w 1-w 2 ) cannot be zero, and it follows that the remaining
term is zero. The condition given by Equation (1.31)
therefore reduces to the following form,
( 1. 32)
Equation (1.32) can be interpreted as showing that the

unit vector nn along the common normal is parallel to line
PA 1 . In other words, the common normal at the contact point
must always pass through the pitch point, which is the point
that divides the line of centers C 1C2 in the ratio N1 :N 2 • This
is the statement of the Law of Gearing, as it applies to a
pair of gears.
We proved in Equation (1.19) that when a pinion is meshed
with a rack, the circular pitch of the pinion at its pitch
circle is equal to the pitch of the rack. A similar result is
also true for a pair of gears. The circular pitch of each gear
at its pitch circle is given by Equation (1.18),
211'Rp1
Pp1 ( 1. 33)
N1
211'Rp2
Pp2 (1.34)
N2
When we use Equations (1.24 and 1.25) to express the pitch

circle radii RP1 and Rp2 ' it is immediately clear that the
circular pitches of the two gears must be equal,
(1.35)
Path of Contact
The locus of successive contact points between a pair of

teeth is called the path of contact. One consequence of the
Law of Gearing is that the path of contact must pass through
the pitch point. To prove this statement, we need only
consider the situation if it were not true. If the path of
contact were to cross the line of centers at any point P'
which is not the pitch point, then when the contact point was
at P', the common normal at the contact point would not pass
through the pitch point, and the gear pair would not satisfy
the Law of Gearing.
The Basic Rack 23
Conjugate Profiles and the Basic Rack
Any pair of tooth profiles that satisfy the Law of

Gearing are said to be conjugate. If the tooth profile of one
gear is chosen arbitrarily, it is possible to find a tooth
profile for the other gear, such that the two profiles are
conjugate. In particular, we can specify a rack tooth
profile, and then define a system of gears as having tooth
profiles which are conjugate to the chosen rack. This is the
method generally used by various organisations, such as the
American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA) and the
International Organisation for Standardization (ISO), to
define the tooth profiles for a system of gears. The rack
tooth profile is then known as the basic rack for the system
of gears.
In the next chapter, we will consider a particular basic
rack, which is the one used to define the tooth profile of an
involute gear, and we will then describe the geometry of the
gear teeth.
Chapter 2
Tooth Profile of an Involute Gear
Basic Involute Rack
In general, the tooth profile of a rack may be curved,

and the profile angle ~Ar would then vary from one point of
the tooth to another. We now consider a particular rack, in
which the teeth are straight-sided. This is the basic rack
which we use to define the tooth shape of an involute gear.
The profile angle for this rack is constant, and the value of
the constant will be represented by the symbol ~r' which is
called the pressure angle of the basic rack. Thus, for the
basic rack used to define involute tooth profiles,
constant (2.1)
In some cases the profile angle ~Ar may vary near the
tips and the roots of the basic rack teeth. For example, the
teeth may be rounded at the tips. The rack is still called an
involute rack, provided a substantial part of its tooth
profile is straight-sided. For the purpose of finding the
shape of the gear tooth, we will start by assuming that the
basic rack has teeth which are entirely straight-sided, as
shown in Figure 2.1. The pressure angle is ~r' and we use the
symbol Pr to represent the pitch of the basic rack.
Base Pi tch of the Basic Rack
The dimensions of the basic rack are determined by the

values of Pr and ~r' In addition, there is a third quantity
shown in Figure 2.1 called the rack base pitch, which is
Standard pitch Circle 25
Pitch
Pr Pr
2"
Figure 2.1. Basic rack used to define the involute profile.
defined as the distance between adjacent teeth, measured

along a common normal. The reason why this particular length
on a rack is called the base pitch will be made clear later in
this chapter. For the moment, we will simply use Figure 2.1 to
express the base pitch Pbr of the basic rack in terms of its
pi tch and pressure angle,
(2.2)
The three quantities Pr' Pbr and 4J r are the parameters used to
describe the basic rack. Since they are related by
Equation (2.2), it is clear that only two of the quantities
are independent. We can choose any two, and then use
Equation (2.2) to find the third.
Standard Pi~ch Circle
For any tooth profile, there are a number of quantities

whose values are functions of the radius R. These include the
circular pitch PR' which was introduced in Chapter 1, and the
profile angle and the tooth thickness, which will be
26 Tooth Profile of an Involute Gear
discussed later in this chapter. As part of the description of

a gear, it is necessary to provide the values of each of these
quantities at some specified radius.
An obvious choice for this radius is the pitch circle
radius of the gear when it is meshed with its basic rack. In
Chapter 1 we defined the pitch circle of a gear as the circle
through the pi tch point, and we used the symbol Rp to
represent its radius. We showed there that the value of Rp
depends on the pitch of the rack, when the gear is meshed with
a rack, and on the center distance when the gear is meshed
with another gear. In order, therefore, to identify the
particular pitch circle of a gear when it is meshed with its
basic rack, we will call it the standard pitch circle, and we
will represent its radius by the symbol Rs'
In Equations (1.15 and 1.18), we gave expressions for
the pitch circle radius of a gear when it is meshed with an
arbitrary rack, and for the circular pitch measured at the
pitch circle,
We also showed, in Equation (1.19), that the circular pitch at

the pitch circle is equal to the pitch p of the rack,
When we replace the rack pitch p in these equations by Pr' the

pitch of the basic rack, the first two equations give the
standard pitch circle radius Rs of a gear, and its circular
pi tch p at the standard pi tch ci rcle, while. the thi rd
s
equation shows that the circular pitch of the gear at its
standard pitch circle is equal to the pitch of the basic rack,
NPr
RS (2.3)
21r
211'Rs
Ps (2.4)
N
Ps Pr (2.5)
Tooth Profile of an Involute Gear 27
The Involute Tooth Profile
We will now determine the shape of gear tooth profiles

which are conjugate to the basic rack in Figure 2.1. The word
conjugate means, as we defined it in Chapter 1, that the gear
teeth are shaped in such a manner that the Law of Gearing is
satisfied, when the gear is meshed with the basic rack.
In Figure 2.2, a pinion is shown meshing with the basic
rack. The plnlon pitch circle radius is Rs' given by
Equation (2.3), and the pitch line is the line in the basic
rack which touches the pinion pitch circle at the pitch
point P. The Law of Gearing states that the common normal at
the contact point must pass through P. For any particular
position of the rack, there is only one point Ar of the rack
tooth profile whose normal passes through P, and this point
must be the contact point. The pinion tooth must therefore be
shaped so that its profile touches the rack tooth at Ar •
Operating
pressure angle cf>
Standard pitch circle~ Line of action
Pinion base circle---. ""
Basic rack
pressure angle cf>r~
---=:::::
Figure 2.2. Meshing diagram of a pinion and the basic rack.

The point of the pinion tooth profile in Figure 2.2 which

coincides with Ar is labelled A. The line joining the contadt
point to the pitch point is called the line of action, since
it coincides with the common normal at the contact point, and
therefore in the absence of friction the contact force must
act along this line. The angle between the line of action and
the tangent to the pinion pitch circle at P is called the
operating pressure angle ~ of the gear pair. Since the line of
action is perpendicular to the tooth profile of the basic
rack, it can be seen from the diagram that, when a gear is
meshed with its basic rack, the operating pressure angle of
the gear pair is equal to the pressure angle of the basic
rack,
(2.6)
If we were to consider the basic rack in a new position,

the description of the meshing geometry would be essentially
a repetition of the last paragraph. The new contact point
would again lie on the line which passes through the pitch
point in a direction perpendicular to the tooth profile of the
basic rack. This result is true for any position of the basic
rack. Hence, the path of contact, which is the locus of all
contact points, is a segment of the same straight line. And
since the line of action is always the line joining the pitch
point to the contact point, the direction of the line of
action is fixed, and the line of action coincides with the
line containing the path of contact.
We now construct the perpendicular from the pinion
center C to the line of action, and the foot of this
perpendicular is labelled E, as shown in Figure 2.2. The
pinion circle with center C and radius equal to CE is known as
the base circle, and its radius is represented by the
symbol Rb • Since the rack tooth profile and line CE are both
perpendicular to the line of action, they must be parallel,
and the angle ECP is equal to ~r' We can then use triangle ECP
to express the base circle radius in terms of the standard
pitch circle radius,
(2.7)
Alternative Definition of the Involute 29
The shape of the pinion tooth must be such that the

normal to the tooth profile at point A passes through P. This
is a direct statement of the Law of Gearing. using the base
circle just defined, we can restate the property of the tooth
shape a little differently. The shape of the tooth profile
must be such that the normal at the contact point touches the
base circle. As the pinion rotates, the contact point moves
along the pinion tooth, and therefore at each point of the
profile the normal to the profile must touch the base circle.
A curve with this property is known as an involute of the base
circle, and this is the origin of the name "involute gear".
Alternative Definition of the Involute
There is another manner in which the involute can be

defined. If the base circle is fixed, and a rigid bar AD rolls
without slipping on the base circle, as shown in Figure 2.3,
then the path followed by point A is an involute. It is easy
to prove that the two definitions are equivalent. If point E
is the contact point between the base circle and bar, then E
is also the instantaneous center of the bar as it rolls. The
r-Involute path followed

I by point A of the bar
Rigid bar
c
Figure 2.3. A rigid bar rolling on a fixed cylinder.
velocity of point A is therefore perpendicular to EA. This

means that the tangent to the involute at A is perpendicular
to EA, and therefore the normal is along EA, which is the
property by which the involute was originally defined.
The Involute Function
The alternative definition is useful in helping to

derive some of the fundamental geometric equations of the
involute. The point in Figure 2.3 where the involute curve
meets the base circle is labelled B. This is the point where
the end A of the bar would meet the base circle, if the bar
rolled to the position where A was the contact point. Due to
the fact that the bar rolls without slipping, we can say that
the length of arc EB on the base circle must be equal to the
length EA on the bar. In symbolic form, this can be written,
arc EB EA (2.8)
We now need to define a number of new symbols, and to

derive the relations between them. Figure 2.4 shows the base
Tangent to
involute at A
Normal to
involute at A
Figure 2.4. Profile angle and roll angle.

The Involute Function 31
circle, and an involute curve starting at point B, with a

typical point A at radius R. The normal to the involute at A
touches the base circle at E. We define an angle ~R' called
the profile angle at radius R, as the angle between the radius
through A and the involute tangent at A. The radius CE is
perpendicular to EA, since EA touches the base circle, and CE
is therefore parallel to the involute tangent at A. Hence, the
angle ECA is equal to the profile angle,
angle ECA (2.9)
Referring to triangle ECA, we obtain two immediate results,
(2.10)
EA (2.11)
Next, we define an angle ER, called the roll angle at

radius R, as the angle between the radius through B and the
involute tangent at A. Since CE is parallel to the involute
tangent at A, the angle ECB is equal to the roll angle,
angle ECB (2.12)
and the length of arc EB is therefore given by the following

equation,
arc EB (2.13)
where ER must of course be expressed in radians.

We now combine Equations (2.8, 2.11 and 2.13), in order
to obtain a relation between ER and ~R'
(2.14 )
The angle between the radii CA and CB is clearly a

function of ~R' and the name inv ~R (short for involute
function of ~R) has been chosen for this function. We express
the angle ACB as the difference between angles ECB and ECA,
and since angle ECB is given by Equation (2.14) in radians,
32 Tooth Prof i Ie of an I nvol ute Gear
the angles in the following equation are all expressed in

radians.
inv I/>R angle ACB (2.15)
The function inv I/>R is used throughout the geometry of

involute gears. Since, as we have shown, it represents an
angle measured in radians, it is generally convenient to
express other angles also in radians. For this reason, the
following convention will be used in this book. Unless it is
explicitly stated that an angle is given in degrees, it will
be understood that the value is expressed in radians. For
example, the polar coordinate 9R of a point on the tooth
profile is given by Equation (2.35). The units are not given,
so it is understood that the equation gives the value of 9R in
radians.
When I/>R is known, the value of inv I/>R is given by
Equation (2.15). It is also sometimes necessary to find I/>R'
when the value of inv I/>R is known, and this can be carried out
by means of the following two steps,
q (inv If> ) 2/3 (2.16)

R
1.0 + 1.04004q + 0.32451q2 - 0.00321q3

- 0.00894q4 + 0.00319q5 - 0.00048q6 (2.17)
The maximum error given by the procedure is 0.0001°, for

values of I/>R between 0° and 65°, and this range of I/>R values
is sufficient for most practical purposes. The coefficients
in Equation (2.17) are a simplified version of a set of
ceofficients developed by Polder [9].
For the purpose of describing the geometry of a tooth, we
generally use the radius R to specify any point A on the tooth
profile. The profile angle at A is then given by
Equa t i on (2. 10 ) ,
Rb
(2.18)
R
and the angle between line CA and the fixed line CB is

expressed by the involute function,
Pressure Angle of a Gear 33
----+---- Cable unwinding

from cylinder
"-Fixed cylinder of radius Rb
Figure 2.5. A cable unwinding from a cylinder.
angle ACB inv /fiR (2.19)
Another common description of the involute is based on

the same idea as the alternative definition given earlier. We
consider a cable wrapped round a fixed cylinder of radius Rb ,
with one end of the cable attached to the cylinder. If the
other end of the cable is partly unwound, the path followed by
that end will be an involute. If Figure 2.5 were to represent
the cable and cylinder, then EA would be the section of cable
unwound from the cylinder, and it is obvious that the length
of this part of the cable is equal to the arc EB, where the
cable was originally wrapped round the cylinder.
Pressure Angle of a Gear
The pressure angle /fI s of a gear is defined as the gear

profile angle /fiR at the standard pitch circle. The profile
angle at radius R was given by Equation (2.10),
and the pressure angle can be found by setting R equal to Rs

in this relation,
(2.20)
When Equation (2.20) is compared with Equation (2.7),
it is clear that the pressure angle of the gear is equal to

that of the basic rack,
"'r (2.21)
There is a more direct proof that the two pressure angles

are equal. Figure 2.6 shows the gear meshed with its basic
rack, in positions such that the contact point coincides with
the pitch point. If As is the point on the gear tooth profile
at radius Rs' the pressure angle of the gear is defined as the
angle between the radius CAs and the tooth profile tangent
at As. Since As is also the contact point, when the gear and
the basic rack are in the positions shown, the tangent to the
gear tooth profile lies along the rack tooth profile, and the
pressure angle "'s of the gear is therefore equal to the basic
rack pressure angle "'r.
It is evident that the name "pressure angle" is used for
several angles, each defined in a different manner. The
pressure angle "'r of the basic rack is the angle between the
Basic rack
pressure angle
cPs Pinion profile

angle at radius Rs
Pinion tooth
Figure 2.6. Meshing diagram, with contact at the pitch point.

Base pi tch 35
tooth profile and the tooth center-line, while the pressure

angle ~ of a gear is the profile angle at its standard pitch
s
circle. Each of these two angles is a constant quantity
associated with a particular gear, and in principle it can be
measured on the gear. On the other hand, the operating
pressure angle ~ of a gear pair only exists when the two gears
are meshed. For a rack and pinion, it is defined as the angle
between the line of action and the tangent to the pinion pitch
circle at P, while for a pair of gears it is the angle between
the line of action and the common tangent to the two pitch
circles. We have shown, in Equations (2.6 and 2.21), that for
a pinion meshed with its basic rack, the three pressure angles
are all equal in value. In Chapter 3 we will show that, in
general, the operating pressure angle ~ of a gear pair may
differ from the other two pressure angles. However, even when
the values are equal, it is important to know which angle is
referred to when the name "pressure angle" is used, and for
this reason the symbols ~r' ~s and ~ will be used throughout
this book to distinguish the three angles.
Base pitch
The circular pitch at radius R was defined in Chapter 1

as the distance between corresponding points of adjacent
teeth, measured around the circle of radius R. An expression
for the circular pitch at radius R was given by
Equation (1.17),
211"R
N
The base pitch Pb of a gear is defined in a similar manner, as

the distance between corresponding points of adjacent teeth,
measured around the base circle. In other words, the base
pitch is the circular pitch at the base circle,
211" Rb
N
(2.22)
In Equation (2.10), we gave an expression for the base circle

radius in terms of a typical radius R and the corresponding
profile angle /fiR'
We combine the last three equations to derive a relation

between the base pitch and the circular pitch at radius R,
(2.23)
and as a special case of this equation, we set R equal to Rs'

and we obtain the corresponding relation between the base
pitch and the circular pitch at the standard pitch circle,
(2.24)
There is a property of involute curves which we will make

use of in the chapters that follow. The normal to a tooth
profile at any point A is also normal to any other involute of
the base circle, and if it cuts the next tooth profile at
point A', the length AA' is equal to the base pitch Pb' Thus,
the distance between adjacent tooth profiles, measured along
a common normal, is equal to Pb' These results can be proved
c
Figure 2.7. Base pitch.
Gear Parameters 37
with the help of Figure 2.7. The normal to the involute at A

must touch the base circle at some point E, since this is the
defining property of the involute. If line EA cuts the next
tooth profile at A', the normal to the second tooth profile at
A' must also touch the base circle, and therefore coincides
with line EAA'. Hence, a line which is normal to one involute
is also normal to other involutes of the same base circle. To
prove that the length AA' is equal to the base pitch, we make
use of Equation (2.8), which states that EA is equal to
arc EB. Referring again to Figure 2.7, we have the following
relations,
AA' EA' - EA arc EB' - arc EB arc BB'
Since the involutes shown in Figure 2.7 are the profiles of

adjacent teeth, arc BB' is by definition equal to the base
pitch, and the equation can be written,
AA' (2.25)
We have therefore proved the statement made earlier, that the

distance between adjacent tooth profiles, measured along a
common normal, is equal to the base pitch.
The definition of the base pitch given in
Equation (2.22) would not apply in the case of a rack, because
both the base circle radius and the number of teeth are
infinite. However, earlier in the chapter we gave a
definition for the base pitch of a rack, as the distance
between adjacent tooth prof i les, measured along a common
normal. In view of the result given by Equation (2.25), it is
now possible to see that there is no essential difference
between the two definitions.
Relations Between the Gear Parameters and Those of the Basic

Rack
We pointed out earlier that the parameters Pr' Pbr and 'r
can be used to describe the basic rack, and for gears we
introduced three corresponding quantities, the circular
pitch Ps at the standard pitch circle, the base pitch Pb' and
the pressure angle 41 s • We have already shown in Equations (2.5
and 2.21) that the two pi tches and the two pressure angles are
equal,
The two base pitches were expressed in terms of the remaining

quantities by means of Equations (2.2 and 2.24),
When we compare these equations, bearing in mind that the

pitches and pressure angles are equal, it is clear that the
two base pi tches are also equal,
= (2.26)
We stated in Chapter 1 that we can define a system of

gears, simply by specifying the shape of the teeth in the
basic rack. The teeth of each gear in the system must be
shaped so that they are conjugate to the basic rack. We have
now shown that, for any gear in an involute system, the
circular pitch at the standard pitch circle, the base pitch
and the pressure angle must each be equal to the corresponding
quantity in the basic rack.
When the geometry of a gear is described, it is necessary
to refer repeatedly to the circular pitch at the standard
pitch circle. Since this phrase is so cumbersome, it is common
practice to describe Ps simply as the "circular pitch". There
is no danger of confusion, provided the circular pitch at any
other radius is clearly identified, and therefore from now on
in the book we will adopt this convention. The same convention
will be used for the names of several other gear tooth
quantities, whose values depend on the radius, and these will
be pointed out as they occur.
Tooth Profile of an Involute Gear 39
Module and Diametral pitch
When we introduced the standard pitch circle of a gear,

we stated that a number of the gear parameters are defined on
the standard pitch circle. As part of the specification of a
gear, we must therefore give the radius of the standard pitch
circle, or alternatively some quantity from which the radius
can be calculated.
The standard pitch circle radius Rs was given originally
by Equation (2.3) in terms of the basic rack pitch Pr'
NPr
(2.27)
"""21r
and since the pitch of the basic rack is equal to the circular
pitch of the gear, the radius of the standard pitch circle can
be expressed directly in terms of the circular pi tch,
(2.28)
For a system of gears conjugate to a particular basic

rack, it would therefore be necessary to specify only the
value of the circular pitch Ps' which is the same for every
gear in the system, and we would then use Equation (2.28) to
calculate the standard pitch circle radius of each gear. This
method of specification was in fact used in the past, and
gears in which the circular pi tch is specified as a convenient
length are known as "circular pitch gears". However, they are
seldom made today, as they have one slight disadvantage. If
the value of the circular pitch is chosen as a round number,
the standard pitch circle radius is always an inconvenient
size, due to the presence of the factor w in Equation (2.28).
It has been found more practical to design gears in which the
standard pitch circle radius is a round number. With this
consideration in mind, we introduce a quantity called the
module m, defined in terms of the basic rack pitch,
m (2.29)
We now combine Equations (2.27 and 2.29), in order to express

the standard pitch circle radius in terms of the module,
(2.30)
and, since once again the circular pitch of the gear is equal
to the basic rack pitch, a relation between the circular pitch
and the module can be found immediately from Equation (2.29),
(2.31)
The module, which we have shown is proportional to the

circular pitch, is used not only in the calculation of the
standard pitch circle radius, but also as a measure of the
tooth size. When two gears are meshed together, they must
clearly have teeth of approximately the same size, and in
prac t ice they are des i gned with the same module m and the same
pressure angle ~s. In other words, the two gears are both
conjugate to the same basic rack. We will show in Chapter 3
that these conditions ensure correct meshing of the gears.
The module can be measured in either mms or inches. In
practice, it is most commonly measured in mms, since the
module is generally used in countries which have adopted the
metric system. In North America, the quantity used at present
to specify the tooth size of a gear is known as the diametral
pitch Pd. This is defined as the number of teeth in the gear,
divided by the diameter of the standard pitch circle,
N
(2.32)
2Rs
A relation between the diametral pitch and the circular pitch

can be found from Equations (2.28 and 2.32),
..JL (2.33)
Ps
and when we use Equation (2.31) to express the circular pitch

in terms of the module, it is clear that the diametral pitch
is equal to the rec iprocal of the module,
1 (2.34)
m
Since the diametral pitch is expressed in teeth per inch,

Equation (2.34) requires that the module be given in inches.
Tooth Thickness 41
It seems probable that the use of the diametral pitch

will eventually be abandoned in favour of the module. The gear
geometry in this book is therefore described in terms of the
module, and the module is also used in most of the examples at
the end of each chapter. However, since the diametral pi tch is
still widely used in North America, a number of examples are
also included in which the tooth size is specified by means of
the diametral pitch. For these problems, the module will
first be found, using Equation (2.34), and the remaining
calculations will then be carried out in terms of the module.
Tooth Thickness
The tooth thickness at radius R is defined as the arc

length between opposite faces of a tooth, measured around the
circumference of the circle of radius R. We will show in this
section that when we know the tooth thickness at one radius,
we can calculate it at any other. Thus, it is only necessary
to specify the tooth thickness at one particular radius, and
for this purpose we generally choose the standard pitch
circle. The symbol ts is used to designate the tooth thickness
at the standard pitch circle, and tR is used for the tooth
thickness at radius R. The tooth thickness ts at the standard
Tooth thickness tR
at radius R
Space width wR
at radius R
C
Circular pitch p
R
at radius R R
Figure 2.8. Tooth thickness and space width at radius R.

C x
Figure 2.9. Tooth thicknesses at different radii.
pitch circle is described simply as "the tooth thickness", in

the same way that the circular pitch at the standard pitch
circle is called the circular pitch. The gap between the
teeth, measured around the circle of radius R, is called the
space width at radius R, and like the tooth thickness, the
space width is generally measured on the standard pi tch
circle. Since the tooth thickness, the space width and the
circular pitch are all defined as arc lengths, as shown in
Figure 2.8, it is clear that the sum of the tooth thickness
and the space width at any radius R is equal to the circular
pi tch at radius R.
A gear tooth is shown in Figure 2.9, with points B, As
and A on the tooth profile at radii Rb , Rs and R. We will
derive an expression for the tooth thickness tR at radius R,
assuming the tooth thickness ts is known, and we start by
finding the polar coordinate 9R of point A,
angle xCA angle xCA s + angle AsCB - angle ACB

Tooth Thickness 43
The angle ACB is given by the involute function inv 'R' as we

showed in Equation (2.19), and since the profile angle at the
standard pitch circle is equal to the pressure angle 's' the
angle AsCB is equal to inv,s. Hence, the expression for 8R
can be written,
= (2.35)
Having found the polar coordinate 8 R of point A, we can

immediately write down an expression for the tooth thickness
at radius R,
(2.36)
In order to find a relation between the tooth

thicknesses at any two radii R1 and R2 , we use Equation (2.36)
twice to write down the tooth thicknesses tR and tR ' and we
"
t h en e 1 lmlnate ts b etween t h e two expressIons,
,1 2
tR
tR
2
= R2 [r
1
+ 2(inv 'R
1
- inv'R )]
2
(2.37)
where 'R and /fiR are the prof ile angles at the two radi i.
1 2
y
,\sase circle
Figure 2.10. Tooth profile tangent at radius R.

44 Tooth Profi Ie of an I nvol ute Gear
There is another quantity which will be useful in the

description of a gear tooth profile, in particular in
Chapter 11, where we discuss the tooth strength of a gear. We
define an angle YR, as shown in Figure 2.10, as the angle
between the profile tangent at point A and the tooth
center-line, which coincides with the x axis. Since line CE in
Figure 2.10 is parallel to the profile tangen~ at A, the angle
between CE and the x axis is equal to YR' and we can therefore
express YR as follows,
(2.38)
We replace 8 R by the expression given in Equation (2.35), and

the equation for YR then takes the following form,
ts .
tan ~ - --- - lnv ~ (2.39)
R 2Rs s
Some additional tooth dimensions of a gear are shown in

Figure 2.11. The circles through the tips and the roots of the
teeth are known as the tip circle and the root circle, and
their radii are shown as RT and Rroot • The radial distances as
c
Standard
pitch circle
Figure 2.11. Addendum and dedendum.

Standard Basic Rack Forms 45
and b s between these circles and the standard pi tch circle are
called the addendum and the dedendum, and for this reason the
tip and root circles are also called the addendum and dedendum
circles. The sum of the addendum and the dedendum is known as
the whole depth of the gear teeth. Finally, we use Figure 2.11
to express the addendum and the dedendum in terms of RT , Rs
and Rroot '
R
T - R
s (2.40)
(2.41)
Standard Basic Rack Forms
Although it is possible to choose arbitrary values for

the module m and the pressure angle ~r of a basic rack, there
are a number of standard values which are most frequently
used. As we have shown, the module and pressure angle ~s of a
gear are equal to the module and pressure angle ~r of its
Figure 2.12. Tooth profile, N=36, ~s=14.5°.

basic rack, so by choosing standard values for the basic rack

parameters, we are also choosing the same values for the
parameters of the gear.
These standard values are recommended by organisations
such as the ISO and the AGMA, first because they have been
found in practice to give satisfactory results, and secondly
for economic reasons. The tools used for cutting gears have
dimensions which depend on the module and the pressure angle
of the gear to be cut. A gear manufacturer will normally keep
in stock the tools necessary for cutting gears with standard
values of module and pressure angle, but when di fferent
values are required, the cutting tool must be made specially,
and the cost of the gear is therefore increased.
Preferred values for the module, measured in mms, are as
follows,
1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6,

8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50,
and the preferred values for the diametral pitch, measured in
Figure 2.13. Tooth profile, N=36, ~s=20°.

Standard Basic Rack Forms 47
teeth per inch, are given below.
120, 96, 80, 72, 64, 48, 40, 32, 24, 20, 16,
12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 3, 2.5, 2.25, 2, 1.5, 1.
Both sets of numbers are listed in the order of increasing

tooth size. In the North American system, gears with a
diametral pitch of 20 or greater are called fine-pitch gears,
and those with a diametral pitch of less than 20 are called
course-pitch gears.
The standard values for the pressure angle ~r of the
basic rack are 14.5°, 20° and 25°, with 20° being by far the
most commonly used. The corresponding systems of gears
therefore have the same three values for the pressure
angle ~s. To illustrate the effect of the value of ~s on the
tooth shape, three gears are shown in Figures 2.12-2.14, each
with 36 teeth, and the pressure angles are equal to the three
standard values. The pressure angle of 14.5° is no longer
recommended for new designs, because the teeth are relatively
weak, and the gears are subject to a problem known as
Figure 2.14. Tooth profile, N=36, ~s=25°.

48 Tooth Prof i Ie of an I nvolute Gear
Pr
2
Pr = rrm
Pr
2
Figure 2.15. A typical basic rack.
undercutting, which will be discussed in Chapter 5.

A typical basic rack is shown in Figure 2.15. In order
that the same basic rack can be used to define the tooth
profiles for gears of any size, the dimensions of the basic
rack are expressed in terms of the module. The rack pitch is
then equal to ~m, and the reference line is the line along
which the tooth thickness and the space width are each equal
to O.5~m. The essential difference between this basic rack
and the one shown in Figure 2.1 is that, in this basic rack,
the tooth profiles are rounded near the tips of the teeth. For
a gear which is conjugate to the basic rack, the shape of the
involute part of each gear tooth is defined by the straight
part of the basic rack tooth, while the shape of the gear
tooth near its root is defined by the curved section at the
tip of the basic rack tooth. This section of the gear tooth is
known as the fillet, and it is shaped in a manner that blends
smoothly into the root circle, in order to strengthen the
tooth near its base. In Chapter 9, we will describe how the
shape of the fillet can be calculated.
Speci fying a Spur Gear 49
In order to specify the tooth shape of the basic rack, we

need three pieces of information. First, of course, we
require the pressure angle ~r' Secondly, we need the distance
between the tooth tips and the reference line, which is known
as the rack addendum a r • And thirdly, we must know the radius
rrT of the circular sections near the tooth tips. For basic
racks with pressure angles of 20° or 25°, the following values
for the rack addendum and the tooth tip radius have been
widely used.
1.250 m (2.42)
0.300 m (2.43)
Of course, these are not the only values which give

satisfactory results, but in most practical cases the values
chosen do not differ from these by very much.
The radius of the rack tooth circular section is
represented by the symbol rrT for the following reasons. We
use the upper-case R throughout this book to refer to radii
which are measured from the center of a gear, while the radii
of other circles are represented by the lower-case r. The two
subscripts rand T indicate that the symbol rrT refers to a
radius on the rack, at the tip of the rack tooth.
Specifying a Spur Gear
The complete specification of a gear naturally includes

items such as the material and the required hardness, but in
this book we will deal only with those parts of the
specification that determine the geometry of the gear.
The quantities required in the specification can be
divided into four groups. First, there are the parameters
describing the basic rack, in particular the module m, the
pressure angle ¢r' the addendum a r , and the radius rrT of the
circular sections at the tooth tips. In the second group are
the dimensions of the gear blank, as shown in Figure 2.16. The
size of the tip circle of the gear is of course determined by
the overall size of the blank. In many of the calculations
required for the gear design, we will need to know the radius
RT of the tip circle. However, rather than include the value
of the radius as part of the specification, it is normal
practice to give the diameter, since this can be more easily
measured. Another gear blank dimension, which will be used in
the design calculations, is the length of the gear teeth
measured in the axial direction. This dimension is shown in
Figure 2.16, and is known as the gear face-width F.
The third group of quanti ties in the specification
relate to the cutting of the gear. They include the number of
teeth N, the whole depth of the teeth, and some dimensions
that can be conveniently measured, from which the tooth
thickness can be calculated. It is difficult to measure the
tooth thickness directly, but in discussing the geometry of a
gear, we will assume that the tooth thickness ts has been
specified, and in Chapter 8 we will describe some of the
actual measurements that can be made to determine the tooth
thickness. Finally, the fourth group of quantities concern
the assembly of the gear pair, and in this group are the
center distance, the part number of the meshing gear, and the
backlash when the gear pair is assembled.
Overall length
Hub
diameter
Hole diameter
~
Face-width
Diameter DT of the tip circle F
Figure 2.16. Dimensions of the gear blank.

Examples 51
Numerical Examples
In each of the remaining chapters, a number of examples

will be presented, and the following conventions will be
observed. In examples where the tooth size is expressed in
terms of the module, all gear dimensions are calculated in
mms, even when the units are not explicitly stated. When the
tooth size is specified by means of the diametral pitch, the
module is calculated in inches, and all remaining lengths are
then expressed in inches.
All values given in the examples are rounded to the third
decimal place for lengths expressed in mms, and to the fourth
decimal place for lengths expressed in inches. This level of
accuracy is higher than can normally be achieved in practice,
but the results in this form are useful for checking computer
programs. In most calculations, it is necessary to find a
number· of intermediate values, before the final result is
reached. For example, to find the tooth thickness at any
specified radius, it is first necessary to calculate the base
circle radius. In all the examples given in this book, the
intermediate values have been stored electronically in the
form they were first calculated, for use in the later
calculations. For this reason, if the rounded intermediate
values which are shown in the examples are used in the later
calculations, there will be small errors in the final
results.
To help the reader follow the sequence of calculations,
the equation number used at each step is written beside the
corresponding calculated value. However, for quantities
which are required in almost every example, such as the radii
of the standard pitch circle and the base circle, the equation
numbers are only given in the first few examples.
Example 2.1
A 24-tooth gear has a module of 8 mm and a pressure angle
of 20°. The diameter of the tip circle is 212 mm, and the
tooth thickness is 14.022 mm. Calculate the standard pitch
circle radius, the base circle radius, the circular pitch,
and the tooth thickness tT at the tip circle.
RS = 96.000mm (2.30)
Rb 90.210 (2.20)
Ps 25.133 (2.31)
Pb 23.617 (2.22)
inv ~s = 0.014904 (2.15)
~T = 31.675° (2.18)
inv ~T = 0.064175 (2.15)
t T =5.037mm (2.36)
Example 2.2
A 16-tooth gear has a D.P. (diametral pitch) of 4, a
pressure angle of 25°, and a tip circle diameter of 4.75
inches. Calculate the minimum tooth thickness at the standard
pitch circle, if the tooth thickness at the tip circle is not
to be less than 0.0625 inches.
m = 0.2500 inches (2.34)

Rs = 2.0000 (2.30)
Rb = 1.8126 (2.20)
~T = 40.252° (2.18)
ts = 0.5091 inches (2.36)
Example 2.3
For the gear specified in Example 2.1, calculate the
radius R of the tooth profile point A whose polar coordinate
9 R is4°.
9 R = 0.069813 radians
Rs = 96.000 mm
Rb = 90.210
inv ~R = 0.018122 (2.35)
q = 0.068994 (2.16)
cos ~R = 0.9317 (2.17)
R = 96.823 mm (2.18)
Chapter 3
Gears in Mesh
Introduction
In the previous chapter we described the tooth shape of

an involute gear. We now discuss the meshing geometry, first
of a rack and pinion, and secondly of a pair of gears. In each
case, we will determine the conditions that are necessary for
correct meshing, in the sense that the Law of Gearing is
satisfied. We also derive a relation between the positions of
two gears in mesh, and we determine the position of the
contact point and the velocity of sliding at the contact
point. We will introduce a new concept known as the imaginary
rack, which can often be used to simplify the geometric
analysis of a gear pair. And finally, we will describe some of
the advantages that involute gears possess over gears with
other types of tooth profile.
A Pinion Meshed Wi th a Rack
We consider a pinion with module m and pressure angle I/>s'

as described in the previous chapter, and a rack wi th pi tch P~
and pressure angle I/>~. The rack has teeth which are
straight-sided, but in other respects they are not
necessarily the same shape as those of the basic rack. In
other words, the values of P~ and I/>~ may be different from Pr
and I/>r'
The description of the meshing geometry of a pinion and
rack is very similar to that of a pinion and the basic rack,
described in Chapter 2. There is, however, a major difference
in the underlying purpose. In Chapter 2, the tooth shape of
54 Gears in Mesh
the basic rack was known, but not that of the pinion, and our
intention was to find the pinion tooth shape that would
satisfy the Law of Gearing. In the present case, the pinion
tooth shape is known, but the shape of the rack is not yet
decided, apart from the fact that its teeth are
straight-sided. We now determine what conditions must be met
by the rack parameters, if the rack is to mesh correctly with
the pinion.
In order to check whether the Law of Gearing is
satisfied, we adopt the following procedure. We find a
typical position of the contact point between the pinion and
the rack, and we draw the common normal through this point. We
also draw the perpendicular from the pinion center to the rack
reference line, and the point where this line intersects the
common normal is labelled P'. The Law of Gearing is satisfied
if pI coincides with the pitch point P.
Figure 3.1 shows the pinion base circle, and a pair of
teeth in contact. The base circle radius is given by
Equation (2.20),
(3.1)
P~
Base circle
Figure 3.1. A pinion meshed with a rack.

A Pinion Meshed With a Rack 55
and by making use of Equation (2.30), which gives the standard

pitch circle radius in terms of the module, we can express the
base circle radius in terms of the module and the pressure
angle,
~Nm cos 4lS (3.2)
Since the module m and the pressure angle 4ls are part of the
specification of the pinion, the base circle radius Rb is
known, and its value is constant.
Any normal to the rack tooth in Figure 3.1 must be
perpendicular to the tooth profile, while any normal to the
pinion tooth must touch the base circle. Hence, as shown in
the diagram, the common normal must be the base circle tangent
which is perpendicular to the rack tooth profile, and the
contact point must lie on this line. If E is the point where
the common normal touches the base circle, the radius CE is
parallel to the rack tooth profile, and the length CP' can
therefore be found from triangle ECP' ,
CP' (3.3)
cos 4l~
To find the position of the pitch point, we use

Equation (1.15), which gives the pitch circle radius of a
pinion meshed with an arbitrary rack with pitch p,
The rack in Figure 3.1 has a pitch p~, so in this case the
pinion pitch circle radius is as follows,
Np~
271"
(3.4)
Point P' in Figure 3.1 will coincide with the pitch point if
the length CP' is equal to the pitch circle radius Rp' We
equate the two expressions given in Equations (3.3 and 3.4),
and rearrange the terms to put the condition in the following
form.,
271" Rb
p~ cos 4l~ N
(3.5)
56 Gears in Mesh
Figure 3.2. Base pitch of a rack.
The base pitch Pb of the pinion is given by

Equation (2.22),
211'Rb
N
(3.6)
and the base pitch Pbr of the rack, defined as the distance
between adjacent teeth measured along a common normal, can be
expressed in terms of the pitch and the pressure angle with
the help of Figure 3.2,
P~ cos ~~ (3.7)
Hence, the condition given by Equation (3.5) implies that the

base pi tch of the rack must be equal to that of the pinion,
(3.B)
When we replace CP' in Equation (3.3) by the pitch circle

radius Rp' the equation takes the following form,
(3.9)
We have shown that if the length CP' is equal to the

pitch circle radius, the base pitches of the pinion and the
rack must be equal. The converse is also true, as we can prove
A Pinion Meshed Wi th a Rack 57
Operating
pressure angle ¢
Line of action
I+------,'--Rack reference line
Base circle
c
Figure 3.3. Meshing diagram of a rack and pinion.
by considering Equations (3.3 - 3.8) in the opposite order. If

the base pitches are equal, then CP' is equal to Rp' and the
Law of Gearing is satisfied. We have therefore proved that an
involute pinion can mesh correctly with any rack whose teeth
are straight-sided, provided the two base pitches are equal.
The rack does not need to be the same shape as the basic rack.
The meshing diagram is shown in Figure 3.3, with the common
normal at the contact point passing through the pi tch point P.
As always, the line in the rack which touches the pinion pitch
circle is the rack pitch line, the common normal at the
contact point is the line of action, and the angle between the
line of action and the tangent to the pitch circle at P is the
operating pressure angle 41 of the gear pair. Since the line of
action is perpendicular to the rack tooth profile, it can be
seen from the diagram that the operating pressure angle 41 is
equal to the rack pressure angle,
41'r (3.10)
58 Gears in Mesh
Equations (3.9 and 3.10) can be combined to give a relation

between the pitch circle radius, the base circle radius, and
the opera t i ng pressure angle ~,
(3.11)
In Chapter 2, we proved that the circular pitch of the

pinion is equal to the pitch of the basic rack, and we showed
that when the pinion is meshed with its basic rack, the
pressure angles ~, ~s and ~r are all equal. We now prove the
corresponding results for the case when the pinion is meshed
with an ordinary rack. The circular pitch Pp at the pitch
circle is known as the operating circular pitch, and its value
was given by Equation (1.18),
2l1'Rp
N
(3.12 )
When we substitute the expression for Rp given by

Equation (3.4), we prove that the operating circular pitch is
equal to the pitch of the rack,
p'r (3.13 )
The profile angle of the pinion at its pitch circle is

called the operating pressure angle of the pinion, and is
represented by the symbol ~p. The profile angle at radius R
and the operating pressure angle can therefore be found by

substituting Rp in place of R,
(3.14 )
If we compare Equations (3.9 and 3.14), it is evident that the

operating pressure angle of the pinion is equal to the
pressure angle of the rack,
~' (3.15)
r
Pinion and Rack Posi tions 59
and finally, Equations (3.10 and 3.15) are combined, to show

that the operating pressure angle of the gear pair, the
operating pressure angle of the pinion, and the rack pressure
angle are all equal,
4l'r (3.16)
To conclude this section, we derive an expression for

the tooth thickness tp of the pinion, measured at the pitch
circle, and then we express the polar coordinate 8R of a
typical point A in terms of the tooth thickness tp' The tooth
thickness tR at radius R was given by Equation (2.36),
where ts is the tooth thickness at the standard pitch circle.

Hence, the value of tp is found by substituting Rp in place
of R,
t
R [ 2 + 2(inv 4ls - inv 4l p )] (3.17)
p Rs
The polar coordinate 8R of point A on the tooth profile at

radius R was given by Equation (2.35),
If this equation is combined with Equation (3.17), we obtain

an expression for 8 R in terms of the quantities defined at the
pitch circle,
~ (3.18)
2Rp + inv 4lp - inv 4lR
Relation Between the Pinion and Rack positions
In order to obtain a general relation between the

posi tions of the pinion and the rack, we consider them
initially when the ~ontact point lies exactly at the pitch
point, and we then determine a relation between the
60 Gears in Mesh
c
x
~Rack reference line

Figure 3.4. Contact at the pitch point.
displacements from this position. We proved in Chapter 1

that, at some moment during the meshing cycle, the contact
point must coincide with the pitch point, and in Figure 3.4 we
show the pinion and rack with the contact point in this
position. As before, the x axis in the pinion and the xr axis
in the rack each coincide with a tooth center-line, and the
fixed ~ and ~ axes have their origin at the pitch point. The
angular position of the pinion is specified by the angle fi,
measured from line CP counterclockwise to the x axis, and the
position of the rack is indicated by the distance u r of the
xr axis above the ~ axis. The positions of the pinion and the
rack in Figure 3.4 are as follows,
fi -~ (3.19)
2Rp
ur 1 (3.20)
2"tpr
where tp and tpr are the tooth thicknesses, measured on the

pinion pitch circle and the rack pitch line.
After the pinion has rotated an angle Ilfi from this
position, and the rack has displaced a distance Ilu r , the new
positions are given by the following two expressions,
fi (3.21)
position of the Contact Point 61
(3.22)
The plnlon rotation ~$ and the rack displacement ~ur are of

course related, and to find this relation we start from
Equation (1.16), which expresses the rack velocity vr in
terms of the pinion angular veloci ty w,
(3.23)
We integrate this equation, to obtain the relation between

the rack displacement and the pinion rotation,
(3.24)
We now use Equations (3.21 and 3.22) to express ~$ and ~ur in

Equation (3.24), and the resulting equation gives the
relation we require between the pinion angular position $ and
the rack position u r •
o (3.25)
Position of the Contact Point
When we discussed the condition for correct meshing of a

pinion and rack, at the beginning of this chapter, we showed
that a typical contact point lies on the base circle tangent
which is perpendicular to the rack tooth profile. Since the
contact point always lies on this line, the path of contact is
a segment of the same line. We can therefore specify the
position of a contact point by its distance along this line
from the pitch point. We introduce the length s, as shown in
Figure 3.5, and it is defined in the manner of a coordinate,
so that it is positive for points which lie above P, and
negative for those lying below P.
To derive an expression for s, we use a method which is
very similar to the procedure just used when we found a
relation between the pinion and rack positions. When the
contact point is at the pitch point, the angular position of
the pinion is given by Equation (3.19),
62 Gears in Mesh
Figure 3.5. position of the contact point.
and the value of s is zero. After a pinion rotation ~~, the

angular position of the pinion is given by Equation (3.21),
fJ (3.26)
The rack will have displaced a distance Rp~~' as we showed in

Equation (3.24), and the corresponding value of s can then be
read from Figure 3.5,
s (3.27)
We eliminate ~~ between Equations (3.26 and 3.27), and we use

Equation (3.11) to replace (Rp cos~) by Rb • We then obtain an
expression for s as a function of the pinion angular
position ~,
s Rb~ + lt
2 P
cos ~ (3.28)
If we use Equation (3.28) to find the values of s

corresponding to any two positions of the pinion, we can then
subtract one result from the other, and we obtain an
expression for the displacement ~s of the contact point
Sliding Velocity 63
corresponding to a rotation llfJ of the pinion.
lls (3.29)
It is interesting that the distance moved by the contact

point for a given rotation of the pinion is independent of the
rack pressure angle ~~. We will show later in the book that
the same relation between lls and llfJ applies in the case of a
pair of spur gears, and also in the case of a pair of helical
gears wi th parallel axes.
Sliding Velocity
The sliding velocity at the contact point is defined as

the difference between the velocities of the two points in
contact. If point A of the pinion touches point Ar of the
rack, then the sliding velocity is defined as follows,
Sliding veloc i ty (3.30)
In order to derive an expression for the sliding
Figure 3.6. Unit vectors associated with the rack tooth.

64 Gears in Mesh
velocity, we need to make use of the set of unit vectors nt,

n~ and nS in the directions of the coordinate axes, and we
also introduce the two unit vectors shown in Figure 3.6, which
are associated with a rack tooth profile. These vectors are
nnr' in the direction of the outward-pointing normal to the
tooth profile, and n Tr , in the tangential direction toward
the tip of the tooth.
If the rack velocity is v r ' this is of course the
velocity of any point in the rack, and therefore in vector
form the veloc i ty of Ar can be wri tten,
(3.31)
To obtain the velocity of point A, we form the vector product

of the pinion angular velocity and the position vector from C
to A. I f point A lies in posi tion s on the path of contact, the
. .
pos1t10n vector p CA 1S
. expresse d as th e sum 0 f th e vectors
from C to P, and from P to A,
(3.32)
and the veloc i ty of A is found as follows,
(3.33)
Base circle of gear 2
Figure 3.7. Common tangent to the base circles.

When we subtract the velocity of Ar from that of A, the term

(R w-v ) disappears, as we showed in Equation (3.23). Hence,
p r
the sliding velocity is given by the following expression,
(3.34)
The sliding velocity is along the common tangent, as we

would expect, and its direction reverses when the quantity s
changes sign, which occurs when the contact point passes
through the pi tch point.
A Pair of Gears in Mesh
We now consider the meshing of a pair of gears. If the

base pitches of the two gears are Pb1 and Pb2' the base circle
radii are given by Equation (3.6),
(3.35)
(3.36)
We follow the same procedure outlined earlier to

determine whether the Law of Gearing is satisfied. We find the
position of a typical contact point, and then check to see if
the common normal at the contact point cuts the line of
centers at the pitch point. Any normal to the tooth profile of
gear 1 must touch the base circle of gear 1, while any normal
to the tooth profile of gear 2 must touch the base circle of
gear 2. Hence, the common normal at the contact point must
touch both base circles, which means it must coincide with the
common tangent to the base circles. If the common tangent
touches the base circles at E1 and E2 , as shown in Figure 3.7,
then the posi tion of the tooth contact point must be somewhere
on line E 1E2 , and the common normal at the contact point lies
along E 1E2 . The point where this line intersects the line of
centers is labelled P', and we must now check to see whether
P' coincides with the pitch point P.
The radii C1E 1 and C2E2 in Figure 3.7 are each
perpendicular to E 1E2 , and they are therefore parallel.
66 Gears in Mesh
Hence, the triangles E,C,P' and E2C2P' are similar, and we

obtain the following relation between the sides of the
triangles,
The lengths E,C, and E2C2 are equal to the base circle radii,
which we express by means of Equations (3.35 and 3.36), and
the relation then takes the following form,
(3.37)
We proved in Chapter' that the pitch point P divides the line

of centers C'C 2 in the ratio N, :N 2 • If point P' is to coincide
with P, the right-hand side of Equation (3.37) must be equal
to (N,/N 2 ), and this is only true if the base pitches are
equal,
(3.38)
To prove the converse, we consider a pair of gears in

which the base pitches are equal. The base circle radii are
then in the ratio N,:N 2 , and the common tangent E,E 2 to the
base circles divides C'C 2 in the same ratio. Hence, the common
normal at the contact point passes through the pitch point,
and the Law of Gearing is satisfied. We have therefore proved
that any pair of involute gears can mesh correctly, provided
their base pitches are equal.
In practice, two gears intended to mesh together are
almost always designed so that they have the same module m and
the same pressure angle lP s • In other words, they are conjugate
to the same basic rack. The base pitch of a gear is related to
the module and the pressure angle by Equations (2.24 and
2.3'),
1rm cos I/I s (3.39)
Hence, if the two gears are designed with the same module and
the same pressure angle, this ensures that they have the same
base pi tch, and therefore that they wi 11 mesh correctly.
Operating pressure angle <p
Line of action
Figure 3.8. Meshing diagram of a gear pair.
The meshing diagram of a pair of gears is shown in

Figure 3.8, with line E1E2 cutting the line of centers at the
pitch point P. The pitch circles of the two gears are the
circles which pass through P, and their radii are expressed in
terms of the center di stance C by Equat ions ('.24 and 1.25),
(3.40)
(3.41)
We have proved that the common normal at the contact

point lies along E,E 2 , and this line is therefore the line of
action. For a pair of gears, the operating pressure angle ~ is
defined as the angle between the line of action and the common
tangent to the pitch circles at P. Since both lines E,C 1 and
E2C2 are perpendicular to the line of action, they each make
the same angle ~ wi th the line of centers, and we can
therefore use triangles E 1C,P and E2C2P to derive the
following relations,
68 Gears in Mesh
(3.42)
(3.43)
To find the value of the gear pair operating pressure angle ~,

we start by expressing the center distance as the sum of the
pitch circle radii,
We then use Equations (3.42 and 3.43) to eliminate RP1 and RP2
in this relation, and we obtain an equation from which the
value of ~ can be found,
cos ~ (3.44)
We complete this section by comparing the operating

circular pitches and the operating pressure angles of the two
gears. We have already proved, in Equation (1.35), that the
operating circular pitches are equal,
(3.45)
To compare the operating pressure angles, we make use of

Equation (2.10), which gives the profile angle of a gear at
radius R,
and we obtain the operating pressure angle ~P1 of gear 1 by

substi tuting RP1 and Rb1 in place of Rand Rb ,
(3.46)
When this relation is compared with Equation (3.42),
it is evident that the operating pressure angle of gear is

equal to the operating pressure angle ~ of the gear pair,
I/>pl (3.47)
A similar argument shows that the operating pressure

angle of gear 2 is also equal to 1/>,
I/>P2 (3.48)
and Equations (3.47 and 3.48) can of course be combined, to

show that the three angles are all equal,
I/>Pl I/>P2 (3.49)
Equation (3.49) could have been proved more directly,

simply by looking at the meshing diagram shown in Figure 3.9,
where the contact point coincides with the pitch point. The
common tangent to the tooth profiles at the contact point is
perpendicular to the line of action, and it can be seen from
the diagram that the three angles I/>pl' I/>P2 and I/> are all
equal.
We have shown that the operating circular pitches Ppl
and Pp2 are equal, and that the operating pressure angles I/>Pl
and I/>P2 are also equal. It is often convenient, whenever we
Line of action
Icommon tangent
Figure 3.9. Meshing diagram, with contact at the pitch point.

70 Gears in Mesh
have proved that a particular quantity on one gear is always

equal to the corresponding quantity on the other gear, to
introduce a single symbol which can be used to stand for
either quantity. We therefore use the symbol Pp to stand for
either Pp1 or Pp2' and 4>p to stand for 4>P1 or 4>p2. In a similar
manner, the symbol 4>s is used for either ;S1 or ;S2. The same
convention will be used throughout the remainder of the book,
without further explanation.
Relation Between the Gear Positions
For gear 1, we have specified the angular posi tion by the

angle f1 1, measured from line C1P counterclockwise to the
x 1 axis. We now specify the angular position of gear 2 in the
same manner, as the angle f12 measured from line C2P
counterclockwise to the x 2 axis. In this section we derive a
relation between the angles f11 and f1 2•
The two gears are shown in Figure 3.9, with the contact
point coinciding with the pitch point, and in these positions
the angles f11 and f12 can be written down by inspection,
f11 -~ (3.50)
2Rp1
-~ (3.51)
2Rp2
After rotations ~f11 and ~f12' the angular positions of the two
gears are given by the following expressions,
f11 -~+ ~f11 (3.52)

2Rp1
f12 -~+ ~f12 (3.53)

2Rp2
The angular velocities and are related by

Equation (1.21),
(3.54)
and we integrate this equation to find a relation between the

gear rotations,
Path of Contact and Line of Action 7'
(3.55 )
Finally, we use Equations (3.52 and 3.53) to express ap, and

aP2 in Equation (3.55), and we obtain the relation we require
between the angular positions P, and P2 ,
o (3.56)
Path of Contact and Line of Action
We showed earlier that a typical contact point lies on

line E,E 2 , the common tangent to the base circles. Since the
contact point always lies on this line, the path of contact is
a segment of the same line. We have also shown that, for any
position of the contact point on this line, the common normal
at the contact point also lies along line E,E 2 • Hence, the
line of action, which is defined as the common normal at the
Line of action
C1
Imaginary rack
c
Figure 3.'0. An imaginary rack.
72 Gears in Mesh
contact point, coincides with the path of contact. This is a

special property of involute gears, as we will prove in
Chapter 9. For non-involute gears, the path of contact is no
longer straight, and the direction of the line of action
varies, depending on the position of the contact point.
Imaginary Rack
The gear pair of Figure 3.10 is shown with a rack profile

drawn between the teeth. Since the rack profile has no
thickness, it is called an imaginary rack, or sometimes a
phantom rack. The concept of the imaginary rack is useful,
because the geometric properties of a pinion and rack can
generally be proved more easily than those of a pair of gears.
Very often, a result proved for a pinion and rack can be
applied directly to the case of a pair of gears, with the help
of the imaginary rack.
If the imaginary rack is to fit between the gear teeth in
the manner shown, the rack tooth profile must coincide with
the common tangent to the gear teeth at their contact point,
and the pressure angle 4>~ of the imaginary rack must therefore
be equal to the operating pressure angle 4> of the gear pair,
4>'r (3.57)
In addition, for correct meshing between the imaginary rack

and the two gears, the three base pitches must all be equal,
as we proved in Equation (3.8),
(3.58)
When the conditions given by Equations (3.57 and 3.58)

are satisfied, the imaginary rack can mesh simultaneously
with both gears. We have shown that the path of contact for
the two gears lies along the common tangent to the base
circles, and when we consider the meshing of the imaginary
rack with either gear, the path of contact lies along the
tangent to the base circle which is perpendicular to the rack
tooth profile. Since the pressure angle 4>~ of the imaginary
position of the Contact Point 73
rack has been chosen so that its tooth profile is

perpendicular to the common tangent to the base circles, the
two paths of contact must coincide. This means that the
imaginary rack touches each gear at the same point that the
gears touch each other. In addition, whether we consider one
gear meshed with the imaginary rack, or both gears meshed
together, the position of the pitch point is always the same.
Hence, the pitch circle of either gear, when it is meshed with
the imaginary rack, coincides with its pitch circle when it is
meshed wi th the other gear.
Position of the Contact Point of a Gear Pair
To find the position of the contact point between gear'

and gear 2, we can immediately make use of the imaginary rack.
We know that the contact point between the two gears coincides
with the contact point between gear' and the imaginary rack.
We can therefore use Equations (3.28 and 3.29) directly, to
write down the position s of the contact point, and the
displacement ~s of the contact point corresponding to a
rotation ~~, of gear "
s (3.59)
~s (3.60)
Sliding Velocity
We calculate the sliding velocity of a gear pair in the

same manner that we did for the case of a rack and pinion. If
point A, of gear' is in contact with point A2 of gear 2, we
write down the velocities of A, and A2 , and subtract them to
find the sliding velocity. In Figure 3." the unit vectors
parallel with and perpendicular to the line of action are
labelled nnr and n Tr • This notation reflects the fact that,
if we drew an imaginary rack between the gears, these would be
the directions of the normal and the tangent to the teeth of
the imaginary rack.
74 Gears in Mesh
Common
tangent
C
Figure 3.'1. Unit vectors associated with the contact point.
The position of the contact point is given by the

coordinate s on the path of contact. The velocities of A, and
A2 are then expressed in terms of s in the usual manner,
When we subtract the velocity of A2 from that of A" the term

(R p ,w,+R p2 w2 ) disappears, as we showed in Equation (3.54),
and the sliding velocity is given by the following
expression,
v A, - v A2 (3.63)
Center Distance C, and Standard Center Distance Cs
When we proved that a pair of gears with equal base

pitches can mesh correctly at a center distance C, we made no
restrictions on the value of C. An involute of a base circle
is a curve which starts at the base circle, and then spirals
Standard Center Distance 75
Involute
Base circle
Figure 3.12. The involute curve.
around the base circle with ever-increasing radius, as shown

in Figure 3.12. It is possible, in principle, to use any part
of this curve as the tooth profile, and therefore a pair of
gears with base circle radii Rb1 and Rb2 could theoretically
be designed to operate at any center distance which is larger
than the sum of the base circle radii. In practice, of course,
there are a number of considerations which limit the useful
range of center distance values.
The most important of these practical considerations is
the question of how the gears are to be cut. Let us assume
that we have a cutting tool which can cut a pair of gears with
N1 and N2 teeth, to mesh at a certain center distance. Suppose
we now want to use the same cutter for a second pair of gears,
also with N1 and N2 teeth, which is intended to operate at a
different center distance. The second pair of gears will
require tooth thicknesses which are different from those of
the first gear pair, and this can only be achieved by the same
cutter if the differences in the tooth thickness values are
not too great. Hence, the center distance of the second gear
pair may differ from that of the first, but not by too large
an amount.
A cutting tool is generally designed so that it can cut a
suitable tooth thickness in each gear for the case when the
pitch circles of the gear pair coincide with the standard
pitch circles. The center distance in this case is called the
standard center distance Cs ' and it is equal to the sum of the
76 Gears in Mesh
standard pi tch c i rc Ie radi i ,
(3.64)
The same cutter can then be used to cut a gear pair with the
same tooth numbers, designed for any center distance C which
is sufficiently close in value to Cs • As a rough guide, we can
say that C should not be less than Cs ' and that when C is
larger than Cs ' the difference should not normally exceed
v(C B tan ~s). The quantity B in this expression is the gear
pair backlash, which will be defined in Chapter 4. The two
condi tions just given can be expressed by the following
inequali ty,
C (3.65)
The reasons for this particular range of values will be

discussed in Chapter 6.
In practice, the maximum difference between C and Cs
generally varies between about 2% and 4%, depending on the
values of Cs ' B and ~s. In other words, the value of C is
always quite close to that of Cs • It then follows that the
pitch circle radii do not differ substantially from the
standard pitch circle radii, and that the values of ~p and ~
are within a few degrees of ~s.
Recommended Tooth proportions for a Gear
In Chapter 2, when we discussed the tooth geometry of a

gear, we gave the addendum and the tooth tip radius values for
some commonly used basic racks. We did not, however, give any
recommended values for the tooth thickness or the addendum in
a gear. The reason for this omission is that suitable values
depend on the operating conditions of a gear pair, and in
particular, on the center distance.
We defined the addendum as and the dedendum b s as the
radial distances from the tip circle and the root circle to
the standard pitch circle. The addendum and dedendum can also
be measured from the pitch circle, in the manner shown in
Recommended Tooth proportions 77
Tip circle
Standard Pitch circle

pitch circle )...
Root circle~ ,
Figure 3.13. Addendum and dedendum.
Figure 3.13, and in this case we use the symbols a p and b p to

distinguish these quantities from as and b s • For a pair of
gears, the working depth of the teeth is defined as the amount
by which the teeth overlap when the gears are in operation,
and it is therefore equal to the sum of the addendum values,
measured f rom the pi tch eire les,
Working depth (3.66)
The clearance at the root circle of each gear is the amount by

which the dedendum of that gear exceeds the addendum of the
meshing gear. Hence, the clearance values c 1 and c 2 for the
two gears of a pair are given by the following expressions,
(3.67)
(3.68)
Finally, the whole depth of the teeth, which was defined in

Chapter 2 as the sum (as+b s )' is of course also equal to the
sum (a p +b p ) •
78 Gears in Mesh
For gears with pressure angles ~s of 20° or 25°, the

values generally recommended for the working depth, the
clearance and the whole depth are as follows,
Working depth 2.0m (3.69)
Clearance 0.25m (3.70)
Whole depth 2.2Sm (3.71)
In most designs, the actual values of these three

quantities do not conform exactly to the recommended values,
and it is not necessary that they should do so. The values
given in Equations (3.69 - 3.71) are simply guides, which are
found by experience to give satisfactory results, and it is
sufficient if the actual quantities in a gear pair do not
deviate too far from these values. In particular, as we will
show in Chapter 4, the clearances in a gear pair should not be
less than the value given by Equation (3.70).
It is not possible at this stage to give any
recommendations for the addendum and dedendum values of each
gear in a gear pair. They depend on the tooth thickness
values, and these in turn depend on the center distance and
the backlash required. We will return to this question in
Chapter 6.
Fundamental Circles of a Gear
We have shown that the pitch circle radius of a gear

depends on the center distance, and is therefore a variable
quantity. On the other hand, the radii of the standard pitch
circle and the base circle are constant, and these two circles
are therefore generally regarded as intrinsic to the geometry
of the gear. However, there is a sense in which the base
circle is more fundamental than the standard pitch circle.
Given any gear, it is possible in principle to find the
base circle by a geometric construction. We draw the normal to
the tooth profile at any point of the profile, and the base
circle is the circle which touches this line. The base circle
Advantages of the Involute Profile 79
is therefore fixed in the gear, and its radius is always the

same.
The situation of the standard pitch circle is different.
The standard pitch circle is defined as the pitch circle of
the gear, when it is meshed with its basic rack. We have shown
in this chapter that the same gear can mesh with any rack,
provided their base pitches are equal. Hence, there is
nothing unique about the particular basic rack used to define
a gear. The gear is also conjugate to any basic rack with the
same base pitch, and if we had used a different basic rack to
define the gear tooth geometry, we would have had a different
radius for the standard pitch circle.
In order to describe a gear, a knowledge of the base
circle radius is absolutely essential, since this determines
the shape of the tooth profile. In addition, we choose some
other circle as a reference circle, on which quantities such
as the tooth thickness can be specified. The base circle is
not suitable for this purpose, because in many gears the teeth
lie entirely outside the base circle, and instead we use the
standard pitch circle. The radius of the standard pitch
circle is therefore primarily a matter of convenience. We
have shown that the gear tooth geometry can be defined by any
basic rack with the same base pitch, and by choosing a value
for the standard pitch circle radius, we are in effect
selecting one particular basic rack. It is because the
standard pitch circle radius can be chosen, while the base
circle radius is unique, that we stated at the beginning of
this section that the base circle is the more fundamental of
the two circles.
Advantages of the Involute Profile
We have shown that the center distance C of a gear pair

can vary, and this is the principal reason that has led to the
almost universal use of involute gears, in preference to
other types of profile.
We will describe some of the properties of non-involute
tooth profiles in Chapter 9, and we will show that a pair of
non-involute gears can only mesh correctly at one specified
80 Gears in Mesh
center distance. This means that the bearings must be

positioned with extreme accuracy, and even then the gears may
run badly if the shafts deflect under load, or if the center
distance increases due to thermal expansion of the casing.
Small changes of this type in the center distance, or small
discrepancies from the design value due to errors during
assembly, present no serious problem for a pair of involute
gears.
A second major advantage occurs when the gears are cut.
We stated that a pair of gears can be cut by a single cutter,
to operate at any center distance within a certain range. It
is therefore not necessary to use a special cutter, every time
a gear pair is required to operate at an unusual center
distance. In almost any design problem, it is possible to
design a pair of involute gears that can be cut by a standard
cutting tool, and this of course represents an important
economic saving to the gear manufacturer.
Examples 81
Numerical Examples
Example 3.1
A 26-tooth pinion with a module of 12 mm and a pressure
angle of 25° is to be meshed with a rack whose pressure angle
is 22°. Calculate the pitch P~ of the rack, and the pitch
circle radius of the pinion.
Ps = 37.699 mm (2.31)
Pb = 34.167 (2.24)
Pbr = 34.167 (3.8)
P~ = 36.850 (3.7)
Rp = 152.488 mm (3.4)
Example 3.2
A gear pair has a module of 10 mm and a pressure angle
of 20°. The gears have 24 and 75 teeth, and the center
distance is 500 mm. Calculate the pitch circle radii, and the
operating pressure angle of the gear pair.
RS1 = 120.000 mm
Rs2 375.000
Rb1 112.763
Rb2 352.385
Rp 1 121 .212 (3.40)
RP2 = 378.788 mm (3.41)
I/J = 21.519° (3.44)
Example 3.3
In traditional printing machines, the gearing was
designed so that the center distance was always equal to the
standard center distance. It was then necessary to use
circular pitch gears, in order that the circumferences of the
standard pitch circles should be exact multiples of the paper
82 Gears in Mesh
sizes being printed. In one particular gear pair, the

circular pitch Ps was 0.75 inches, the pressure angle 14.5°,
and the tooth numbers 44 and 88. Redesign the gear pair for
the same gear ratio and center distance, using a standard D.P.
value and a pressure angle of 20°. Calculate the new operating
pressure angle.
Old design, ps=0.75, N1=44, N2=88
Pd = 4.1888 (2.33)
m = 0.2387 inches (2.34)
Rsl = 5.2521
Rs2 = 10.5042
C Cs = 15.7563 (3.64)
Try Pd = 4
m = 0.25 inches
TO obtain Cs slightly smaller than C,

try N1=42, N2=84
Then we obtain the following values for Cs and tIl,
Rsl = 5.2500
Rs2 = 10.5000
Cs 15.7500 inches (3.64)
Rbl = 4.9334
Rb2 = 9.8668
til = 20.063° (3.44)
Chapter 4-
Contact Ratio, Interference and Backlash
Contact Ratio
The meshing cycle of a tooth pair begins when the teeth

first make contact, and ends when the contact is broken. If
one gear is to drive the other in a continuous manner, there
must clearly be at least one tooth pair in contact at all
times. However, it is found that smooth operation is only
possible when the contact at one tooth pair continues until
sometime after the contact has begun at a second pair. In
other words, there must be parts of the meshing cycle during
which two pairs of teeth are in contact simultaneously. In
order to measure the amount of overlap, we introduce a
quantity called the contact ratio, defined in the following
manner. If a~c is the angle through which a gear rotates
during one meshing cycle, and ao p is the angle subtended at
the gear center by one tooth, the contact ratio mc is defined
as follows,
(4 • 1)
The angle ao p is known as the angular pitch of the gear,

and its value in radians is equal to 2~ divided by the number
of teeth,
2~
(4.2)
N
The rotation a~c is called the angle of contact, and in

order to find its value, we need to describe the meshing
process in some detail. Figure 4.1 shows a pair of meshing
gears, and we will assume that gear is driving and is
84 Contact Ratio, Interference and Backlash
Gear 1 driving Gear 2 driven
c
Figure 4.1. The ends of the path of contact.
turning counter-clockwise, so that gear 2 is being driven and

is turning clockwise. When the gears rotate, the first
contact between a pair of teeth occurs at T2 , the point where
the tip circle of the driven gear cuts the common tangent to
the base circles. This is because the contact point must lie
on that line, as we showed in Chapter 3, and the teeth of
gear 2 are not long enough to make contact at points on that
line below T2 • At the initial contact, therefore, the tip of
the tooth on the driven gear is in contact with the tooth of
the driving gear, at a point on its profile somewhere below
the pitch circle.
After the initial contact, the gears continue to rotate,
and the contact point in Figure 4.1 moves upwards along the
path of contact. On the driving gear, the contact point moves
outwards towards the tooth tip, while on the driven gear it
moves inwards. Contact ceases when the contact point reaches
the tooth tip of the driving gear. The position where this
occurs is at point T 1 , where the tip circle of the driving
gear crosses the common tangent to the base circles.
Contact Ratio 85
The displacement as of the contact point along the path

of contact was related to the gear rotation a~ by
Equation (3.60),
as (4.3)
Hence, if as is the contact point displacement between the

c
beginning and the end of the meshing cycle, the corresponding
gear rotation a~c can be expressed as follows,
as c
(4.4)
Rb
We now combine Equations (4.1, 4.2 and 4.4), to obtain an

expression for the contact ratio,
as c
211' Rb
(-N-)
and since the denominator is equal to the base pitch Pb' as it
was defined in Equation (2.22), the expression for the
contact ratio can be simplified to the following form,
(4.5)
The initial and final points of contact are shown in

Figure 4.1 as T2 and T 1 , and the length as c is equal to the
distance between these points. The line segment from T2 to T1
is the path of contact, and as c is therefore equal to the
length of the path of contact. From the manner in which the
contact ratio was defined in Equation (4.1), it might appear
that two meshing gears could have contact ratios of different
values, but it is now clear from Equation (4.5) that the two
values must be the same, since the base pitches of the two
gears are equal.
Expressions for the positions sT1 and sT2 of the end
points of the path of contact can be derived with the help of
Figure 4.2, which shows the essential features of Figure 4.1
in greater detail. It should be remembered that s is defined
like a coordinate, so that its value is positive for points
above P, and negative for those below. The positions of the
end points of the path of contact are then as follows,
Figure 4.2. Essential details of Figure 4.1.
2 2 (4.6)
- Rb1 tan t/I + v'(R T1 -R b1 )
2 2 (4. ?)
Rb2 tan t/I - v'(R T2 -R b2 )
In these equations, RT1 and RT2 are the radii of the tip
circles, Rb1 and Rb2 are the base circle radii, and t/I is the
operating pressure angle of the gear pair, given by
Equation (3.44),
cos t/I (4.8)
The final expression for the contact ratio, which is the

one generally used to calculate its value, is found by
expressing the contact length as the difference between the s
coordinates of points T1 and T2 , and then substituting into
Equa t ion (4. 5) ,
(4.9)
Contact Ratio 87
Line of action
Length of
path of contact dS c
c
Figure 4.3. A gear pair, with two pairs of teeth in contact.
A pair of meshing gears is shown in Figure 4.3, in

positions such that there is one pair of teeth in contact
near T l' and a second pair near T2 • The contact points lie, as
always, on the path of contact between Tl and T2 • In order
that there should be two simultaneous contact points, the
distance between the contact points must of course be less
than the length ~sc of the path of contact. The distance
between the contact points is the same as the distance between
a pair of adjacent tooth profiles of either gear, measured
along the common normal, and we showed in Chapter 2 that this
distance is equal to the base pitch Pb' At the beginning of
the present chapter, we pointed out that there must be parts
of each meshing cycle during which two pairs of teeth are in
contact. We have now shown that this requirement will be met,
provided the length ~sc of the path of contact is greater than
the base pitch Pb' This condition implies, as we can see from
Equation ~4.5), that the value of the contact ratio must be
greater than 1.0.
It is possible to imagine a set of points, spaced at
intervals of Pb along the common tangent to the base circles,

as shown in Figure 4.3, and moving upwards along that line as
the gears rotate. The points within the line segment from T2
to T 1 would represent the contact points between the gears. At
any particular instant, there might be either one or two such
points within this interval, but over a period of time the
average number of points in the interval would be equal.to the
length as c of the interval, divided by the distance Pb between
the points. Since this quantity is exactly equal to the
contact ratio, as it is represented by Equation (4.5), it is
clear that the contact ratio mc is equal to the average number
of pairs of teeth in contact between the two gears. We have
already shown that operation of the gears is impossible
unless the value of mc is at least 1.0, and in general, the
higher the value of mc ' the more smoothly the gear pair will
run. The minimum contact ratio required for satisfactory
operation depends on the accuracy with which the teeth are
cut, and on the speed at which the gears will turn. However,
for spur gears a contact ratio of at least 1.4 is generally
recommended.
Contact Ratio for a Rack and Pinion
The calculation of the contact ratio is very similar for

the case when a pinion is meshed with a rack. As we proved in
Chapter 3, the path of contact is a segment of the line
through the pi tch point perpendicular to the rack tooth
profile, so the operating pressure angle ~ of the gear pair is
equal to the rack pressure angle,
~' (4.10)
r
The lower end of the path of contact is shown in

Figure 4.4 as Tr , the point where the tips of the rack teeth
intersect the line containing the path of contact, and the
upper end T is the point where the tip circle of the pinion
intersects the same line. Hence, the end points of the path of
contact are in positions sT r and sT' given by the following
two expressions,
Angles of Approach and Recess 89
I----~J--Line of action
Path followed by
the tips of the rack teeth
Figure 4.4. Path of contact for a rack and pinion.
-~ (4.11)
sin tfJ
(4.12 )
where apr is the addendum of the rack, measured from its pitch
line. These expressions are substituted into Equation (4.5),
and we obtain the contact ratio,
Angles of Approach and Recess
The tooth profile of the driving gear is shown in

Figure 4.5 in three positions, first in the position of
initial contact, secondly when the profile passes through the
pi tch point, and thirdly in the posi tion of final contact. The
profile in the three positions cuts the pitch circle at the
three points D, P and D'. When the tooth profile intersects
the pitch circle at any point between D and P, the contact
point is approaching the pitch point, and arc DP is therefore
known as the arc of approach. For a similar reason, arc PD' is
called the arc of recess.
Pitch circle of gear 1

--Line of action
Tip circle of gear 2
\-Tip circle of
gear 1
c
Gear 1 driviny
Figure 4.5. Angles of approach and recess.
The angles subtended at the gear center by the two arcs

are called the angles of approach and recess. During the
approach phase of the meshing cycle, the gear rotation aft is
equal to the angle of approach, and the contact point
displacement As is equal to the length T2P. We can therefore
use Equation (4.3) to find the angle of approach of gear 1,
and the angle of recess can be found in a similar manner,
Angle of approach (4.14)
Angle of recess (4.15)
The values of sT1 and sT2 in these expressions can be found by

means of Equations (4.6 and 4.7).
In the case of a pinion driving a rack, the quantities
sT2 and sTl are replaced by sT r and sT' given by Equations
( 4 • 11 and 4. 12) ,
Angle of approach (4.16)
Angle of recess (4.17)

Interference 91
Fillet circle
Involute
Figure 4.6. The fillet circle.
Interference
We pointed out in Chapter 2 that the part of a tooth

profile near the root, known as the fillet, is shaped so that
it blends smoothly into the root circle. The fillet profile
does not coincide with the involute, and the fillet is
therefore not intended to come into contact with the teeth of
the meshing gear. If such contact does take place, the tips of
the teeth in one gear will dig out material from the fillets
of the other, and smooth running of the gear pair is
impossible. This phenomenon is known as interference, and
gear pairs must always be designed so that it will not occur.
In the next few sections of this chapter, we describe a method
by which the design of a gear pair can be checked to ensure
that there will be no interference.
Fillet Circle
For the tooth shown in Figure 4.6, the point where the
fillet begins is labelled Af • Above this point, the tooth
profile coincides with the involute, and below this point the
fillet profile lies outside the involute, so that the tooth is
strengthened near its root. The circle through point Af will
be referred to as the fillet circle. It is generally called
the true involute form circle, but there is a possibility of

confusion when this name is used, because there is another
circle, defined quite differently, which is called the form
circle. We will give the definition of the form circle in
Chapter 7, and in order to avoid confusion later, we will use
the name "fillet circle" for the circle through the top point
of the fillet.
The radius Rf of the fillet circle depends on the method
by which the gear is cut, so we will not discuss how the value
of Rf can be calculated until Chapter 5, when we describe the
cutting of gears. We can show now, however, that in general
the fillet circle is larger than the base circle, for the
following reason. The involute was defined in Chapter 2 as a
curve for which the normal at any point touches the base
circle. With this definition, it is impossible for the
involute to extend inside the base circle. Since the fillet
circle passes through Af , the point where the fillet joins the
involute, the radius Rf is in general greater than the base
circle radius Rb • In exceptional cases, Rf may be equal to Rb ,
but it is never smaller.
First Condi tion For No Interference
Figure 4.7 shows the meshing diagram for a typical gear

pair. As usual, the path of contact lies along the common
tangent to the base circles, which touches the two base
circles at El and E2 • The ends of the path of contact are at Tl
and T2 , the points where the tip circles intersect line E 1E2 •
When the gears are in the positions shown, point Al of gear 1
is in contact with point A2 of gear 2. Hence, the contact on
the tooth of gear 1 takes place at a radius equal to C1Al .
When the contact point is closer to E l , the radius C1Al is
reduced, and if the contact point were to coincide with El the
radius C1Al would be equal to Rbl •
We have stated that interference will occur if there is
contact at the tooth fillet. This means that the contact on
gear 1 must only take place on the involute section of the
tooth profile, or in other words, at radii greater than the
fillet circle radius Rfl • We have also pointed out that the
Condi tions For No Interference 93
Figure 4.7. Meshing diagram of a gear pair.
fillet circle radius is generally larger than the base circle

radius. If, therefore, the contact point is allowed to move
down the tooth profile of gear 1 as far as the base circle,
there will def inately be interference. Hence, in order to
prevent the interference, it is first necessary that the path
of contact should end at a point on line E1E2 lying above E 1 •
The length T2E2 in Figure 4.7 must therefore be less than
E 1E2 , and the necessary condition for no interference can be
expressed in the following form,
< (4.18 )
The meshing diagram of a rack and pinion is shown in

Figure 4.8. The line containing the path of contact touches
the pinion base circle at E, and the end of the path of
contact is shown as Tr • As before, interference would take
place at the tooth fillets of the pinion if the contact point
were to move down the tooth profile as far as the base circle,
so point Tr must lie above point E. The length TrP must
therefore be less than EP, and we obtain the following
condition for no interference,
~ < (4.19 )
sin t/J
Pitch line
Line of action
Path followed by the tips , I

of the rack teeth ----+j
Figure 4.8. Meshing diagram of a rack and pinion.
where apr is the rack addendum, measured from its pitch line.
If the condition given by Equation (4.18) in the case of
a gear pair, or by Equation (4.19) in the case of a rack and
pinion, is not satisfied, then interference will take place.
However, even when these conditions are satisfied, they are
not always sufficient to prevent interference. We stated
earlier that the tooth fillet of a gear extends to point Af ,
which generally lies a certain distance outside the base
circle. We must now ensure that the top of the fillet, between
the base circle and the fillet circle, does not come into
contact with the teeth of the meshing gear. We therefore
calculate the minimum radius at which contact takes place,
and compare thi s wi th the radius of the fillet ci rcle.
Limi t Ci rcle
In Figure 4.7, the lower end of the path of contact is

point T2 , and the radius C1T2 is therefore the minimum radius
in gear 1 where contact occurs. The circle in gear 1 which
passes through T2 is called the limit circle or the contact
circle of gear 1, and its radius is labelled RL1 • The length
Conditions For No Interference 95
E,T 2 in Figure 4.7 is expressed as the difference between E,E 2

and T2E2 , and we then use triangle C,E,T 2 to derive an
expression for the radius RL "
(4.20)
In the case of the rack and pinion, the limit circle of

the pinion is the circle passing through point Tr , the lower
end of the path of contact. The radius RL of this circle can
be read immediately from Figure 4.8,
2 ~2 (4.21)
Rb + [R b tan 41 - sin 41]
Second Condi tion For No Interference
Since the lowest contact point on a gear tooth is at the

limit circle, and contact below the fillet circle must be
prevented, it is clear that any gear pair must be designed so
that the fillet circle of each gear is smaller than the
corresponding limit circle,
< (4.22)
In order to allow for small errors in the center

distance, it is advisable to design a gear pair so that the
fillet circle of each gear is smaller than the limit circle by
a definate margin. A suitable value for this margin is 0.025
modules, so the condition necessary to avoid interference can
be stated as follows,
(4.23)
We are not yet in a position to use this equation, since

we have not shown how the radius Rf of the fillet circle can
be calculated. This will be done in Chapter 5, and we will
give examples at the end of that chapter of the checks which
are made During the design of a gear pair, to ensure that
there will be no interference.
We have shown that two conditions must be satisfied, if
interference is to be avoided. For a gear pair, the conditions

are given by Equations (4.18 and 4.23), while for a rack and
pinion, they are given by Equations (4.19 and 4.23). These
conditions are sufficient to ensure that no interference will
take place at the top of the tooth fillet, close to point Af •
However, there is still the possibility of interference at a
point further down the fillet, midway between the fillet
circle and the root circle. In order to avoid this
possibility, a gear pair must be designed with adaquate
clearances at each root circle.
The clearance c 1 at the root circle of gear 1 was defined
in Equation (3.67) as the difference between the dedendum of
gear 1 and the addendum of gear 2,
(4.24)
By expressing a p2 and bP1 in terms of the radi i of the

corresponding tip circle, pitch circle and root circle, we
can show that the clearance at the root circle of gear 1 is
equal to the amount by which the tooth tips of gear 2 clear
Clearance c 1
Figure 4.9. Clearance at the root circle of gear 1.

Backlash 97
the root circle of gear 1, as shown in Figure 4.9.
C-Rroot1-RT2 (4.25)
We stated in Equation (3.70) that a value of 0.25 modules

is the recommended minimum for the clearance at each root
circle. One of the reasons for this recommendation is to help
avoid the possibility of interference. The designer of a gear
pair should therefore ensure that the clearances are
adaquate, as well as checking that the conditions for no
interference are satisfied. In practice, interference is more
likely to occur at the fillets of the pinion than at those of
the gear. For this reason, while the pinion must be checked
for both clearance and interference, the interference checks
are not usually necessary for the gear, provided there is
enough clearance at its root circle.
Interference Points
It was thought at one time that the condition given in

Equation (4.18) would be sufficient to prevent interference
in a gear pair. In other words, it was believed that there
would be no interference, provided the ends of the path of
contact both lay between El and E2 • For this reason, El and E2
were called the interference points. The single condition is
not sufficient, because it is quite possible for T2 to lie
above E l ' while at the same time the 1 imi t circle of gear 1 is
smaller than the fillet circle. However, although it is now
recognized that both conditions are required, the points El
and E2 are still always referred to as the interference
points.
Backlash
In a gear-box, as in all engineering products, there are

inevi table di fferences between the dimensions used in the
design, and the actual dimensions of the finished product. In
particular, the tooth profiles of the gears will not conform
exactly to the theoretical involute shapes, and the center

distance will not be exactly the specified value. Moreover,
any change in the temperature will cause changes in the
dimensions of both the gear-box casing and of the gears. A
gear pair must therefore be designed in a manner that makes
allowance for thermal expansion, for center distance error,
and for cutting errors in the gear teeth. To prevent the teeth
of the two gears from jamming together, the tooth thickness of
each gear is chosen so that contact will occur on one face
only, leaving a small gap at the opposite face. This gap,
which can be seen in the gear pair shown in Figure 4.10, is
known as the backlash.
The size of the gap can be defined in a number of
different ways, particularly in the case of a helical gear
pair, and each method leads to a slightly different value for
the backlash. It is common practice to refer simply to the
backlash of a gear pair, without specifying which type of
backlash is meant. This practice is quite acceptable,
provided the word backlash is used in a general sense to refer
to the gap between the teeth of the two gears. However, when a
value is assigned to the backlash, it is preferable to specify
which type of backlash is intended. In this chapter, we will
describe the two methods commonly used to define the backlash
of a pair of spur gears, and we will show how these two types
of backlash are related.
Backlash
Figure 4.10. Backlash.

Backlash 99
Ci rcular Backlash
The circular backlash B of a gear pair is defined as the

difference between the space width of one gear and the tooth
thickness of the other, both measured at the pitch circles.
The tooth thickness and the space width of a gear at any
radius are together equal to the circular pitch at that
radius. Hence, if tP1 is the tooth thickness of gear 1 at its
pitch circle, the space width wp1 is given by the following
expression,
(4.26)
where Pp is the operating circular pitch of either gear. An

expression for Pp can be derived with the help of Equations
(3.12 and 3.40),
(4.27)
If the circular backlash of a gear pair is defined as the

difference between the space width of gear 1 and the tooth
thickness of gear 2, we use Equation (4.26) to express the
space width of gear 1, and we obtain the following expression
for the circular backlash,
B (4.28)
Since the final expression for B is symmetric in tP1 and t p2 '

it obviously makes no di fference whether we subtract the
tooth thickness of gear 2 from the space width of gear 1, or
the other way round.
Physical Interpretation of the Circular Backlash
The space width is a curvilinear length measured round

one pitch circle, and from it we subtract a tooth thickness
measured round the other pitch circle. It is therefore not
entirely clear whether the circular backlash, defined in this
manner, has any precise physical meaning. We will now discuss
that question.
When either gear of the pair is held fixed, the other can
be rocked to and fro through a small angle, due to the small
gap which exists between the teeth. If the angle (measured in
radians) through which the second gear can be turned is
multiplied by the radius of its pitch circle, we obtain the
length of the path moved by a point on the pitch circle,
during the rocking of the gear. We will now prove that the
length just described is equal to the circular backlash. For
this reason, the circular backlash is also known as the
backlash, measured at the pitch circle.
Before we discuss the general case of the backlash in a
gear pair, we consider first a rack and pinion, and we will
determine the tooth thickness of the rack, if its teeth are in
contact with both faces of the pinion teeth. This is the
situation known as close-mesh operation, when there is no
backlash. Figure 4.11 shows the pinion and rack, in positions
such that the contact point between one tooth of the pinion
and the rack lies exactly at the pi tch point. The same pinion
and rack are shown in Figure 4.12, and the pinion has been
rotated until the opposite profile of the same tooth passes
through the pitch point. Since both faces of the pinion tooth
are in contact with the rack, the pitch point again coincides
wi th a contact point.
The rotation ~p between the two positions of the pinion
Figure 4.11. Rack and pinion, in close-mesh operation.

Backlash 101
Figure 4.12. Displaced positions of the rack and pinion.
can be expressed in terms of its tooth thickness at the pitch

circle,
A{1 (4.29)
and the displacement AU r of the rack is equal to its space

width wpr ' measured at the pitch line,
(4.30)
The rack displacement and the pinion rotation are related by

Equation (3.24),
(4.31)
By combining Equations (4.29 - 4.31), we prove that the space

width of the rack is equal to the tooth thickness of the
pinion,
(4.32)
We now return to the discussion of the physical

interpretation of the circular backlash. A gear pair is shown
in Figure 4.13, with two imaginary racks drawn between the
teeth, and the tooth thicknesses of the imaginary racks are
chosen so that each imaginary rack is in close mesh with one
Imaginary rack 1
Figure 4.13. Gear pair with two imaginary racks.
of the gears. Figure 4.14 shows the section through the

imaginary racks corresponding to the pitch plane. A typical
pair of teeth are in contact along line ArA~, and the gaps
between the teeth are represented by the narrow un shaded
bands.
We showed in Equation (4.32) that, when a rack is in
close mesh with a gear, the space width of the rack is equal
to the tooth thickness of the gear. For the imaginary racks in
Figures 4.13 and 4.14, the positions of the teeth and the gaps
are reversed from those of a real rack, so the tooth thickness
of each imaginary rack is equal to that of the corresponding
gear. In addition, as we proved in Equation (3.13), the pitch
of each imaginary rack is equal to Pp' the circular pitch of
either gear. These values for the pitch and tooth thicknesses
of the imaginary racks are shown in Figure 4.14, and it is
immediately clear that if ei ther rack is held fixed, the other
Backlash 103
maginary rack 2
Imaginary rack 1
P P'
Figure 4.14. Section through the imaginary racks.
can make a displacement ~ur given by the following

expression,
(4.33)
A comparison of Equations (4.33 and 4.28) shows that the

circular backlash is equal to the displacement of the movable
imaginary rack,
B (4.34)
We use Equation (3.24) to relate the displacement of the

imaginary rack to the angle ~p through which the movable gear
can be rocked,
(4.35)
and Equations (4.34 and 4.35) can be combined to give the

following &esult,
B (4.36)
This equation proves the statement made earlier, that

the circular backlash can be interpreted as the length of the
maximum arc through which a point on the pitch circle of one
gear can move, when the other gear is held fixed.
Backlash Along the Common Normal
The second manner in which the backlash is commonly

defined is the backlash along the common normal. When we first
introduced the topic of backlash, we pointed out that the
tooth thicknesses of a gear pair are chosen so that, for each
tooth in the meshing zone, there is contact on one face only,
leaving a small gap at the opposite face. The backlash B'
along the common normal is defined as the shortest distance
across this gap.
A gear pair is shown in Figure 4.15, and the contact
point lies as usual on line E 1E2 , which is one of the common
tangents to the base circles. The diagram also shows EiEi,the
other interior common tangent to the base circles, and this
line cuts the profiles of two adjacent teeth at Ai and Ai.
Since these profiles are both involutes, line A;E; is normal
to the tooth profile of gear 1, and AiEi is normal to the
tooth profile of gear 2. Hence, line EiEi is normal to both
Figure 4.15. Backlash along the common normal.

Backlash 105
profiles, and the length A;Ai is equal to the backlash B'.

When a gear rotates through an angle ~p, the distance ~s
moved by its tooth profile along the common tangent to the
base circles is given by Equation (3.60),
~s (4.37)
If ~p is chosen equal to the angle through which one gear can

be rocked while the other is held fixed, the corresponding
length ~s is then equal to the backlash along the common
normal. Hence, the backlash is given by the expression for ~s
in Equation (4.37),
B' (4.38)
When we combine Equations (4.36 and 4.38), we can

express the backlash along the common normal in terms of the
circular backlash,
B' (4.39)
The base circle and the pitch circle radii are related by
Equation (3.42),
where ~ is the operating pressure angle of the gear pair,

given by Equation (3.44). Hence, the relation between the two
types of backlash can be expressed as follows,
B' B cos ~ (4.40)
Typical Design Backlash Values
The relation between the tooth thicknesses of a gear

pair and the circular backlash was given by Equation (4.28).
The designer specifies the tooth thicknesses so that they are
consistent with the backlash value required, which we will
call the design backlash. This value determines the nominal
size of the gap at the non-driving face of the contact teeth.

The actual size of this gap will differ from the nominal size,
due to tolerances in the center distance and tooth thickness
values, and to other errors in the tooth profiles. The design
backlash must always be large enough to prevent contact
occuring at the non-driving faces of the contact teeth.
The center distance tolerance for a gear pair is
generally approximately proportional to the center distance,
so the design backlash should depend in a linear manner on the
center distance. The tooth thickness tolerance and the
magnitude of allowable errors in the tooth profiles generally
increase with the tooth size, but not exactly in a linear
manner. Hence, if the design backlash is expressed as a power
series in the module, the first term will be linear. When
these considerations are taken into account, we obtain a
function for the design backlash of the following form,
B (4.41)
The values of the constants k1' k2' k3 and k depend on

the values used for the tolerances, and these in turn depend
on the quality of the gears, and the application for which
they are intended. The following equations give sui table
values for the design backlash of commercial quality gear
pairs used in power gearing,
B [0.0677m - 0.0137m4 / 3 + 0.0004C] mm (4.42)
B [0.0677m - 0.0403m 4 / 3 + 0.0004C] inches (4.43)
In the first of these equations, the module and the center

distance must be expressed in mms, while in the second
equation they must be in inches. The constants have been
chosen so that the values of B given by the equations agree
well with typical recommended values. For control gearing,
the design backlash values would be considerably reduced.
Moreover, if it is possible to adjust the center distance
after the gear pa i r has been assembled, there is no longer any
need to allow for errors in the center distance, apart from
changes caused by thermal expansion, and smaller backlash
Backlash 107
-Dial gauge
Base CirCle~
Figure 4.16. Measuring the backlash.
values can be used. For additional information, the reader is

referred to design references, such as the Gear Handbook [2].
The specification of a pair of spur gears generally
includes maximum and minimum values for the circular
backlash. When the gear pair is checked to see whether the
actual backlash falls within the specified range, the
simplest procedure is to measure the backlash B' along the
common normal, and then to calculate the circular backlash,
using the relation given by Equation (4.40). The backlash B'
can be measured directly with a feeler-gauge, or by means of a
dial gauge, as shown in Figure 4.16. The gauge is positioned
so that its moveable arm lies along a base circle tangent of
one of the gears. If this gear is rocked while the other gear
is held fixed, the displacement measured by the dial gauge is
then equal to the backlash along the common normal.
Numerical Examples
Example 4.1
A gear pair has a module of 8 mm, a pressure angle
of 20°, and a center distance of 453 mm. The tooth numbers are
16 and 95, the tooth thicknesses 14.90 mm and 16.76 mm, and
the diameters of the tip circles are 150.4 mm and 787.6 mm.
Calculate the contact ratio, the circular backlash, and the
radii of the two limit circles.
m=8, </Is=20°, C=453, N 1=16, N 2 =95

t s1 =14.90, t s2 =16.76, RT1 =75.2, RT2 =393.8
RS 1 = 64.000 mm
Rs2 = 380.000
Rb 1 = 60.140
Rb2 = 357.083
</I = 22.924° (3.44)
Ps = 25.133 (2.31)
Pb = 23. 6 1 7 mm (2.24)
mc = 1.471 (4.9)
Pp = 25.642 (4.27)
</I p = 22.924° (3.49)
RPl = 65.297 (3.40)
RP2 = 387.703 (3.41)
tpl = 14.170 (2.36)
tP2 = 10.969 (2.36)
B 0.503mm (4.28)
RL 1 = 61.034 (4.20)
RL2 = 380.458 mm
Example 4.2
A pinion, with D.P. 2 and pressure angle 25°, has 24
teeth and a tip circle diameter of 13.2 inches. A rack, with
the same D.P. and pressure angle, is mounted so that the line
through the tips of its teeth lies a distance 5.6 inches from
the pinion center. Calculate the contact ratio.
Examples 109
m = 0.5000 inches
Rs 6.0000
Rb = 5.4378
t/> = 25° (3.10)
apr = 6.0 - 5.6 = 0.4
Pb = 1.4236 inches
me = 1.511 (4.13 )
Example 4.3
Use Equation (4.43) to choose a suitable design backlash
for a gear pair with D.P. 3 and a center distance of 32.0
inches.
m = 0.3333 inches
B = 0.026 inches (4.43)
Example 4.4
Find the maximum sliding velocity, for the gear pair
specified in Example 4.1, when the pinion is turning at
800 rpm.
W1 = 800(~~) = 83.776 radians/sec
W2 =- 14.110 radians/sec ( 1 .4)
ST 1 = 19 • 7 12 mm (4.6)
A A
At T 1 , v Lv 2 = 1930nTr mm/sec (3.63)
ST2 =- 15.029 mm (4.7)
A A
v Lv 2 = - 1471 n Tr mm/sec (3.63)
Maximum sliding veloci ty = 1.930 m/sec

Chapter 5
Gear Cutting I, Spur Gears
Form Cutting
The simplest method by which a gear can be cut is to use

a tool shaped exactly like the tooth space of the gear. This
method of cutting gears is known as form cutting. In practice,
the cutting tool is generally a milling cutter, such as the
one shown in Figure 5.1. The gear blank is held stationary
while the cutter is fed slowly in the direction of the gear
axis, until one tooth space is cut. Then the gear blank is
indexed through exactly one angular pitch, and a second tooth
space is cut. The process is repeated for each tooth space,
until the entire gear is completed.
Gears can be cut by this method, using special milling
machines with automatic indexing mechanisms. These machines
are designed for cutting gears, and are called gear-cutting
machines. However, the main advantage of form cutting is that
it can also be carried out on an ordinary milling machine, so
the method can be used in small machine shops where there are
no special-purpose machines for cutting gears. A second
advantage is that the milling cutters are generally cheaper
than the tools used to cut gears by other methods. There are,
though, a number of disadvantages to form cutting, which we
will now discuss.
The shape of the tooth space in a gear depends on the
tooth size, the pressure angle, the number of teeth in the
gear, and the tooth thickness. In theory, therefore, a
different cutter would be necessary for every combination of
values of the module m, the pressure angle ~s' the number of
teeth N, and the tooth thickness ts. There is no problem when
a large number of identical gears are required, because it is
Form Cutting 111
Figure 5.1. A milling cutter.
then economic to order a particular cutter for the job.

However, a difficulty arises when a range of different gears
are to be cut, using cutters that are already in stock. In
order to keep the minimum number of cutters within practical
limits, it is usually assumed that the cutters will only be
used to cut gears which will operate at the standard center
distance, and the cutters are designed so that the tooth
thickness of each gear is equal to one half of the circular
pitch Ps' with a small reduction to allow for backlash. In
addition, since the tooth space of a gear with N1 teeth is
similar in shape to that of a gear with N2 teeth, provided the
values of N1 and N1 are sufficiently close, it is customary
for each cutter to be used for a specified range of N values.
A set of eight cutters is generally regarded as adaquate for
each combination of m and IPs.
The disadvantages of form cutting are obvious from the
foregoing discussion. Since the cutter shape is only correct
for one particular value of N, there are unavoidable errors in
the gear tooth profile whenever the same cutter is used to cut
a gear with any other value of N. Secondly, the accuracy of
the gear depends on the accuracy of the indexing mechanism.
And thirdly, the tooth thickness of a gear cut by a particular
cutter cannot be changed. We will show later in this chapter
that, for other gear cutting methods, the same tool can be
used to cut gears with different tooth thicknesses. This
property is particularly important, because the tooth
112 Gear Cutting I, Spur Gears
thicknesses required in a gear pair depend on the intended

center distance C. For all these reasons, form cutting is not
nearly as widely used for commercial gear production as the
other methods described in this chapter.
Generating Cutting
Most modern gears are cut by a process known as

generating cutting. When a gear is generated, the cutter has
the shape of another gear, and during the cutting process the
cutter and the gear blank are each rotated, at the same
angular velocities as if they were a meshing gear pair. The
two most common methods by which gears are generated are
shaping and hobbing. In this chapter we will describe each of
these methods, and we will discuss the advantages that gear
generating possesses over other methods of cutting gears.
Shaping with a Pinion Cutter
Figure 5.2 shows a pair of gears, in which the left-hand

gear is made of a softer material than the other, and has
Figure 5.2. Gear blank and pinion cutter.

teeth around only part of its circumference. If the two gears

were forced to rotate in opposite directions at constant
angular velocities, the material of the left-hand gear would
be plastically distorted, and the remaining teeth would be
formed. These teeth would be exactly the shape to mesh
correctly with the teeth of the right-hand gear, so if the
right-hand gear had involute teeth, the teeth formed on the
left-hand gear would also have involute profiles.
It is possible to roll gears in the manner just
described, but it is more common to cut them. We now regard
Figure 5.2 as showing a gear blank on the left, and a cutter
on the right. The cutter is shaped exactly like a pinion, and
is therefore called a pinion cutter. As before, the gear blank
and the cutter are driven with constant angular velocities,
as if they were a meshing gear pair. In addition, the cutter
Figure 5.3. positions of cutter, relative to gear blank.

must have some other motion to provide the cutting action, and
it is therefore given a reciprocating motion in the direction
of its axis. This method of cutting gears is known as shaping,
in common with other cutting processes in which the cutting
tool has a reciprocating motion.
Figure 5.3 shows the positions of the cutter, relative
to the gear blank, as it makes a number of cutting strokes.
The shape of the gear tooth, after the cutting has been
completed, is the same as the envelope of the cutter
positions. It can be seen that this shape is not exactly an
involute, but consists of a series of arcs, whose sizes depend
on the number of strokes that occur during the cutting of each
tooth.
The amount of material that can be removed with each
cutting stroke is of course limited, and it is therefore
impossible to cut the first tooth of the gear blank
immediately to its full depth. Before the cutting process
begins, the cutter and the gear blank are given the correct
angular velocities, and the reciprocating motion of the
cutter is started. The cutter is then fed radially to.wards the
gear blank, so that each tooth space of the gear blank is cut
in turn to an increasing depth, until eventually the correct
depth is reached. At this point the radial feed of the cutter
is discontinued, and the cutting process continues while the
gear blank makes one more complete revolution. In some cases a
single cut is sufficient, while in others, it may be necessary
to carry out one or more roughing cuts before the finishing
cut, or else to finish the tooth surfaces by some other
method.
A typical pinion cutter is shown in Figure 5.4, and the
quantities used in its specification will be identified by
the subscript c. If the number of teeth is Nc ' the radius of
the standard pitch circle is given in terms of the module m by
Equation (2.30),
( 5. 1 )
The tooth thickness at the standard pitch circle is shown

as t sc ' and the addendum measured from the standard pitch
circle is shown as a sc '
( ••\
J Front
clearance
angle
Standard pitch circle
Figure 5.4. A pinion cutter.
We now discuss how the shaper must be set up, if it is to

cut a gear with Ng teeth, module m, pressure angle ~s' tooth
thickness t sg ' and tip circle diameter DTg • The subscript g
stands for the word "gear", and is included in order to
distinguish quantities on the gear blank from those on the
cutter. For the gear, the radius Rsg of the standard pitch
circle, on which the pressure angle ~s and the tooth thickness
tsg are defined, is given as usual by Equation (2.30),
(5.2)
The gear blank and the cutter are shown in Figure 5.5,
and all calculations can be carried out exactly as if they
were two gears meshed together. A number of symbols were
defined in Chapter 3, relating to the operation of two gears
in mesh. These included the center distance C, the pressure
angle ~, and the operating circular pitch Pp of each gear.
When we consider the situation of a gear blank and a pinion
cutter, the corresponding quantities will be identified by
c/>C Cutting pressure angle
-Pinion cutter
J--+---->.....Cutting pitch
circles
CC
Cutting center distance
Figure 5.5. Meshing diagram of a gear and pinion cutter.
the superscript c, which represents the word "cutting".

Hence, the quantities corresponding to C, ~ and Pp during the
cutting process are called the cutting center distance, the
cutting pressure angle, and the cutting circular pitch, and
they will be represented by the symbols CC , ~c and P~.
The tip circle diameter of the finished gear has nothing
to do wi th the tooth cutting process, but is simply determined
by the diameter of the gear blank. Hence, the blank must be
cut with a diameter of DTg , before the shaping begins. Next,
in order to obtain the correct module and pressure angle on
the gear, a cutter is used wi th the same values of m and ~s as
those required for the gear. We will prove in the next section
of this chapter that the module and pressure angle of the gear
are always equal to those of the cutter.
The number of teeth Ng which are cut in the gear blank
depends on the angular velocity ratio of the gear blank and
the cutter. During the cutting process, the gear blank and the
cutter must be rotated so that their angular velocities Wg and
Wc satisfy Equation (1.4),
- Nc wc (5.3)
We define the gear ratio mg as the number of teeth required on

the gear blank, divided by the number of teeth on the cutter,
(5.4)
The shaper must then be set up so that the angular velocities

of the gear blank and the cutter are related as follows,
(5.5)
The required ratio is generally achieved by means of a

gear train connecting the work table and the cutter, with a
number of change gears in the gear train. However, in some of
the most recent shapers, the work table and the cutter are
each driven by stepping motors, and the angular velocities
are controlled electrically. In ei ther case, the machine must
be set so that Equation (5.5) is satisfied exactly, or else
the teeth will be cut incorrectly. It is therefore preferable
to specify the value of mg as a ratio of two integers, as in
Equation (5.4), rather than in decimal form.
The remaining quantity for which the shaper must be
adjusted is the tooth thickness tsg required in the gear. We
showed in Chapter 3 that the center distance C of an involute
gear pair can be altered, and the gears will continue to
rotate with a constant angular velocity ratio. The
corresponding conclusion, when we are considering a gear
blank and a cutter, is that provided the constant angular
velocity ratio is maintained, we can alter the cutting center
distance CC , and the cutter will continue to cut teeth in the
gear blank, with the correct involute profiles. However, the
tooth thickness of the gear is of course reduced, if the
cutter is fed more deeply into the gear blank. We can
therefore cut gears with any specified tooth thickness t sg '
simply by feeding the cutter radially into the blank, until
the correct tooth thickness is obtained.
Although the procedure just outlined is quite feasible,
it involves stopping the machine from time to time, in order
to measure the tooth thickness of the gear. Such stoppages
increase the total time required to cut the gear, and

necessitate continued attendance by a machine operator. If
the machine is to operate automatically, it is essential to
know in advance the cutting center distance at which the
specified tooth thickness will be reached. We now describe
how the tooth thickness tsg of the gear can be calculated,
when the shaper is operated with a particular center
distance Cc, and we will use this result to determine the
necessary value of CC, if the tooth thickness cut in the gear
is to be equal to the value specified.
The standard pitch circle radii of the gear and the
cutter were given by Equations (5.2 and 5.1), and we use
Equation (2.20) to obtain the corresponding base circle
radii,
(5. 6)
(5. 7)
The meshing diagram of the gear blank and the cutter was shown
in Figure 5.5. Since the diagram relates to the situation when
the gear is being cut, the pitch circles are known as the
cutting pitch circles. Their radii are given by Equations
( 3 • 40 and 3.41) ,
N CC
RC
pg
9
(Ng+N c ) (5.8)
Nc CC
RC
pc (Ng+N c )
(5.9)
The angle ,C between the line of action and the common tangent
to the cutting pitch circles is the cutting pressure angle,
and its value is given by Equation (3.44),
(5.10)
We know from Equation (3.49) that the operating pressure

angles 'p of two meshing gears are equal to each other, and
are also equal to the pressure angle, of the gear pair. When
we consider the case of a gear blank and a pinion cutter,
their operating pressure angles are defined as the profile
angles at the cutting pitch circles, and they are known as the
cutting pressure angles of the gear blank and the cutter.
Since they are equal to each other, they are both represented
by the same symbol ~~, and their value is equal to that of the
cutting pressure angle ~c,
~c (S.l1)
Because both faces of the cutter teeth are

simultaneously cutt ing material f rom the gear blank, the
cutting process can be thought of as equivalent to the meshing
of a gear pair with no backlash. In Equation (4.28) we gave an
expression for the backlash of an ordinary gear pair, in terms
of the circular pitch and the tooth thicknesses at the pitch
circles,
If we set the backlash equal to zero, corresponding to the

situation when we consider a gear blank and a cutter, this
equation can be used to give the tooth thickness of the gear
at its cutting pitch circle,
pc _ t (S.12)
P pc
where p~ is the circular pitch of both the gear and the cutter
at their cutting pitch circles, and is given by
Equation (4.27),
(S.13)
Equation (S.12) can be interpreted as stating that the

tooth thickness of the gear is equal to the space width of the
cutter, both measured at the cutting pitch circles. In most
cases, however, we are interested in the value of the tooth
thickness at the standard pitch circle, rather than at the
cutting pitch circle. For both the gear and the cutter, the
tooth tliicknesses at the cutting pitch circle and at the
standard pitch circle are related by Equation (3.17),
t
R [~+ (5.14 )
pg Rsg
t
R [~+ (5.15)
pc RSC
We now define the standard cutting center distance C~ as the

sum of the standard pitch circle radii of the gear and the
cutter,
(5.16 )
The expressions for tpg and tpc are substituted into

Equation (5.12). We then multiply by the ratio (C~/cc), and
solve the resulting equation to find the gear tooth
thickness t sg '
(5.17)
In this expression, ps is the circular pitch of either the

gear or the cutter at their standard pitch circles, and is
equal to 7rm, as we showed in Equation (2.31).
Equation (5.17) gives the tooth thickness that will be
cut, when the shaper is set with a center distance Cc • The
result seems to be odd, because the quantity CC does not
appear in the equation, so it might look as if the tooth
thickness t does not depend on the cutting center
c sg
distance C. However, the independence is only apparent,
because the value of the cutting pressure angle ~c of the gear
c p
blank and the cutter does depend on C , as we can see from
Equations (5.10 and 5.11).
In order to determine the value of CC necessary to obtain
a specified tooth thickness t sg ' we rearrange the equation in
the following manner,
1
inv ~s - 2Cc(PS - tsg - t sc ) (5.18 )
s
The right-hand side of this equation contains only quantities
whose values are known, so we can use the equation to find the
value of the involute function (inv ~~). We calculate the
corresponding angle ~~ by means of Equations (2.16 and 2.17),
and the required cutting center distance CC is then found
from Equations (5.11 and 5.10),
tP c (5.19)
P
Rbg+R bc
(5.20)
cos tP c
Later in this book, when we calculate the tooth fillet

shape of the gear, it will be necessary to know the relation
between the angular positions of the gear blank and the
cutter. The corresponding relation for a pair of meshing
gears was given by Equation (3.56),
In the case of a gear blank and a pinion cutter, the sum of the
tooth thicknesses is equal to the circular pitch p~ at the
cutting pitch circles, as we showed in Equation (5.12), so the
relation can be written as follows,
We multiply this equation by the ratio (C~/cc), in order to

obtain the relation in a more convenient form,
R
sg /3 g + R
sc /3 c + 1P
2 s o (5.21)
Module and Pressure Angle of the Gear
When a pinion cutter is specified as having a module m

and a pressure angle tP s ' we know that its circular pitch Ps at
the standard pitch circle is equal to ~m, and its profile
angle on this circle is equal to tP s • It is generally taken for
granted that any gear cut by the pinion cutter will have the
same module, or in other words the same circular pitch Ps' and
the same pressure angle tP s •
In the theory of meshing described in Chapter 3, we
proved that the operating circular pitches Pp and the
operating pressure angles tPp of two meshing gears are equal.
It is therefore clear, when we consider a gear blank and a
pinion cutter, that their circular pitches and pressure

angles are equal at the cutting pitch circles. However, since
the cutting pitch circles do not generally coincide with the
standard pitch circles, it is still necessary to prove that
the circular pitches and the pressure angles are also equal at
the standard pitch circles.
The pi~ion cutter is conjugate to the basic rack, so its
circular pitch Ps and its pressure angle ~s are equal to the
corresponding quantities Pr and ~r on the basic rack. We
proved in Chapter 3 that the minimum condition for correct
meshing between a pair of spur gears is that their base
pi tches should be equal. The equivalent result, in the case of
a gear blank and a pinion cutter, is that the base pitch of
the gear will always be equal to that of the pinion cutter. It
then follows that the base pitches of the gear and the basic
rack are equal, so that the gear is capable of meshing
correctly with the basic rack. Its standard pitch circle is,
by definition, the pitch circle when it is meshed with the
basic rack, and its circular pitch and pressure angle on this
circle are therefore equal to Pr and ~r. Hence, they are also
equal to Ps and ~s' the corresponding quantities on the pinion
cutter.
Advantages of Generating Cutting
We are now in a position to discuss some of the

advantages of generating cutting. We have shown that only a
single cutter is required, for any specified combination of
module m and pressure angle ~s' and that this cutter can be
used to cut gears wi th any number of teeth, and wi th any tooth
thickness within certain limits. The practical range of tooth
thickness values will be discussed in the next chapter. These
advantages can be summarized by the statement that
non-standard gears can be cut by standard cutters.
If the pinion cutter shown in Figure 5.4 is compared with
an ordinary pinion, it can be seen that they differ in certain
respects. The cutter has teeth of greater depth than those of
an average gear, because it must be able to cut the teeth of a
gear blank to their full depth, while at the same time
maintaining some clearance at its own root circle. A second

difference is that the teeth of the pinion cutter are not
exactly parallel to the cutter axis, like those of a gear, but
instead they are relieved, as shown in Figure 5.4, in order to
provide clearance behind the cutting edges. Due to this
relief, the shape of the cutter teeth will change slightly
after each sharpening. Another of the advantages of involute
gears, and of the generating method of cutting, is that the
correct tooth profiles can still be cut in the gear blank, in
spite of these changes in the cutter tooth shape. The cutter
teeth are designed so that the shape projected through the
cutting edges onto a plane perpendicular to the cutter axis is
always an involute to the same base circle. Hence, the teeth
on the gear blank will always be cut with the same base pitch.
However, after each sharpening of the cutter, the tooth
thickness tsc will be slightly reduced. It should therefore
be measured each time, so that the correct value can be used
in Equation (5.18), when the cutting center distance is
calculated.
Shaping wi th a Rack Cutter
The principle underlying the use of the pinion cutter,

and indeed all methods of generating cutting, is that we use
one gear to cut another. The same principle is valid, of
course, when the cutter has the shape of a rack. A cutter of
this type is called a rack cutter, and it has some advantages
and some disadvantages, compared with the pinion cutter.
Figure 5.6 shows a partly finished gear blank, being cut
by a rack cutter. During the cutting process the gear blank is
rotated, and the cutter is moved in the direction of its
reference line, exactly as if the two were meshed together. In
addition, the cutter is given a reciprocating motion parallel
to the gear axis, which provides the cutting action. We showed
in Chapter 3 that a pinion can mesh correctly with any rack
whose base pitch is equal to that of the gear. Hence, in
theory the cutter could be designed with any values of pitch
and pressure angle, provided its base pitch is equal to the
required base pitch of the gear being cut. In practice,
Figure 5.6. Gear blank and rack cutter.
though, the cutter normally has exactly the same shape as the
basic rack, and in describing the operation of the rack
cutter, we will assume that this is the case. The pitch and
the pressure angle of the cutter are then represented by the
symbols Pr and ~r' which are also used for the basic rack. In
order to cut a particular gear, we use a rack cutter in which
the values of Pr and ~r are equal to of Ps and ~s' the circular
pi tch and the pressure angle requi red in the gear.
The number of teeth cut in the gear blank depends on the
angular velocity Wg of the gear blank, and the velocity vr of
the rack cutter in the direction of its reference line. The
relation between Wg and vr is achieved in the shaper by means
of change gears or stepping motors, and in order to choose the
correct settings, we must determine the required relation, so
that the shaper will cut a gear with Ng teeth. The gear blank
and the cutter are each driven, as if they were a pinion and
rack in mesh, so Wg and vr must satisfy Equation (1.8),
vr ~
(5.22)
Pr 211'
The pitch Pr of the rack cutter is equal to 1I'm, like that of

the basic rack, and the relation we require between Wg and vr
can therefore be expressed in the following form,
(5.23)
This equation, like the corresponding equation for a pinion

cutter, must be satisfied exactly.
As usual, the tooth thickness of the gear depends on the
depth to which the cutter is fed into the blank. Since the
cutter has the same shape as the basic rack, the cutting pitch
circle of the gear coincides with its standard pitch circle,
and its radius is given by Equation (2.30),
(5.24)
The meshing diagram of the gear blank and the rack cutter is
shown in Figure 5.7. The cutting pressure angle ~c is always
equal to the cutter pressure angle ~r' and does not depend on
the position of the cutter, as it does in the case of a pinion
cutter. The cutting pitch line in the rack cutter is tangent
to the cutting pitch circle of the gear, and the tooth
thickness of the gear is equal to the space width of the
Rack cutter
Gear blank
Cutting pitch circle

and
standard pitch circle
Cutting pitch line---+I Cutter reference line
Figure 5.7. Meshing diagram of a gear and rack cutter.

cutter, measured on the cutting pitch line,
(5.25)
where tpr is the tooth thickness of the rack cutter at its

cutting pitch line.
The standard cutting position is defined as the position
of the rack cutter when its reference line lies a distance Rsg
from the center of the gear blank, so that the cutter
reference line coincides with the cutting pitch line. We now
determine the tooth thickness cut in the gear, if the cutter
is offset a distance e from this standard position. In other
words, the cutter is fed into the gear blank until its
reference line lies a distance (RSg+e) from the center of the
gear blank. The offset e is the distance between the reference
line of the cutter and the cutting pitch line, and it is
positive when the pitch line lies between the gear center and
the cutter reference line. The rack cutter is shown in
Figure 5.8, with the cutting pitch line and the reference line
marked on the diagram. The reference line is the line at which
the tooth thickness is equal to the space width, so that each
Cutting pitch line i+--+--Cutter reference line
Figure 5.8. Cutter tooth thickness

at the cutting pitch line.
is equal to 1rm/2. The tooth thickness tpr at the cutting pitch

line can be read from the diagram,
~1rm - 2e tan I/J r (5.26)
To obtain the tooth thickness of the gear, we substitute this

expression into Equation (5.25), and replace the cutter
pressure angle I/J r by the gear pressure angle I/J s • The gear
tooth thickness tsg is then given by the following
expression,
(5.27)
As we pointed out during the discussion on the use of the

pinion cutter, it is sometimes necessary to know the relation
between the positions of a gear blank and the cutter. We now
derive the corresponding relation for the case of a gear cut
by a rack cutter.
For a pinion meshed wi th a rack, the relation between the
angular position fi of the pinion and the position u r of the
rack was given by Equation (3.25),
When we consider a gear blank and a rack cutter, there is no

backlash, so the sum of the tooth thicknesses is equal to the
rack pitch. In addition, since the rack cutter has the same
shape as the basic rack, the radius of the cutting pitch
circle is equal to that of the standard pitch circle, and the
rack pitch Pr is equal to the gear circular pitch ps. The
relation then takes the following form,
o (5.28)
Rack cutters have the advantage that, because their

teeth are straight-sided, they can be made and measured with
great accuracy. The teeth are relieved, like those of a pinion
cutter, to provide clearance behind the cutting edges. When
the teeth are sharpened, their shape remains unchanged, but
the position of the reference line will be slightly altered.
There is, unfortunately, one serious disadvantage

possessed by rack cutters. To cut a gear in one continuous
motion, the rack cutter would require at least as many teeth
as the gear being cut. This is not practical when the gear has
a large number of teeth, since a cutter of the size required
would be too heavy to perform the reciprocating motion, and
most rack cutters are therefore made with only a small number
of teeth. In order that the total number of teeth can be cut
in the gear, the cutting process is stopped each time the gear
has turned through one or two angular pitches, and the cutter
is moved back the same number of pitches. This procedure
naturally adds to the time required to cut the gear, and also
contributes to errors in the shape of the gear.
Bobbing
It is impossible to give a complete explanation of the

hobbing process, except in the context of cutting helical
gears. The description given in this chapter is therefore
very brief, and many statements are made without proof. A full
description, containing all the necessary proofs, will be
given in Chapter 16.
A typical hob is shown in Figure 5.9. It has basically
the same shape as a screw, with one or more threads, and each
thread is cut by a number of gashes, either at right angles to
the thread, or parallel with the hob axis, so that cutting
Lead angle
Figure 5.9. A hob.

Hobbing 129
Gear axis
Hob axis
Swivel ~Gear blank

angle a
angle ASh
rWork table
Figure 5.10. Gear blank and hob.
faces are formed. Figure 5.10 shows the positions of a hob and
a gear blank during the cutting process. The cutting action of
the hob is very similar to that of a rack cutter. The gear
blank and the hob are each rotated about their axes, the gear
blank slowly and the hob more quickly. Since the hob has the
shape of a screw, its threads appear to move in the direction
of its axis, so that they simulate the movement of a rack
cutter. In addition, since the hob is rotating, the cutting
faces move continuously in the tangential direction, and this
movement provides the cutting action. The hobbing process
therefore has two advantages over that of a rack cutter. The
motions of the cutting faces are continuous in both the axial
and the tangent ial di rect ions, so there is no need to move the
hob back after one or two teeth are cut, as we must in the case
of a rack cutter, and the cutting action is obtained without
any reciprocating motion of the hob.
In order to cut each tooth across the entire face-width
of the gear, the hob is fed slowly in the direction parallel
to the gear axis. Each cutting face of the hob simulates a
tooth of the rack cutter, and in order that the cutting faces
should meet the gear blank at the same angle as a rack cutter,
the hob is tipped over by a small angle, as shown in

Figure 5.10. This angle is known as the swivel angle. On the
hob, the angle between the thread tangent and a line
perpendicular to the hob axis is called the lead angle ~sh'
and its value is part of the specification of the hob. When a
hobbing machine is set up to cut a spur gear, the swivel angle
is adjusted, so that it is equal to the lead angle of the hob.
The threads on a hob are equivalent to the teeth in a
helical gear. The number of threads is also called the number
of starts, because the number can be determined most easily by
looking at the end face of the hob, and seeing how many
threads start there. Before the hobbing machine is set up, we
must calculate the angular velocity ratio required, if a hob
with Nh threads is to cut a spur gear with Ng teeth.
At any particular instant, a thread on the hob will be
making a cut on one tooth of the gear blank. After the hob has
turned through exactly one angular pitch, the former position
of the thread will now be occupied by the adjacent thread. The
second thread will be making an identical cut on the next
tooth of the gear blank, so that the angle through which the
gear blank has turned is equal to the angle between adjacent
teeth on the gear. If the gear is to have Ng teeth, this angle
must be equal to (2W/N g ). The hobbing machine must therefore
be set so that, in the time the hob rotates an angle (2w/N h ),
the gear blank is turned an angle (2w/N g ). Hence, if the gear
ratio mg is defined as the number of teeth required in the
gear, divided by the number of threads in the hob,
(5.29)
then the angular velocity ratio required in the hobbing

machine is equal to mg ,
(5.30)
This result is essentially the same as Equation (5.5),

which gave the angular velocity ratio when a pinion cutter is
used. The similarity is no coincidence, because in both cases
we are using one gear to cut another. In the derivation of
Equation (5.30), we discussed only the magnitudes of the
Hobbing 131
angular velocities, and the directions were not considered.

It is probably simplest to use physical considerations, to
determine the rotation directions of the hob and the gear
blank. A rotation of the hob in the direction shown in
Figure 5.10 would cause an apparent movement of the threads to
the right, so that to remain in mesh the gear blank must be
rotated in the direction shown.
For the purpose of calculating the shape of the teeth cut
in the gear blank, it is generally assumed that a hob can be
regarded in exactly the same manner as a rack cutter. This
assumption has a number of consequences, which will be stated
without proof in the next paragraph.
A section through the hob thread perpendicular to the
direction of the thread is called a normal section, and many
hobs are designed so that the threads are shaped in the normal
section exactly like the teeth of a rack cutter. In other
words, the thread profile in the normal section is
straight-sided, with a pressure angle equal to the basic rack
pressure angle ~r. If the gashes in the hob are cut
perpendicular to the di rect ion of the threads, then the
cutting faces are the same shape as the teeth of a rack
cutter. During the cutting process, the cutting pitch circle
in the gear blank coincides with its standard pitch circle,
exactly as if a rack cutter were used. The tooth thickness cut
in the gear blank depends both on the tooth thickness of the
hob, and on the depth to which the hob is fed into the gear
blank. I f the hob position is regarded as the standard
position when the tooth thickness cut in the gear is equal
to 'lfm/2, then an offset e of the hob from this standard
position will produce a tooth thickness in the gear given by
Equation (5.27),
1
"2'1fm + 2e tan ~s (5.31)
The assumption stated earlier, that a hob behaves in the

same manner as a rack cutter, is not completely accurate.
However, any errors introduced by the assumption are
extremely small, and the statements made in the last
paragraph are generally used for the purpose of gear design.
In other words, when quantities such as the tooth thickness or
the tooth strength are calculated, the calculations are

generally carried out as if the gear is to be cut by a rack
cutter, even though it will in fact be cut by a hob. A more
detailed analysis of the hobbing process will be given in
Chapter 16, and we will show there that some of the statements
in the previous paragraph are only approximately true. In
particular, we will show that a hob whose threads are
straight-sided in the normal section will not cut exact
involute tooth profiles in the gear blank, and we will
determine the correct shape of the hob thread, if i t is to cut
accurate involute gears.
Cutting Point
A part of a gear blank and a tooth of a pinion cutter are

shown in Figure 5.11, with the cutter tooth profile drawn in
several positions relative to the gear blank. The set of
cutter tooth profiles shown in the diagram can be thought of
as the positions of the cutter during a sequence of cutting
strokes. Since the motions of a generating cutter and a gear
blank correspond exactly to the motions of two meshing gears,
the cutter tooth profile touches the gear tooth profile in
Gear blank
Figure 5.1" positions of cutter, relative to gear blank.

each position of the cutter.

At every stroke of the cutter, material is removed from
part of the gear blank. However, in each cutter position there
is only one point of the cutter tooth face which touches the
finished tooth profile of the gear, as we can see in
Figure 5.11. During the cutting stroke, this point of the
cutter makes a final cut on the gear blank, and after the
stroke is completed, the cutter recedes from that particular
point of the gear blank, leaving a part of the finished tooth
surface.
The points of the cutter and the gear blank where the
final cut is made will be referred to as the cutting points.
It is evident that they correspond exactly to the contact
points in an ordinary gear pair. In Figure 5.11, we showed the
positions of the cutter relative to the gear blank, as if the
gear blank were fixed. During the actual cutting process,
both the cutter and the gear blank rotate, in the same manner
as a pair of meshing gears. Hence, the position of the cutting
point, when a generating cutter is used to cut a gear blank,
is identical with the position of the contact point in the
corresponding gear pair.
Cutter Tooth Tip Geometry
For most gears, the tooth profile coincides with the

involute, down to a point somewhere outside the base circle.
The tooth fillet begins at this point, and in the fillet the
tooth thickness is slightly greater than it would be, if the
profile continued on down the involute. In the remaining
sections of this chapter, we will determine the point at which
the fillet begins, and we will show that in certain
circumstances the tooth thickness in the fillet may be
reduced, rather than increased. Since the tooth fillet of the
gear is cut by the tooth tip of the cutter, it is first
necessary to make a study of the cutter tooth tip geometry.
The tooth profile in some pinion cutters is rounded at
the tip, so that the profile makes a smooth transition with
the tip circle. In other pinion cutters, the profile follows
the involute right out to the tip circle, and there is a sharp
corner where the profile meets the tip circle. We will

consider the geometry of a cutter wi th a ro'unded corner at the
tooth tip, of radius r cT ' and we can then regard the cutter
with no rounding as a special case, in which the value of r cT
is equal to zero.
A pinion cutter with rounded tooth tips is shown in
Figure 5.12. The circular section ha~ a radius r cT ' and it
meets the tooth profile at Ahc ' and the tip circle at ATc • The
symbol Ahc was chosen, because it is the highest point of the
involute section of the cutter tooth profile. The center of
the circular arc is shown as A~. In order to calculate the
fillet shape in the gear, which is cut by the circular section
of the cutter tooth, it is first necessary to find the
coordinates of points Ahc and A~.
Since the circular section of the profile is tangent to
the tip circle, the polar coordinate R~ of point A~ is equal
to the radius of the tip circle, minus the radius of the
rounded tip section,
Figure 5.12. Pinion cutter tooth tip geometry.

R' (5.32)
c
The normal to the prof ile at Ah c passes through A', c

and
touches the base circle at E. If the profile angle at Ahc
is qJhc' the length EAhc is equa I to (R bc tan qJhc)' as we
proved in Equation (2.11). By expressing this length as the
sum of EA'c and A'A
c hc ' .we obtain a relation which can be used
to calculate the value of qJhc'
Rbc tan t/lhc y'(R,2_ R2 ) + rcT (5.33)

c bc
The polar coordinates of point Ahc are then found by means of

Equations (2.18 and 2.35),
Rbc
Rhc (5.34)
cos qJhc
tsc
8 hc -- + inv t/l s - inv t/lhc (5.35)
2Rsc
The tangent to the tooth profile at Ahc makes an angle

Yhc with the tooth center-line, and the value of Yhc is given
by Equation (2.38),
(5.36)
The Cartesian coordinates x~ and Y~ of point A~ can be read

from the diagram, and the polar coordinate 8~ is then
expressed in terms of x~ and y~,
x'c Rhc cos 8hc - rcT sin Yhc (5.37)
y'c Rhc sin 8hc - rcT cos Yhc (5.38)
8'
c arctan (y~)
x'c (5.39)
For a pinion cutter with no rounding at the tooth tips,

we set the value of r rT equal to zero, and the radi i Rhc and R~
are then equal to the tip circle radius RTc '
In.the cutter tooth profile shown in Figure 5.12, the
center A'c of the circular tip section lies above the tooth
center-line. It is essential that A'c should always be above
the center-line, in order to allow the circular section of the

profile to merge smoothly with the tip circle. If A' were to
c
lie below the center-line, the cutter tooth would be slightly
pointed. Hence, the value of y~ given by Equation (5.38) must
always be positive, and a negative value would indicate that
the radius r cT of the circular section is too large. When a
tutter is designed, there is sometimes an advantage in making
the radius r cT as large as possible, particularly when the
cutter is to be used for cutting internal gears, since this
helps to minimize the fillet stress in the gears. The largest
usable value of r cT is the one that makes y~ equal to zero,
but there is no simple method for calculating this value. The
most practical procedure is to choose a value for r cT ' and
then to check that y~ is positive.
A diagram showing the tooth tip geometry of a rack cutter
is shown in Figure 5.13. The circular section at the tip of
the tooth has a radius rrT' and meets the tooth profile at Ahr
and the tip line at ATr • Point Ahr is the highest point in the
straight section of the rack cutter tooth profile, and the
distance between this point and the reference line is
1f4rr m
Cutter reference line
Figure 5.13. Rack cutter tooth tip geometry.

labelled h. The center of the circular section is A~, and the

line A~Ahr' which is perpendicular to the tooth profile,
makes an angle ~r with the Yr axis. The value of h can be
expressed in terms of the rack cutter addendum a r , which is
the distance from ATr to the reference line,
h (5.40)
The Cartesian coordinates of Ahr and A~ are then given by the

following expressions,
xhr - h (5.41)
1
Yhr - "'4 1Tm + h tan ~r (5.42)
x'r - a r + rrT (5.43)
y' - 11Tm + h tan ~r + rrT cos ~r (5.44)

r 4
In Figure 5.13, the center A~ of the tooth profile

circular section lies below the tooth center-line, as it must
if the circular section is to merge smoothly with the tip
line. In a properly designed cutter, therefore, the value of
y~ given by Equation (5.44) must always be negative, and a
positive value would imply that the radius rrT is too large.
The maximum usable value of rrT can be found by setting y~
equal to zero in Equation (5.44), using Equation (5.40) to
express h in terms of rrT' and solving the resulting equation
for r rT'
0.251Tm cos ~r - a r sin ~r
rrT max (5.45)
(1 - sin ~r)
For most rack cutters and hobs, the values of a r and rrT
are chosen so that the length h is slightly larger than 1.0m.
For example, in a 20° pressure angle rack cutter, with an
addendum of 1.25m and a circular tip radius of 0.3m, the
length h has the following value,
h 1.0526m (5.46)
Radius of the Fillet Circle
We defined the fillet circle of a gear in Chapter 4, as

the circle through point Af on the tooth profile, where the
involute part of the profile ends and the fillet begins. To
find the position of Af on a gear cut by a pinion cutter, we
consider the meshing diagram of the gear blank and the cutter,
which is shown in Figure 5.14. If the cutter is turning
counter-clockwise, the cutting point moves outwards on the
cutter tooth towards the tip, inwards on the gear tooth
towards the root, and downwards along the path of contact. The
involute part of the gear tooth profile is cut by the involute
section of the cutter tooth. The lowest point Af on the gear
tooth involute is therefore cut by Ahc ' the highest point on
the cutter tooth involute, and this occurs when Ahc lies on
the path of contact. The path followed by Ahc is a circle of
radius Rhc ' and the point where this circle intersects the
common tangent to the base circles is labelled Hc. Since point
Af of the gear coincides with point Ahc of the cutter when the
cutting point is at Hc' the fillet circle of the gear must
Path followed by
point A hc of the cutter-~--....
Figure 5.14. Meshing diagram of a gear and pinion cutter.

Radius of the Fillet Circle 139
(h - e )-t---t--
Path followed by
point A hr of the cutter - - - + \
Figure 5.15. Meshing diagram of a gear and rack cutter.
pass through point Hc' and its radius Rfg is given by the
following expression,
(5.47)
The radius Rhc in this equation can of course be replaced by

the tip circle radius RTc , for pinion cutters with no rounding
at the tooth tips.
The meshing diagram is shown in Figure 5.15, for the case
when a rack cutter is used to cut the gear. We consider the
rack cutter when it is offset a distance e from its standard
position, so that its reference line lies a distance (Rsg+e)
from the center of the gear blank. The distance between point
Ahr and the rack cutter pitch line is then equal to (h-e).
The involute section of the gear tooth profile is cut by
the straight-sided part of the cutter tooth, and the end point
Af of the gear tooth involute is therefore cut by point Ahr on
the cutter. This cut is made when Ahr lies on the path of
contact, which takes place at Hr , the point where the path
followed by Ahr intersects the path of contact. Hence, the
fillet circle of the gear passes through point Hr , and its

radius is found as follows,
R2 [ h-e ] 2 (5.48)
bg + Rbg tan 4J s - sin 4J s
Undercutting
In Figure 5.14, Hc is the end point of the straight-line

path of contact, which corresponds to the involute sections
of the gear and the cutter tooth profiles. If we were to find
the position of the cutting point corresponding to a point on
the gear tooth fillet, it would not lie on the same straight
line. However, for the present we are only interested in the
involute part of the tooth profiles, so we will regard point
Hc as the end of the path of contact. Hc is shown in
Figure 5.14, lying between the pitch point P and the
interference point Eg • As we stated in the previous section,
the position of Hc is determined by the intersection of the
cutter circle of radius Rhc ' and the common tangent to the
base circles. If point Hc lies below Eg , the following
situation will occur. While the cutting point moves down the
path of contact as far as point Eg , the gear tooth is cut with
the correct involute profile, right down to point B on the
base circle. However, when the cutting point reaches Eg ,
there is still part of the cutter involute near point Ahc '
which has not yet made a final cut on the gear tooth. It is
impossible to cut the gear tooth involute any further, since
the involute does not exist inside the base circle. In
Chapter 9, we will describe the exact shape cut in the gear by
the tooth tip of the cutter. At this stage, we will simply
state that the path followed by point Ahc ' relative to the
gear blank, is a curve that intersects the involute near the
base circle, as shown in Figure 5.16. The result is that part
of the involute in the gear tooth profile is cut away. This
phenomenon is called undercutting, because a section of the
correct involute profile is undercut by the tip of the cutter
tooth. Undercutting is essentially the same as interference
between the cutter and the gear blank. There is, however, one
important difference between interference and undercutting.
Undercutting 141
I--\--Base circle
Path followed by
point A hc of
the cutter
Figure 5.16. Undercutting.
Interference occurs in a gear pair, if there is non-conjugate

contact between the tooth tips of one gear and the tooth
fillets of the other, and the gear pair is then unusable. When
we consider a gear blank and a cutter in the situations where
interference would occur, the cutter removes extra material
from the gear blank, and part of the involute is lost. It is
clearly undesirable for gear teeth to be severely undercut,
since they are considerably weakened, and the missing part of
the involute profile may cause a reduction in the contact
ratio. However, a small amount of undercut is not generally
harmful.
It is found that, near the top of the gear tooth fillet,
the shape cut by the rounded section of the cutter tooth is
almost identical to the path followed, relative to the gear
blank, by point Ahc of the cutter. For this reason, provided
there is no undercutting by point Ahc ' there is also no
undercutting by the rounded section of the cutter tooth. When
we check to see whether undercutting will take place, we can
therefore treat the cutter tooth as if it ~nded at point Ahc '

We make the check, simply by determining the position of point
Hc on the path of contact. For no undercutting, Hc must lie
between the pitch point and the interference point E • In
g
other words, the length HcEc in Figure 5.14 must be less than
or equal to EgEc' and the condition for no undercutting can be
expressed as follows,
(5.49)
The same considerations on undercutting apply when a

gear is cut by a rack cutter or a hob. The path of contact in
Figure 5.15 must end between the pitch point and the
interference point, so the length HrP must be less than EgP,
and we obtain the following condition for no undercutting,
Rbg tan tPs (5.50)
It can be seen that, for any particular value of the

cutter offset e, there is a lower limit to the base circle
radius in the gear being cut, if there is to be no
undercutting. This means, in effect, that there is a lower
limit to the number of teeth in the gear. For example, if a
20° rack cutter is used with a value of h given by
Equation (5.46), and the cutter offset e is equal to zero,
then there will be undercutting in any gear which has less
than 18 teeth. On the other hand, we can always avoid
undercutting by increasing the cutter offset. We will discuss
this topic in more detail in the next chapter.
In deriving expressions for the fillet circle radii,
given by Equations (5.47 and 5.48), we assumed in each case
that the path of contact ended above the interference point.
In other words, we assumed that there was no undercutting.
Equations (5.47 and 5.48) are therefore only valid for gears
which are not undercut. When undercutting occurs, the gear
tooth fillet starts at the point where the path followed by
point Ahc of the cutter intersects the gear tooth involute.
The circle through the top of the fillet is then called the
undercut circle, and we will show in Chapter 7 how the radius
of this circle can be found.
Examples 143
Numerical Examples
Example 5.1
A 24-tooth pinion cutter with a module of 6 mm and a
pressure angle of 20° is used to cut a 54-tooth gear. The
tooth thickness of the cutter is 0.5ps' and the cutting
center distance is 233.7 mm. Calculate the radii of the
cutting pitch circles, the cutting pressure angle ~c, and the
tooth thickness cut in the gear.
RC
pg 161.792 mm (5.8)
RC
pc 71.908 mm (5.9)
Rsg 162.000 (5.2)

Rsc 72.000 ( 5. 1 )
Rbg = 152.230 (5.6)
Rbc = 67.658 (5.7)
~c 19.797° (5.10)
~c 19.797° (5.11)
p
CC
s 234.000 (5.16)
tsg 9.207mm (5.17)
Example 5.2
A 16-tooth pinion cutter with a module of 8 mm and a
pressure angle of 20° has a tip circle diameter of 151.2 mm
and a tooth thickness of 14.313 mm. Determine whether the
cutter can be designed with a tooth tip radius r cT of 2.4 mm.
RSC = 64.000 mm
Rbc = 60.140
R~ = 73.200 (5.32)
I/>hc = 36.271° (5.33)

Rhc = 74.594 (5.34)
9hc 0.025983 radians 1.489° (5.35)

Yhc 34.782° (5.36)
y'c = - 0.033 mm (5.38)
Since y~ is negative, the radius r cT is too large. A similar

calculation shows that a value of 2.0 mm for r cT would be
satisfactory.
Example 5.3
A rack cutter with D.P. 1 and pressure angle 20° is
designed with an addendum of 1.335 inches. Determine the
largest usable value of r rT' and the corresponding value of h.
m = 1.0000 inches
rrT max = 0.4277 inches (5.45)
h = 1.0536 inches (5.40)
Example 5.4
The pinion cutter specification in Example 5.2 is
modified, so that the tooth tip radius is 2.0 mm. The cutter
is to be used to cut a 12-tooth gear with a tooth thickness of
14.0 mm. Check to see whether there will be undercutting.
m=8, I/>s=20°, Nc =16, Ng =12

t sc =14.313, RTc =75.6, r cT =2.0, t sg =14.0
C~ = 112.000mm (5.16)
. c
lnv I/>p = 0.029102 (5.18)
(2.16,2.17)
24.767° (5.19)
Examples 145
Rbg = 45.105
R bc =60.140
R' = 73.6 (5.32)
c
¢hc = 36.454° (5.33)
Rhc 74 . 77 1 mm (5.34)
(5.49)
Since this quantity is positive, there is no undercutting.
Example 5.5
A rack cutter with D.P. 4 and pressure angle 14.5° has an
addendum of 0.290 inches and a tooth tip radius of 0.040
inches. Determine the minimum cutter offset, and the
corresponding tooth thickness of the gear, if the cutter is to
be used to cut a 20-tooth gear, and there is to be no
undercutting.
m = 0.2500 inches
h = 0.2600 (5.40)
(5.50)
e min = 0.1033 inches
tsg = 0.4461 inches (5.27)
Example 5.6
A gear pair has a module of 6 mm and a pressure angle
of 20°. The tooth numbers are 19 and 86, the tooth thicknesses
are 9.64 mm and 11.09 mm, the tip circle diameters are
127.0 mm and 533.0 mm, and the center distance is 318.0 mm.
Determine whether there will be interference at the tooth
fillets of the pinion, if the pinion is cut by a hob with
addendum 7.5 mm and tooth tip radius 1.8 mm.
Procedure: Start by checking that the first condition
for no interference is satisfied. Next, calculate the limit
circle radius of gear 1. Then calculate the fillet circle

radius. And finally, check whether the second condition for
no interference is also satisfied.
m=6, ~S=20°, N1=19, N2 =86, C=318.0

t s1 =9.64, t s2 =11.09, RT1 =63.5, RT2 =266.5
Rbl = 53.562 mm
Rb2 = 242.441
~ 21.436 0
(4.18)
Since this quantity is positive, the first condition for no

interference is satisfied.
RLl = 53.850 Dim (4.20)
The remaining equations deal with the cutter geometry, and

the cutting of gear 1.
h = 6.316 (5.40)
e1 0.296 (5.27)
Rfl = 53.596 (5.48)
RLl - Rfl - 0.025m = 0.104 mm (4.23)
Since this quantity is positive, the second condition for no

interference is also satisfied. In addition, the clearance is
adaquate, so there will be no interference.
Example 5.7
Repeat Example 5.6, assuming that gear 1 is cut by the
pinion cutter specified in Example 5.1. The diameter of the
cutter tip circle is 159.0 mm, and the radius of the rounding
at the tooth tips is 1.0 mm.
Examples 147
Rbc = 67.658 mm
R' = 78.500 (5.32)
c
q,hc 31.096 (5.33)
Rhc = 79.012 (5.34)
Cc = 129.000 (5.16)
s
. c
lnv q,p = 0.015739 (5.18)
q,c 20.354° (2.16,2.17)

p
q,c = 20.3540 (5.19)

Rfl = 53.724 (5.47)
RLl - Rfl - 0.025m =- 0.024 mm (4.23)
Since this quantity is negative, there will be interference.

This example proves that the first condition is not
sufficient to prevent interference. We will show in the next
chapter how the design can often be altered, so that the
interference is avoided.
Chapter 6
Profile Shift
Introduction
Since the use of involute gears is now so widespread, it

is difficult to appreciate that a different type of gear,
known as the cycloidal gear, was still commonly used within
the last hundred years or so. In 1890, George B. Grant found
it necessary to argue, in his "Treatise on Gears", for the
merits of the involute tooth profile compared with the
cycloidal.
One of the disadvantages of a cycloidal gear pair is that
it can only mesh at its standard center di stance. Hence, there
is no distinction between the pitch circle and the standard
pitch circle of each gear, since they must always coincide.
Perhaps partly for this reason, when involute gears were
first introduced, it was some time before full advantage was
taken of the properties of the involute. Like cycloidal
gears, the early involute gears were always designed to mesh
at the standard center distance. The tooth thickness of each
gear was made equal to half the circular pitch ps' with a
small reduction to allow for backlash, and the addendum as was
chosen equal to one module.
These values are still recommended for standard systems
of involute gears, where the main requirement is for
interchangeability. Systems of this sort are used for
catalogue gears, in which each gear of a set must be capable
of meshing with every other gear of the same set. In spite of
the advantages that standardization may bring to gears
designed according to a standard system, they suffer from the
drawback that each gear pair can only mesh at the standard
center distance. In addition, many modern gears are cut from
Profile Shift 149
blanks which are integral with the shafts, and this is not
practical in the case of catalogue gears. The use of catalogue
gears is therefore quite restricted, and the majority of
gears are designed for the requirements of a particular
application. It is then evident that the designer of a gear
pair has a great deal of flexibility in the choice of values
for the center distance, the tooth thicknesses, and the gear
blank diameters. The only restriction which must normally be
accepted is that the gears should be cut by standard cutters.
This is not generally a problem, since, as we showed in
Chapter 5, it is one of the principal advantages of the
involute profile that non-standard gears can be cut by
standard cutters.
A gear intended to mesh at the standard center distance
will differ in several respects from one designed to mesh at a
non-standard center distance. In particular, the tooth
thicknesses and the tip circle radii of the two gears will
usually be different. Figures 6.1 and 6.2 show two such gears,
Figure 6.1. A gear with zero profile shift.

150 Profile Shift
Figure 6.2. A gear with positive profile shift.
each with the same number of teeth, and cut by the same
cutter. Since both gears have the same standard pitch circle
radius Rs and the same pressure angle ~s' they must have base
circles of the same size, and therefore the tooth profiles of
each gear are formed from parts of the same involute. However,
the tooth thickness and the tip circle radius of the second
gear are larger than those of the first. In Figure 6.2, the
involutes forming the opposite faces of each tooth are
further apart than those in Figure 6.1, so that the tooth
profiles of one gear are shifted, relative to those of the
other. Any gear whose tooth thickness ts is not equal to 0.5ps
is said to be cut with profile shift. In this chapter, we will
discuss how the amount of profile shift can be defined, and we
will show how it is related to the tooth thickness. We will
then describe a method by which the tooth thickness and the
addendum values can be chosen, for a gear pair intended to
mesh at any specified center distance C. And finally, we will
present some of the most common reasons why gears are designed
with profile shift.
Profile Shift 151
Definition of Profile Shift
A gear is said to have a profile shift of e, if the

involute part of its tooth profile is conjugate to the basic
rack, when the basic rack is positioned so that its reference
line lies a distance (Rs+e) from the center of the gear.
When a rack cutter is shaped exactly like the basic rack,
the shape of any gear cut by the rack cutter is automatically
conjugate to the basic rack. We have already derived an
expression, in Equation (5.27), for the tooth thickness of a
gear cut by a rack cutter, when the cutter reference line is
situated a distance (Rs+e) from the gear center. We can
therefore use the same expression for the tooth thickness of a
gear, conjugate to the basic rack in the same position. Hence,
the relation between the tooth thickness of a gear and its
profile shift e is given by the same equation,
This relation is valid for any involute spur gear,

whether or not the gear is cut by a rack cutter. However, it
is clear from the manner in which the equation was derived
that, when a rack cutter is used to cut a gear, the profile
shift of the gear is equal to the distance between the cutter
reference line and the cutting pitch line. This distance is
called the cutter offset, so for a gear cut by a rack cutter,
the profile shift is equal to the offset of the cutter.
As we pointed out in Chapter 5, it is common practice to
assume that a gear cut by a hob is identical to one cut by a
rack cutter. I t would follow from this assumption that, when a
gear is cut by a hob, its profile shift is equal to the offset
of the hob. We are not yet in a position to prove this
statement, but in Chapter 16 we will discuss the hobbing
process in greater detail, and we will show that the statement
is indeed true, provided certain conditions are satisfied.
When a pinion cutter is used to cut a gear, the cutter
offset ac~ is defined as the difference between the cutting
center distance CC and the standard center distance C~ during
the cutting process,
152 Profile Shift
CC - (R +R ) (6.2)
sg sc
where Nand
g
Nc are the numbers of teeth in the gear and the
cutter. There is, however, no simple exact relation between
the cutter offset ~c~, and the resulting profile shift in the
gear.
In order to determine the profile shift in the gear,
corresponding to any specified value CC of the cutting center
distance, we must calculate the tooth thickness tsg of the
gear at its standard pitch circle. Before we can carry out
this calculation, we need to know the tooth thickness t of
sc
the cutter, and this value must be measured. The method by
which we calculate the tooth thickness was outlined in
Chapter 5. We use the following sequence of equations, which
are taken from Equations (5.6 - 5.17),
Rbg Rsg cos I/I s (6.3)
Rbc Rsc cos I/I s (6.4)
Rb9 +R bc
cos I/Ic (6.5)
CC
I/Ic tP c (6.6)
P
ps - tsc - 2C~ (inv I/I s - inv I/I~) (6.7)
Finally, the profile shift is given by Equation (6.1),
e 1 (t - 11l'm) (6.8)
2 tan I/I s sg 2
In the case when the cutter tooth thickness tsc is equal

to half its circular pitch ps' the cutter will cut a gear with
zero profile shift when the cutting center distance CC is set
equal to the standard value C~. I f the cutting center distance
is now altered, the resulting profile shift e in the gear is
approximately, though not exactly, equal to the cutter
offset ~CC. This result can be verified numerically by means
s
of Equations (6.3 - 6.8). However, the tooth thickness of a
pinion cutter is not necessarily equal to O.5ps' since
whatever value it has when the cutter is new, the value is
Profile Shift Coefficient 153
changed slightly every time the cutter is sharpened. Hence,

for a gear cut by a pinion cutter, the profile shift is not
generally equal to the offset of the cutter.
Profile Shift Coefficient
In Equation (6.1), we gave the relation between the

profile shift of a gear, and its tooth thickness ts. This
equation is always true, because it follows immediately from
the definition of the profile shift. The addendum as of the
gear is also usually related to the profile shift value, but
in a manner which is under the control of the designer. Since
the addendum as is the radial distance between the tip circle
and the standard pitch circle,
R - R (6.9)
T s
the value of as is clearly determined by the diameter DT of

the gear blank. It is normal practice to choose the gear blank
size so that, for a gear with zero profile shift the addendum
as is approximately equal to the module m, and for a gear with
profile shift e, the addendum is increased by an amount which
is about equal to the profile shift. Hence, in all cases the
addendum value is chosen in a manner which satisfies the
following relation,
(6.10)
The tooth thickness in Equation (6.1) and the addendum

in Equation (6.10) can each be expressed as multiples of the
module,
(6.11)
(1 + ~)m (6.12)
m
The coefficients in both these equations depend on the ratio

(elm). I t is therefore clear that, while the size of the tooth
is determined by the value of the module, its shape is largely
154 Profile Shift
influenced by the quantity (elm). This ratio is called the

profile shift coefficient.
Limits to Profile Shift Values
The profile shift of a gear may be either negative or

positive. In other words, starting from the position of zero
profile shift, the cutter may be moved either towards the gear
blank, or away from it.
If the cutter is moved too close to the center of the
gear blank, the teeth will be undercut. Although gears with
undercut teeth are sometimes used, it is preferable to design
gears which are not undercut, so the onset of undercutting
generally provides a lower limit to the range of useful
profile shift values. At the other extreme, when the profile
shift is increased, the corresponding increase in the
addendum causes a reduction in the tooth thickness at the tip
circle. If the profile shift is too great, the teeth may
become pointed. It is normal practice to design gears with a
minimum tooth thickness at the tip circle of O.25m, and this
condition places an upper limit on the value of the profile
shift.
In addition to the requirements just discussed, of no
undercutting and of adaquate tooth thickness at the tip
circle, there are several conditions to be met when the gear
pair is assembled, and these also depend primarily on the
tooth thickness and the addendum values. First, there must be
no interference. Secondly, there should be a suitable amount
of backlash. And finally, the gear pair must have an adaquate
working depth and contact ratio, and there must be sufficient
clearance at the root circle of each gear.
In the next two sections of this chapter, we will
describe a design procedure for a gear pair, in which the
tooth thickness and the addendum of each gear are chosen to
give suitable values for the backlash, the working depth and
the clearances. It is then necessary to check that the
conditions are satisfied for no undercutting, for sufficient
tooth thickness at each tip circle, for no interference, and
for an adaquate contact ratio. It will generally be found,
when all these requirements are met, that the values of the
profile shift coefficients lie between the following limits,
-0.5 1.0 (6.13)
However, although the vast majority of gears are designed

with profile shift values within this range, there are always
a few exceptions, and the number has been increasing in recent
years.
Geometric Design of a Spur Gear Pair
In this section, we describe a procedure for choosing

the tooth thickness and the addendum values of a gear pair,
intended to mesh at an arbitrary center distance C.
Initially, we design the gear pair so that the tooth
thicknesses are equal at the pitch circles. However, it is
often possible to improve the design by increasing the tooth
thickness of one gear, and reducing that of the other. We will
show how a gear pair can be designed with unequal tooth
thicknesses, and we will discuss some of the advantages of
this type of design.
We first select the module m and the pressure angle ~s'
according to the cutters that are available. The tooth
numbers N1 and N2 are then chosen so that we obtain the
required angular velocity ratio, and a standard center Cs
that is slightly smaller than the center distance C. It was
suggested in Chapter 3 that Cs should lie within the range
given by Equation (3.65),
C - v(C B tan ~ s) C (6.14)
In order for this condition to be met, the sum (N 1+N 2 ) should

be equal to, or slightly less than, the ratio (2C/m).
Once the four parameters m, ~s' N1 and N2 are chosen, the
radii of the standard pitch circles and the base circles are
established, and their values are given by Equations (2.30
and 2.20) ,
156 Profile Shift
1 (6.15 )
RS1 '2N1m
1 (6.16)
Rs2 '2N2m
Rb1 Rs1 cos tP s (6.17 )
Rb2 Rs2 cos tP s (6. 18)
The remaining quantities in the gear pair all depend on

the value of the center distance C. In each gear, the pitch
circle radius Rp ' the operating pressure angle tPp and the
operating circular pitch Pp can be found from Equations
(3.40,3.41,3.44,3.49 and 4.27),
N1C
RP1 (N 1+N 2 ) (6.19 )
N2C
RP2 (N 1+N 2 ) (6.20)
Rb1 +R b2
cos tP C (6.21)
tPp tP (6.22)
211'C (6.23)
Pp (N 1+N 2 )
An expression for the backlash of the gear pair was given

in Equation (4.28),
B (6.24)
We first select a suitable value for the backlash, and then

choose the tooth thickness of each gear in conformity with
this equation. The simplest choice is to make the two values
equal,
1
-(p -B) (6.25)
2 p
The corresponding profile shift values are then found from

(6.26)
e1 - 11l'm) (6.27)
2 tan 41 s (t s1 2
t 2
ts2 R [~+ 2 (inv 4Ip - inv4ls)] (6.28)
s2 Rp2
1 11l'm) (6.29)
e2 2 tan 41 s (t s2 - 2
The dedendum of each gear is effectively determined,

once the tooth thickness has been chosen. The dedendum b s is
equal to the depth to which the cutter penetrates below the
standard pitch circle. It is therefore equal to the addendum
of the cutter, less the amount of the cutter offset, which
depends on the type of cutter and the tooth thickness
required. For the gear pair being designed, we will first
assume that the gears are to be cut by a rack cutter or a hob.
The cutter offset for each gear is then equal to the required
profile shift, and the dedendum values are as follows,
(6.30)
(6.31)
where a r is the cutter addendum. Later in this chapter, we

will give the corresponding equations for the case when the
gears are to be cut by a pinion cutter.
For the purpose of the gear pair design, we need the
dedendum values bP1 and b p2 ' The dedendum b p in a gear is
obviously related to b s ' since b p is the radial distance from
the pitch circle to the root circle, while b s is the
corresponding distance, measured from the standard pitch
circle. The two lengths are shown in Figure 6.3, and we can
use this diagram to express bP1 and bP2 in terms of b s 1
and b s2 '
(6.32)
(6.33)
We now choose the sizes of the two gear blanks, to give a

sui table working depth for the gear pair, and adaquate
clearances at each root circle. The working depth and the
158 Prof ile Shi ft
Standard pitch circle---"
Figure 6.3. Addendum and dedendum, measured

from the pitch circle.
clearances were defined by Equations (3.66 - 3.68), in terms

of the addendum and dedendum values of each gear, measured
from the pitch circles. In addition, recommended minimum
values were given in Equations (3.69 and 3.70),
working depth a p1 + a p2 (6.34)
c1 b P1 - a p2 (6.35)
c2 b P2 - a p1 (6.36)
Minimum working depth = 2.0m (6.37)
Minimum clearance = O.25m (6.38)
It is not generally poss i ble to choose the addendum

values a p1 and a p2 of the two gears in such a manner that the
working depth and the two clearances are all equal to the
minimum values given in Equations (6.37 and 6.38). It is
therefore suggested that a p1 and a p2 should be chosen so that
the working depth is given by Equation (6.37), while the
clearances at the two root circles are equal to each other.
2.0m (6.39)
(6.40)
These two equations can be solved, giving the following

values for a p1 and a p2 '
1 (6.41)
m - 2(b p1 - b p2 )
1
m + 2(b p1 - b p2 ) (6.42)
and the diameters of the two gear blanks are then found as
follows,
(6.43)
(6.44)
Unequal Tooth Thickness Design
There are several reasons why the initial design just

described may need to be improved. For instance, there may be
interference, or one of the gears may be undercut. For the
moment we will simply describe how the design can be altered,
and in the later sections of this chapter we will discuss some
of the reasons for making the changes.
In the initial design, we chose to make the tooth
thicknesses tP1 and tP2 equal to each other. We now increase
one of the tooth thicknesses by an amount ~tp' and in order to
retain the same backlash in the gear pair, we must reduce the
other tooth thickness by the same amount. Hence the tooth
thicknesses, which in the initial design were given by
Equation (6.25), are now as follows,
l(p -B) + ~t (6.45)

2 P P
= l(p -B) - ~t (6.46)

2 P p
160 Profile Shift
The rest of the design follows exactly the procedure

described earlier. In the original description, the equations
used to calculate the gear blank diameters were interspersed
with other equations, which were necessary to explain the
reasons for each step in the procedure. For the sake of
clarity, we will now repeat the equations that are
specifically required for the calculation of the gear blank
diameters. Whenever the equations for the two gears are
identical, apart from the interchange of subscripts, the
equation for gear 1 only will be given.
tsl
~ + 2(inv q,p - inv q,s)]
Rsl [R (6.47)
pl
el 2 tan 41 s (t sl - 17Tm)
2 (6.48)
b sl ar - e l (6.49)
bPl b sl + RPl - Rsl (6.50)
1
m - '2(b
a pl pl - b p2 ) (6.51)
m 1
a p2 + '2(b p1 - bp2 ) (6.52)
DT1 2RT1 2(R p1 +a p1 ) (6.53)
Equations (6.45 - 6.53) form a design algorithm, which

can of course be programmed for a micro-computer. The value of
~tp is chosen by the designer, and it may be either positive
or negative. Whatever value is chosen, we obtain a gear pair
in which the working depth is equal to 2.0m, and the
clearances at the two root circles are equal to each other.
For the case when the center distance C is equal to the
standard center distance Cs ' the initial design procedure
gives a gear pair in which the tooth thicknesses tsl and ts2
are equal, and the addendum as in each gear is equal to 1.0m.
If a non-zero value is then chosen for ~tp' the addendum in
one gear is increased, while that in the other gear is reduced
by the same amount. This type of design is known as the "long
and short addendum system". The name is not appropriate for
gear pairs with non-standard center distances, because the
addendum values are unequal in both the initial and the final
designs.
Dedendum Values of Gears Cut by a Pinion Cutter
In the design procedure just described, the dedendum b sl

of gear 1 was given by Equation (6.49), for the case when the
gears are cut by a rack cutter. If the gears are cut by a
pinion cutter, the dedendum of each gear is still equal to the
cutter addendum minus the cutter offset, but for a pinion
cutter the offset is no longer equal to the profile shift of
the gear.
A method for finding the offset of a pinion cutter,
corresponding to a tooth thickness tsg in the gear, was
described in Chapter 5. The relevant equations will be
repeated here, with no further explanation. The pressure
angle ~~ of the gear and the cutter at their cutting pitch
circles can be found from Equation (5.18),
. c
lnv ~p (6.54)
Once the value of (inv ~~) is known, we use Equations (2.16

and 2.17) to calculate the corresponding value of ~~. The
cutting pressure angle, the cutting center distance, and the
cutter offset are then given by Equations (5.19, 5.20
and 6.2),
~c (6.55)
P
Rbg+R bc
(6.56)
cos ~c
CC _ CC (6.57)
s
We use these equations to find the cutter offset ~C~l'

required to cut the gear tooth thickness tsl given by
Equation (6.47). The dedendum in gear 1 is then given by the
a - ~Cc (6.58)
sc sl
162 Profile Shift
where a sc is the addendum of the pinion cutter. This equation

replaces Equation (6.49) in the design procedure, and the
dedendum of gear 2 is of course found in the same manner.
Avoidance of Undercutting, Interference and Pointed Teeth
If the initial design produces a gear pair in which one

of the gears is undercut, the tooth thickness in that gear
should be increased until the undercutting disappears, while
the tooth thickness in the meshing gear is correspondingly
reduced. If there is interference, it generally occurs at the
tooth fillets of the pinion, and in this case the pinion tooth
thickness should be increased until the interference ceases.
Finally, if the teeth of either gear are too close to being
pointed, or in other words, the tooth thickness at the tip
circle is less than O.25m, then the tooth thickness of that
gear should be reduced. The design procedure will
automatically reduce the addendum, and the tooth thickness at
the tip circle will be increased.
In every case, the best value for ~tp can be found most
simply by trial and error. When a micro-computer is used, the
program can carry out the checks to determine whether there is
undercutting or interference, and whether the teeth are too
pointed. The designer can increase or decrease ~tp until a
satisfactory gear pair is found, or alternatively, until it
becomes clear that the requirements cannot all be met.
Balanced Strength Design
The subject of tooth strength, and the calculation of

the tooth stresses, will be discussed in Chapter 11. At this
stage it is sufficient to state that the tooth strength of a
gear depends not only on the module, the pressure angle and
the tooth thickness, but also on the number of teeth in the
gear. If two meshing gears have equal tooth thicknesses ts1
and t s2 ' the teeth of the pinion are weaker than those of the
gear.
When a gear pair is designed, the initial choice of zero
Recess Action Gears 163
for Atp often produces a gear pair which satisfies all the
geometric requirements. However, if the tooth strengths of
the two gears are significantly different, the design can be
improved by increasing the tooth thickness of the pinion, and
reducing that of the gear. If Atp is chosen so that the tooth
strengths are equal, the design is known as a "balanced
strength design".
Recess Action Gears
I n Chapter 4, we defined the angles of approach and

recess as the angles through which the driving gear turns,
during the periods when the contact point is approaching
towards, and receding from, the pitch point. It is found in
practice that the performance of a gear pair is smoother
during the recess part of the meshing cycle than during the
approach. We proved in Chapter 3 that the sliding velocity
Line of action
Gear 1 driVin g\ /Gear 2 driven
T 1 Last point of contact
M---T2 First point of contact
Figure 6.4. A gear pair with partial recess action.

164 Profile Shift
Line of action
Gear 1 driVin g\
T 1 Last poi nt of contact
rGear 2 driven
T 2 First point of contact

(Coincides with P)
Pitch circle of gear 2

(Coincides with tip circle)
Figure 6.5. A gear pair with complete recess action.
between the meshing teeth changes sign as the contact point

passes through the pitch point. The change in the direction of
the sliding velocity causes the friction force to change
direction, and this is responsible for the smoother operation
of the gear pair during the recess phase of the meshing cycle.
When one gear is always the driver, and the other is
always driven, it is possible to design a gear pair to take
advantage of the smoother recess action. The gear pair is
designed so that most, or even all, of the path of contact
lies on the recess side of the pitch point. This can be done
by increasing the tooth thickness of the driving gear, and
reducing that of the driven. If the recess side of the contact
path is significantly longer than the approach side, the gear
pair is said to have partial recess action. If the entire
contact path lies on the recess side, the gear pair has recess
action only. An example of each type of gear pair is shown in
Figures 6.4 and 6.5.
Profile Shift 165
Contact Ratio and Root Circle Clearance
In the three previous sections, we showed how the design

of a gear pair can often be improved by the use of unequal
tooth thickness design. There are, however, two aspects of
gear pair design which cannot be improved by this type of
modi fication.
When gear pairs are designed according to the procedure
described earlier, it is very unusual for the contact ratio to
be less than the recommended minimum of 1.4. This is because
the gear pairs always have a working depth of 2.0m, and this
generally ensures an adaquate contact ratio. In the rare
cases where the contact ratio in the initial design is too
low, it is possible to increase its value by reducing the
tooth thickness of the pinion and increasing that of the gear.
However, this solution to the problem is normally
impractical, since it involves weakening the teeth of the
pinion, which are already weaker than those of the gear. A
better solution is to try a completely different design, in
which the module is reduced and the number of teeth in each
gear is increased.
In some designs, the clearances at the root circles may
be inadaquate. It will be found that, for gears cut by a rack
cutter or a hob, the value of atp has absolutely no effect on
the size of the clearances, so if they are too small in the
ini tial design, they will not be improved by any choice
of ~tp. A rack cutter with an addendum of 1.25m would give
clearances of O.25m in a gear pair meshing with zero backlash
at the standard center distance Cs • When the gear pair is
designed with a normal amount of backlash, the teeth of each
gear are cut slightly deeper, and the clearances are of course
increased. If the same cutter is used to cut a gear pair for a
center distance C which is greater than the standard center
distance, and the tooth thicknesses are chosen so that the
backlash is unchanged, the clearances become smaller for
larger values of C. Hence, inadaquate clearances are an
indication that the the value of (C-C s ) is too large. This is
the reason why there is a lower limit for the value of Cs ' and
in the next section we will show how the expression given in
Equation (6.14) was derived.
166 Profile Shift
Recommended Range of Values for Cs
We stated earlier in this chapter that the designer of a

gear pair chooses the module and the tooth numbers so that the
standard center distance Cs is equal to, or slightly less
than, the specified center distance C. We have now shown that
if the difference between C and Cs is too great, the
clearances in the gear pair will be inadaquate. It is
therefore helpful to know the value of (C-C s ), at which the
clearances are equal to their minimum recommended value.
For simplicity, we consider a gear pair in which the
tooth thicknesses are equal, and each gear has the same number
of teeth N. This does not restrict the generali ty of the
conclusions, even though it may appear to. We have already
pointed out that the clearances do not depend on the value
of ~tp' so it makes no difference to the clearances if we
choose equal values for the tooth thicknesses. We will also
find, when we follow the design procedure described by
Equations (6.45 - 6.53), that the clearances depend on the sum
(N 1+N 2 ), but not on the individual values of N1 and N2 •
We will assume that the gears are cut by a rack cutter,
and that the cutter addendum is equal to one module, plus the
minimum clearance c min required in the gear pair,
(6.59)
If, for example, we want a minimum clearance of O.25m, we

would use a cutter with an addendum of 1.25m.
We now consider the design of a gear pair with
backlash B, to operate at a center distance C. Our purpose is
to find the value of C at which the clearances are equal to
the minimum value cmin. I f the tooth thicknesses are equal and
each gear has the same number of teeth, the two gears will be
identical. We follow the design procedure given by Equations
(6.45 - 6.53), and calculate the dedendum bp and the addendum
a p of each gear. The clearance c at each root circle is equal
to (bp-a p ). We set this value equal to c min ' substituting the
expression in Equation (6.59) for the cutter addendum a r , and
we obtain a relation that must be satisfied by the operating
pressure angle tl>p of each gear,
Recommended Range of Values for Cs 167
sin I/I s
- ..1L + inv 1/1 + I/I s (6.60)
cos I/I p 2C P
We express I/I p in the following form,
(6.61)
where the angle 61/1 is small compared with I/I s • We substitute

this expression into Equation (6.60), expanding each term
containing I/I p as a power series in 61/1, and solve to find the
approximate value of 61/1,
B
(6.62)
2C tan I/I s
The relation between Cs and C is then found as follows,

cos I/I p
(cos I/I)C e C - t/(C B tan I/I s ) (6.63)
s
This equation gives the maximum difference (C-C s ) for
which the gear pair will be cut with adaquate clearances. In
other words, if w-e are designing a gear pair for a specified
center distance C, the equation gives the lowest acceptable
value of Cs ' and this expression is therefore used for the
lower limit in the range of Cs values given by
Equa t i on (6. 14 ) •
We now give the reason for the upper limit in
Equation (6.14), which states that Cs should not be greater
than C. The maximum bending strength in a gear pair is
achieved when the tooth thicknesses are chosen to give a
balanced strength design. If we design a number of gear pairs
for different values of (C-C s )' each with the same backlash
and wi th balanced tooth strength, then the tooth strength
increases as the value of (C-C s ) increases. It is unusual to
design gear pairs in which (C-C s ) is negative, because this
causes an unnecessary weakening of the teeth. Hence, if we are
designing for a specified value of C, we generally choose the
values of m, N1 and N2 so that Cs is less than or equal to C.
I t should be emphasised that the limits for Cs in
Equation. (6.14) are not inflexible. Clearly, if the tooth
strength is unimportant, gear pairs can be designed with Cs
greater than C, provided this does not lead to any of the
168 Profile Shift
geometric problems, such as interference. At the other

extreme, it is also possible to design gear pairs in which the
clearances are adaquate, even though Cs is less than the lower
limit in Equation (6.14). For example, when gears with
positive profile shift are cut by a pinion cutter, the
dedendum values are slightly larger than when a rack cutter is
used, and the clearances in the gear pair are therefore
increased. Alternatively, in cases where the gears are cut by
a rack cutter, we can increase the clearances in the gear
pair, simply by choosing a cutter whose addendum is longer
than the value given by Equation (6.59). It is therefore
evident that Equation (6.14) merely provides a recommended
range of values for Cs ' but that in exceptional cases the
value of Cs may lie outside this range.
Alternative Names for Profile Shift
The phrase "profile shift", which corresponds exactly to

the German word Profilverschiebung, was introduced by Merritt
[4] into the gear terminology of the English language. The
concept of profile shift is also known by several other names,
including hob offset, cutter offset, correction, and addendum
modif icat ion.
In this book the name profile shift is used, simply
because there are minor objections to each of the
alternatives. For example, it would seem odd to refer to the
hob offset of a gear, if it is not cut by a hob. The name
cutter offset is perhaps an improvement, but it is not
suitable for a gear cut by a pinion cutter, because in this
case the profile shift is not equal to the cutter offset. The
name correction is a shortened version of an older name,
correction for undercutting, which implies that the only
reason for using profile shift is to avoid undercutting. This
name has now been largely replaced by the phrase "addendum
modification", but here again there is a problem, because the
profile shift is a measure of the tooth thickness, rather than
of the addendum length. As we pointed out earlier in this
chapter, the addendum 6 s of a gear is determined simply by the
size of the gear blank. It is therefore possible, though
Alternative Names for Profile Shift 169
unusual, to cut a profile-shifted gear with an addendum of one

module, and it is equally possible to cut a stub-toothed gear
with no profile shift, and an addendum of less than one
module. The value chosen for the addendum is therefore
independent of the profile shift, and the name "addendum
modification" is actually misleading, since it is used to
describe a quantity which is really related to the tooth
thickness.
170 Profile Shift
Numerical Examples
Example 6.1
A 24-tooth pinion cutter with module 6 mm and pressure
angle 20° has a tooth thickness of 0.5ps' Calculate the
cutter offset required to cut a 17-tooth gear with a profile
shift of 3.0 mm.
m=6 , tP s =20° ' Nc =24, Ng =17, t sc =9.425, e=3.0
tsg = 11.609mm (6.1)
CC = 123.000 (5.16)
s
inv tP~ = 0.023782 (5.18)
tP cp 23.230° (2.16,2.17)
tP c 23.230° (5.19)
Rb9 47.924
Rbc 67.658
CC 125.780 (5.20)
ac cs 2.780 mm (6.2)
Note that the cutter offset is similar in value to the profile

shift, but that the two quantities are not identical.
Example 6.2
A gear pair is to be cut by a hob with D.P. 4, pressure
angle 25°, and addendum 0.3125 inches. The tooth numbers are
24 and 61, the center distance is 10.8 inches, and the
backlash is to be chosen according to Equation (4.43). Use the
procedure outlined in Equations (6.45 - 6.53) to design the
gear pair, first for atp equal to zero, and then for atp equal
to 0.04 inches. For each design, calculate the tooth
thicknesses, the tip circle diameters, and the clearances at
the root circles.
Examples 171
Pd=4, 4>5=25°, a r =0.3125, N1=24, N2 =61, C=10.8
m = 0.2500 inches
RS1 3.0000
RS2 7.6250
Rb1 2.7189
Rb2 6.9106
RP1 3.0494 (6.19)
RP2 7.7506 (6.20)
4> = 26.922° (6.21 )
4>p = 26.922° (6.22)
Pp = 0.7983 (6.23)
B = 0.0149 inches (4.43)
Initial design,
~tp 0.0000
tp1 0.3917 (6.45)
tP2 0.3917 (6.46)
tS1 0.4331 (6.47)
tS2 0.5068
e 1 = 0.0434 (6.48)
e 2 = 0.1223
b S1 0.2691 (6.49)
b s2 0.1902
b P1 0.3186 (6.50)
bP2 0.3158
a p1 0.2486 (6.51)
a p2 0.2514 (6.52)
DT1 6.5961 (6.53)
DT2 = 16.0039
c 1 = 0.0672 (6.35 )
c 2 = 0.0672 inches (6.36)
Second design,
~tp 0.0400
tP1 0.4317 (6.45)
tP2 0.3517 (6.46)
tS1 0.4725 (6.47)
tS2 0.4674
e1 = 0.0855 (6.48)
172 Profile Shift
e 2 = 0.0801
b s1 0.2270 (6.49)
b s2 0.2324
b P1 0.2764 (6.50)
b P2 0.3580
a p1 0.2908 (6.51)
a p2 0.2092 (6.52)
DTl 6.6804 (6.53)
DT2 = 15.9196
c 1 = 0.0672 (6.35)
c 2 = 0.0672 inches (6.36)
Note that the clearances c 1 and c 2 are not affected by the

value of L'ltp.
Example 6.3
The gear pair described in Example 5.6 was designed with
L'ltp equal to zero. We showed in Example 5.7 that there is
interference at the tooth fillets of the pinion, when the
gears are cut by the pinion cutter specified in Examples 5.1
and 5.7. Redesign the gear pair, assuming that the gears are
to be cut by the same pinion cutter. Use L'ltp equal to 1.0 mm,
and choose the backlash according to Equation (4.42).
m=6, ~s=20o, Nc =24, t sc =9.425, RTc =79.5, r cT =1.0

C=318.0, N1=19, N2 =86
RS 1 = 57.000 mm
Rs2 = 258.000
Rbl = 53.562
Rb2 = 242.441
RPl = 57.543
RP2 = 260.457
~ = 21.436°
~ = 21.436°
P
P = 19.029
P
B = 0.384 mm (4.42)
We start the design by finding the required tooth

thicknesses, which do not depend on the type of cutter used.
Examples 173
atp = 1.000
tp1 = 10.323 (6.45)
tp2 = 8.323 (6.46)
ts1 10.634 (6.47)
ts2 10.095
In the next group of equations, we find the dedendum of

gear 1, when it is cut by the pinion cutter. For the sake of
brevity, the intermediate steps are left out for gear 2, and
only the result is given.
Ccs1 129.000
. c
lnv ~p1 = 0.019592 (6.54)
~~1 = 21.836° (2.16, 2.17)
(6.55)
Rbc = 67.658
130.590 (6.56)
b S1 = 5.910 (6.57, 6.58)

b S2 = 6.589mm
Once the dedendum values have been found, the design is

completed in the usual manner.
b P1 6.453 (6.50)
b p2 9.046
a p1 7.297 (6.51)
a p2 4.703 (6.52)
DT1 = 129.679 (6.53)
DT2 = 530.321 mm
It can be verified that, in this new design, there is no

interference.
Chapter 7
Miscellaneous Circles
The specification of a gear includes the diameters of a

number of circles, such as the standard pitch circle and the
tip circle. In addition to these circles, there are several
others whose sizes must be determined by the designer, in
order to check that the design will perform satisfactorily.
We have already discussed the limit circle and the fillet
circle of a gear. In this chapter we will introduce some other
circles which are frequently needed, and we will show how
their radii can be calculated.
Highest and Lowest Points of Single-Tooth Contact
A typical meshing diagram is shown in Figure 7.1. The

ends of the path of contact are labelled T1 and T2 , and these
lie between the interference points E1 and E2 , as they must in
any properly designed gear pair. We define two additional
points Q and Q' on the path of contact, where Q lies a
distance Pb below T l ' and Q' lies a distance Pb above T2 •
We stated in Chapter 4 that, when there are two pairs of
teeth simultaneously in contact, the distance between these
contact points is equal to the base pitch Pb' We can see from
Figure 7.1 that, whenever there is a contact point between T2
and Q, there must simultaneously be a second contact point
between Q' and T 1 . However, when a contact point lies between
Q and Q' , this is the only contact point.
The total contact force must remain constant, if there
is to be a uniform transmission of power. It is clear,
therefore, that the contact force is roughly halved, when it
is shared between two pairs of teeth in contact. Figure 7.2
Highest and Lowest Points of Single-Tooth Contact 175
Figure 7.1. The end points of single-tooth contact.
shows how the contact force acting on one tooth depends on the
position of the contact point, as it moves along the path of
contact. The part of the meshing cycle when the contact point
lies between Q and Q' is called the period of single-tooth
contact. During this period, only a certain part of the
profile of each meshing tooth comes into contact with the
tooth of the other gear. The ends of this section of the tooth
profile are called the highest and lowest points of
single-tooth contact.
The maximum stresses in a spur gear tooth occur when the
tooth force is at its largest value, or in other words, during
the period of single-tooth contact. There are two types of
stress which are of primary interest to the gear designer, the
tensile stress in the fillet of each tooth, and the contact
stress at the point of contact. A typical loaded tooth is
shown in Figure 7.3, with the critical regions of fillet
stress and contact stress marked on the diagram. For a
176 Miscellaneous Circles
-
Q)
u
....
o
-
()
U
ell
C
o
Q Q' Position of
contact point
on contact path
Figure 7.2. Variation of the contact force.
constant tooth force, the fillet stress increases as the load

moves towards the tooth tip. The maximum value is reached when
the load is applied at the highest point of single-tooth
contact. Beyond this point the tooth force is approximately
halved, as we showed earlier, and the fillet stress is
therefore reduced. The contact stress also varies as the
contact point moves along the tooth profile. The subject of
spur gear tooth stresses is discussed more fully in
Chapter 11, and we will show there that the maximum contact
stress in both gears of a pair occurs when there is contact at
the lowest point of single-tooth contact in the pinion. In
Region of
maximum tensile Tooth contact
fillet stress force
~--Region of contact
stress
Figure 7.3. Regions of maximum stress.

Form Diameter 177
order to calculate the maximum stresses in a tooth, it is

therefore necessary to determine the highest and lowest
points of single-tooth contact. We will show how this is done,
by finding the radii of the circles through these points for
the two gears in Figure 7. ,.
As the position of the contact point moves up the path of
contact, the contact point on gear 1 moves up the tooth
profile, towards the tip, and the contact point on gear 2
moves down the tooth profile, towards the root. On gear 1, the
highest point of single-tooth contact is therefore reached
when the contact point is at Q'. The radius RHSC , of the
circle through this point is equal to the length C,Q' , and its
value can be found from triangle C,E 1Q' ,
2
RHSC1
When the contact point lies at Q, its position on the

tooth profile of gear' is at the lowest point of single-tooth
contact. The radius RLSC , of the circle through this point is
equal to C,Q, and is given by the following expression,
(7•2)
On the tooth profile of gear 2, the highest and lowest

points of single-tooth contact correspond to points Q and Q'
on the path of contact. The radii RHSC2 and RLSC2 of the
circles through these points can be found by interchanging
the subscripts' and 2 in Equations (7.' and 7.2).
Form Diameter
The active part of a gear tooth profile is defined as the

part which comes into contact with the teeth of the meshing
gear. This is the part stretching from the tooth tip, down to
the limit circle. The radius of the limit circle was given by
Equation (4.20), for a gear meshed with another gear,
(7.3)
and for a pinion meshed with a rack, the limit circle radius
(7.4)
After a gear is cut, it should be checked to ensure that

any errors in the tooth profile remain within the tolerance
specified. Theoretically, the lowest point on the profile at
which a measurement would be useful is at the limit circle,
since this is the end of the active part of the profile. In
practice, though, there is always the possibility of tooth
contact taking place slightly below the calculated limit
circle, due to tolerance in the center distance, and other
possible errors. The profile is therefore checked, down to a
point lying a short distance inside the limit circle, and the
circle through this point is called the form circle. The
radial distance between the two circles is generally chosen
as O.025m, so the form circle radius Rform is defined as
follows,
RL - O.025m (7.5)
The diameter of the form circle is known as the form diameter.

There is a possibility of confusion between the form
circle and the fillet circle of a gear, since the reason for
calculating the radii of both circles is to avoid the danger
of interference. In order to eliminate any confusion, we will
point out a number of differences between the two circles.
The fillet circle of a gear was defined in Chapter 4, as
the circle through the point where the involute part of the
profile joins the fillet. Hence, the fillet circle radius
depends only on the geometry of the gear itself, and not on
that of the meshing gear. On the other hand, the form circle
radius was defined in terms of the limit circle radius, and we
can see from Equations (7.3 and 7.4) that this value depends
on the geometry of the entire gear pair.
One of the conditions for no interference was given by
Equation (4.23),
(7.6)
Undercut Circle 179
The fillet circle radius Rf was given by Equation (5.47) for a

gear cut by a pinion cutter, and by Equation (5.48) for a gear
cut by a rack cutter or a hob. The designer of a gear pair
should calculate the fillet circle radius of each gear as part
of the design procedure, in order to check that Equation (7.6)
is satisfied. These checks ensure that there will be no
interference, provided the gears are correctly cut. The
profile accuracy is measured after the gears have been cut,
and it is at this stage that the form diameter is required.
The form circle radius of a gear is defined by
Equation (7.5), and the fillet circle radius must satisfy
Equation (7.6). A comparison of these two equations shows
that the fillet circle of a gear is either smaller than the
form circle, or sometimes equal in size, but never larger.
Undercut Ci rcle
In Chapter 5, we described the conditions for no

undercutting in a gear, and we pointed out that it is
Undercut circle
Path followed by
point A hc of
the cutter
-Involute
Figure 7.4. An undercut gear.

preferable, though not essential, to design gear pairs in

such a manner that neither gear is undercut. There may be
times, however, when some undercutting cannot be av·oided, and
in such cases it is important to know what effect this will
have on the contact ratio and the tooth strength.
An undercut tooth profile is shown in Figure 7.4. The
point where the fillet starts is labelled Au' and the circle
through this point is called the undercut circle. The diagram
also shows the path followed, relative to the gear, by point
Ahc on the cutter, the highest point on the involute section
of the cutter tooth profile. This path lies extremely close to
the fillet, as we can see in the diagram, particularly near
the top of the fi llet.
The only methods known to the author of this book, for
finding the radius Ru of the undercut circle, all involve some
form of trial and error. The problem is simplified slightly,
if we find the point where the locus of Ahc intersects the
involute, rather than the point where the fillet intersects
the involute. The two points are not identical, so the value
we obtain for Ru is only approximate, but the error is
negligible.
The value of Ru can then be found by the following
procedure. An undercut tooth profile is shown in Figure 7.5,
Base circle
--Locus of
point A hc
-Undercut circle
Figure 7.5. Calculation of the undercut circle radius.

Undercut Circle 181
with the involute extended to the point where it meets the

base circle at B, and the diagram also shows the locus of
point Ahc ' A typical circle of radius R cuts the involute and
the locus at points A and A', and the polar coordinates of
these points are labelled 9 R and 9 R.
If 9 R is larger than 9 R,
the radius R is smaller than Ru' as we can see in Figure 7.5.
The radius Ru of the undercut circle can be found by
R
calculating 9 R and 9 at a number of different radii, and
eventually finding the value of R at which 9 R and 9 are R
equal.
The polar coordinate 9 R of the point on the involute at
radius R was given by Equation (2.35),
(7. 7)
The corresponding value of 9 R depends on the type of cutter

used, and we will deal first with the case when the gear is
cut by a pinion cutter.
Figure 7.6 represents the gear and the pinion cutter, in
their positions when point Ahc of the cutter lies on the gear
circle of radius R. In order to keep the diagram as simple as
possible, the positions of the gear and cutter teeth are shown
only by the tooth center-lines, which lie at angles Pg and Pc
with the line of centers. The polar coordinates (R hc ,9 hc ) of
point A hc ' where 8 hc is measured from the tooth center-line,
were given by Equations (5.34 and 5.35).
Our purpose is to find the polar coordinate 9 R of
point Ahc ' relative to the coordinate system fixed in the
gear. We start by using the cosine law in triangle Cg Cc Ah c ' to
obtain the angular posi tion of the cutter,
{C c )2+R2 _R 2
hc
{C C )2+R2 _R 2
arccos [ hc] - 9 (7 .8)
2C c Rhc hc
The corresponding angular position of the gear is given

by Equation (5.21),
(7.9)
Gear tooth Cutter tooth

center line center line
Figure 7.6. position of point Ahc •
We then use the sine law in triangle CgCcAhc' to find an

expression for 8R,
_1_ sin (-fJ -8')

Rhc g R
8' (7.10)
R
A similar procedure is used to find 8 when the gear is R,

cut by a rack cutter or a hob. As before, we look for the
intersection of the involute with the locus of Ahr , the end
Cutter pitch line I--cutter reference line

I
e
Yr
C p
r-~~--------+Xr
Cutter tooth centerline
h 1f4rrm- h tan cJ>s

Gear tooth centerline
x
Figure 7.7. Position of point Ahr •

Undercut Circle 183
point of the straight section of the cutter tooth profile.

Figure 7.7 represents the gear and the cutter, and again the
positions of the teeth are indicated only by their
center-lines. The coordinates of point Ahr , relative to the
(xr'Yr) coordinate system in the cutter, were given by
Equations (5.41 and 5.42). The cutter is in the position where
point Ahr lies on the gear circle of radius R. The cutter has
an offset e, and u r is the distance it has moved in the
direction of its reference line. Since the cutter tooth
center-line lies below the line CP, the distance between
these two lines is (-u r ). The angular position of the gear is
shown by the angle ~g'
In order to avoid confusing the diagram, the
right-angled triangle with hypotenuse CA hr is drawn again in
Figure 7.8. The third corner of the triangle is labelled H,
and the lengths of the sides are taken from Figure 7.7. We
start by expressing the length of side HA hr in terms of the
other two sides,
- ur + t'lTm - h tan t/I s (7.11)
This equation gives the cutter position u r at which

point Ahr lies on the gear circle of radius R. The
corresponding angular position ~g of the gear is found from
Equation (5.28),
(7.12 )
C
~-------r--------------~
-u r +1;4rrm
-h tan <Ps
Figure 7.8. Detail of Figure 7.7.

We now write down a second relation from the triangle in

Figure 7.8, and we obtain the required expression for the
angle 8 R,
R +e-h R cos (-fJ -8')

sg g R
8' (7.13)
R
As we pointed out earlier, we find the radius of the

undercut circle by calculating 8R and 8Rat a number of radii,
starting with the base circle radius Rbg , and gradually
increasing the value of R until 8Ris larger than 8R•
Contact Ratio When One Gear Is Undercut
We consider the case when gear 1 is undercut, and we

first calculate the radii Ru1 and RL1 of the undercut and
limit circles of gear 1, in order to determine which circle is
larger. The meshing diagram is shown in Figure 7.9, for the
case when the undercut ci rc Ie is smaller than the limi t
Figure 7.9. A pinion with moderate undercut.

Contact Ratio When One Gear Is Undercut 185
circle. The two circles are nearly equal in size, and to avoid
complicating the diagram, the limit circle is not shown.
However, it is possible to verify that the limit circle is
larger than the undercut circle, by the following argument.
The point where the undercut circle intersects line E 1E2 , the
common tangent to the base circles, is labelled U1 • The lower
end T2 of the path of contact lies between U1 and the pitch
point, so T2 lies outside the undercut circle. Hence, the
limit circle of gear 1, which is the circle through T2 , is
larger than the undercut circle. Since T2 lies outside the
undercut circle, the contact on the tooth face of gear 1
ceases at a point on the tooth profile above the undercut
circle. Although the profile is cut away inside the undercut
circle, the meshing is not affected, because the missing part
of the involute would not in any case be touched by the
meshing gear. The contact ratio mc is therefore given by
Equation (4.9), exactly as if there was no undercutting.
The meshing diagram is shown in Figure 7.10 for the

second case, when the undercut circle of gear 1 is larger than
the limit circle. The point where the undercut circle
intersects the path of contact is again labelled U1 , and in
this gear pair U1 lies between point T2 and the pitch point.
In a gear pair with no undercutting, the path of contact would
be the line T 1T2 • However, if the path of contact in
Figure 7.10 were to continue below point U1 , there would be
contact inside the undercut circle of gear 1, which is
impossible because the involute tooth profile has been cut
away. In this case, therefore, the path of contact extends
from Tl only to point U1 . The length of this line can be read
from the diagram, and we divide by the base pitch to obtain
the corresponding contact ratio,
(7. 15)
It is interesting that the value of the contact ratio

given by Equation (7.15) depends only on the geometry of
gear 1. It does not depend on the center distance, nor on the
Figure 7.10. A pinion with severe undercut.
addendum of gear 2. The contact ratio is only affected by a

change in either of these quantities, if the change is so
great that the limit circle of gear 1 becomes larger than the
undercut circle. In this case, Equation (7.15) no longer
applies, and we must use Equation (7.14) to calculate the
contact ratio.
The point of the tooth profile where the undercut begins
was labelled Au in Figures 7.4 and 7.5. At this point of the
profile the tangent suddenly changes direction, as we can see
in the diagrams. If point Au comes into contact with the
meshing gear, the contact stress is extremely high, due to the
discontinuity in the profile tangent. It is therefore
important to design the gear pair so that the active part of
the tooth profile in gear 1 ends above point Au. In other
words, the undercut circle of gear 1 must be smaller than the
limit circle, and to allow for some tolerance in the center
distance, the undercut circle should be no larger than the
form circle. If this condition is not satisfied in the initial
Contact Ratio When One Gear Is Undercut 187
design, the tooth thickness of gear 1 should be increased and

that of gear 2 reduced, either until the form circle of gear 1
is as large as the undercut circle, or until gear 1 ceases to
be undercut. The gear pair shown in Figure 5.10 is one in
which the limit circle of gear 1 is smaller than the undercut
circle, so the contact point will move right down the tooth
face of gear 1 to the point where the undercut begins. It is
obvious from the diagram that this is a thoroughly bad design.
At the beginning of the previous section, we mentioned
the effect of undercutting on the tooth strength of a gear. A
method will be described in Chapter 9 for calculating the
fillet shape of a gear tooth, and in Chapter 11 we will show
how the tooth stresses can be calculated. Neither method is
affected by any undercutting in the tooth. The strength
analysis of an undercut gear is therefore carried out in the
same manner as that of an ordinary gear, but the effect of the
undercut is of course to increase the calculated stresses.
Numerical Examples
Example 7.1
A gear pair is designed with D.P. 2.5 and pressure
angle 25°. The tooth numbers are 50 and 99, the diameters of
the tip circles are 20.98 inches and 40.62 inches, and the
center distance is 30.0 inches. Calculate the radii of the
highest and lowest points of single-tooth contact on each
gear.
Pd =2.5, ~S=25°, N1=50, N2 =99

RT1 =10.49, RT2 =20.31, C=30.0
m = 0.4 inches
Rb1 = 9.0631
Rb2 = 17.9449
~ = 25.807°
Pb = 1. 1389
10.2034 (7.1)
9.9652 (7.2)
RHSC2 = 20.0383 (7.1)

RLSC2 = 19.8022 inches (7.2)
Example 7.2
A 12-tooth gear with module 10 mm and pressure angle 20 0
is cut by a hob with an addendum of 12.5 mm and a tooth tip
radius of 3.0 mm. Show that the gear is undercut, if there is
no profile shift, and calculate the radius of the undercut
circle.
m=10, ~ =20°, N =12, e=O, a =12.5, rrT=3.0

s g r
R = 60.000 mm
s9
Rb9 = 56.382
h = 10.526 (5.40)
h-e - 10.255 mm (5.50)

Rbg tan ~s - Sln
. ~s
Examples 189
This quantity is negative, so the gear will be undercut. The

radius of the undercut circle is found by trial and error,
using Equations (7.11-7.13). In order to save space, only the
final set of calculations is given below.
Choose R = 56.555 mm
ur - 23.378 (7.11)
- 0.651431 radians = - 37.324° (7.12)
9'R 8.345° (7.13)
tsg = 15.708 (5.31)

4>R = 4.488° (2.18)
9 R = 0.145643 radians = 8.345° (7.7)
R
Since 9 is equal to 9 R , we have chosen the correct value
of R, and the undercut circle radius Ru is equal to 56.555 mm.
This particular gear is shown in Figure 5.16.
Example 7.3
The gear pair shown in Figure 7.9 has the following
specification. Gear 1 is the gear which was described in
Example 7.2, with a tip circle diameter of 140 mm, and the
radius of its undercut circle was calculated in that example.
Gear 2 has 25 teeth, and the diameter of its tip circle is
285 mm. The center distance is 195 mm. Show that the form
circle of gear 1 is larger than its undercut circle, and then
calculate the contact ratio.
m=10, 4>5=20°, N1=12, N2 =25

RT1 =70.0, RT2 =142.5, C=195.0
Rbl = 56.382 mm
Rb2 = 117.462
4> = 26.937°
RL 1 = 56.899 (7.3)
Rf orm, 1 = 56.649mm (7.5)
We showed in Example 7.2 that the radius of the undercut

circle in gear 1 is 56.555 mm. Since the form circle is larger
than the undercut circle, the gear pair is quite usable, even
though gear is undercut. Of course, the tooth strengths are

very unequal, and the design would therefore be improved by
increasing the tooth thickness of gear 1, which would then
eliminate the undercut. We have also shown that the limit
circle is larger than the undercut circle, so to find the
contact ratio we use Equation (7.14).
Pb = 29.521
mm
mc = 1.146 (7.14)
Chapter 8
Measurement of Tooth Thickness
Introduction
The tooth thickness ts of a gear is defined as the arc

length between opposite faces of a tooth, measured around the
standard pitch circle. This is a length which cannot be
measured directly, so in practice a different dimension of
the gear is measured, which is then used to calculate the
tooth thickness. In this chapter we will describe three of the
most commonly used methods, by which the tooth thickness of a
gear can be found.
After a gear has been cut, the tooth thickness is
generally measured before the gear is moved from the
worktable. In this way, if the measured tooth thickness is
larger than the specified value, it is possible to make
another cut without repositioning the gear on the worktable.
I t is also possible to calculate the addi tional depth to which
the cutter must be fed in, in order to obtain the required
tooth thickness. The relation between the offset e of a rack
cutter and the resulting tooth thickness was given by
Equation (5.27),
1
"2 7rm + 2e tan q, s (8.1)
In order to obtain a change ~ts in the tooth thickness, the

cutter offset must therefore be altered by an amount ~e, given
by the following expression,
(8.2)
2 tan q,s
Since we are considering a reduction in the tooth thickness,

192 Measurement of Tooth Thickness
the values of ~ts and ~e are obviously negative. The equation

is also valid when the cutter is a hob, and although it is not
exactly correct for the case of a pinion cutter, it can be
used with negligible error, provided the required change in
the cutter setting is small compared with the module.
Gear-Tooth vernier Caliper
The most direct method for measuring the tooth thickness

of a gear makes use of an instrument called a gear-tooth
caliper. This instrument, which is shown in Figure 8.1, is a
vernier caliper, with an adjustable stop that determines the
radius on the tooth at which the measurement is made. In order
to make a measurement, the instrument is placed over one of
the gear teeth, as shown in Figure 8.2. The two vernier scales
on the caliper are used to measure the distance between the
caliper jaws, and the depth of the jaw tips below the stop.
Figure 8.1. A gear-tooth vernier caliper.

Measurement by Gear-Tooth Vernier Caliper 193
Gear-tooth caliper
-Tooth centerline
Figure 8.2. Measurement at the standard pitch circle.
On the gear, these lengths are known as the chordal tooth

thickness and the chordal addendum.
The tooth thickness measurement should be made with the
jaw tips of the caliper touching the tooth faces near the
middle of the tooth profile. For gears with zero profile
shift, this would mean that the contact is at the standard
pitch circle. However, in a gear with profile shift e, the
addendum as is extended by approximately e, so the middle of
the profile lies at a radius approximately equal to (Rs+e). In
practice, the measurement is normally made at the standard
pitch circle for gears with small amounts of profile shift,
and it is only for gears with large values of e that the
alternative radius is used. The chordal tooth thickness and
the chordal addendum are represented by the symbols t sc hand
a sch ' when the measurement is made at the standard pitch
circle, and we use t Rch and aRch when the measurement is made
at radius R.
The gear-tooth caliper is shown in Figure 8.2, adjusted
so that the jaw tips touch the tooth faces at the standard
pitch circle. The relations between the tooth thickness, the
chordal tooth thickness and the chordal addendum can be read

from the diagram,
ts
8s (B.3)
2Rs
tsch 2Rs sin 8 s (B.4)
a sch RT - Rs cos 8s (B.5)
These values of tsch and a sch are generally included in the

specification of a gear.
Figure B.3 shows the tooth thickness of a gear being
measured, when the caliper jaws touch the tooth faces at
radius R. The tooth thickness tR at this radius is related to
ts by Equation (2.36), and the corresponding values of the
chordal tooth thickness and the chordal addendum are again
read from the diagram,
(B.6)
Gear-tooth caliper
-Tooth centerline
c
Figure B.3. Measurement at radius R.
Measurement by Gear-Tooth Vernier Caliper 195
(8.7)
2R sin OR (8.8)
(8.9)
The expressions in Equations (8.4, 8.5, 8.8 and 8.9) for

the chordal tooth thickness and the chordal addendum
represent the correct values, when the tooth thickness has
the specified value ts' In other words, these values are
sui table for checking whether the tooth thickness of a gear is
equal to its required value. It may sometimes be necessary to
measure the tooth thickness of a gear when it is not equal to
its specified value, or when the specified value is unknown.
In such cases, the gear-tooth caliper is adjusted so that ~he
tips of the jaws meet the faces of the tooth near the middle
of each tooth profile. The values of t Rch and aRch are then
read, and the tooth thickness is calculated from the
following set of equations, which are simply a rearrangement
of Equations (8.6 - 8.9),
R2 1 2 + (R - 2 (8.10)
<'2 t Rch) T aRch)
t Rch
tan OR (8.11)
2 (RT - aRch)
tR 2ROR (8.12)
t
ts R [-B + 2(inv fR - inv fs)] (8.13)
s R
There are a number of sources of error when measurements

are made with a gear-tooth caliper. The tip circle of the gear
is used as a datum, so any error in the value used for RT
causes an error in the calculated value of ts' The tips of the
caliper jaws are subject to wear, which of course alters the
measured values. And lastly, for correct measurement, the
caliper must be held so that it is symmetrical with respect to
the tooth center-line, and the jaws touch each face of the
tooth at the same height. The other two methods described in
this chapter for measuring the tooth thickness of a gear are
not subject to these objections.
Span Measurement
By measuring over several teeth, as shown in Figure 8.4,

it is possible to make the measurement using the parallel
faces of the caliper jaws, instead of the tips. This procedure
is known as span measurement. An ordinary caliper can be used,
without the adjustable stop of the gear-tooth caliper. We
measure the length AA' over N' teeth, and from this measured
length S, it is possible to calculate the tooth thickness ts
of each tooth.
Since line AA'is normal to the tooth profiles at A and
at A', the line must touch the base circle at some point E.
The involutes through A and A' meet the base circle at B
and B', and we know that AE and A'E are equal to arc BE and
arc B'E. Hence, the length S is equal to arc BB', which can be
expressed as (N'-1) base pitches, together with the tooth
thickness of one tooth at the base circle,
S AA' arc BB' (8.14)
In an ordinary tooth, the profile does not coincide with
c
Figure 8.4. Span measurement over 3 teeth.
the involute all the way down to the base circle. Inside the
fillet circle the tooth profile lies outside the involute, so
that the tooth is strengthened near its root. However, the
tooth thickness t b , which is used in Equation (S.14), is the
tooth thickness that the tooth would have, if the profile at
the base circle did coincide with the involute. Its value is
therefore found from Equation (2.36), when we substitute the
value zero for the profile angle at the base circle,
(S.15)
We use Equations (2.20 and 2.30) to express the base circle

radius in terms of the module,
and the tooth thickness tb is then given by the following

expression,
(S.16)
The base pitch Pb is also expressed in terms of the module, by

means of Equations (2.24 and 2.31),
(S.17)
We now combine Equations (S.14, S.16 and S.17), and we

obtain an expression for the span measurement S,
S (S.lS)
In order to find the tooth thickness ts of a gear, we measure

the length S, and ts is then found from Equation (S.lS),
S inv
- (N'-ll1rm - Nm ~ (S. 19)
cos ~s s
We have pointed already that, in the span measurement,

the contact between the gear teeth and the caliper jaws takes
place on the flat faces of the jaws. These faces are less
subject to wear than the tips of the jaws, so the span
measurement is generally more accurate than the measurement

made with a gear-tooth caliper. In addition, there is no need
for exact symmetry in the span measurement. If the caliper in
Figure 8.4 is held so that the lengths AE and A'E are not
qui te equal, there is no change in the measured length S.
Number of Teeth in the Span
We have not yet considered the number N' of teeth over

which the span measurement should be made. Ideally, the
caliper jaws should touch the tooth faces near the middle of
their profiles. This means, as we pointed out earlier, that
the contact should take place at a radius of approximately
(Rs+e). The value of N' must therefore be chosen with this
consideration in mind.
The points of contact between the gear and the caliper
are shown in Figure 8.5. To simplify the analysis, we will now
assume that the caliper is positioned symmetrically, so that
the length AE is equal to half the span measurement S. The
-Tooth centerline
c
Figure 8.5. Radius of the span measurement contact points.
5pan Measurement 199
radius R of the circle through point A is approximately equal

to (Rs+e), and we therefore obtain the following equation
for 5,
(8.20)
We express Rb in terms of Rs' and expand the expression in the

square brackets as a power series in (e/R s )' neglecting terms
of second degree and higher. The equation for 5 then takes the
following form,
5 5!! (8.21)
We now have two expressions for 5, given by Equations (8.18

and 8.21). We equate these expressions, using Equation (6.1)
to relate the tooth thickness ts to the profile shift, and we
solve the resulting equation for N' ,
N' (8.22)
The angle ~s in the second term of this expression has

been derived from the function inv ~s' so it must be expressed
in radians. It is generally more convenient to express the
angle in degrees, and we then obtain the following expression
for N' ,
N' (8.23)
The purpose of Equation (8.23) is to provide a value for

N' such that, when the span measurement is made, the contact
between the tooth faces and the caliper jaws takes place at a
radius close to (Rs+e). It is not always possible to achieve
this ideal, but in all cases the contact must occur between
the tip circle and the fillet circle, and preferably a certain
distance from both. In the derivation of Equation (8.23), a
number of approximations were used, and it is therefore
important to know whether the resulting value of N' is always
acceptab~e. The equation can be checked by the following
method. For any particular gear, the expression on the

right-hand side of Equation (8.23) is evaluated, and N' is
chosen as the integer closest to this value. Equation (8.18)

is used to calculate the span measurement S, and the radius R
at which contact takes place can then be read from Figure 8.5,
R (8.24)
If this procedure is carried out for a large number of

gears, we obtain the following results. The value of N' is
always satisfactory when e is small. However, for gears with
large values of e, particularly those with a small number of
teeth, the value of N' given by Equation (8.23) is sometimes
too large. I n these cases the contact would take place
theoretically outside the tip circle of the gear. The error
occurs because, when e is large and N small, the power series
expansion in (e/R s )' which was used to derive
Equation (8.21), is not sufficiently accurate. To correct
this problem, the last term in Equation (8.23) is multiplied
by a factor [0.75-(2/N)]. This factor has the effect of
reducing the value of N' for gears where e is large, and the
reduction is greatest when N is small. It has been shown [10]
that, for gears with profile shift values between -0.5m and
1.0m, the contact between the caliper and the tooth face will
now take place in the required position, near the middle of
the tooth profile. with this modification, the value of N' is
given by the following expression,
1 N~~ 2e[0.75-(2/N)]
N' 2" + 180 + 7rm tan ~s (8.25)
The right-hand side of this equation is evaluated, and

N' is chosen as the integer closest to this value. The
corresponding span S is then given by Equation (8.18). When
the tooth thickness inspection of a gear is to be carried out
by means of a span measurement, the values of N' and S are
included in the specification of the gear.
Measurement Over Pins
A third method by which the tooth thickness can be

measured is called the measurement over pins. Two cylindrical
112M
M
Figure 8.6. Measurement over pins.
pins of known diameter are inserted into opposite tooth

spaces of the gear, as shown in Figure 8.6, and we measure the
distance M between the outer points of the pins. We will now
show how the measured value of M can be used to calculate the
tooth thickness ts of the gear.
Figure 8.7 shows one tooth of a gear, with the pin
positioned so that it is touching the tooth profile at A, and
its center A' is lying on the center-line of the adjacent
tooth space. The radius of the pin is r, and the distance
between A' and the gear center C is shown as R'. We first need
to find a relation between R' and the tooth thickness ts'
The tooth profile involute meets the base circle at B. We
construct a second involute, passing through point A', and
this involute meets the base circle at B'. The line AA', which
is normal to the tooth profile, touches the base circle at E.
Due to the fundamental property of the involutes that arcs BE
and B'E are equal to AE and A'E, the arc BB' is equal to AA' ,
and the angle BCB' is therefore equal to (r/R b ).
R' r
Figure 8.7. Radi us of the pin center.
The polar coordinate 9 R at a typical point of the gear

tooth involute was given by Equation (2.35),
ts
2R + inv tPs - inv tPR
s
The corresponding angle 9 b of point B, the end point of the

involute, is found by setting the profile angle tPR equal to
zero,
(8.26)
If the polar angle of the line through B' is 9 b, its

value can be found by adding the angle BCB' to 9b ,
t
9' 2: + inv tPs + ..L (8.27)
b s Rb
The angle between CB' and CA' is equal to (inv tP R')' and
the angle between the center-lines of the tooth and the tooth
space is (~/N). These two angles are together equal to 9b, so
we obtain the following relation between the various angles,
.
lnv tP R ' +
~
N (8.28)
Figure 8.6 shows the measurement over pins for a gear

with an even number of teeth. The relation between the length
M and the radius R' can be read from the diagram,
M 2R' + 2r (8.29)
To find the tooth thickness of a gear, we measure the

length M, and R' is calculated from Equation (8.29). The
corresponding profile angle 9>R' is given by Equation (2.18),
cos 9>R' (8.30)
and Equation (8.28) is then used to calculate the tooth

thickness ts.
The order of the calculations is reversed when the tooth
thickness is specified, and we want to find the corresponding
value of M for inspection purposes. Equation (8.28) is used to
Figure 8.8. Measurement over pins, for a gear

wi th an odd number of teeth.
give the value of (inv ~R')' and the angle ~R' is found by
means of Equations (2.16 and 2.17). The values of R' and Mare
then found from Equations (8.30 and 8.29).
When a gear has an odd number of teeth, the pins are
placed in tooth spaces which are as closely as possible
opposite to each other, in the manner shown in Figure 8.8. The
radii through the pin centers no longer form a straight line,
and the angle between them is equal to [180° - (180 0jN»). The
relation between R' and M is then given by the following
equation,
M 2R' cos (9~0) + 2r (8.31)
Apart from this change, the equations for finding the tooth
thickness are exactly the same as those for a gear with an
even number of teeth.
Examples 205
Numerical Examples
Example 8.1
The gear in Figure 8.2 has 36 teeth, a module of 8 mm,
and a pressure angle of 20°. Calculate the correct settings
for a gear-tooth caliper, if the tooth thickness is half the
circular pi tch, and the addendum is one module.
RS = 144.000 mm
ts = 12.566 (2.31)
0.043633 radians = 2.500° (8.3)
tsch = 12.562 (8.4)
RT = 152.000 (2.40)
a sch = 8.137 mm (8.5)
Example 8.2
The gear shown in Figure 8.3 has 15 teeth, D.P. 2, and
pressure angle 20°. It is cut from a blank with a diameter of
9.0 inches, and the specified profile shift is 0.25 inches.
After a roughing cut, the tooth thickness is measured by means
of a gear-tooth caliper. with the chordal addendum set at
0.5 inches, the chordal tooth thickness is found to be
0.810 inches. Determine how much further the cutter should be
fed in for the final cut, assuming the gear is cut by a hob.
N=15, Pd =2, ~s=20°, RT=4.5, e=0.25

a Rch =0.5, t Rch =0.810
m = 0.5000 inches
Rs = 3.7500
Rb = 3.5238
R 4.0205 (8.10)
5.781° = 0.100906 radians (8.11)
tR = 0.8114 (8.12)
~R = 28.779° (2.18)
ts = 0.9974 (8.13)
Required value, ts = 0.9674 (6.1)

0.0301
toe - 0.0413 inches (8.2)
The cutter must be fed a distance 0.0413 inches towards the

gear axis.
Example 8.3
For the gear specified in Example 8.2, the final tooth
thickness is to be checked by a span measurement. Calculate
the number of teeth over which the span should be measured,
the corresponding value of the span, and the radius at which
the caliper jaws will touch the faces of the teeth.
N' = Integer closest to 2.7060 = 3 (8.25)

S 3.9662 inches (8.18 )
R = 4.0435 inches (8.24)
This radius is satisfactory, since the contact points are

well below the tooth tips, and well above the fillet circle.
Example 8.4
Calculate the measurement over pins for the 11-tooth
gear shown in Figure 8.8, which has module 10 mm, pressure
angle 20°, and profile shift 5.0 mm. The diameter of the
measuring pins is 26 mm.
N=ll, m=10, ~s=200, e=5.0, r=13.0
RS = 55.000 mm
Rb 51. 683
ts = 19.348
inv~R' = 0.156726 (8.28)
~R' = 41.227° (2.16, 2.17)
R' = 68.718 (8.30)
M = 162.038 mm (8.31)
Chapter 9
Geometry of Non-Involute Gears
Introduction
In this chapter, we will first show how to calculate the

tooth shape of a gear, when it is conjugate to a basic rack of
arbitrary shape. This material is not required when the basic
rack has straight-sided teeth, since we have already shown
how to calculate the tooth profile shape of an involute gear.
However, the method described will useful for finding the
shapes of gear tooth fillets, which are conjugate to the
circular tips of the cutter teeth.
General Theory
We consider a basic rack with a curved tooth profile, as

shown in Figure 9.1. The pitch is Pr' and the reference line
is defined in the usual way, as the line along which the tooth
thickness is equal to the space width. The rack coordinate
system (xr'Yr) is chosen so that the Yr axis lies along the
reference line, and the xr axis coincides with a tooth
center-line. A typical point Ar of the tooth profile has
coordinates (xr,y r ), and the profile angle at this point
is ~Ar. Since the shape of the tooth profile is known, Y and
A r
~ r are known functions of x r '
We now consider a gear meshed with the basic rack, as
shown in Figure 9.2. The pitch circle radius of a plnlon
meshed with a rack was given by Equation (1.15), and in
Equation (1.19) we showed that the circular pitch of the
pinion at its pitch circle is equal to the pitch of the rack.
Since the gear in Figure 9.2 is meshed with its basic rack, we
208 Geometry of Non-Involute Gears
Yr
Reference l i n e -
-r-.~----+
I~ Pr
I~
Figure 9.1. A non-involute basic rack.
use the symbol Rsg for the radius of the pitch circle, and the
two equations take the following form,
( 9. 1 )
(9.2)
The pitch point P is the point lying a distance Rsg from

the center of the gear, on the line perpendicular to the
reference line of the basic rack. We consider the basic rack
when it is positioned with an offset e, so that its reference
line lies a distance (Rsg+e) from the center of the gear. We
will make use of the fixed (E,~) coordinate system, whose
origin is at the pitch point, and the (x,y) coordinate system
in the gear, where the x axis coincides with a tooth
center-line.
In order to find the shape of the tooth profile in the
gear, we start from the Law of Gearing, which was proved in
Chapter 1. This law states that the common normal at the
contact point passes through the pitch point. We first
General Theory 209
I---Reference line of basic rack

Pitch circle-
of gear I-+-----''--Pitch line of basic rack
Figure 9.2. Meshing diagram of a gear and basic rack.
determine the position u r of the basic rack, when point Ar is

the contact point. Since the tangent at Ar makes an angle ~Ar
with the ~ axis, the normal makes the same angle with the
1/ axis, and we can express the position of Ar in the following
way,
(9.3)
(9.4)
tan ~Ar
The position u r of the basic rack, defined as the distance

between the e axis and the xr axis, is determined by the
position of point Ar'
(9.5)
For a gear being cut by a rack cutter, the relation

between the position of the rack cutter and the angular
position of the gear was given by Equation (5.28),
The same equation applies when we consider a gear meshed with

its basic rack, and we can therefore find the angular position
~g of the gear, corresponding to the position u r of the basic
rack,
1 (u _ lp ) (9.6)
Rsg r 2 s
Since point Ar of the basic rack is the contact point, there

is a point A of the gear which coincides with Ar , and its
polar coordinates can be read from Figure 9.2,
R (9.7)
1/
arctan (~) - ~g (9.8)
sg
Finally, the tangent to the gear tooth profile at A coincides
with the tangent to the basic rack tooth profile at Ar , and
therefore makes an angle ,Ar with the ~ axis. The angle YR,
which is defined as the angle between the gear tooth tangent
at A and the tooth center-line, is then given by the following
expression,
(9.9)
Equations (9.3-9.9) can be used to find the polar

coordinates (R,8 R) of a point A on the gear tooth profile, and
the angle YR, corresponding to any specified point Ar on the
basic rack tooth profile. By taking a number of points on the
basic rack, we can construct the entire profile of the gear
tooth.
The general theory just described is helpful for
clarifying some of the definitions used in gearing. If we use
Equations (9.3 and 9.4) to calculate the position of the
contact points, corresponding to a number of points on the
basic rack tooth profile, we obtain a series of points on the
path of contact. When the basic rack tooth profile is curved,
General Theory 211
Line of action
/,,4---Path of contact
Contact point
Figure 9.3. Path of contact, and line of action.
the path of contact is also curved, as we can see in

Figure 9.3. The line of action, which is the line along which
the contact force acts in the absence of friction, coincides
with the common normal at the contact point. The Law of
Gearing states that this line passes through the pitch point,
so the line of action is always the line from P to the contact
point. The operating pressure angle ~ of the gear pair is the
angle between the line of action and the tangent at P to the
pitch circle. It is evident that, when the path of contact is
not straight, the value of ~ varies as the contact point moves
along the path of contact.
Two basic racks that fit together exactly, in the manner
shown in Figure 9.4, are said to be complementary. If each of
these basic racks is used to define the tooth profile of a
gear, then these two gears can mesh together correctly, and
the Law of Gearing will be satisfied. However, the gears can
only operate at the standard center distance Cs ' equal to the
sum of the standard pitch circle radii. If the center distance
is altered, the common normal at the contact point will no
Figure 9.4. Complementary basic racks.
longer intersect the line of centers at a fixed point, and the

Law of Gearing is not satisfied. Involute gears are the only
type which will continue to mesh correctly, when the center
distance is changed. Hence, in all other types of gear, there
is no distinction btween the pitch circle radius Rp and the
standard pitch circle radius Rs' since they must always have
the same value.
Fillet Shape Cut by a Rack Cutter
The general theory just described, which gives the shape

of tooth profiles conjugate to an arbitrary basic rack, can
also be used to find the shape of gear tooth profiles, when
they are cut by a rack cutter with curved teeth. In
particular, when we consider involute gears, we will use the
Fillet Shape Cut by a Rac k Cutter 213
Figure 9.5. Gear tooth fillet and rack cutter.
method to find the shape of the tooth fillet, which is cut by

the circular section at the tooth tip of the rack cutter.
The tooth profile of the rack cutter is shown in
Figure 9.5. The circular section of the profile extends from
point Ahr to point ATr • The radius of this section is rrT' and
its center is at point A~, whose coordinates (x~,y~) are given
by Equations (5.43 and 5.44). In the general theory described
in the previous section, we chose a point Ar of the cutter
tooth profile, and determined the position u r of the cutter,
at which Ar would be the cutting point. For the special case
when the cut ter tooth profi Ie is circular, it is sl ightly more
convenient to reverse this order. We choose the position of
the cutter, and we then determine which point Ar of the
circular profile is the cutting point.
We therefore consider the cutter in the position shown
in Figure 9.5, with an offset e and with the x r axis lying a
distance (-u r ) below line CPo In this position of the cutter,
the center A~ of the tooth profile circular section has
coordinates (~' ,~'), which are given by the following
equations,
~ I e + x'r (9.10)
1/' (9.11)
If the line from the pitch point to A~ intersects the

tooth profile at Ar' and Ar is a point on the circular part of
the profile, then the normal to the profile at Ar passes
through P, and Ar must be the cutting point. The line ArP is
the line of action, when the cutter is in the position shown
in Figure 9.5. We now reintroduce the coordinate s, measured
from the pitch point along the line of action, with points
above P being positive. The positions s' and s of points A'r
and Ar on the line of action can be expressed as follows,
s' (9.12)
s s' - r rT (9.13)
and we then write down the position of the cutting point Ar'
(9.14)
( ...§...) ., • (9.15)
s' 'f
It is evident that the negative signs of s· and s cancel out,

and it would have been simpler to have used positive values.
However, we will make use of these equations again in
Chapter 10, when we discuss the fillet curvature, and for that
purpose it is important to retain the correct sign fors.
To find the position of point A on the gear tooth fillet,
corresponding to point Ar on the cutter, we now follow exactly
the remaining steps of the general method. The angular
position fJ g of the gear is given by Equation (9.6),
fJ g _l_(u _ lp ) (9.16)
Rsg r 2 s
and the polar coordinates of the point on the gear tooth

fillet are found from Equations (9.7 and 9.8),
R (9.17)
(9.18)
Fillet Shape Cut by a Rack Cutter 215
To complete the analysis of the gear tooth fillet shape,

it is necessary to determine the initial and the final
positions of the cutter, at which points on the fillet are
being cut. The highest point on the fillet is cut by point Ahr
on the cutter, the point where the circular section of the
tooth profile begins. When Ahr is the cutting point, the line
of action must make an angle tP r with the 1/ axis, since this is
the direction of the normal to the cutter tooth profile
at Ahr • The coordinates (~' ,1/') of point A~ must then satisfy
the following equation,
~ , 1/' tan tP r (9.19)
We substitute this expression in Equations (9.10 and 9.11)

for ~' and 1/', and we obtain the value of u r at which the
highest point of the gear tooth fillet is cut,
Yr
Reference line
Path followed by point Ahr-I Path followed by point A Er

I
Figure 9.6. Meshing diagram of an undercut gear

and a rack cutter.
1 (e+x ') _ y I
(9.20)
tan ~r r r
The other end of the gear tooth fillet, the point where
it meets the root circle, is cut by point ATr on the cutter.
The normal to the cutter tooth profile at ATr is parallel to
the ~ axis, and ATr becomes the cutting point when the line of
action is in the same direction. This will occur when point A'
r
lies on the ~ axis, and its coordinate ~' is equal to zero.
The corresponding position of the cutter can then be found
from Equation (9.11),
- Y~ (9.21)
To construct the entire fillet of the gear tooth, we

consider a number of positions of the cutter, starting with
the u r value given by Equation (9.20) and ending with the
value given by Equation (9.21). We then use Equations
(9.10 - 9.18) to calculate the positions of the corresponding
points on the fi llet.
Fillet Shape of an Undercut Gear
The method described in the previous section for finding

the shape of a gear tooth fillet can still be used when the
gear is undercut. The meshing diagram for the gear and the
cutter is shown in Figure 9.6. Since the gear is undercut, we
are considering a situation in which the end point Hr of the
path of contact lies below the interference point Eg • The
point of the cutter tooth profile which passes through Eg is
labelled AEr •
The tooth profile of the undercut gear is shown in
Figure 9.7. Although the shape of the involute part of the
profile is already known, and it is therefore unnecessary to
use the general theory described at the beginning of this
chapter, it is nevertheless helpful to consider the results
we would obtain if we were to do so. A typical point of the
cutter tooth profile is shown as Ar in Figure 9.6. In order to
use the general method, we need a relation between the
coordinates xr and Yr of point Ar' and this relation can be
Fillet Shape of an Undercut Gear 217
Base circle
Figure 9.7. Tooth profile of an undercut gear.
- 11Tm
4 - x r t an ..
"'r (9.22)
Equations (9.3-9.8) can then be used to find the position of

the corresponding point A on the gear tooth profile, which is
shown in Figure 9.7.
We consider a sequence of points on the rack cutter
tooth, starting near the root and moving towards the tip. As
we move along the profile to AEr , the cutting point moves down
the path of contact to Eg , and on the gear tooth the
corresponding points lie on the involute, down to point B
where the involute meets the base circle.
We next consider a number of points on the cutter tooth
between AEr and Ahr • The positions of the cutting point, given
by E and 77 in Equations (9.3 and 9.4), lie between Eg and Hr on
the path of contact. The corresponding points on the gear,
found by means of Equations (9.5 - 9.8), lie on the curve shown
in Figure 9.7, joining point B to point Af • It can be seen
that the straight section of the cutter tooth generates a
curve on the gear which has a cusp at the base circle. This is
a characteristic sign of a gear which is undercut.
Finally, we consider points on the curved section of the
cutter tooth, lying between Ahr and ATr • We use Equations

(9.10 - 9.18) to find the corresponding points on the gear,
and we obtain the curve in' Figure 9.7 which starts at
point Af , and ends at the root circle.
From a physical point of view, it is clear that the final
shape of the gear tooth is given by the shaded profile in
Figure 9~ 7, and that parts of the curve followed by the
cutting point have no effect on the final shape of the tooth.
Since we do not need to know the path of the cutting point
between Band Af , it is not necessary to use Equations
(9.3 - 9.8) to find this path. We know the shape of the
involute part of the tooth prof ile, and the shape of the
fillet curve is given by Equations (9.10 - 9.18). To complete
the description of the tooth shape, it is only necessary to
find the position of point Au' where the fillet curve
intersects the involute.
We have, in fact, already described a method for finding
the approximate position of Au' when we discussed the
undercut circle in Chapter 7. The method was based on the fact
that the path followed by point Ahr , relative to the gear
blank, is almost identical to the fillet shape near the top of
the fillet. We are now in a position to verify that statement,
since we can calculate the shape of the fillet, and compare it
with the path of Ahr • We will find that the path of Ahr is
tangent to the fillet curve at point Af , and is extremely
close to the fillet curve at the point where it intersects the
involute. Hence, the method described in Chapter 7 can be used
to find the position of Au' with sufficient accuracy for all
practical purposes.
Profile Modification
The meshing cycle of a tooth pair has already been

described in the earlier chapters of this book, and it can be
summarized in the following manner. We consider one
particular tooth pair, as it passes through the meshing
cycle. The tooth pairs that make contact immediately before
and immediately after will be referred to as the leading and
the trailing tooth pairs.
Profile Modification 219
The initial contact takes place at the limit circle of

the driving gear, and at the tooth tip of the driven gear. The
contact point then moves up the tooth face of the driving
gear, and during the first phase of the meshing cycle there is
another pair of teeth already in contact, so that the total
tooth force is shared between the two contacting tooth pairs.
The first phase ends wh.en the contact point reaches the
lowest point of single-tooth contact on the driving gear. At
this instant, in the leading tooth pair, the contact point has
reached the tooth tip of the driving gear, and contact in this
tooth pair ceases. The second phase of the meshing cycle is
the period of single-tooth contact, which lasts until the
contact point on the driving gear reaches the highest point of
single-tooth contact. This is the moment when contact begins
in the trailing tooth pair, so that during the third phase of
the mashing cycle, there are again two pairs of teeth in
contact. The third phase continues while the contact point on
the driving gear moves up the remaining part of the tooth
face, until it reaches the tooth tip, and the contact ends.
In ideal conditions, there is a smooth transition from
the second phase to the third, at the instant when the
trailing tooth pair makes initial contact. In other words,
the relative angular posi tions of the two gears are such, that
they allow the tooth pair to come smoothly into contact.
However, if the tooth spacing on each gear is not exactly
constant, there may be an impact at the initial contact of
some tooth pairs. Also, in cases where the gear pair is
heavily loaded, the tooth flexibility allows the driven gear
to lag slightly behind its correct angular position,
particularly during the period of single-tooth contact. As a
result of this small error in the relative angular positions
of the gears, there is an impact at the initial contact of
each tooth pair. In addition, with heavily loaded gears,
there may be damage to the tooth faces at the end of the
meshing cycle, due to the very high contact stress when the
contact point reaches the tooth tip of the driving gear.
In order to avoid these problems, it is possible to
remove some material from the tooth face of each gear, either
near the tip, or near the tip and near the limit circle. The
profile is not altered between the highest and the
lowest points of single-tooth contact. This procedure is

called tip and root relief, or profile modification.
The extra material is removed from the tooth face of each
gear by means of a rack cutter or a hob whose teeth are not
straight-sided along their entire profile. The purpose of
this section of the chapter is to show how the tooth profile
of the gear is calculated, when the cutter tooth profile is
modified in this way.
The tooth profile of the rack cutter is shown in
Figure 9.B. Near the root of the tooth, the tooth thickness is
increased, compared to that of a conventional cutter, so that
the gear will be cut with tip relief. The straight section of
the tooth profile ends at point Aqr' a distance q from the
Yr axis, and beyond this point the profile is formed by a
circular arc of radius r q • The values of q and rq are chosen
by the tool designer, but there are some recommended limits on
the values that should be used. For example, in the basic rack
recommended by the ISO for general and heavy engineering, the
minimum value of q is 0.4m, and the value of rq should be such
that, at x r =1.0m, the profile does not deviate from the
straight line by more than 0.02m.
Yr
.A:~
Figure 9.B. A rack cutter with profile modification.

A typical point A on the circular part of the profile

has coordinates (xr'Yr)' and profile angle ~Ar In order to
calculate the shape of the gear tooth profile cut by this
section of the cutter, we must express ~Ar and Yr in terms
of x • The circular arc blends smoothly into the straight
r
section of the profile, and the center A; of the circular arc
lies a distance (q - r sin ~ ) from the y axis. Hence, the
A q r r
profile angle ~ r and the coordinate Yr can be found from the
r q sin ",Ar
'I'
(9.23)
1 A
- "41rm - q tan ~r - rq cos ~r + rq cos ~ r (9.24)
These equations are only valid for values of xr greater

than q. When xr is less than q, we are considering a point on
the straight section of the profile, and the value of Yr is
given by Equation (9.22).
Since we have now expressed Yr as a function of xr for
all points on the cutter tooth profile below Ahr , we can use
Equations (9.3 - 9.8) to calculate the corresponding section
of the gear tooth profile. We could, of course, also express
Yr as a function of xr for the tip section of the cutter
tooth, but the method described earlier is generally more
convenient.
Fillet Shape Cut by a Pinion Cutter
To find the fillet shape of a gear cut by a pinion

cutter, we use a procedure which is essentially the same as
the method described earlier, for the case when the gear was
cut by a rack cutter. Figure 9.9 shows the pinion cutter, in
position to cut a point on the tooth fillet of the gear. The
circular section of the cutter tooth profile starts at point
Ahc ' and ends at ATc • The radius of the section is r cT ' and
its center A~ has polar coordinates (R~,8~) given by
We consider the posi tion of the cutter when the line Cc A'c
makes an angle a with the line of centers. The coordinates
Figure 9.9. Gear tooth fillet and pinion cutter.
(E' ,1/') of point A~ are then given by the following equations,
~ , RC - R' cos a (9.25)

pc C
- R~ sin a (9.26)
The cutting point Ac is found by extending line PA~ to the

point where it meets the cutter tooth profile. The positions
5' and 5 of points A~ and Ac on the line of action can be
(9.27)
5 S' - r cT (9.28)
The coordinates (~,1/) of the cutting point Ac are then given

in terms of ~' and 1/',
(..E....) t , (9.29)
S' ~
1/ (9.30)
The angle a between the line of centers and line CcA~ is

made up of the polar coordinate e~, together with the angle ~c
through which the tooth center-line has turned. The angular
position ~c can therefore be expressed in terms of a, and the
corresponding angular position of the gear can then be found
a - e'c ( 9.31)
1 1
- ~(R -2P s) (9.32)
sg sc ~ c +
Since Ac is the cutting point, it coincides with a point

A on the gear tooth fillet. In order to determine the position
of A on the gear, we need to find its polar coordinates
(R,e R ). An expression for R can be written down immediately,
since we know the position of Ac' and therefore that of A. We
can also find e R , since the angle between line CgA and the
line of centers is made up of the coordinate e R, together with
the angle ~g through which the tooth center-line has rotated.
The coordinates of A are therefore given by the following
expressions,
R (9.33)
arctan (~) - fJ (9.34)

Rpg+~ g
The last step required before we can calculate the shape

of the gear tooth fillet is to determine the initial and final
values of a, corresponding to the upper and lower ends of the
fillet. The upper end is cut by point Ahc ' the end of the
involute section of the cutter tooth profile. When Ahc is the
cutting point, the cutting pressure angle is equal to ~c, the
same value as the cutting pressure angle when the involute
part of the gear tooth profile is being cut. The corresponding
position of A' is shown in Figure 9.10, and the angle E C A'
c c c c c
is then equal to (~ +a). We can therefore express a in terms
of R~ and the base circle radius Rbc '
R
a arccos (R~c) _ ~c (9.35)
c
Figure 9.10. Cutting the end point of the fillet.
The other end of the fillet, where it meets the root

circle, is cut by point ATc on the cutter. ATc will be the
cutting point when the line from P to A~ passes through ATc •
Since ATc ' A~ and Cc are collinear, ATc will be the cutting
point when the line through the three points coincides with
the line of centers. The value of a corresponding to the
lowest point of the fillet is therefore equal to zero,
a o (9.36)
To construct the entire fillet, we consider a number of

values of a between the values given in Equations (9.35
and 9.36), and we use Equations (9.25-9.34) to find the
coordinates of the corresponding points on the fillet.
Examples 225
Numerical Examples
Example 9.1
A hob has a module of 6 mm and a pressure angle of 20°.
Its addendum is 7.5 mm, and the tooth tip radius is 1.8 mm.
The hob is used to cut a 24-tooth gear, with a profile shift
of 1.5 mm. Calculate the polar coordinates in the gear of the
point where the fillet meets the involute, and of the point
where the fillet meets the root circle.
Rsg = 72.000 mm
Ps = 18.850
We start by finding the coordinates (x~,y~) of the center of

the circular section at the tip of the hob tooth.
h = 6.316 (5.40)
x~ - 5.700 (5.43)
y~ = - 0.722 (5.44)
Note that y~ is negative, which is essential in a correctly

des i gned hob.
At the top of the fi llet ,

ur - 10.817 (9.20)
~'= -4.200 (9.10)
1'/' - 11.539 (9.11)
s' = - 12.280 (9.12)
s = - 14.080 (9.13)
~=-4.816 (9.14)
= - 13.231
7j (9.15)
13 g - 0.281138 radians = - 16.108° (9.16)
R = 68.475 mm, 8 R = 4.967° (9.17,9.18)
At the root circle,

= 0.722
Ur (9.21)
~' = - 4.200 (9.10)
7j' = 0 (9.11)
s' = - 4.200 (9.12)
s = -6.000 (9.13)
- 6.000 (9.14)
11 = 0 (9.15)
- 0.120869 radians = - 6.925° (9.16)
R = 66.000, 9R = 6.925° (9.17,9.18)
It should be noted that this point is not on the center-line

of the tooth space, where the value of 9R is 7.5°. The tooth
profile contains a very small circular section, coinciding
with the root circle, which is generated by the flat section
at the tip of the hob tooth.
Example 9.2
A hob with D.P. 2.5 and pressure angle 20° is designed to
cut gears with tip relief. The tooth profile of the hob is
shaped like Figure 9.8, with the values
. of q and r q being 0.16
and 4.8 inches. Determine the reduction in the tip tooth
thickness of a 40-tooth gear, compared with a gear cut by a
conventional hob, if the gear has zero profile shift and an
addendum of 0.4 inches.
m = 0.4000 inches
Rsg 8.0000
RTg = 8.4000
The value of xr on the hob which generates the tip of the

tooth on the gear must be found by trial and error. We will
use the correct value immediately, and proceed with the
remaining calculations.
xr 0.3560
= 22.5110
tJ>A r (9.23)
Yr = - 0.4486 (9.24)
~0.3560 (9.3)
11 = 0.8590 (9.4)
u r = 1.3076 (9.5)
f3 g 0.084916 radians 4.865° (9.6)
R = 8.4000 (9.7)
Examples 227
8R = 1.004° = 0.017526 radians (9.8)

tR = 2R8 R = 0.2944 inches
For a gear with no tip relief,

Rb = 7.5175
41T = 26.499°
tT = 0.3043 inches (2.36)
Reduction in tooth thickness = 0.0098 inches
Example 9.3
Repeat the calculations of Example 9.1, assuming that
the gear is cut by a 16-tooth pinion cutter with a tip circle
diameter of 113.4 mm, a profile shift of 1.8 mm, and rounding
at the tooth tips with a radius of 1.5 mm. This is the cutter
m=6, 41 s =200, Nc =16, RTc =56.7, e c =1.8, r CT =1.5

Ng =24, e g =1.5
We must first find the polar coordinates (R~,8~) of the center

of the circular section at the tip of the cutter tooth.
Rsc = 48.000 mm
Rbc = 45.105
R~ 55.200 (5.32)
41hc = 36.454° (5.33)
Rhc = 56.078 (5.34)
tsc = 10.735 (6.1)
0.024246 radians (5.35)
35.065° (5.36)
x'c 55.200 (5.37)
y~ = 0.132 (5.38)
8'c = 0 • 137° (5.39)
Next, we determine the center distance at which the cutter

wi 11 cut the requi red tooth thickness in the gear.
Rsg = 72.000
Rbg = 67.658
Ps = 18.850
t sg = 10 • 5 17 ( 6. 1 )
CCs = 120.000
inv ~~ = 0.024914 (5.18)
~c 23.577° (2.16,2.17)
p
~c 23.577° (5.19)
CC 123.033 (5.20)
RCpg 73.820 (5.8)
RCpc = 49.213 (5.9)
Lastly, we find the coordinates in the gear of the end points

of the fillet.
At the top of the fillet,

a = 11.626° (9.35)
~'=-4.854 (9.25)
71' - 11 • 124 (9.26)
s' - 12.137 (9.27)
s = -13.637 (9.28)
e - 5.454 (9.29)
71 = - 12.498 (9.30)
~c = 11.489° = 0.200516 radians (9.31)
~g = - 0.264577 radians = - 15.159° (9.32)
R = 69.499 mm, 9 R = 4.799° (9.33, 9.34)
At the root circle,

a = 0 (9.36)
~' = - 5.987 (9.25)
71' = 0 (9.26)
s' = - 5.987 (9.27)
s = - 7.487 (9.28)
~ = - 7.487 (9.29 )
71 =0 (9.30)
~c - 0.137° = - 0.002388 radians (9.31)
~g - 0.129308 radians = - 7.409° (9.32)
R = 66.333 mm, 9R = 7.409° (9.33, 9.34)
Chapter 10
Curvature of Tooth Profiles
Involute Radius of Curvature
The radius of curvature at any point of an involute is

found most easily, by making use of one of the special
propert ies of the curve.
We pointed out in Chapter 2 that the involute can be
represented as the path followed by point A of a rigid bar,
while the bar rolls without slipping on a circle of radius R b •
The bar and the circle are shown in Figure 10.1, and the
contact point is labelled E. Since E is also the instantaneous
center of the bar, the path of A coincides momentarily with
the circle whose center is E, and the radius of curvature p of
the involute at point A is therefore equal to the length EA,
p EA ( 10. 1)
If A is the point of the involute at radius R, as shown

in Figure 10.2, the angle ECA is equal to the profile
angle ~R' as we proved in Equation (2.9), and the radius of
curvature can therefore be expressed as follows,
p (10.2)
Euler-Savary Equation
The equation just derived gives a very simple method for

calculating the radius of curvature, at any point on the
involute section of a gear tooth profile. However, the
equation is of course not suitable for finding the radius of
230 Curvature of Tooth Profiles
Involute path followed D

by point A of the bar
c
Figure 10.1. A rigid bar rolling on the fixed base circle.
curvature in the fillet. For this purpose, we make use of the

Euler-Savary equation, which gives a relation between the
radii of curvature of two conjugate profiles. The fillet of a
gear tooth is conjugate to the circular section at the tip of
the cutter tooth, whose radius is known. We can therefore use
the Euler-Savary equation to find the radius of curvature at
any point on the fillet.
Before we make use of the Euler-Savary equation, we will
show how the equation is derived. We consider a pair of
meshing gears, as shown in Figure 10.3, and we first discuss
the motion of gear 2 relative to gear 1. We regard gear 1 as
fixed, so that the motion of gear 2 can be represented by the
motion of its pitch circle, rolling without slipping on the
pitch circle of gear 1. If the angular velocity of gear 2
relative to gear 1 is w radians/second counter-clockwise,
then the velocity of the gear center C2 is (R p2 w), and the
angular velocity of the line of centers is equal to the
velocity of C2 , divided by the center distance. The velocity
of P, the point at which the pitch circles touch each other,
is then given by the following expression,
Euler-Savary Equation 23'
Figure '0.2. Radius of curvature of the involute.
('0.3)
We now consider the motion of a 'particular curve in

gear 2, which we will call curve 02. As gear 2 rolls on the
pitch circle of gear " the various positions occupied by
curve 02 form an envelope, and this envelope is called
curve 0,. Figure '0.4 shows the positions of gear 2 at two
distinct times l' and 1" • At time 1', the center of gear 2 is C2 '
and the point where the pitch circles touch is P. The
2
corresponding points at time 1" are shown as C and P'. The
two positions of the curve in gear 2 are shown as 02 and 02'
and these curves touch the envelope 0, at points A and A' •
The instantaneous center of gear 2 at time l' is P. Hence,
the point of gear 2 which coincides with A has a velocity that
is perpendicular to PA. The tangent to the envelope 0, must
lie in the same direction, and the normal therefore coincides
with PA. The two lines PA and P'A' are each normal to curve 0,
at adjacent points, so the point 0, where these lines meet is
the center of curvature of curve 0, at A, and the length O,A
is the radius of curvature Pl.
The velocity of A can be related to the velocity of P. If
PA makes an angle ~ with the tangent to the pitch circles
at P, the velocity of P has a component perpendicular to PA of
Pitch circle of
gear 1, fixed
Pitch circle of gear 2,

rolling on that of gear 1
Figure 10.3. Gear 2 rolling on the pitch circle of gear 1.
(v p sin 1/1), and the velocity vAil can be expressed as follows,
(10.4)
In this expression, s is the distance from P to A. The symbol

vAil is used to represent the velocity of A, to indicate that
the velocity is measured relative to gear 1.
We next determine the velocity of A, measured relative
to gear 2. Figure 10.5 shows the system with gear 2 at rest,
and gear 1 rolling on the pitch circle of gear 2 with a
clockwise angular velocity w. As before, the positions of the
moving gear at the two times T and T' are indicated by the
unprimed and the primed symbols. Curve 02 is now the envelope
of curve 01' and the two positions shown of curve 01 touch
curve 02 at A and A'. The lines PA and P'A' are normal to
curve 02' so the point 02 where they meet is the center of
curvature, and the length 02A is the radius of curvature P2.
If we calculate the velocity of P, we will find that it
Euler-Savary Equation 233
Figure 10.4. Envelope 01 formed by a curve 02 in gear 2.
is the same as before. In other words, it is still given by

the expression in Equation (10.3). Its component
perpendicular to PA is also unchanged, and we can now write
down the veloc i ty of A,
(10.5)
The velocity of any point A, measured relative to gear 1,

is equal to the velocity of A measured relative to gear 2,
plus the velocity relative to gear 1 of the point in gear 2
which coincides with A. This is a standard theorem of
dynamics, and for the case we are considering, it can be
written as follows,
v A/ 2 + ws (10.6)
We now combine Equations (10.3 - 10.6), and we obtain a

relation between the radii of curvature Pl and P 2 of curves 01
and °2 ,
Pl P2 _,s_ (_1_ + _1_) (10.7)
(Pl- s ) - (P2+ s ) Sln ~ Rpl RP2
Figure 10.5. Envelope formed by curve 01.
Finally, the left-hand side of this equation is simplified,

and the relation takes the following form, which is known as
the Euler-Savary equation for envelopes,
_1_ (_1_ + _1_) (10.8)

sin q, Rpl Rp2
In the derivation of this equation, we have used exactly

the same notation used throughout the rest of this book. The
two curves 01 and 02 represent the tooth profiles, A is the
contact point between the teeth, and P is the pitch point. The
angle q, is the operating pressure angle of the gear pair,
which, as we have shown, is not constant when we are dealing
with non-involute profiles. Finally, s is the coordinate
giving the position of A on the line of action, and it is
positive when A lies above P. In Figures 10.4 and 10.5, the
two curves 01 and 02 are shown as convex, and we assumed in
the derivation that Pl and P2 are positive. The equation
remains valid if either curve is concave, but the
corresponding radius of curvature is then negative.
Curvature of Tooth Profiles 235
Gear Tooth Fillet Radius of Curvature
We can use Equation (10.8) to obtain the radius of

curvature at any point on a gear tooth profile, when the gear
is cut by a non-involute cutter. If gear 1 represents the gear
being cut, and gear 2 the cutter, it is convenient to replace
the subscripts 1 and 2 by g and c. In Equation (10.8), the
radii RP1 and Rp2 of the pitch circles are then replaced by
the cutting pitch circle radii R~g and R~c. We simplify the
equation by introducing a length RO' defined as follows,
_1_ + 1 (10.9)
RC RC
pg pc
so that the quantity (1/RO) represents the relative curvature
of the two cutting pitch circles. We then solve
Equation (10.8) for Pg ' obtaining the following expression,
(p +s)2
c (10.10)
In order to calculate the radius of curvature Pg at a

point on the gear tooth profile, we use the methods described
in Chapter 9 to find the coordinates (~,~) of the cutting
point, corresponding to any specified point on the cutter
tooth. The radius of curvature of the cutter tooth profile at
this point gives the value of Pc to be used in
Equation (10.10), and expressions for If> and s can be read from
Figure 9.9, which shows the meshing diagram during the
cutting process,
tan If> £. (10.11)

~
s -~ (10.12)
sin If>
These values for P, c

If> and s are substituted into
Equation (10.10), and we obtain the radius of curvature Pg at
the corresponding point on the gear tooth profile.
We first use this method to find the radius of curvature
at points on a gear tooth fillet, for the case when the gear
is cut by a rack cutter. The cutting pitch circle radius of
the rack cutter is infinite, and the cutting pitch circle of
the gear coincides with its standard pitch circle, so the

length RO defined by Equation (10.9) is equal to the standard
pitch circle radius of the gear,
( 10.13)
The radius of curvature of the circular tip of the rack cutter

tooth is rrT' and the values of ~ and ~ are given by Equations
(9.14 and 9.15). The profile radius of curvature at a point on
the gear tooth fillet can then be found from Equation (10.10).
However, since the fillet is concave, the radius of curvature
given by this equation would always be negative. It is rather
more convenient to change the sign in the equation, so that we
obtain an expression for Pf' the magnitude of the fillet
radius of curvature,
(10.14)
A point of particular interest is the point where the

fillet meets the root circle, since the radius of curvature at
this point is required for the calculation of the maximum
fillet stress in the tooth. The position of the cutting point
is given by Equations (9.10 - 9.15). To find the position
corresponding to the point where the fillet meets the root
circle, we choose the cutter position u r equal to (-y~), as we
proved in Equation (9.21). We then obtain the following
values,
'11 0
These values are substituted into Equation (10.14), glvlng an

expression for r f , the magnitude of the fillet radius of
curvature, at the point where the fillet meets the root
circle,
Gear Tooth Fillet Radius of Curvature 237
(a r -e-r rT }2
( 10.15)
The fillet radius of curvature is found by the same

procedure, for a gear which is cut by a pinion cutter. The
radii of the cutting pitch circles were given by Equations
(5.8 and 5.9),
When these values are substituted into Equation (10.9), we

obtain the following expression for the length RO'
NgNCC C
(10.16)
(N g +N c }2
The gear tooth fillet is cut by the circular section at

the tip of the cutter tooth, whose radius is r cT ' If there is
no rounding at the cutter tooth tip, so that there is a sharp
corner where the tooth profile meets the tip circle, then the
value of r cT is zero. We use Equations (9.25 - 9.30) to find
the coordinates (~,~) of the cutting point, corresponding to
any specified point on the cutter tooth profile. The values of
~ and s are found, as before, from Equations (10.11
and 10.12). The radius of curvature at the corresponding
point of the gear tooth fillet is given by Equation (10.10),
and again we change the sign so that we obtain the magnitude
P f of the radius of curvature,
(r CT +s)2
P r + (10.17)
f cT RO sin ~ - (rCT+s)
To find the magnitude r f of the fillet radius of

curvature, at the point where the fillet meets the root
circle, we must determine the corresponding values of ~ and s.
When we described in Chapter 9 how the shape of the gear tooth
fillet is calculated, we specified the position of the cutter
by the angle a between the line of centers, and the line C A'
c c
in the cutter. We showed in Equation (9.36) that, when a is
zero, the cutter is in the correct position to cut the point
on the gear tooth where the fillet meets the root circle. With
this value of a, the coordinates (~,~) of the cutting point

are found from Equations (9.25 - 9.30), and the values of , and
s are then given by Equations (10.11 and 10.12),
t RC
pc
- R
Tc
~ 0
, 90 0
s RC
pc
- R
Tc
We substitute these values into Equation (10.17), and we

obtain an expression for r f ,
(RTC-Rpc-rCT)2
rf r cT + c ( 10. 18)
RO + (RTC-Rpc-rCT)
Examples 239
Numerical Examples
Example 10. 1
For each of the fillet points whose positions were found
in Example 9.1, calculate the fillet radius of curvature.

s = - 14.080 mm (Example 9.1)
£=-4.816 (Example 9. 1 )
17 = - 13.231 (Example 9.1)
~ 20.000° (10.11)
Pf = 5.886 mm (10.14)
At the root circle,

s=-6.000 (Example 9.1)
- 6.000 (Example 9.1)
17 =0 (Example 9.1)
~ = 90° (10.11)
2.031 mm (10.14)
The second of these results can be confirmed by

Equation (10.15), which gives directly the fillet radius of
curvature at the point where the fillet meets the root circle.
It might be expected that the first result could be confirmed
by Equation (10.2), which gives the radius of curvature at any
point on the involute. However, no such confirmation is
possible, because the tooth profile radius of curvature is
discontinuous at the point where the fillet meets the
involute. It should also be remembered that the fillet radius
of curvature given by Equation (10.14) is concave, while the
involute radius of curvature given by Equation (10.2) is
convex.
Example 10.2
Calculate the fillet radius of curvature at each end of
the tooth fillet, for the gear described in Example 9.3.
CC = 123.033 mm (Example 9.3)

RO = 29.528 (10.16)

s = - 13.637 (Example 9.3)
E = - 5.454 (Example 9.3)
7'/ = - 12.498 (Example 9.3)
~ 23.577 0 (10.11)
P f = 7.651 mm (10.17)
At the root circle,

s=-7.487 (Example 9.3)
E - 7.487 (Example 9.3)
7'/ = 0 (Example 9.3)
t/J = 90 0 (10.11)
Pf = 2.509 mm (10.17)
It is worth drawing attention to the results of Examples

10.1 and 10.2. The minimum radius of curvature in the gear
tooth fillet, when the gear is cut by the pinion cutter, is
larger than when the gear is cut by the hob. This is true,
even though the tooth tip radius r cT in the pinion is smaller
than the corresponding radius rrT in the hob. It is therefore
advisable, when a hob is designed, to choose the largest
possible value for rrT' which is given by Equation (5.45), in
order to keep the minimum radius of curvature cut in the gear
tooth fillet as large as possible.
Chapter 11
Tooth Stresses in Spur Gears
Introduction
When a gear pair is designed, it is important to

calculate the maximum tooth stresses, to ensure that the
teeth will not be damaged during the operation of the gear
pair. However, the shape of a gear tooth makes it impossible
to calculate the stresses exactly, using the theory of
elasticity. There are a number of numerical methods, such as
the finite element method, by which the stresses can be found,
but these methods require large computers and take
considerable computing time, so they are not suitable for
general design purposes. There is a need for a simple theory,
even if the results are only approximate, and it is essential
that the calculations can be carried out on a programmable
calculator or a micro-computer.
Approximate methods for calculating tooth stresses
have, of course, existed for a long time, and descriptions of
some of these methods have been made available in a number of
the AGMA reports. Over the years, the methods have been
refined, and the most recent AGMA report on this subject,
published in 1982, is entitled "AGMA Standard for Rating the
Pitting Resistance and Bending Strength of Spur and Helical
Involute Gear Teeth" [6]. All statements in this chapter and
in Chapter 17 about recommendations made by the AGMA refer to
this report. The material in these two chapters differs in
certain respects from that in the AGMA report, so when a gear
pair is to be rated according to the AGMA Standard, the report
should be followed exactly.
In this book, the present chapter contains a description
of the theory by which the tooth stresses are calculated, for
242 Tooth Stresses in Spur Gears
a pair of spur gears. The AGMA does not provide the background
theory, but the formulae presented in the AGMA Standard, when
applied to spur gears, are based on the same theory that is
described in this chapter.
The stresses in a gear tooth depend primarily on the load
and the tooth shape, but there are several other phenomena
which must be taken into account. The stresses are first
calculated, considering only the load and the tooth shape,
and these are called the static stresses. Then the static
stresses are multiplied by a number of factors, to compensate
for each of the other influences. These factors include the
application factor, which allows for momentary overloads,
depending on the type of application: the size factor, which
allows for non-uniformity of the material properties in the
gears: the load distribution factor, which allows for
non-uniformity in the tooth loading: and the dynamic factor,
which compensates for the increase in tooth load caused by
dynamic effects, as the teeth enter and leave the meshing
zone. The AGMA report contains a description of how each of
these factors should be chosen or calculated. In this book, we
will describe only the calculation of the static stresses,
since the subject of the book is the tooth geometry, and it is
the static stresses, rather than the actual stresses, which
are determined by the geometry.
There are two distinct types of stress which are
calculated in the design of a gear pair, because each of these
types can cause damage to the teeth, and eventual failure.
First, there is the contact stress which occurs at the points
where the meshing teeth are in contact. If the contact stress
is too high, the tooth surface becomes pitted with small
holes. This pitting may not be harmful, so long as the pits
remain small, but if they become larger, the tooth surface is
eventually destroyed. The second type of stress which is
often responsible for tooth damage is the tensile stress in
the fillet, caused by a tooth load on the face of the tooth.
If the tensile stress is too large, fatigue cracks will be
formed in the fillet, and the tooth will eventually fracture.
It is clear that both the contact stress and the fillet stress
must always be calculated, and compared with values which the
gear material can sustain without damage.
Contact Force Intensity 243
Figure 11.1 •. Tooth force applied to gear 1.
Contact Force Intensity
In the abSence of friction, the tooth force W is directed

along the normal to the tooth prof i Ie, which is tangent to the
base circle, as shown in Figure 11.1. I f the torque applied to
gear 1 is M1 , the corresponding tooth force W is found by
taking moments about the gear axis,
(11.1)
A similar relation exists between the contact force and the

torque applied to gear 2,
(11.2)
and, by eliminating W from these equations, we obtain a

relation between M1 and M2 ,
(11.3)
When a gear pair is designed, the value of either M1 or

M2 is known. We use Equation (11.3) to find the other torque,
and the contact force is then found from Equation (11.1

or 11. 2) •
Point Aw in Figure 11.1 is usually referred to as the
contact point, but of course the gear is a solid object, and
the contact really takes place along the entire axial line
through Aw' whose length is equal to the gear face-width F.
The contact length Lc is the total length of all the contact
lines in the gear pair, and is therefore equal to either F
or 2F, depending on whether the gear pair has one or two pairs
of teeth in contact.
The load intensity w is defined as the tooth force per
unit length of the contact line. The maximum load intensity
occurs when there is only one tooth pair in contact, and is
then equal to the tooth force divided by the gear face-width,
w (11.4)
When there are two pairs of teeth in contact, the total tooth
force W is shared between both the contacting tooth pairs, so
the load intensity is halved. Since the maximum stresses in
spur gears always occur when the load intensit~ is a maximum,
we need consider only the period of single-tooth contact, and
the load intensity that is given by Equation (11.4).
Contact Stress
The contact stress at the points where the teeth touch

each other is found by means of the Hertz contact stress
theory, described in all books on elasticity. Since the
contact takes place along a line, the teeth are represented in
the vicinity of the contact line by two circular cylinders.
The radi i of these cylinders are equal to the radi i of
curvature P1 and P2 of the tooth profiles at the contact
point. The maximum contact stress Gc is then given by the
P +p
Cp v[w( p\P22 )] (11. 5)
The quantity w in this expression is the load intensity, and

Contact Stress 245
Cp is an elastic coefficient, defined as follows,

2
.J.... v[ '/1"( 1-v 1 ) +
'/1"( 1-v22)
] (11.6)
Cp E1 E2
where E 1 ,v 1 and E2 ,v 2 are Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio

for the material of each gear.
The meshing diagram for a gear pair is shown in
Figure 11.2, with the contact point in position s on the path
of contact. We proved in Equation (10.1) that the radius of
curvature P1 of the tooth profile of gear 1 at point A1 is
equal to the length E 1A1 , while the corresponding radius of
curvature P2 in gear 2 is equal to A2E2 • Hence, the sum
(P 1+P 2 ) is equal to E 1E2 , which can be expressed in terms of
the center distance C and the gear pair operating pressure
angle t/>,
C sin t/> (11.7)
This relation is used to simplify the expression for the

contact stress,
c
Figure 11.2. Tooth prof ile radi i of curvature.
(11.8)
The lengths E1A1 and A2E2 depend on the position of the

contact point, so the radii of curvature of the two profiles
are expressed in terms of the coordinate s,
Rb 1 tan q, + s (11.9)
Rb2 tan q, - s (11.10)
It is evident that the contact stress depends on the value

of s, and therefore varies during the meshing cycle. For the
purpose of the gear pair design, we are interested in the
maximum value reached by uc • As we pointed out earlier, we
consider only the period of single-tooth contact, so the load
intensity w is constant, and the variation in Uc depends only
on the denominator (P1 P2). A change in s increases one radius
of curvature, and decreases the other by the same amount. It
can be verified that we obtain the maximum value for Uc when
the smaller radius of curvature is as small as possible. If
the gears are numbered so that gear 1 is the pinion, then Rb1
is smaller than Rb2 , and we obtain the smallest value for P1
when s reaches its largest negative value. The contact point
is then as far as possible below the pi tch point, and since we
are considering only the period of single-tooth contact, the
contact point must lie at the lowest point of single-tooth
contact on the pinion.
Figure 11.3 shows point Q on the path of contact,
corresponding to the lowest point of single-tooth contact on
the pinion, and the highest point of single-tooth contact on
the gear. The value of P 1 can be read directly from the
diagram, for the situation when the contact point coincides
with Q, and the corresponding value of P2 is found from
(11.11)
(11.12)
To calculate the maximum contact stress during the meshing

Contact Stress 247
Figure 11.3. Contact at the lowest point

of single-tooth contact on gear 1.
cycle, we substitute these values of Pl and P2 into

Equation (11.8).
We can see from the expression for Uc that the maximum
value depends on the load intensity, the material properties
and the geometry of the gear pair. It is convenient to
describe the influence of the gear pair geometry on the
contact stress by means of a single dimensionless factor kc '
and we therefore express the contact stress in the following
manner,
(11.13)
A comparison of Equations (11.8 and 11.13) shows that the

geometry factor kc is then given by the following expression,
(11.14)
where the radii of curvature are found from Equations (11.11

and 11. 12) •
The quantity kc is a geometry factor for the gear pair,
rather than for either the pinion or the gear individually. To
find the maximum contact stress in the gear pair, the factor
kc is first calculated, and the contact stress is then given
by Equation (11.13). This contact stress acts on the teeth of
both gears, at the lowest point of single-tooth contact in the
pinion, and at the highest point of single-tooth contact in
the gear.
In the case of a rack and pinion, there is no center
distance C, and therefore Equation (11.14) cannot be used. To
calculate the contact stress, we first put Equation (11.5)
into the following form,
a
c
(11.15)
If we number the gears so that gear 1 is the pinion and gear 2

is the rack, then the curvature (1/P2) is zero, since the
teeth of the rack are straight-sided. We now combine
Equations (11.15 and 11.13), to obtain an expression for the
geometry factor,
(11.16)
where the radius of curvature P 1 is given, as before, by

Equation (11.11).
Fillet Stress
A loaded gear tooth is shown in Figure 11.4, with the

contact force applied at a typical point Aw. The actual tooth
force is W, but for the stress analysis it is convenient to
consider a tooth of unit face-width, so we apply a force equal
to the load intensity w, given by Equation (11.4).
The stress is calculated as if the tooth were a beam,
fixed at its root. This method was first proposed by Wilfred
Lewis, but has been modified many times since his original
suggestion. The force at Aw is considered to act at D, the
point where the normal to the profile at Aw cuts the tooth
center-line, and it is then resolved into two components, one
perpendicular to the tooth center-line, and the other along
the center-line. The first component causes stresses in the
Fillet Stress 249
c 'Yw x
Figure 11.4. Geometric parameters at the contact point.
tooth like the bending stresses in a cantilevered beam. In

particular, there are tensile and compressive stresses at
points A and A', shown on the fillets in Figure 11.4. The
second component causes a radial compressive stress
throughout the tooth, like the axial stress in a beam, and
this is smaller in magnitude than the bending stresses at A
and A' •
When the bending and the radial stresses are combined,
we obtain a tensile stress at A, and a compressive stress
at A'. Although the compressive stress is larger in
magnitude, it is the tensile stress at A which is found to
cause fatigue cracks, so it is this stress which we calculate.
Since the stresses are found using elementary beam theory,
and the tooth shape is totally unlike the shape of a beam, it
is to be expected that the results are very inaccurate. We
therefore multiply the calculated stress at A by a stress
concentration factor, based on a series of photelastic
experiments performed by Dolan and Broghamer [7]. The
resulting stress is called the fillet stress at A, and is
represented by the symbol a~. The subscript t is used to
indicate that the symbol refers to the tensile fillet stress.
The value of a~ obviously depends on the fillet point A
at which the stress is calculated. We are generally
interested in the maximum stress, which we call simply the
fillet stress 0t' and we will discuss later how this can be
found.
We consider initially the load point Aw at an arbitrary
radius Rw' The profile angle at Aw, the coordinates of Aw, and
the angle between the tangent at Aw and the tooth center-line
are given by Equations (2.18, 2.35 and 2.38),
Rb
cos ~w (11.17)
Rw
ts
9w 2R + inv ~s - inv ~w (11.18)
s
Xw Rw cos 9w (11.19)
Yw Rw sin 9w (11.20)
Yw ~
w - 9w (11.21)
We then find the x coordinate of D, the point where the normal

at Aw intersects the tooth center-line,
(11.22)
The shape of the fillet depends on the type of cutter,

and on its dimensions. Once the details of the cutter are
known, the coordinates (x,y) of a typical point A on the
fillet are found by the methods described in Chapter 9. The
cross-section at AA' has a unit thickness and a depth 2y. The
bending moment at this section is equal to [w cos Yw (xo-x)],
and the radial force is (w sin Yw)' The bending stress and the
radial stress are calculated, using elementary beam theory,
°bending
w sin Yw
°radial (1 )(2y)
The stress concentration factor Kf for the fillet stress

is given by the following expression,
Kf (~)k2(..ll....)k3
k1 + rf (11.23)
xo-x
where the term r f is the fillet radius of curvature, at the

point where it meets the root circle. The value of r f was
Fillet St ress 251
given by Equation (10.15), for a gear cut by a rack cutter,

and by Equation (10.18) for a gear cut by a pinion cutter.
When a hob is used to cut the gear, the value of r f is assumed
to be the same as if the gear was cut by a rack cutter.
Values for the three constants k 1 , k2 and k3 were given
by Dolan and Broghamer for gears with pressure angles ~s of
14.5° and 20°, and additional values are now given by the AGMA
for 25° pressure angle gears. For other values of ~s between
14.5° and 25°, it is possible to find k 1 , k2 and k3 by
interpolation. The following three equations represent k 1 , k2
and k3 as functions of ~s' giving the Dolan-Broghamer and the
AGMA values when ~s is equal to 14.5°, 20° and 25°.
k1 0.3054 - 0.00489~; - 0.000069(~;)2 ( 11.24)
k2 0.3620 - 0.01268~; + 0.000104(~;)2 (11.25)
k3 0.2934 + 0.00609~; + 0.000087(~;)2 (11.26)
We combine the bending and the radial stresses, and

multiply by the stress concentration factor, to obtain the
fillet stress at point A,
(11.27)
The expression inside the square brackets has been multiplied

by the module m, to make the expression dimensionless, and
this accounts for the factor (11m) outside the brackets.
We now have to find the fillet point A where the tensile
stress is a maximum. There are a number of methods used to
find the critical section. Fortunately, if the stress is
calculated as a function of position along the fillet, the
function is very smooth, and is close to its maximum value
over a considerable length of the fillet. For this reason, it
is not very important to find the critical section exactly,
since a substantial error in the position of the critical
section gives only a very small error in the maximum fillet
stress. The method recommended by the AGMA is based on the
original graphical method of Lewis, but is inconvenient for
use on the computer. The simplest method for finding the
critical section is to calculate o~ at a number of points

along the fillet, and choose the largest value. The ~et of
points should include the top point of the fillet, since in
some gears this is the point where the highest value of o~
occurs. Once this value has been found, it can be expressed in
( 11.28)
The fillet stress 0t depends on the load intensity, and

on a number of other quantities that are all geometric in
nature. As we pointed out in connection with the contact
stress, it is convenient to combine the geometric effects
into a single dimensionless factor. We therefore express the
fillet stress as follows, in terms of a geometry factor k t ,
(11.29)
We compare the last two equations, to obtain an expression for

the geometry factor,
1.5m(x o -x) O.5m tan Yw
cosyw[Kf( 2 - )]max (11.30)
y y
So far, we have shown how to calculate the fillet stress

when the load is applied at an arbitrary radius Rw' The tooth
load moves along the tooth face during the meshing cycle, and
the fillet stress depends on the position of the load. We now
consider the load position which causes the fillet stress to
reach its max imum value. I n general, the fi llet stress
increases as the load moves towards the tip of the tooth.
However, when the contact point is near the tooth tip, the
total tooth force is shared between two pairs of teeth,
provided the gears are accurately cut. The maximum fillet
stress is therefore reached when the load is applied at the
highest point of single-tooth contact. Figure 11.5 shows the
meshing diagram for a typical gear pair. The length of the
path of contact T1T2 can be expressed as mcPb' where mc is the
contact ratio, given by Equation (4.9). On gear 1, the load is
at the highest point of single-tooth contact when the contact
point is at Q', a distance Pb above T2 • Hence, the maximum
Fillet Stress 253
Figure 11.5. Contact at the highest point

of single-tooth contact on gear 1.
fillet stress occurs when the load is applied at a radius Rw'

(11.31)
When the gears are not cut with sufficient accuracy to

ensure load-sharing, we have to allow for the possibility of
the total tooth force continuing to act on one tooth, right up
to the tip. In this case, the load intensity remains constant
at (W/F) , and the load radius Rw must be chosen equal to RT ,
the radius of the tip circle. The AGMA report gives maximum
allowable values of variation in the base pitch, which can be
used to determine whether load sharing will take place.
In the design of a gear pair, the k t values are
calculated for both gears, and the fillet stress in each gear
is then given by Equation (11.29). If the k t values for the
two gears are very different, it is possible to reduce the
difference by altering the tooth thicknesses, in the manner
described in Chapter 6. A balanced-strength design is one in
which the two k t values are equal.
AGMA Geometry Factors I and J
In the AGMA report, the methods for calculating the

contact stress and the fillet stresses in a spur gear pair
look rather different from the methods presented in this
chapter. However, the underlying theory is the same, apart
from the manner in which the critical section in the fillet is
found.
The stresses are expressed in terms of a fictional
force Wt , known as the transmitted force, which has the value
that the contact force would have, if it acted along the
common tangent to the pitch circles. The transmitted force is
related to the applied torque on gear 1 by the following
equation,
(11.32)
The corresponding relation between M1 and the contact force W

was given by Equation (11.1), and a comparison of these
equations gives the relation between Wt and W,
Wcos '" (11.33)
The static contact stress and fillet stress are

expressed in terms of the AGMA geometry factors I and J by the
(11.34)
(11.35)
where d p is the diameter of the pinion pitch circle. When

these equations for a c and at are compared with Equations
(11.13 and 11.29), we obtain the following relations between
the AGMA geometry factors I and J, and the factors kc and k t
used in this chapter,
I (11.36)
J (11.37)
Examples 255
Numerical Examples
Example 11.1
A gear pair has the following specification: module
10 mm, pressure angle 20°, tooth numbers 28 and 75, center
distance 525.0 mm, face-width 35.0 mm, tooth thicknesses
18.51 mm and 20.10 mm, blank diameters 307.8 mm and 782.2 mm.
The gears are cut by a hob with addendum 12.5 mm and tooth tip
radius 3.8 mm. Calculate the static contact stress, and the
static fillet stress in gear 1, if the torque applied to
gear 1 is 2500 N-m, and the material constant Cp is
190.3 (MPa)0.5.
m=10, 's=200, Nl =28, N2 =75, C=525.0, F=35.0

t sl =18.51, t s2 =20.10, RT1 =153.9, RT2 =391.1
a r =12.5, rrT=3.8, Cp =190.3, Ml =2500
RSl = 140.000 mm
Rs2 375.000
Rb 1 = 13 1 • 557
Rb2 = 352.385
, = 22.810°
Pb = 29.521 mm
mc = 1.558 (4.9)
We fi rst calculate the contact stress.
W = 19003 N (11.1)
W
Fm = 54.295 MPa
Pl 50.341 (11.11)
P2 = 153.191 (11.12)
kc = 0.5137 (11.14)
o c = 720.4 MPa (11.13)
To calculate the fillet stress, we start by finding the load

position, which is at the highest point of single-tooth
contact.
Rwl = RHSCl = 146.035 (11.31)
'w = 25.728° (11.17)
9 w = 0.048178 radians = 2.760° (11.18)
Xw 145.865 (11.19)
Yw = 7.033 (11.20)
Yw = 22.968° (11.21)
xn = 142.884 mm (11.22)
Next, we calculate the minimum fillet radius of curvature r f ,

and some dimensions of the hob tooth.
e 1 = 3.849 (6.1)
a r - e 1 - rrT = 4.851
r f = 3.962 (10.15)
h 10.000 (5.40)
x~ = - 8.700 (5.43)
y~ =- 0.644 mm (5.44)
Lastly, we find the positions of a number of points on the

fillet, calculate the stress at each of these points, and
choose the largest stress. To save space, we will only give
the final calculation. The value of u r ' the hob tooth position
when the critical fillet point is cut, has therefore been
found by trial and error.
u r = - 6.017 mm
~' - 4.851 (9.10)
'1/' =- 6.661 (9.11)
S' =- 8.240 (9.12)
s = - 12.040 (9.13)
~ =- 7.088 (9.14)
'1/ = -9.732 (9.15)
- 0.155178 radians - 8.891° (9.16)
R = 133.268 (9.17)
fiR = 4.703° (9.18)
x = 132.819
Y = 10.927 mm
kl 0.180 (11.24)
k2 0.150 (11.25)
k3 0.450 ( 11.26)
Kf 2.011 (11.23)
kt 1.982 (11.30)
ot = 107.6 MPa (11.29)
Examples 257
The gear pair specified in this example was designed by

the procedure given in Chapter 6, and the tooth thicknesses
were chosen to give balanced strength. The critical point on
the tooth fillet of gear 2 is cut when the hob position u r is
equal to -4.182 mm. Using this value, the reader can verify
that gear 2 has the same k t value as gear 1, and hence the same
fillet stress.
Example 11.2
A 36-tooth plnlon with D.P. 2.5, pressure angle 20°,

tooth thickness 0.620 inches, face-width 2.0 inches, and tip
circle diameter 15.2 inches, is cut by a hob whose addendum
and tooth tip radius are 0.534 inches and 0.171 inches. The
pinion is meshed with a rack, which is mounted so that its
addendum a is 0.4 inches. The material constant C has the
pr 0 5 P
value 2290 (psi) . • Calculate the static contact stress, and
the static fillet stress in the pinion, when the torque
applied to the pinion is 60000 lb-inches.
Pd =2.5, ~s=20°, N1=36, F=2.0, t s1 =0.620, RT1 =7.6

a r =0.534, rrT=0.171, a pr =0.4, Cp =2290, M1=60000
m = 0.4000 inches
RSl = 7.2000
Rbl = 6.7658
t/I = 20.000° (4.10 )
Pb 1.1809
mc = 1.8366 (4.13 )
w 8868 lbs (11.1)

Ji. 11085psi
Fm
P1 = 2.2810 (11.11)
kc = 0.4188 (11.16)
a
c 101000 psi (11.13)
The fillet stress calculation is essentially the same as

that in Example 11.1, so only the most important steps will be
wri t ten out.
Rwl = RHSC1 = 7.2039 (11.31)

'Yw = 17.629° (11.21)
xo = 7.0992 (11.22)
e 1 = - 0.0114 (6.1)
a r - e 1 - rrT = 0.3744
r f = 0.1895 (10.15)
u r = - 0.4937
x = 6.7386
y = 0.4209 inches
Kf = 2.012 (11.23)
k t = 2.052 (11.30)
ot = 22740 psi (11.29)
Chapter 12
Internal Gears
Introduction
As we stated at the beginning of Chapter 1, an internal

gear is a gear whose teeth face inwards towards the center of
the gear. The geometry of an internal gear is very similar to
that of an external gear, so in this chapter we will cover the
geometric theory qui te rapidly, and emphasize only those
aspects where there are differences between internal and
external gears. In general, the treatment follows the same
order of development that was used in the geometry of external
gears. After first defining the shape of the internal gear
tooth profile, we then discuss the meshing geometry of a
pinion meshed with an internal gear. A gear pair of this type
is called an internal gear pair. In the next part of the
chapter we describe how internal gears are cut, and finally we
outline a procedure for the geometric design of an internal
gear pair.
Tooth Profile of an Internal Gear
When we discussed the tooth shape of an external gear, we

defined its profile as the shape which is conjugate with the
basic rack. In the case of an internal gear, it is clear that
the gear cannot mesh with any rack, so a different method is
required for defining its tooth shape. We first determine
what shape the tooth profile of the internal gear must have,
if the gear is to mesh correctly with an involute pinion. And
we will then show that the tooth profile of the internal gear
can still be regarded as conjugate with the basic rack,
260 Internal Gears
Figure 12.1. An internal gear pair.
provided the basic rack is an imaginary rack of the sort

discussed earlier.
Figure 12.1 shows an involute pinion meshed with an
internal gear. The pinion is numbered as gear 1, and the
internal gear as gear 2. We proved in Chapter 1 that, for the
Law of Gearing to be satisfied, the common normal at the
contact point must always pass through the pitch point P,
which is a fixed point on the line of centers. The position of
P is such that, when we draw the pitch circles touching each
other at P, the angular velocity ratio of the two gears is the
same as it would be if the two pitch circles were to make
roll ing contact wi th no slipping.
The ratio between the angular velocities w 1 and w2 is
determined by the values of N1 and N2 • We know that the teeth
from each gear must pass alternately through the meshing
zone, and this condition leads to the following relation
between w 1 and w2 ,
(12.1)
The proof of this equation is exactly the same as that of

Equation (1.4), the corresponding relation for an external
gear pair.
The direction of rotation of the pinion is always the
same as that of the internal gear, so w 1 has the same sign
as w2 , as indicated by Equation (12.1). If the radii of the
pitch circles are RP1 and Rp2 ' and the circles roll together
without slipping, their angular velocities must be related as
follows,
(12.2)
It is evident from Equations (12.1 and 12.2) that the

pitch circle radii are proportional to the tooth numbers,
(12.3)
In addition, we can see from Figure 12.1 that the difference

between the pitch circle radi i is equal to the center
distance C,
C (12.4)
We solve Equations (12.3 and 12.4), to obtain the values of

RP1 and Rp2 '
( 12.5)
(12.6)
We have now found the position of the pitch point P,

since it is the point where the pitch circles touch each
other. We next determine the shape of the internal gear tooth
profile, if the common normal at the contact point is to pass
through P. Since the tooth profile of the pinion is an
involute, the normal to the profile at any point touches the
pinion base circle. To find the position of the contact point,
when the pinion is in the position shown in Figure 12.1, we
262 Internal Gears
first draw the tangent from P to the pinion base circle,

touching the base circle at E 1 . The point A1 where this line
cuts the pinion tooth profile must be the contact point, since
it is the only point of the profi Ie whose normal passes
through P.
A point on the tooth profile of the internal gear must
therefore coincide with A1 , since A1 is the contact point.
This point on the internal gear is labelled A2 , and the normal
to the internal gear tooth profile at A2 lies along A1PE 1 ,
because the normals to both profiles must coincide at the
contact point. These conditions are sufficient to enable us
to construct the tooth profile. We draw the perpendicular
from the gear center C2 of the internal gear to line PE 1 , and
the foot of this perpendicular is labelled E2 • The circle with
center C2 and radius equal to C2E2 is called the base circle
of the internal gear, and we have shown that the normal to the
internal gear tooth profile at point A2 touches this circle.
The same argument can be used for each point of the
profile, when it becomes the contact point. We have therefore
proved that the normal to the tooth profile at every point of
the profile must touch the base circle. This is exactly the
manner in which the involute was defined in Chapter 2, so the
tooth profile of an internal gear is identical to that of an
external gear with the same number of teeth. The difference
between the two types of gear, however, is that the teeth of
the internal gear lie outside the profile, while those of the
external gear lie inside it. In other words, the teeth of the
internal gear have exactly the same shape as the tooth spaces
in an external gear.
We now make use again of Figure 12.1. Since lines C2E2
and C1E 1 are both perpendicular to line E2E 1 , the two
triangles C2E2P and C1E 1P are similar. The ratio of the base
circle radii is therefore equal to that of the pitch circle
radii, which we showed in Equation (12.3) is also equal to the
ratio of the tooth numbers,
(12.7)
The base pitches of both gears are defined by Equation (2.22),

(12.8)
(12.9)
Since, as we have just proved, the base circle radii are

proportional to the tooth numbers, it follows from Equations
(12.8 and 12.9) that the base pitches of the two gears are the
same,
(12.10)
This result means that the base pitch of the internal

gear is also equal to that of the basic rack used to define
the tooth shape of the pinion. Although the internal gear
cannot mesh with a real rack, it is quite possible to picture
it meshing with an imaginary rack. Figure 12.2 shows a number
of tooth profiles, which are conjugate to the basic rack. The
same tooth profiles can be regarded either as the teeth of an
Figure 12.2. Internal gear conjugate to an imaginary rack.

264 Internal Gears
external gear meshing with a real rack, or as those of an

internal gear meshing with an imaginary rack. The two cases
are shown in the upper and lower halves of the diagram.
We can therefore define the tooth shape of an internal
gear in the same manner as we define that of an external gear,
as conjugate to the basic rack with module m and pressure
angle ~r' Since the tooth profiles of the internal gear are
identical to those of an external gear with the same number of
teeth, we can immediately use many of the results derived in
the earlier chapters of this book. Some of the more important
results will be stated here, without further proof.
The profile angle ~R at a typical radius R of the tooth
profile is given by Equation (2.18),
Rb
cos tPR (12.11)
R
The standard pitch circle is defined as the pitch circle when

the gear is meshed with the imaginary basic rack, and its
radius Rs is given by Equation (2.30),
(12.12)
The pressure angle tPs is defined as the profile angle at the

standard pitch circle, and it is equal to the pressure angle
of the basic rack,
~s (12.13)
The circular pitch ps on the standard pitch circle is equal to

the pitch of the basic rack, which can also be expressed in
terms of the module,
7rm (12.14)
By substituting R in place of R in Equation (12.11), we

s
obtain the usual relation between the radii of the base circle
and the standard pitch circle,
(12.15)
Internal Gears 265
Profile Shift, Tooth Thickness, and Other Geometric Relations
The profile shift of an internal gear is defined in

exactly the same manner as that of an external gear. The
internal gear has a profile shift e if it is conjugate to the
basic rack, when the reference line of the basic rack lies a
distance (Rs+e) from the center of the gear. In other words,
the basic rack is offset a distance e from its standard
position, and a positive value of e corresponds to an offset
of the basic rack away from the gear center.
The relation between the tooth thickness of an external
gear and its profile shift was given by Equation (6.1),
ts ~7I'm + 2e tan "'s
For an internal gear, the tooth shape is the same as the tooth
space of an external gear, so the tooth thickness of the
internal gear is equal to the space width of the external
gear. Hence, the tooth thickness of an internal gear is
related to its profile shift in the following manner,
~7I'm - 2e tan "'s (12.16)
To locate the position of point A at a typical radius R

on the tooth profile, we again use a coordinate system in
which the x axis coincides with a tooth center-line, as shown
in Figure 12.3. The points on the involute at radii Rb , Rs and
R are labelled B, As and A. The angle ACB is equal to inv "'R'
as we proved in Equation (2.19), and angle AsCB is equal to
inv "'5' The polar coordinate 6R of point A is therefore found
as the angle xCA s ' minus angle AsCB, plus angle ACB,
ts
2Rs - inv "'s + inv "'R ( 12.17)
We can use this result, to write down the tooth thickness tR

at radius R,
( 12.18)
It can be seen in Figure 12.3 that the tip circle of an

266 Internal Gears
Standard pitch circle
c x
Figure 12.3. Tooth thickness at radius R.
internal gear lies inside the standard pitch circle, while

the root circle lies outside it. The addendum as and the
dedendum b s are still defined in the usual way, as the radial
distances from the standard pitch circle to the tip circle and
the root circle. Hence, as and b s are related to the various
radi i in the following manner,
( 12.19)
(12.20)
Meshing Geometry of an Internal Gear Pair
The meshing diagram of an internal gear pair is shown in

Figure 12.4, with the pinion as gear 1 and the internal gear
as gear 2. The position of the pitch point, and the radii of
Meshing Geometry of an Internal Gear Pair 267
Line of
action
Figure 12.4. Meshing diagram of an internal gear pair.
the pitch circles, were given by Equations (12.5 and 12.6).

The common tangent E,E 2 to the base circles is the line of
act ion, and the angle t/I between thi s line and the common
tangent to the pitch circles is the operating pressure angle
of the gear pair.
The lines C1E 1 and C2E2 are both perpendicular to the
line of action, so they each make an angle t/I with the line of
centers. By expressing the center distance C in terms of the
base circle radii, we obtain an equation for the operating
pressure angle t/I,
cos t/I (12.21)
We can also use Figure 12.4 to write down a relation between

Rb2 and Rp2 '
=
268 Internal Gears
The operating pressure angle ~P2 of the internal gear is

defined as the profile angle at the pitch circle, and its
value is therefore found from Equation (12.11), if we
substitute Rp2 in place of R,
cos ~P2
A comparison of the last two equations shows that ~P2 is equal

to ~, and we can show in the same way that the operating
pressure angle ~Pl of the pinion is also equal to ~. We
therefore use the symbol ~p for the operating pressure angle
of either gear, and its value is equal to the operating
pressure angle of the gear pair,
(12.22)
The operating circular pitches of the pinion and the

internal gear are defined as the circular pitches at the pitch
circles, and their values are given by Equation (1.18),
When we substitute the expressions in Equations (12.5

and 12.6) for RPl and Rp2 ' it is clear that the operating
circular pitches are equal. The symbol Pp is therefore used to
represent the operating circular pitch of either gear, and
its value is given by the following expression,
(12.23)
Relation Between the Gear positions
In an internal gear pair, the angular position of the

internal gear is indicated in the same manner as that of the
pinion, by the angle ~2 measured from the line of centers
counter-clockwise to the x 2 axis. An internal gear pair is
shown in Figure 12.5, with the contact point coinciding with
Relation Between the Gear positions 269
Figure 12.5. Gear positions, with contact

at the pi tch point.
the pitch point. When the gears are in these positions, their
angular positions can be read from the diagram,
(12.24)
(12.25)
where tP1 and tP2 are the tooth thicknesses at the pi tch
circles. After rotations AP1 and AP 2 , the new angular
positions are as follows,
P1 -~ + AP 1 (12.26)
2Rp1
P2 ~+ AP 2 (12.27)
2Rp2
The angular velocities of the two gears are related by

Equation (12.2),
270 Internal Gears
Rp1 w1 Rp2 w2
This equation is integrated, giving a relation between the

gear rotations,
RP1~/J1 RP2~/J2 (12.28)
We now eliminate ~/J1 and ~/J2 between Equations

(12.26 - 12.28), and we obtain the relation we require between
the angular positions /J 1 and /J2'
o (12.29)
Contact Ratio
We defined the contact ratio of an external gear pair in

Chapter 4, as the rotation of either gear during one meshing
cycle, divided by the angular pitch of the same gear. We then
showed that this definition is equivalent to the length of the
contact path, divided by the base pitch. For an internal gear
pair, the contact ratio is defined in the same manner as for
an external gear pair. Once again, we can replace the
definition by the alternative description, and this time we
will not prove their equivalence, since the proof is
identical to the proof given in Chapter 4.
In the meshing diagram shown in Figure 12.4, the line of
action is the common tangent to the base circles, and the ends
T1 and T2 of the path of contact are the points where the two
tip circles intersect the line of action. The length T1T2 is
related to the other lengths on the line of action,
We express each of these lengths in terms of quantities

defined on the gears, and divide by the base pitch, to obtain
the contact ratio mc '
Internal Gears 271
Interference
As always, there is non-conjugate contact if the path of

contact extends beyond the interference points. The first
condition, therefore, for no interference at the fillets of
the pinion in Figure 12.4 is that T2 should lie above E 1 , or
in other words, E2 T2 must be larger than E2E 1 '
> (12.31)
There is no corresponding condition relating to the position

of point T 1 , since in principle the involutes of the internal
gear can extend out to any radius, and conjugate contact is
theoretically possible, however large the tip circle radius
of the pinion.
In practice, of course, the involute section of the
tooth profile in each gear ends at the fillet circle, and we
must therefore ensure that contact ceases a suitable distance
away from the fillet circle. The active section of the tooth
profile in either gear is the part which comes into contact
with the other gear. The end point of the active section of
the profile nearest the root is called the limit point, and
the circle through this point is the limit circle. In the
pinion, the limit circle is the circle through point T2 , while
in the internal gear, it is the circle through T 1 . The radii
RL1 and RL2 of the limit circles can be read from Figure 12.4,
(12.32)
(12.33)
To ensure that there is no contact at the fillets, the

limit circle of the pinion must be larger than its fillet
circle, and because the teeth of the internal gear face
inwards, its limit circle must be smaller than its fillet
circle. It is customary to leave a margin of at least O.025m
between the circles, to allow for possible errors in the
center distance, and we therefore obtain the following
conditions, which must be satisfied by the radii Rf1 and Rf2
of the fi llet ci rcles,
272 Internal Gears
(12.34)
(12.35)
The pinion fillet circle radius Rf1 was given by

Equation (5.47), for a gear which is cut by a pinion cutter,
and by Equation (5.48) when the gear is cut by a rack cutter
or a hob. Later in this chapter, when we discuss the cutting
of internal gears, we will show how to calculate the internal
gear fillet circle radius Rf2 •
In order to prevent the possibility of interference in
an internal gear pair, it is essential that the three
conditions given by Equations (12.31, 12.34 and 12.35) are
all satisfied. In addition, the gear pair should also be
designed with a minimum clearance of O.25m at each root
circle.
In most internal gear pairs, if the interference
conditions are satisfied at the pinion fillets, the clearance
will be more than adaquate, while if there is sufficient
clearance at the root circle of the internal gear, the
interference condition is satisfied automatically. If these
general rules were invariably true, it would be sufficient to
check for interference at the pinion fillets, and for
clearance at the internal gear root circle. Since there are
some exceptions to the general rules, it is still necessary to
check that all three interference conditions are satisfied,
and that both clearances are adaquate. However, the general
rules do form the basis of a design procedure, which will be
described later in this chapter.
Tip Interference
There is a second type of interference which can occur in

an internal gear pair. Figure 12.6 shows the path followed,
relative to the internal gear, by point AT1 on the tooth tip
of the pinion. This curve is called a hypotrochoid, and it
touches the tooth profile of the internal gear at its limit
circle. In a well-designed gear pair, the path of AT1 lies
within the tooth space of the internal gear, as shown in
Tip Interference 273
Path followed by
point AT1 of the pinion~
Figure 12.6. Path followed by the pinion tooth tip.
Figure 12.6. However, in certain circumstances, the path of

AT1 passes through the corner of the internal gear tooth, and
this phenomenon is known as tip interference. It is obvious
that when tip interference takes place, the gear pair is
unusable.
The shape of the path followed by point AT1 is a convex
curve. It is because the teeth of the internal gear are
concave that tip interference can occur. I f the teeth of
gear 2 were convex, as in the case of an external gear pair,
then there would be no possibility of tip interference.
In order to determine whether tip interference will take
place, we calculate the position, relative to the internal
gear, of the point where the tooth tip AT1 of the pinion
crosses the tip circle of the internal gear. We compare this
position with that of AT2 , the tooth tip of the internal gear.
To prevent the possibility of tip interference, the path of
AT1 must clear point AT2 by an adaquate margin, whose value
depends on the size and accuracy of the gears.
The polar coordinates 9T1 and 9T2 of points AT1 and AT2
are given by Equations (2.35 and 12.17),
ts1
- - + (inv tP - inv tP T1 ) (12.36)
2Rs1 s
274 Internal Gears
ts2
- [ - - - (inv ~ - inv ~T2)] (12.37)
2Rs2 s
where ~T1 and ~T2 are the profile angles at the tip circles.
The value of 8T2 is negative, because point AT2 lies on the
lower face of the tooth, and the polar angle is defined as
positive when it is counter-clockwise.
Figure 12.7 shows the gear pair, at the instant when
point AT1 is crossing the tip circle of the internal gear. The
angles ~1 and ~2 are the angular positions of the two gears,
and 8 2 is the polar angle, relative to the internal gear, of
the position of AT1 • By considering triangle C1C2AT1 , we can
write down two relations between the various angles,
(C 2
+R2 2
T1 -RT2 )
2CRT1 (12.38)
(12.39)
The angle 8 2 is then calculated by the following steps. The

angular position of the pinion is given by Equation (12.38),
Tip circle of the gear
c
Figure 12.7. Checking for tip interference.
(12.40)
The angular position of the internal gear is found from

Equation (12.29),
(12.41)
Finally, the value of 8 2 is given by Equation (12.39),

R
arcsin [RT1 sin (fi 1+ 8T1 ) 1 - fi2 (12.42)
T2
The distance by which the path of AT1 clears point AT2 is
approximately equal to RT2(8T2-82)' Hence, if a clearance of
0.05 modules is adaquate for a particular gear pair, the
condition for no tip interference takes the following form,
(12.43)
It will be found that this condition is generally

satisfied for gear pairs where the difference (N 2-N 1 ) is 8 or
more, and in certain circumstances it may be satisfied when
(N 2-N 1 ) is 7 or even 6. However, the amount of clearance
depends on several quantities, such as the center distance
and the tip circle radii, so it is important to check for the
possibility of tip interference whenever the value of (N 2-N 1 )
is small.
Axial and Radial Assembly
An internal gear pair can be assembled in either an axial

or a radial manner. In other words, if the internal gear is
held fixed, the pinion can be brought into its meshing
position, either by a movement in the direction of its axis,
or by a movement along a radius of the internal gear.
The tooth shapes of the pinion and the internal gear will
always allow axial assembly, provided the gear pair has been
designed so that there is no interference or tip
interference. In some gear boxes, however, axial movement of
the pinion may be obstructed, and axial assembly is then
276 Internal Gears
impossible. In this case, the gear pair must be assembled in

the radial manner, and we must check that such assembly is
feasible.
The check can be made by the following simple, though
long, procedure. Figure 12.8 shows an internal gear pair in
position, so that a tooth of the pinion is lined up with a
tooth space of the internal gear. We draw the ~ and ~ axes on
the diagram, so that the ~ axis coincides wi th the center-line
of the pinion tooth. The points AT2 , AT2 , AT2 , etc, shown on
the internal gear, are the corner points of the teeth closest
to the ~ axis. On the pinion, points A1 , A;, Ai, etc, are the
points of each tooth which are furthest from the ~ axis. For
the teeth near to the ~ axis, these points lie at the
intersection of the tooth profiles with the vertical tangent
to the base circle, and their distance from the E axis is
equal to half the span measurement 5, which was given by
Tangent to the base

circle of the pinion----''-++j
Figure 12.8. positions for radial assembly.

Tangent to the base

circle of the pinion
Figure 12.9. Alternative positions for radial assembly.
Equation (8.14). For the remaining teeth, the point furthest

from the ~ axis is the corner point of the tooth. In order to
determine whether the gear pair can be assembled radially, we
calculate the ~ coordinates of the labelled points on the
pinion, and check that in each case they are less than the ~
coordinates of the corresponding points on the internal gear.
If this condition is satisfied for each pair of points, then
radial assembly can be carried out.
In cases where radial assembly is not possible in the
position of Figure 12.8, we can consider an alternative
position, as shown in Figure 12.9. We place the gear pair so
that a tooth space of the pinion is lined up with a tooth of
the internal gear, and again we calculate the ~ coordinates of
the various tooth points. As before, radial assembly is only
possible if each point on the pinion is closer to the ~ axis
than the corresponding point on the internal gear.
The minimum value of (N 2 -N 1 ) for which radial assembly
is possible depends primarily on the pressure angle. For
278 Internal Gears
example, radial assembly of 20° pressure angle gear pairs can

generally be carried out when (N 2-N 1 ) is 17 or larger. In some
cases it may also be possible, for gear pairs with lower
values of (N 2-N 1). However, since the positions of the tooth
tip points in each gear depend on the tooth thickness and the
radius of the tip circle, as well as on the pressure angle,
the checks should be made whenever there is a danger that
radial assembly may be impossible.
Highest and Lowest Points of Single-Tooth Contact
The meshing diagram for an internal gear pair is shown in

Figure 12.10. The ends of the path of contact are labelled T1
and T2 , and the two points on the path of contact, a distance
Pb inside each end, are shown as Q and Q'. There is
single-point contact whenever the contact point lies between
Q and Q' •
Figure 12.10. The end points of single-tooth contact.

On the pinion, the highest and lowest points of

single-tooth contact correspond to Q' and Q on the path of
contact. The radii of the circles through these points can be
read directly from the diagram,
(12.45)
Simi larly, on the internal gear, the highest and lowest

points of single-tooth contact correspond to Q and Q', and
again the radii of the circles through these points can be
(12.47)
Cutting Internal Gears
The three methods of generating cutting which were

described in Chapter 5 were shaping, with either a pinion
cutter or a rack cutter, and hobbing. Of these three methods,
the one which is almost always used to cut an internal gear is
the method of shaping, using a pinion cutter. It is preferable
to use a pinion cutter whose teeth are rounded at the tips, as
shown in Figure 12.11, since otherwise the tooth fillets of
the internal gear will have a very small radius of curvature,
and this will cause high stresses in the fillets. On the
pinion cutter, the end point Ahc of the involute section of
the tooth profile has polar coordinates (R hc ,9 hc )' given by
Equations (5.34 and 5.35), and the center A~ of the circular
section has coordinates (R~,9~), given by Equations (5.32
and 5.39) .
The meshing diagram for the cutting process is shown in
Figure 12.12, where the subscripts g and c refer, as usual, to
the gear and the cutter. The cutting pressure angle and the
radii of the cutting pitch circles can all be expressed in
terms of the cutting center distance Cc ,
280 Internal Gears
Figure 12.11. A pinion cutter.
cos q,c (12.48)
(12.49)
(12.50)
The cutting pressure angle q,~ of the gear or the cutter is

equal to q,c, and the cutting circular pitch can be found from
either of the cutting pitch circle radii,
( 12.51 )
(12.52)
Since the cutting process is equivalent to meshing with

no backlash, the tooth thickness of the gear is equal to the
space width of the cutter, both measured at the cutting pitch
circles,
(12.53)
The tooth thicknesses at the cutting pitch circles are

Path followed by
point A hc of the cutter
Figure 12.12. Meshing diagram of a gear and cutter.
related to the tooth thicknesses at the standard pitch

circles by Equations (12.18 and 3.17),
t
tpg R [~- 2 ( i nv tP s - inv tP~)]
pg Rsg
t
tpc R [2f. + 2 (inv IPs - inv IP~)]
pc Rsc
In order to calculate the tooth thickness of the gear at

its standard pitch circle, we introduce the standard cutting
center distance c~, defined as the difference between the
standard pi tch circle radi i ,
(12.54)
We substitute the expressions for tpg and tpc into

Equation (12.53), multiply by the ratio (CC/C C ), and we
s
282 Internal Gears
obtain the required expression for t sg '
p - t + 2C c (invt/l - invt/lCp ) (12.55)

s sc s s
If we want to calculate the cutting center distance to be

used, in order to obtain a specified tooth thickness tsg in
the gear, we start by using Equation (12.55) to find the value
of inv t/l~,
inv t/l~ inv t/l + _l_(p t - t ) (12.56)

s 2C c s - sg sc
s
We use Equations (2.16 and 2.17) to calculate the
corresponding value of t/l~, and the cutting center distance is
then given by Equations (12.51 and 12.48),
t/lc (12.57)
P
Rbg-R bc
(12.58)
cos t/lc
Figure 12.13. Cutting a point on the gear tooth fillet.

Shape of the Fillet 283
The meshing diagram shown in Figure 12.12 can be used to

derive an expression for the fillet circle radius of the
internal gear. The involute section of the tooth profile on
the internal gear is cut by the involute part of the cutter
tooth, which ends at point Ahc • The path of contact is a
segment of the common tangent to the base circles. The upper
end of the path of contact is therefore at Hc' the point where
the path followed by Ahc intersects the common tangent to the
base circles. When the cutting point reaches Hc on the path of
contact, point Ahc of the cutter touches point Af on the gear
tooth profile, the point where the involute section of the
profile meets the fillet. The fillet circle of the internal
gear is the circle passing through Af , and its radius Rfg is
equal to the length CgHc' which can be read from the diagram,
(12.59)
Shape of the Fillet
We use the geometry of non-involute generation,

described in Chapter 9, to find the coordinates of points on
the tooth fillet of the internal gear. Part of the meshing
diagram during the cutting process is shown in Figure 12.13.
On the cutter tooth, the center of the circular section at the
tip is labelled A', c and its polar coordinates (R'c ,0')
c are
given by Equations (5.32 and 5.39). The line PA' meets the
c
cutter tooth profile at Ac' and this must be the point at
which the cutter touches the tooth fillet of the gear, since
the normal at Ac passes through the pitch point. We use the
(~,~) coordinate system whose origin is at the pitch point,
and we consider the geometry when the line from the pinion
center to point A~ makes an angle a with the ~ axis. The
coordinates (~' , ~') of point A' can then be wri tten,
c
~ , R' cos a - RC (12.60)

c pc
~' R' sin a (12.61)

c
The distances s' and s, from P to A~ and Ac' are found from
284 Internal Gears
the following equations,
s' (12.62)
s s' + r (12.63)
cT
and we then wri te down the coordinates of point Ac'
(...§...) t , (12.64)
s' ~
1/ (12.65)
The angle a between line CcA~ and the ~ axis is made up

of two parts, the coordinate 8~ of point A~, and the angle Pc
through which the cutter has rotated. Hence, the angular
position of the cutter can be expressed in terms of a,
a - 8' (12.66)
c
The relation between the angular positions of a pinion and an

internal gear was given by Equation (12.29),
When the equation is used for a plnlon cutter and an internal

gear, the sum of the tooth thicknesses is equal to the
circular pitch P~ on the cutting pitch circles. The equation
is simplified if it is multiplied throughout by the ratio
(C~/CC), and we then obtain an expression for the angular
position of the gear,
(12.67)
Since point Ac on the cutter is the contact point, it

coincides with a point A on the tooth fillet of the gear. The
coordinates of A can be read immediately from Figure 12.13,
R (12.68)
arctan (_1/_) - Q (12.69)

RC +~ 1' g
pg
Shape of the Fi llet 285
Equations (12.60 - 12.69) are used to calculate the

coordinates of points on the internal gear tooth fillet,
corresponding to any chosen values of a. The first point which
needs to be considered is Af , where the fillet meets the
involute. In this case, the cutting point must lie at He on
the path of contact, and line PAc therefore makes an angle ~c
with the ~ axis, as shown in Figure 12.14. The value of a at
which this occurs can be read from the diagram,
R
a arccos (R~c) - ~c (12.70)
c
The last point to be considered is cut when line Cc A'c

lies along the E axis, and the value of a is then zero,
a o (12.71)
In this case, the cutter has reached its maximum penetration,

and A is the point at which the fillet meets the root circle.
The entire fillet shape can be constructed by choosing a
sequence of values for a, between the values given by
Equations (12.70 and 12.71), and then calculating the
corresponding coordinates Rand lI R •
Figure 12.14. Cutting the end point of the fillet.

286 Internal Gears
Fillet Radius of Curvature
In Chapter 10, we derived the Euler-Savary equation

relating the radii of curvature of two conjugate profiles.
For a pinion meshing with an internal gear, this equation
takes the following form,
-1 1 - -1)
-(- (12.72)
sin q, Rpl Rp2
As before, a positive value of P 1 corresponds to a convex

tooth profile in the pinion. However, the entire tooth
profile of the internal gear is concave, so the equation has
been written with a different sign convention from the one
used in Chapter 10, and a positive value of P2 now corresponds
to a concave tooth prof i Ie in the internal gear.
We use this equation to calculate the radius of
curvature at points in the internal gear tooth fillet, which
is conjugate to the circular tip of the cutter tooth. We
therefore write the equation as follows,
(12.73)
The expression in brackets is used to define a quantity

(liRa)' which is the relative curvature of the cutting pitch
circles,
1 1
-c- - -c- (12.74)
Rpc Rpg
We substitute for R~g and R~c' using Equations (12.49
and 12.50), and we obtain the following expression for RO'
NgNCC C
(12.75)
(N g -N c )2
Since the radius of curvature of the cutter tooth

profile is known, and we want to calculate the corresponding
radius of curvature in the gear tooth profile, we solve
Equation (12.73) for Pg ,
(12.76)
Fillet Radius of Curvature 287
To calculate the radius of curvature P f at a point A on

the tooth fillet of the internal gear, we first use Equations
(12.60 - 12.65) to find the position (L11) of A when it is cut.
The corresponding values of ~ and s can be read from
Figure 12.13,
tan q, (12.77)
s
_E_ (12.78)
sin q,
The gear tooth fillet is cut by the circular tip section of

the cutter tooth, whose radius is r cT • We therefore find the
radius of curvature at A, by substituting r cT in place of Pg
in Equation (12.76),
(12.79)
The minimum radius of curvature r f occurs at the point

where the fillet meets the root circle. This point is cut when
line AcA~ in the cutter coincides with the E axis, and the
angle a which we have used to describe the cutter position is
equal to zero. We substitute this value of a into Equations
(12.60 - 12.65) to find the corresponding position of the
cutting point, and we use Equations (5.32, 12.77 and 12.78) to
obtain the following results,
E RTc _ RC
pc
11 0
q, 90 0
s R - RC
Tc pc
The value of r f is then given by Equation (12.79),
(RTC-Rpc-rCT)2
rf r cT + c (12.80)
RO + (RTC-Rpc-rCT)
Since the value of RO is generally quite large, the
fillet radius of curvature r f is only slightly greater than
288 Internal Gears
the cutter tooth tip radius r cT • If the cutter tooth tip has
no rounded section, the value of r CT is zero, and we obtain a
very small fillet radius of curvature in the gear. It is for
this reason that a pinion cutter with rounded tooth tips is
recommended for cutting internal gears.
Undercutting
To consider the possibility of undercutting, we refer

again to the meshing diagram of the cutting process, shown in
Figure 12.12. The interference point of the internal gear
is Eg , the point where the common tangent to the base circles
touches the internal gear base circle. For an external gear,
if the cutting point lies near the interference point, the
corresponding point on the gear tooth profile is close to the
fillet. However, when we consider an internal gear, this
relation is reversed. A cutting point near the interference
point corresponds to a point near the tip of the gear tooth.
~t the other extreme, point Af of the gear tooth profile,
where the involute meets the fillet, is cut when the cutting
point lies at Hc' which is the end of the path of contact
furthest from the interference point. Hence, no matter how
large the cutter addendum is, there is no danger of
conventional undercutting at the tooth fillets of an internal
gear.
There is, though, a possibility of undercutting at the
tooth tips of the gear. The correct involute profile in a
tooth of the gear is cut by the involute part of the cutter
tooth. The profile of the cutter tooth can only coincide with
the involute down to the base circle, and the tooth may be
designed so that the fillet starts slightly outside the base
circle, since the involute radius of curvature becomes zero
at the base circle. The involute part of the tooth, therefore,
ends at the fillet circle, which is either larger than the
base circle, or the same size. On any particular cutter, the
radius Rfc of the fillet circle can be measured.
In Figure 12.15, the fillet circle of the cutter is
shown, intersecting the line of action at Fc. The involute
section of the cutter tooth profile lies outside the fillet
Undercutting 289
Fillet circle of the cutter
Figure 12.15. Checking for undercutting

by the cut ter tooth fillet.
circle, so the cutting of the involute part of the gear tooth

profile can only take place outside this circle. This means
that the path of contact must end at a point somewhere
above Fc ' and we obtain the following condition that must be
satisfied if there is to be no undercutting,
(12.81)
If the tip circle radius RTg required for the gear is smaller
than the minimum value given by this condition, then it is
necessary to use a cutter wi th more teeth.
There is a second manner in which internal gears may be
undercut, and this is caused by tip interference between the
pinion cutter and the gear. This phenomenon can occur either
when the cutting center distance is equal to CC , or during the
initial cutting period while the cutter is being fed into the
gear, when the center distance is less than Cc • We therefore
consider the possibility of tip interference at a center
290 Internal Gears
distance Cf , which is the value at some time during the

feed-in period.
We have pointed out that internal gears are generally
cut by a cutter whose teeth are rounded at the tips. However,
in order to ensure that there is no tip interference, we will
assume for the purpose of the calculations that the involute
profile of the cutter tooth extends right out to the tip
circle, meeting it at point ATc • To check that there is no tip
interference, we calculate the distance between the tooth tip
corner ATg of the gear, and the point where the path of ATc
intersects the tip circle of the gear. This distance should
exceed a specified value, such as 0.02 modules.
The radius of point ATc on the cutter is of course equal
to RTc , the radius of the tip circle. The profile angle ~Tc at
this point, and the polar coordinate 9Tc ' are found from
Rbc
cos ~Tc RTc (12.82)
tsc
9'
Tc - - + inv ~s - inv ~Tc (12.83)
2Rsc
Figure 12.16. Checking for tip interference during cutting.

Undercutting 291
The remaining equations are similar in form to Equations

(12.38 - 12.43), where we discussed tip interference in an
internal gear pair. Figure 12.16 shows the position of point
ATc on the cutter, as it passes through the tip circle of the
gear. The angle 9g is the polar coordinate of ATc ' relative to
the axes fixed in the gear. By considering triangle CgCcATc'
we can write down the following two equations,
2 2 2)
( Cf+RTc-RTg
2C f RTc (12.84)
if-
Tc
sin (fJ
g
+9 )
g
(12.85)
The angular position of the cutter is found from

Equation (12.84),
( R2 _ C2_ R2 )
Tg f Tc
arccos 2C R - 9'
Tc (12.86)
f Tc
The corresponding angular position of the gear is then given

by Equation (12.67),
( 12.87)
Finally, we use Equation (12.85) to obtain the coordinate 9g

of the point where the path of ATc crosses the tip circle of
the internal gear,
R
arcsin [ Tc sin (fJ +9' )] - fJ (12.88)
RTg c Tc g
For a minimum clearance at ATg of 0.02 modules, the following

condition must be satisfied,
(12.89)
where 9Tg is the polar coordinate of point ATg on the tooth

tip of the gear, given by Equation (12.37).
During the cutting feed-in period, point ATc of the
cutter first penetrates the tip circle of the gear when the
cutting center distance is equal to (RTg-RTC ). To ensure that
there will be no tip interference, we should carry out the
check for several values of Cf , starting with (RTg-R Tc ) and
292 Internal Gears
ending with Cc • If tip interference is shown to occur at any

value of Cf ' the gear is probably unusable, since the cutter
may remove a substantial part of the involute profile.
Rubbing
There is one other requirement that must be met, if the

gear is to be cut in a satisfactory manner. During each return
stroke of the shaping process, either the gear blank or the
cutter is automatically displaced a short distance away from
the cutting zone, to prevent rubbing between the cutter and
the gear blank. If such rubbing occurs, the cutter wear is
excessive, and burrs are left on the teeth of the gear. The
designer should check, for any particular gear and cutter,
that there is a displacement direction which will eliminate
the rubbing. The situation is complicated by the fact that,
during the shaping process, the tooth spaces of the gear have
of course not yet been cut to their final shape. The cutter
may therefore rub against parts of the gear blank which will
later be cut away. Moreover, during the cutting strokes,
there may be many points of each cutter tooth profile making
contact with the gear blank, instead of the single point that
would be in contact once the gear reaches its final shape.
In the discussion which follows, we will assume that the
gear blank remains fixed, and the cutter is displaced away
from the cutting zone. We will then calculate the direction
required for the cutter displacement. If in fact the cutter
remains fixed and the gear blank is displaced, the direction
is obviously reversed.
We consider first the trailing profile of one of the
cutter teeth. Figure 12.17 shows the positions of the gear and
the cutter, when the involute part of the cutter tooth profile
is just starting to cut into the gear blank. In other words,
point Ahc of the cutter tooth, the point on the trailing
profile at the radius Rhc given by Equation (5.34), lies on
the tip circle of the gear. The tangent to the cutter tooth at
Ahc makes an angle a' with the line of centers, and the value
of a' can be read f rom the diagram,
Rubbing 293
Figure 12.17. Displacement direction to avoid rubbing.
a' (12.90)
The cutter rotates as the tooth penetrates further into the

gear blank, and the angles between the contact point tangents
and the line of centers become smaller than a'. A displacement
to prevent rubbing by the trailing profile of the cutter tooth
can therefore be made, provided the direction of the
displacement makes an angle with the line of centers that is
greater than a'.
We consider next the leading profile of the cutter
tooth, which is also in contact with a tooth of the gear. The
angles between the contact point tangents and the line of
centers reach their maximum values when the contact is with
the final tooth profile, and the angle is then equal to the
cutting pressure angle ~c. The angle of the cutter
displacement must therefore be less than ~c. To ensure that
there is a displacement satisfying both requirements, the
294 Internal Gears
designer should check that the angle a' given by

Equation (12.90) is less than ~c by at least a few degrees,
and then specify the displacement angle at a value between a'
and ~c. It can be seen from the diagram that, if the
displacement angle is chosen equal to ~c, the rubbing will be
more severe than if the angle is chosen equal to a' • The angle
should therefore be closer to a' than to ~c. If the value of
a' given by Equation (12.90) is not less than ~c by a
sufficient margin, it is then necessary to use a cutter with
fewer teeth.
Geometric Design of an Internal Gear Pair
The design procedure is very similar to the procedure

described in Chapter 6, for the de~ign of an external gear
pair. We consider the situation when the center distance is
specified, and we first choose the tooth numbers so that the
standard center distance is approximately equal to the center
distance,
(12.91)
The base circle radii, the gear pair operating pressure

angle ~, the operating pressure angle ~p of each gear, the
pitch circle radii, and the operating circular pitch Pp are
then all determined, and can be calculated by means of the
equations at the beginning of this chapter.
We now choose tooth thickness values which give the
required backlash B,
l(p -B) + at (12.92)

2 p p
1(Pp-B) - atp (12.93)
As before, atp is a free parameter that is chosen by the

designer, and can be used to achieve balanced strength, or for
a number of other purposes.
Once the tooth thickness values are chosen, the dedendum
of each gear is fixed. On the internal gear, its value can be
Geometric Design of an Internal Gear Pair 295
found from the following sequence of equations, which are

explained below,
t 2
ts2 R [~- 2(inv4>p- inv 4>s)] (12.94)
s2 Rp2
. 4>cp2 1 (12.95)
lnv inv 4>s + ---c-(ps-t s2 -t sc )
2C s2
4>c c (12.96)
2 4>P2
Rb2 -R bc
CC2 ( 12.97)
cos 4>~
t:J.C c
2 Cc2 - Ccs2 (12.98)
b s2 a sc + t:J.C c2 (12.99)
bP2 b s2 - RP2 + Rs2 (12.100)
The relation between ts2 and tP2 was given by

Equation (12.18). We then use Equations (12.56 and 12.57) to
find 4>~, the cutting pressure angle required to give the tooth
thickness t s2 ' Equations (12.97 and 12.98) give the cutting
center distance and the corresponding cutter offset, and the
last two equations give the dedendum of the internal gear.
The pinion dedendum can be found using the equations in
Chapter 6. It is not of course necessary to use the same
cutter to cut the pinion, and in fact it is preferable to use
a hob, because there is then less likelihood of interference
at the tooth fillets of the pinion. In any case, whether the
plnlon is cut by a hob or by a pinion cutter, we can use the
equations in Chapter 6 to calculate the pinion dedendum b p1 '
We now have to choose the addendum values, or in other
words, the radii of the tip circles RT1 and RT2 • In the case
of an external gear pair, the values of a p1 and a p2 were
chosen so that we obtained a working depth of 2.0m, and equal
clearances at each root circle. If this procedure is followed
in the design of an internal gear pair, we find that there is
generally interference at the tooth fillets of the pinion.
It is not necessary, however, to maintain a working
depth of '2.0m in an internal gear pair. The path of contact
for an internal gear pair is generally longer than that of an
296 Internal Gears
external gear pair with the same working depth. It is this

property which causes the interference, but it also means
that the contact ratio of the internal gear pair is larger. We
can therefore reduce the working depth of the internal gear
pair, and still maintain an adaquate contact ratio.
With this consideration in mind, we design the internal
gear wi th the largest possible addendum which causes no
interference, and we choose the addendum of the pinion to give
a clearance of 0.25m at the root circle of the internal gear.
The pinion fillet circle radius Rf1 is known, and in order to
avoid interference, the limit circle radius RL1 must exceed
Rf1 by at least 0.025m. If the internal gear addendum is to
have the maximum possible value, the difference between RL1
and Rf1 will be exactly 0.025m,
Rf1 + 0.025m (12.101)
The tip circle radius RT2 of the internal gear is then found
(12.102)
Occasionally, when RT2 is calculated by the procedure just

described, the clearance at the root circle of the pinion is
less than the recommended minimum of 0.25m. In such cases, it
is best to increase the value of RT2 , until the clearance is
equal to 0.25m. The radius of the tip circle is then given by
the following equation,
RP2 - bP1 + 0.25m (12.103)
The addendum of the pinion is chosen to give a clearance

of 0.25m at the root circle of the internal gear,
bP2 - 0.25 m (12.104)
The pinion is therefore designed with a tip circle radius of

the following value,
(12.105)
Measurement of Tooth Thickness 297
When a gear pair is designed according to the procedure

just described, the working depth is usually less than 2.0m,
but the contact ratio is still generally quite adaquate, with
typical values being greater than 1.5. The clearance at the
pinion root circle is often very large, but this is necessary
to prevent interference, and causes no problems. In some
cases there may be interference at the tooth fillets of the
internal gear, but this can almost always be avoided by
increasing the tooth thickness of the pinion, and reducing
that of the internal gear.
Measurement of Tooth Thickness
Of the three methods described in Chapter 8 for the tooth

thickness measurement of external gears, the most practical
method for use with internal gears is the measurement between
pins. Since the proof is almost identical to that in
Chapter 8, the equations for finding the inspection
measurement M are presented here without further proof.
Two pins of radius r are inserted into opposite tooth
spaces of the internal gear, and the distance M between the
pins is measured. The correct value of M, when ts is the tooth
thickness specified for the gear, is given by the next four
equations. I f the pin centers lie at radius R', and 4>R' is the
corresponding profile angle, the values of ¢R' and R' are
found as follows,
1L_L_~+ inv ¢s ( 12.106)

N Rb 2Rs
Rb
R' (12.107 )
The relation between M and R' is given by one or other of the

following equations, depending on whether the internal gear
has an even or an odd number of teeth.
M 2R' - 2r (12.108 )
M 2R' cos (90°) - 2r (12.109)

N
298 Internal Gears
Numerical Examples
Example 12. 1
An internal gear pair with D.P. 4 and pressure angle 20°
is to be designed for a center distance of 0.765 inches. Use
the procedure described in Chapter 12 to spec ify the gear
pair, using the following information. The pinion has 35
teeth, and is to be cut by a hob with addendum 0.333 inches
and tooth tip radius 0.107 inches. The internal gear has 41
teeth, and is to be cut by a pinion cutter with 20 teeth,
tooth thickness 0.395 inches, and tip circle diameter 5.632
inches. In choosing the tooth thicknesses, assume a backlash
of 0.013 inches, and use a value of 0.12 inches for the
quantity Atp' After the design is completed, calculate the
working depth and the contact ratio, and check that there is
no tip interference.
Pd =4, ~s=200, N1=35, N2 =41, C=0.765

a r =0.333, rrT=0.107, Nc=20, t sc =0.395, RTc =2.816
B=0.013, Atp=0.12
m = 0.2500 inches
Rsl = 4.3750
Rs2 = 5.1250
Ps = 0.7854
Rbl = 4.1112
Rb2 = 4.8159
Pb = 0.7380
~ = 22.888° (12.21)
Rpl = 4.4625 (12.5)
Rp2 = 5.2275 (12.6)
Pp = 0.8011 (12.23)
~ = 22.888° (12.22)
P
0.1200
0.5141 (12.92)
0.2741 (12.93)
First, we find the tooth thickness and the fillet circle

radius of the pinion.
Examples 299
tsl = 0.5722 (6.47)

e l = 0.2466 (6.48)
h = 0.2626 (5.40)
Rfl = 4.3592 (5.48)
Next, we calculate the tooth thickness of the internal gear,

and hence the radii of the tip circles in both gears.
ts2 = 0.1888 inches (12.94)

Rsc 2.5000
Rbc 2.3492
2.6250 (12.54)
inv 4>~2 = 0.053306 (12.95)
(2.16,2.17)
(12.96)
Cc2 = 2.8461 (12.97)
JJ.c c2 = 0.2211 (12.98)
a sc = RTc - Rsc = 0.3160

b s2 0.5371 (12.99)
b p2 = 0.4346 (12.100)
RLl = 4.3654 (12.101)
RT2 = 5.1294 inches (12.102)
a pl = 0.3721 (12.104)
RTl = 4.8346 inches (12.105)
Finally, we calculate the working depth and the contact

ratio, and check to see whether there is tip interference.
Working depth = a pl + a p2 = 0.4702 inches
mc = 1.458 (12.30)
300 Internal Gears
'T 1 = 31.749 ° ( 2. 18)

IITl = 0.015626 radians 0.895° (12.36)
9>T2 = 20. 134 ° ( 12. 11 )
IIT2 =- 0.018731 radians =- 1.073° (12.37)
fJ 1 = 70.563° = 1.231564 radians (12.40)

fJ 2 = 1.126716 radians = 64.556° (12.41)
112 = - 1.226° = - 0.021401 radians (12.42)
(12.43)
Since the clearance is greater than 0.05m, there is no tip

interference. It can be verified that, if the gear pair had
been designed with atp=o, there would have been tip
interference.
The gear pair designed in this example is shown in
Figure 12.18, except that in the diagram the amount of
backlash is doubled, to make it more easily visible.
Figure 12.18. The gear pair designed in Example 12.1.

Examples 301
Example 12.2
The cutter specified in Example 9.3 is to be used to cut
an internal gear with 35 teeth, a tooth thickness of 6.168 mm,
and a tip circle whose diameter is 205.968 mm. Calculate the
cutting center distance, and check that there is no tip
interference during the cutting feed-in process. Determine
also the angle at which the cutter should be displaced during
the return strokes.
m=6, ~s=20°, Ng =35, t sg =6.168, RTg =102.984

Nc =16, t sc =10.735, RTc =56.7, r CT =1.5
Rsg 105.000 mm
Rsc 48.000
ps = 18.850
Rbg 98.668
Rbc = 45.105
CC
s = 57.000 (12.54)
. c
lnv ~p = 0.031979 (12.56)
~c 25.516° (2.16,2.17)
p
"'c = 25.5160 (12.57)
CC = 59.351 mm (12.58)
The cutting feed-in process starts when the cutting

center distance is equal to (RTg-R TC )' which is 46.284 mm. The
check for tip interference should be made at several values of
the feed-in center distance Cf ' starting with 46.284 mm, and
ending with Cc . As an example, we will carry out the
calculations for the midpoint value of 52.818 mm.
Cf = 52.818 mm
Tc = 37.297°
~' (12.82)
eTc = 0.015971 radians = 0.915° (12.83)
~c 38.894° = 0.678828 radians (12.86)
~g = 0.400081 radians = 22.923° (12.87)
302 Internal Gears
6g - 2.283° = - 0.039848 radians (12.88)

'Tg = 16.647° (12.11)
6Tg = - 0.022928 radians (12.37)
Clearance = RTg(9Tg-6g) = 1.742 mm (12.89)
The clearance is greater than 0.02m, so we have shown that

there is no tip interference at this particular value of Cf •
Similar calculations, using different values for Cf , would
show that there is no tip interference throughout the cutting
process.
The final calculations are made to check that there will
be no rubbing during the return strokes of the cutter.
R~ = 55.200 mm (5.32)
'hc = 36.454° (5.33)
Rhc = 56.078 (5.34)
a' 17.271° (12.90)
,c = 25.5160 (12.48)
The angle a' is several degrees smaller than the cutting

pressure angle ,C, so the cutter can be displaced in a manner
that prevents rubbing. The angle of the displacement should
be between a' and ,C, and rather closer to a', so a value of
20° would be suitable.
Example 12.3
Determine the inspection length M for the measurement
between pins, when a 49-tooth internal gear with D.P. 8,
pressure angle 25° and tooth thickness 0.150 inches, is
measured using pins of diameter 0.240 inches.
m 0.1250 inches
Rs 3.0625
Rb 2.7756
inv'R' = 0.026365 (12.106)
'R' = 24.004° (2.16,2.17)
R' = 3.0383 ( 12.107)
M = 5.8336 inches (12.109)
PART 2
HELICAL GEARS
Chapter 13
Tooth Surface of a Helical Involute Gear
Introduction
The spur gears discussed in Part 1 of this book have one

principal disadvantage. During part of each meshing cycle
there is a single pair of teeth in contact, while during the
remainder of the cycle there are two. For each tooth pair in
contact, the length of the contact line is equal to the gear
face-width F. Hence, the total length of the contact line is
either F or 2F, depending on the number of pairs of teeth in
contact. And each time a tooth pair comes into contact or
loses contact, the total length of the contact line either
increases or decreases by F. These large and abrupt changes in
the length of the contact line result in noisy operation of
the gears.
The gear shown in Figure 13.1 is called a stepped gear.
It is formed by two spur gears side by side, each with a
face-width of (F/2), so that the total face-width is F. When a
tooth pair comes into contact or loses contact, the change in
the total length of the contact line is now only (F/2),
compared with F for a conventional pair of spur gears, and the
resulting operation is smoother. We could improve the
performance further by increasing the number of gears in the
stepped gear, keeping the total face-width constant, and if
the number were increased to infinity, we would obtain a
helical gear.
In this chapter, we will describe the geometry of a
helical gear, in the same manner as we did for a spur gear in
Chapter 2. The description of the tooth surface in a helical
gear involves several parameters, such as the profile angles
and the pitches, and we will first define these parameters and
306 Tooth Surface of a Helical Involute Gear
Figure 13.1. A stepped gear.
then develop relations between them. The purpos~ of these

relations will become clear in the remaining chapters, where
we di scuss the meshing, the cutt ing, and the tooth strength of
helical gears.
A Note on the Use of Vectors
There were a number of sections in the first part of this

book where vectors were employed to help in the explanation of
some aspects of spur gear geometry. However, the use of
vectors was not very widespread, because spur gear geometry
is essentially two-dimensional, and vector theory is not
often required. On the other hand, the geometry of a helical
gear is three-dimensional, and vectors can be very helpful in
clarifying the various proofs and explanations.
Figure 13.2 shows a typical spur gear and rack, with two
sets of unit vectors included in the drawing. One set, n x ' ny
and n z ' are fixed in the spur gear, with n z in the direction
of the gear axis. When the gear rotates about its axis, the
direction of n z will not be affected, but the directions of nx
A Note on the Use of Vectors 307
1/
Y
nn
nz X
y
n~ 0 n
~n,
Lnt {
Figure 13.2. Directions of the unit vectors.
and ny will obviously change. The other set, n~, n~ and n S'
are said to be fixed in space, which simply means that their
directions do not change. The unit vector n~ is chosen
perpendicular to the plane formed by the tips of the rack
teeth, in the direction from the gear towards the rack. The
remaining two unit vectors are perpendicular to n~, with nS
parallel to the lines of the rack teeth, and n~ at right
angles to them. When a spur gear is meshed with a rack, the
axis of the gear is parallel with the teeth of the rack, so
the two unit vectors n z and nS are parallel. It should be
noted that a unit vector is used only to specify a direction.
Since the rack does not rotate, it makes no difference whether
we regard a unit vector as fixed in space, or as fixed in the
rack. Hence, the three vectors n~, n~ and n S' which we
originally described as fixed in space, can equally well be
thought of as fixed in the rack.
The two vectors n z and nS are shown in Figure 13.2 by
counter-clockwise circular arrows, and these are used in
conformi ty with the right-hand rule from the theory of
vectors. According to this rule, a vector can correspond to a
sense of rotation, using the following convention. The right
hand is held so that the fingers point in the required sense
of rotation, and the thumb then points in the direction of the

vector. The circular arrows in Figure 13.2 therefore indicate
that the vectors point in the direction upwards out of the
drawing. The spur gear and the rack are being viewed in the
negative nS direction. A clockwise circular arrow would mean
that the vector points downwards into the drawing. It will be
the general pract ice, throughout Part 2 of thi s book, to
include in each diagram a unit vector represented by a
circular arrow, in order to specify the direction of the view
being taken.
The spur gear and rack of Figure 13.2 are shown again in
Figure 13.3, viewed this time in the direction perpendicular
to the plane of the rack, as indicated by the circular arrow
,--,
representing the unit vector n~. In Figure 13.4 we show a
helical gear meshed with a rack, and we now have to choose the
directions of the set of fixed unit vectors. They are shown in
Figure 13.4 in the same directions, relative to the rack
teeth, as the three fixed vectors in Figure 13.3. In other
words, n~ is again perpendicular to the plane of the rack, and
nS remains parallel with the rack teeth. This turns out to be
the most convenient choice for the geometric analysis, even
though the shapes of the two racks in Figures 13.3 and 13.4
are quite different. Since the axis of a helical gear meshed
with a rack is not parallel with the teeth of the rack, the
unit vectors n z and nS in Figure 13.4 are no longer parallel.
I I nTJ
0 )
()
I
Figure 13.3.
I
A spur gear and rack.
The Basic Helical Rack 309
Figure 13.4. A helical gear and rack.
The Basic Helical Rack
Figure 13.5 shows the basic helical rack, used to define

the tooth surface of a helical gear. Just as the basic rack of
a spur gear has teeth which are straight-sided, the basic rack
in Figure 13.5 has teeth whose faces are flat planes. The
angle between the gear axis and the direction of the rack
teeth is shown as ~r' and it is called the basic rack helix
angle. A plane cut through the rack perpendicular to the gear
axis is known as a transverse section of the rack, and a plane
cut perpendicular to the rack teeth, in other words
perpendicular to n S ' is called a normal section.
The diagram also shows a transverse section and a normal
section through the basic rack. The distances in the two
sections between corresponding points of adjacent teeth are
called the transverse rack pitch Ptr and the normal rack
pitch Pnr. It can be seen from triangle A1A2A3 that there is a
relation between the two pitches,
(13.1)
We define a transverse module mt and a normal module mn

in terms of the pi tches of the basic rack,
,\-Reference line
I,
'LDirection. of
, gear aXIs
----
--.~n z f\
n /: Transverse
~ section
Figure 13.5. The helical basic rack.
(13.2)
(13.3)
and the modules are then related in the same manner as the
pitches,
(13.4)
The transverse diametral pitch Ptd and the normal

diametral pitch Pnd are defined as the reciprocals of the two
modules,
(13.5)
(13.6)
The pressure angles shown in the transverse and normal

Independent Parameters of the Basic Rack 311
sections in Figure 13.5 are called the transverse rack

pressure angle ~tr and the normal rack pressure angle ~nr.
They can be expressed in terms of the tooth dimensions as
follows,
ht
tan ~tr H
hn
tan ~nr H
where H is the tooth depth, and h t and h n are the lengths

shown in Figure 13.5 in the transverse and normal tooth
sections. These two lengths are related as follows,
and from the last three equations, we obtain a relation

between the two pressure angles and the helix angle,
tan ~tr cos "'r (13.7)
The rack base pitches in the two sections are defined as

the distances between adjacent tooth profiles, measured in
each case along the common normal. The transverse base pitch
Ptbr and the normal base pitch Pnbr are shown in Figure 13.5,
and are related to the rack pitches Ptr and Pnr in the
following manner,
(13.8)
(13.9)
Independent Parameters of the Basic Rack
We have specified the basic rack by means of the

following seven quantities: Ptr' Pnr' Ptbr' Pnbr' ~tr' ~nr
and "'r. However, we have shown that there are four relations
between the quantities, given by Equations (13.1, 13.7, 13.8
and 13.9). It is clear that only three of the quantities used
to specify the basic rack are independent. We will choose to
regard Pnr' ~nr and Wr as the three independent parameters,

and we now repeat the relations in a form suitable for
calculating the remaining four quantities.
Pnr
(13.10)
cos Wr
tan ~nr
tan ~tr (13.11)
cos Wr
(13.12)
(13.13)
Basic Rack Reference Plane
In Chapter 2, when we discussed the basic rack profile,

we defined the rack reference line as the line along which the
tooth thickness and the space width are equal. In the context
of a helical rack, the reference line would be a line in the
transverse section, as shown in Figure 13.5. If we construct
the reference lines in a number of different transverse
sections, the lines will all lie in a plane perpendicular
to n E , and this plane is known as the rack reference plane, or
sometimes the datum plane. Because the tooth profile of an
involute rack is straight-sided in the normal as well as the
transverse section, a normal section will also intersect the
reference plane in a line along which the tooth thickness and
the space width are equal. Hence, the rack reference plane can
be described as the plane at which the tooth thickness is
equal to the space width in both the transverse and the normal
sections.
pitch Cylinders of a Helical Gear Pair
A plane cut through a helical gear perpendicular to its

axis is called a transverse section of the gear. Suppose we
have a pair of helical gears with parallel axes, and we
consider any transverse section through the two gears. The
tooth profiles in this section must be shaped so that the Law
Standard pi tch Cylinder of a Helical Gear 313
of Gearing is satisfied, and we can therefore apply the

results proved in Chapter 1 for a pair of spur gears. There
must be a pitch point dividing the line of centres in the
ratio N1 :N 2 , and in each gear the pitch circle is the circle
which passes through the pi tch point.
We can construct the pitch circles at any number of
transverse sections through the pair of gears, and in every
case the ratio of the two pitch circle radii is the same.
Hence, in each gear the pitch circles at the different
transverse sections are all the same size, so that they form a
cylinder, and this is called the pitch cylinder of the gear.
We can therefore describe the pitch cylinders of a helical
gear pair as the cylinders with radii RP1 and Rp2 ' where the
values of these radii are found by applying the theory of spur
gear geometry to any transverse section through the gear
pair.
A similar description can be given for the case of a
helical gear and a rack. In this chapter we will consider only
the geometry of a gear meshed with its basic rack, and in the
following chapter we will discuss the geometry of a gear
meshed with an ordinary rack, and that of a pair of gears.
Standard pi tch Cylinder of a Heli cal Gear
We now study the geometry of a gear with N teeth, whose

tooth shape is defined as being conjugate to the basic rack in
Figure 13.5. If we consider a single transverse plane through
both the gear and the basic rack, as shown in Figure 13.6, the
tooth profile of the gear must be conjugate to that of the
rack. Hence, the gear tooth profile in the transverse plane
can be found by means of the spur gear geometry described in
Chapter 2. The profile is therefore an involute defined by a
basic rack with pitch Ptr and pressure angle ~tr' The radii of
the standard pitch circle and the base circle are then given
by Equations (2.27 and 2.7),
(13.14)
( 13.15)
rjJtr
R
s
r-
I Rack pitch plane
Rack reference plane
Standard pitch cylinder of gear
Figure 13.6. Transverse section through gear and basic rack.
It is clear that at every transverse section of the gear

we obtain a standard pitch circle, each with the same radius.
The cylinder containing all these circles, in other words the
cylinder of radius Rs' is the pitch cylinder of the gear when
it is meshed with its basic rack, and it is called the
standard pitch cylinder. It is used as a reference cylinder,
in exactly the same manner as the standard pitch circle of a
spur gear. In particular, many of the quantities which define
the shape of the teeth, such as the pressure angles and the
tooth thicknesses, are specified by their values on the
standard pi tch cylinder.
The radius of the standard pitch cylinder was given by
Equation (13.14) in terms of the transverse pitch Ptr of the
basic rack, and in Equation (13.2) the transverse module mt
was defined as Ptr divided by ~. We combine these equations,
in order to express the standard pitch cylinder radius
directly in terms of the transverse module,
(13.16)
Basic Rack pi tch Plane 315
Since the profile of a helical gear in the transverse

section is identical with that of a spur gear, the quantities
defined in the transverse section, such as Ptr' mt , and ~tr'
are exactly equivalent to the corresponding quantities Pr' m
and ~ r defined in connection with spur gears. For this reason,
all the geometric relations which were derived in Part 1 for a
spur gear can be applied immediately to the transverse
section of a helical gear.
Basic Rack pitch Plane
In Figure 13.6, which shows a transverse section through

the gear and the basic rack, the rack pitch line lies parallel
to the rack reference line, and touches the standard pitch
circle of the gear. I f we were to consider a number of
transverse sections, the rack pitch lines from the different
sections would all lie in one plane, and this plane is called
the pitch plane of the basic rack. The pitch plane can
therefore be defined as the plane of the basic rack which is
parallel to its reference plane, and which touches the
standard pitch cylinder of the gear. In other words, it is the
plane of the basic rack which lies at a distance Rs from the
gear axis.
Figure 13.7. Coordinate systems fixed in the gear.

The Tooth Surface of a Helical Gear
In order to describe the tooth surface of a helical gear,

we use a set of Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z) fixed in the
gear, with the z axis coinciding with the axis of the gear.
This is the same system of coordinates that was used for spur
gears in Part 1 of this book. In addition, we will use the
cylindrical coordinates (R,e,z) shown in Figure 13.7, which
are simply the polar coordinates used in Part 1, together with
the axial coordinate z.
We now consider two transverse sections through the
gear, one at plane z=O and the other at plane z. As we showed
earlier, the tooth profile in any transverse section must
always be conjugate to the corresponding transverse section
through the basic rack, so the tooth profiles in the two
sections through the gear must each have a standard pitch
circle and a base circle with radii given by Equations (13.14
and 13.15). The only difference between the two transverse
sections through the basic rack, as we can see from
Figure 13.8, is that the rack tooth profile at plane z is
displaced upwards a distance (z tan "'r)' compared with that at
plane z=O. The gear tooth profile in the transverse section at
plane z is therefore identical with the profile at plane z=O,
~ -
~I~~~~~I ~z ~n~
Section
z=o Section z
I. z .1
Figure 13.8. Transverse sections through the basic rack.
The Tooth Surface of a Helical Gear 317
except that it is rotated through a certain angle 1),,9, in order

to mesh correctly with the rack tooth profile in its displaced
position at plane z.
For a spur gear meshed with a rack, the rotation I),,~ of
the gear corresponding to a displacement I)"u r of the rack was
When the gear is meshed with its basic rack, the pitch circle
coincides with the standard pitch circle, so the pitch circle
radius Rp in the expression for I),,~ can be replaced by the
standard pitch circle radius Rs'
I)"u r
( 13.17)
Rs
In our study of the tooth shape of a helical gear, we are not

considering a ro~ation of the gear, but a rotation of the
tooth profile as we move axially along the gear. We therefore
replace I),,~ by the prof i Ie rota t i on 1),,9, and for I)"u we
r
substitute the expression (z tan ~r)' which is the relative
displacement between the rack tooth profiles in the two
transverse sections. We then obtain the following expression
for the angle 1),,9,
1),,9
z tan
Rs
"'r (13.18 )
r
---n x
Figure 13.9. Helix through point AO'

The Helix and the Involute Helicoid
A helix is a spatial curve which can be defined in the

following manner. If a rigid bar CA, as shown in Figure 13.9,
moves so that one end C travels along a fixed line, while the
bar remains perpendicular to the line and rotates through an
angle proportional to the distance travelled by C, the path
followed by the other end A is a helix. The motion can be
described by the following equation,
kz (13.19)
where OA is the angle the bar makes with a fixed direction,

OAO is the initial angle, z is the distance travelled by point
C, and k is a constant.
The value of z at which the bar has made a complete
revolution is known as the helix lead L. The length of the
lead can be determined from Equation (13.19),
kL (13.20)
If we now choose any curve in the plane z=O, and through

every point of the curve we construct a helix, each with the
same lead L, we obtain a surface called a helicoid. A section
through the helicoid surface at plane z is identical with the
section at plane z=O, except that the entire shape is rotated
through an angle tJ.O equal to kz.
When we described the gear tooth surface earlier, we
showed that the tooth profiles in any two transverse sections
are the same, with one profile rotated relative to the otHer
by an angle proportional to the distance between the
sections. With this description, it is evident that the tooth
surface is a helicoid, and since the profile in the transverse
section is an involute, the surface is called an involute
helicoid. We can regard the surface as formed by a family of
helices, each helix lying in a cylinder coaxial with the gear,
and each with the same lead L. Hence, the intersection between
any coaxial cylinder and the tooth surface is a helix with
lead L.
In Equation (13.19), we introduced a constant k in the
relation describing a helix. The value of k for the helical

gear can be obtained from a comparison of Equations (13.18
and 13.19),
tan I/J r
k (13.21)
Rs
Expressions ,for the angular difference (eA_e AO ) and the lead

L of a helix were given in Equations (13.19 and 13.20). We now
substitute for k from Equation (13.21), and we obtain the
corresponding expressions for the helical gear,
tan I/J r
eA _ eAO Rs
z (13.22)
211'Rs
L (13.23)
tan I/J r
A helical gear is called right-handed or left-handed,

depending on the direction in which the helix rotates. The
definition of a right-handed gear is essentially the same as
the definition given earlier for the right-hand rule in the
theory of vectors. The right hand is held with the thumb
pointing along the gear axis, and we consider a movement along
the gear in the direction of the thumb. If the helices formed
by the gear teeth rotate in the direction of the fingers of
the right hand, the gear is said to be right-handed, while if
they rotate in the opposite direction, the gear is
left-handed. For example, the gear shown in Figure 13.4 is a
right-handed gear.
The definition just given would imply that, for a
right-handed gear, the coordinate angle e would increase when
we move along a helix in the direction of increasing z, while
for a left-handed gear the value of e would decrease. In order
that Equation (13.22) should remain valid for both right and
left-handed gears, we will adopt the convention that the
helix angle I/J r of the basic rack is positive when the gears
conjugate to the basic rack are right-handed, and I/J r is
negative when the gears are left-handed. For consistency with
this sign convention, the value of the lead L given by
Equation (13:23) will als~ be positive or negative, depending
on whether the gear is right or left-handed.
If a cylinder is unrolled so that it lies in a plane, it
Transverse
l-;n,
section Transverse
z=Q section z
-----.----._11--.----'Z=---------.j·1
v~ Ao
27TR
A-
Developed helix
Figure 13.10. Developed cylinder of radius R and length z.
is said to be developed. We will now prove that any helix

lying in the cylinder becomes a straight line when the
cylinder is developed. Figure 13.10 shows a cylinder of
radius R, developed into a rectangle. AO is any point on the
cylinder at plane z=O, and A is the point at plane z on a helix
through AO. We introduce a symbol V to represent the depth of
any point below the top edge of the rectangle, and the
vertical difference ~V between points AO and A is then equal
to R times the angular coordinate difference,
~V (13.24)
We now use Equation (13.19) to express the vertical

difference in the following form,
~V Rkz (13.25)
Since the ratio (~V/z) is constant, all points on the

helix through AO must lie on a straight line. The angle W R
between this line and the z axis is called the helix angle of
the helix through AO and A, and it can be expressed as
follows,
tan WR Rk (13.26)
When we are considering helices associated with a

helical gear, we are interested primarily in those which have
the same lead L as the gear, given by Equation (13.23). For
example, as we pointed out earlier, the intersection of a
tooth surface with any cylinder coaxial with the gear is a
helix with lead L. When it is important to distinguish between
helices with lead L, and those with leads of different values,
we will refer to the former as gear helices. Thus, although
there are any number of helices passing through a typical
point A of the gear, there is only one gear helix through A.
For any gear helix, the helix angle can be found from
Equation (13.26), if we substitute the value of k given by
Equation (13.21),
(13.27)
Since all gear helices lying in the cylinder of radius R have

the same helix angle, the angle ~R given by Equation (13.27)
is called the helix angle of the gear at radius R. The helix
angle at the standard pitch cylinder is called simply the
helix angle of the gear, and it is represented by the
symbol ~s' Its value can be found by setting R equal to Rs in
Equation (13.27), and it is clear when we do so that the gear
helix angle 'is equal to the helix angle of the basic rack,
(13.28)
The relation between the normal module mn and the

transverse module mt was given by Equation (13.4) in terms of
the basic rack helix angle ~r'
Since we have now proved that the gear helix angle ~ is equal
s
to the basic rack helix angle, the relation between the
modules can be expressed in terms of the gear helix angle,
(13.29)
The radius of the standard pitch cylinder was given by

Equation (13.16) in terms of the transverse module,
For many gears, the specification contains the value of the

normal module, but not that of the transverse module, so it is
convenient to combine Equations (13.16 and 13.29), in order
to express the standard pitch cylinder radius in terms of the
normal module,
(13.30)
An alternative expression for tan "'R can be found by

combining Equations (13.23 and 13.27),
tan "'R (13.31)
If we develop a cylinder of radius R and length equal to the

gear lead L, we obtain a rectangle with sides 2~R and L, as
shown in Figure 13.11. It can be seen from Equation (13.31)
that the diagonal of this rectangle makes an angle "'R wi th the
z axis. We have also shown that gear helices become straight
lines in the developed cylinder, making the same angle "'R with
the z axis. Hence, all gear helices, such as intersections
between the cylinder and the tooth surfaces, will appear in
the developed cylinder of length L as lines parallel with the
diagonal of the rectangle.
L
...:::-_--.-:--_________--,'1_ n z
27TR
Developed helix
Figure 13.11. Developed cylinder of radius R and length L.

Tooth Surface of a Helical Involute Gear 323
Base Cylinder
We showed in Figure 13.6 that, at any transverse section

of the gear, we can construct a base circle with radius Rb
given by Equation (13.15). The cylinder of radius Rb , coaxial
with the gear, is therefore called the base cylinder. The
helix angle at radius Rb is known as the base helix angle ~b'
and is found by setting R equal to Rb in Equation (13.27),
Rb tan ~r
tan ~b (13.32)
Equation (13.27) can be rearranged into the following

form,
(13.33)
and since the right-hand side of this equation is constant, it

proves that the quantity (tan ~R/R) is independent of the
radius R. By substituting Rb and Rs in turn for R, we obtain
relations between the helix angles at the various cylinders
of the gear,
(13.34)
If A is any point on a tooth surface at radius R, we

construct the gear helix through A, and the point where this
helix cuts plane z=O is labelled AO' We now use Equations
(13.22 and 13.32) to obtain a new relation, which will be used
later in this chapter, between the angular difference
(eA_e AO ) and the z coordinate of point A,
(13.35)
Tooth pi tches
The circular pitch of a spur gear at radius R was defined

in Chapter 1 as the distance between corresponding points of
adjacent teeth, measured around the circumference of the
circle of radius R. When we described the tooth shape of a
spur gear in Chapter 2, we introduced the circular pitch at

the standard pitch circle and at the base circle, and the
operating circular pitch was defined in Chapter 3, when we
discussed the meshing of a gear pair. We follow the same
pattern in the description of a helical gear, except that in
this case there is more than one type of tooth pitch. We first
define the tooth pitches at a cylinder of arbitrary radius R,
and then we describe the corresponding quanti ties at the
standard pitch cylinder and at the base cylinder. The
operating pitches will not be introduced until Chapter '4,
where we discuss the meshing of helical gears.
The tooth pitches at any radius R are defined as lengths
on the developed cylinder of radius R, which is shown in
Figure 13.12. The cylinder is drawn wi th a length equal to the
gear lead L, so that the teeth appear as lines parallel to the
diagonal, making an angle "'R with the z direction, and in this
length each tooth makes exactly one revolution round the
gear. A typical tooth is shown as a broken line such as
T,T 2T3T4 • A transverse section through the cylinder appears
on the developed surface as a vertical line with a constant
value of z. Hence, if the gear has N teeth, there must be N
teeth cutting any vertical line through the rectangle, and
since the lines representing the teeth are parallel with the
diagonal, there will also be N teeth cutting any axial line.
The axial pitch Pz is defined as the distance between
adjacent teeth, measured in the axial direction. Since any
axial line in Figure 13.12 is crossed by N teeth, the axial
2rrR
l--~Z
Direction of
gear axis
Figure 13.12. Relation between the pitches.

Tooth Pi tches 325
pi tch is equal to the lead di vided by the number of teeth,
~ (13.36)
N
The axial pitch is independent of the radius R, as we can

see from Equation (13.36). It is also clear, from the same
equation, that the axial pitch Pz must obey the same sign
convention as the lead L. In other words, Pz is positive for
right-handed gears, and negative for left-handed.
It should perhaps be pointed out that in North America
the standard symbol for the axial pitch is Px' The use of Pz
was chosen here, because with the coordinate system used in
this book, the axial pitch is measured in the z direction.
The transverse pitch PtR at radius R is defined as the
distance between adjacent teeth, measured in the transverse
direction. Its value can be read from Figure 13.12,
211'R
N
(13.37)
From this definition, it is clear that the transverse pitch of

a helical gear at any radius is identical with the
corresponding circular pi tch of a spur gear.
Next, the normal pitch PnR at radius R is defined as the
distance between adjacent teeth, measured along a line
perpendicular to the teeth in the developed cylinder, as
shown in Figure 13.12. We can use the diagram to derive
relations between the various pitches,
PnR PtR cos "'R (13.38)
PnR
Pz (13.39)
sin "'R
The transverse pitch and the normal pitch at the

standard pitch cylinder are generally called the transverse
pitch and the normal pitch of the gear. They are represented
by the symbols Pts and Pns' and their values can be obtained
if we replace R by Rs in Equations (13.37 and 13.38),
211' Rs
N
(13.40)
Pts cos "'s (13.41)
We can also write down the relation between the axial pitch
and the normal pitch at the standard pitch cylinder,
corresponding to Equation (13.39),
(13.42)
The axial pitch in this equation is still represented by the

same symbol Pz' since it is independent of the radius.
Lastly, we introduce the transverse base pitch Ptb and
the normal base pitch Pnb' defined on the developed base
cylinder, with similar relations existing between them and
the axial pitch.
211'Rb
Ptb N
(13.43)
Pnb Ptb cos "'b (13.44)
Pnb
Pz (13.45)
sin "'b
Unit Vectors Associated with the Gear Helix at A
The point at radius R on the tooth profile in the

transverse section at plane z=O is labelled AO' as shown in
Figure 13.13, and a typical point on the gear helix through AO
is labelled A. We will now derive expressions for a set of
unit vectors associated with the gear helix at A. These
vectors are in the directions of the tangent, the principal
normal, and the binormal to the helix. The first step is to
calculate the position vector from the coordinate origin to
point A, whose position is determined by the position of AO'
and the value of the angular coordinate eA. The x and y
coordinates of A can be written down immediately in terms of R
and e A, and since A lies on the gear helix through AO' the z
coordinate is given by Equation (13.35). Hence, if Co is the
coordinate origin, the position vector from Co to A is given
by the following expression,
Unit Vectors Associated with the Gear Helix at A 327
ny
!n~n~ t
I
I
Cylinder of radius R
I
I
\
\
Figure 13.13. Unit vectors at point A.
A A Rb A AO
R cos e nx + R sin e ny + tan ..pb (e -e )n z (13.46)
To obtain a vector parallel to the helix tangent at A, we

differentiate the position vector with respect to the
variable eA,
- R sin eAn x + R cos eAn y + tan..pb

Rb n
z (13.47)
We then divide this vector by its length, to obtain a unit

vector n A in the direction of the helix tangent at A,
/.I
----'--::::--{ - R sin eA n + R cos eAn + Rb n )

R2 x y tan..pb z
v[R2+ b ]
tan 2..pb (13.48)
An alternative expression for the helix angle of the

gear at radius R can be found by rearranging Equation (13.34),
(13.49)
and from the triangle shown in Figure 13.14, we can write down
expressions for the sine and cosine of ..pR' which can be used
to simpiify Equation (13.48). We then obtain the final
expression for n~,
Figure 13.14. Triangle to determine cos tPR and sin tP R•
We now differentiate n~ to obtain a vector in the

direction of the principal normal to the helix at A.
dnA
--E. (13.51)
d9 A
This vector is in the direction from A towards point C, the
centre of the transverse section through A. For the purpose of
describing the tooth surface geometry, it is rather more
convenient to define a uni t vector n~ in the opposi te
direction, in other words from C towards A. Hence, to obtain
n~, we change the sign of the vector in Equation (13.51), and
divide by its length.
(13.52)
The third unit vector n~ of the of the orthogonal set is

found simply by forming the vector product (n~ x n~) ,
Equations (13.50, 13.52 and 13.53) give the directions

of the three unit vectors n~, n~, and n~, defined on the gear
helix at a typical point A of the tooth surface. The lines
through A in these three directions are known as the tangent,
the principal normal and the binormal to the helix at A.
Transverse Profile Angle at Radius R
The transverse profile angle of a helical gear is

defined in exactly the same manner as the profile angle of a
spur gear. Figure 13.15 shows the tooth profile in a
transverse section, and the point where it intersects the
cylinder of radius R is labelled A. The transverse profile
angle at radius R is defined as the angle between CA and the
profile tangent at A, as shown in Figure 13.15, and it is
represented by the symbol ~tR' Since line CE is parallel to
the profile tangent at A, the angle ECA is also equal to ~tR'
Two relations can now be read from Figure 13.15, each of them
equivalent to the corresponding relations for spur gears.
Rb
cos ~tR R
(13.54)
EA Rb tan ~tR (13.55)
Since the tooth profile in the transverse section is an

involute, we can make use of the involute property given by
Equa t ion (2. 8) ,
arc EB EA (13.56)
Transverse profile
angle <PtA
Base cylinder
Figure 13.15. Transverse section through point A.

The angle ECB can be found by combining Equations (13.55

and 13.56),
angle ECB arc EB tan I/l tR (13.57)

Rb
and angle ACB can then be read from Figure 13.15,
angle ACB (13.58)
Lastly, Equation (13.54) can be combined with

Equation (13.34) to give one of the fundamental equations
relating the angles in a helical gear,
tan "'b
(13.59)
tan "'R
Transverse Pressure Angle
The transverse profile angle at the standard pitch

cylinder is called the transverse pressure angle I/lts of the
gear. We can find its value from Equation (13.54), if we
substitute Rs in place of R,
(13.60)
ieCYlinder
Figure 13.16. Transverse section at plane z.
In Equation (13.15) we gave the base cylinder radius of

the gear in terms of the standard pitch cylinder radius and
the transverse pressure angle "'tr of the basic rack,
( 13.61 )
When we compare Equations (13.60 and 13.61), it is evident

that the transverse pressure angle of the gear is equal to the
basic rack transverse pressure angle,
(13.62)
The Generator Through Point A
The transverse section at plane z of a helical gear is

shown in Figure 13.16, and as always in a transverse section,
the tooth profile is an involute. The normal to the involute
at a typical point A touches the base circle at E, and the
involute meets the base circle at B.
Figure 13.17 shows the transverse section through the
same tooth at plane z=O, and in this section the involute
meets the base circle at BO. The two points Band BO both lie
on the curve forming the intersection of the base cylinder
Base cylinder
Figure 13.17. Transverse section at plane z=O.

with the tooth surface. Since this curve is a gear helix, BO

can be identified as the point where the gear helix through B
cuts the plane z=O. The profiles in the two sections are
identical, except that the profile at plane z is rotated
relative to the other by the angle tJ.8 given by
Equation (13.18),
(13.63)
In Figure 13.16, B' is the point where the axial line

through BO cuts plane z, so that line CB' is parallel to CaBo
in Figure 13.17. B'CB is the angle through which the tooth
profile has rotated between the two transverse sections, and
is therefore equal to tJ.8. In Figure 13.17, E' is the point
where the axial line through E cuts plane z=O, and A' is the
point where the base circle tangent at E' cuts the tooth
profile. We now use Equation (13.56) to derive an expression
for the di fference between the lengths EA and E' A' •
EA - E'A' arcEB - arcE'B O arc EB - arc EB'
EA - E'A' arc B' B (13.64)
The expression for tJ.8 in Equation (13.63) can be put into

a different form by means of Equation (13.32),
(13.65)
and we substitute this expression into Equation (13.64).
EA - E'A' (13.66)
A three-dimensional view of the base cylinder is shown

in Figure 13.18, and the lines EA and E'A' are drawn in on the
diagram. In view of Equation (13.66), it is clear that the
line AA' makes an angle ~b with the gear axis. In addition,
every point on this line is a point on the gear tooth surface,
since Equation (13.66) is satisfied at every point along the
line. When a curved surface contains a family of straight
lines, these lines are called generators of the surface, so
Transverse plane
z=o
Transverse plane z
Figure 13.18. The generator through point A.
the line AA' is known as the tooth surface generator through

point A.
Since lines EA and E'A' are both tangent to the base
circles, the four points A, E, A', and E' lie in a plane which
touches the base cylinder along line EE'. Hence, the
generator through A must touch the base cylinder at a point on
line EE', as shown in Figure 13.18, and this point is
labelled G.
It was stated in Chapter 2 that an involute can be
thought of as the curve traced out by the end of a cable, when
the cable is unwrapped from the base circle. In Figure 13.18,
lines E'A' and EA would represent the cables corresponding to
the transverse sections at plane z=Q and plane z. Since every
point of line A'A lies on the tooth surface, it is possible to
think of the plane E'A'AE as forming part of a flexible sheet,
unwrapping from the base cylinder. We can therefore represent
an involute helicoid in the following manner. We consider a
flexible sheet, wrapped round the base cylinder, with its end
cut off so that it makes an angle ~b with the gear axis. The
involute helicoid is the surface swept out by the end of the
sheet, when it is unwrapped from the base cylinder.
This analogy can be used to prove one of the important

properties of the tooth surface. Any plane which is tangent to
the base cylinder cuts the tooth surface along a straight
line, which is one of the generators of the surface. To prove
this statement, we consider the flexible sheet unwrapped to
exactly the position where it coincides with the tangent
plane, and we know that in this position, or any other, the
end of the flexible sheet coincides with a generator of the
surface. The tangent plane must therefore intersect the tooth
surface along this generator.
Coordinates of Point G
For any point A of the tooth surface, there is a

generator passing through the point, and this generator
touches the base cylinder at some point G. Very often, we will
want to find the position of G corresponding to a particular
point A, and we can do this most conveniently by deriving
expressions for the cylindrical coordinates (RG,eG,zG), in
terms of the coordinates (R,eA,Z) of point A.
Since G lies on the base cyl inder, the radi us RG is equal
to the base cylinder radius Rb • And since G lies on the axial
line through E, the angular coordinates of G and A differ
by ~tR' as we can see from Figure 13.15. Finflly, length EA in
Figure 13.18 is equal to (R b tan ~tR)' as we stated in
Equation (13.55), and the length GE is equal to EA divided by
(tan ~b). Hence, the coordinates of point G are related to
those of A in the following manner,
( 13.67)
eG eA - ~tR (13.68)
Rb tan ~tR
z - (13.69)
tan ~b
Properties of Point G
There are two important properties associated with

point G, shown in Figure 13.18. First, point G lies on the
Properties of Point G 335
gear helix through BO and B. And secondly, the generator GA is

also the helix tangent at G.
Before we prove the two properties, we will explain why
they are significant. In the first place, if the generator
through A coincides with the helix tangent at G, it is a very
simple matter to find its direction. In addition, we know that
the intersection of the tooth surface with any coaxial
cylinder is a gear helix, and we know that the tooth profile
in the transverse section at plane z meets the base circle at
point B. The intersection of the tooth surface with the base
cylinder must therefore be the gear helix through B, and this
curve is called the base helix of the tooth surface. If, as we
have stated above, the generator through any point A of the
tooth surface meets the base cylinder at a point G on the gear
helix through B, then the entire tooth surface can be thought
of as the surface swept out by the generator through G, while
G moves along the base helix.
To prove the first property, we start from
Equation (13.35), which gave the angular coordinate
difference (eA_e AO ) between two points AO and A, lying on the
same gear helix at plane z=O and plane z,
(13.70)
This equation can be adapted to give the angular

difference ~e between any pair of points on the same gear
helix, when nei ther point lies in the plane z=O,
(13.71)
where ~z is the difference between the z coordinates of the

two points. We now determine whether points G and B satisfy
this equation.
Since point E lies on the axial line through G, as shown
in Figure 13.18, the difference between the e coordinates of B
and G is equal to the angle between the radii through Band E.
This is the angle ECB, shown in Figure 13.15, and its value is
given by Equation (13.57).
angle ECB tan qJtR (13.72)

Point B lies in the transverse plane z, and the axial

distance between Band G can therefore be found from
Equation (13.69),
Rb tan 9>tR
(13.73)
tan 1/Ib
It is evident that the coordinate differences given by

Equations (13.72 and 13.73) satisfy Equation (13.71). We have
therefore proved that the same helix passes through Band G,
or in other words, that G lies on the gear helix through B.
To prove the second property, we start by writing down
the posi tion vector from the coordinate origin Co to point A,
(13.74)
We use Equations (13.54, 13.68 and 13.69) to express R, e A and

z in terms of Rb , eG and zG,
and the expression is then simplified as follows,
(RbCoseGn x + RbSineGn y + zG nz )
+ Rb tan 9>tR(-sin eGn x + cos eGn + 1 n) (13.75)

y tan 1/Ib z
The first bracket in this equation is the position

vector from Co to G. The second bracket is closely related to
n:
the unit vector nG, which gives the direction of the helix
/J
tangent at G. The expression for is obtained from
Equation (13.50), if we replace A and R by G and Rb •
The position vector from Co to A, given by

Equation (13.75), can now be put in the following form,
(13.77)
Direction of the Normal to the Tooth Surface at A 337
This equation can be interpreted as stating that to get from

Co to A, we can first go to G, and then move along the helix
tangent at G. Since we know that line GA is the generator
through A, we have proved that the helix tangent at G
coincides with the generator through G and A. We can therefore
use Equation (13.76) to give the direction of the generator
through A. In moving from Co to A by the route just described,
the distance that we would travel along the generator is equal
to the coefficient of n G in Equation (13.77). This qu&ntity
/.I
is of course equal to the length GA, as we can see in
Figure 13.18.
Direction of the Normal to the Tooth Surface at A
The simplest method for finding the normal to the tooth

surface at A is to find the directions of any two tangents
through A. The two tangents define the tangent plane, and the
direction of the normal must be perpendicular to both of them.
One line which touches the tooth surface at A is the
generator through A, since the entire generator lies within
the surface, and is therefore tangent to it. Hence, the normal
to the tooth surface at A is perpendicular to the generator
direction n G
/.I'
A second tangent direction can be seen in
c
E (and G)
/\~n~
Lse
Figure 13.19.
cylinder
t )n z
Transverse section through point A.
Figure 13.19, which shows the transverse section through A.

The profile normal at A touches the base circle at E, and the
profile tangent at A is therefore parallel to CEo Point G lies
on the axial line through E, so in Figure 13.19, G would
appear exactly behind E. The vector n~ is therefore parallel
to CE, and hence is also parallel to the profile tangent at A.
We introduce a unit vector n~ to indicate the direction
normal to the tooth surface at A. We have shown that n A must
be perpendicular to both n: n
and n~, and it can therefore be
n: x n~ (13.78)
The unit vector n~ is found from Equation (13.53), if we

substitute G and Rb in place of A and R. We then obtain an
expression for the unit vector normal to the tooth surface
at A,
Normal Section at A
We define the normal section at any point A as the

section through the gear perpendicular to the helix tangent
at A, or in other words, perpendicular to n~. Generally, we
will consider the normal section through a point A which lies
on the tooth surface, but the definition remains valid
whether A lies on the tooth surface or not.
Normal Profile Angle at Radius R
Figure 13.20 shows the normal section through point A on

the tooth surface at radius R. The shape of the tooth profile
in a normal section is unknown at present, but we will
describe later in this chapter how the shape can be
calculated. If C is the centre of the transverse section
through A, as shown in Figure 13.19, the line CA also lies in
the normal section, since the unit vector n~ along CA is
Normal Profile Angle at Radius R 339
Normal at A
__ __
nA
_~ -=~~====~~~R~ --------~It~::~-;.;::-~Normal
C profile
angle
Tangent at A
Line perpendicular to CA
Figure 13.20. Normal section through point A.
perpendicular to n~. Earlier, we def ined the transverse

profile angle ~tR as the angle between CA and the profile
tangent in the transverse section. We now define the normal
profile angle ~nR in a similar manner, as the angle between CA
and the profile tangent in the normal section.
The unit vector n~ in Figure 13.20 points in the
direction of the normal to the tooth surface at A, and is
therefore perpendicular to any line touching the surface
at A. One such line is the helix tangent at A, so the vector n~
must be perpendicular to n A, which means that it lies in the
JJ
plane of the normal section. A second line touching the
surface at A is the profile tangent in the normal section, so
n~ is also perpendicular to this direction. The angle in
Figure 13.20 between the unit vectors n~ and n~ is equal
to ~nR' since one is perpendicular to the profile tangent, and
the other is perpendicular to line CA. We can use this result
to derive an expression for cos ~nR.
cos ~nR
cos 'nR cos "'b cos "'R cos(BA-B G) + sin "'b sin "'R
(13.79, 13.53)
cos 'nR cos "'b cos "'R cos 'tR + sin "'b sin "'R
(13.68)
tan "'b
cos 'nR cos "'b cos "'R tan + sin "'b sin "'R
(13.59) "'R
sin "'b
cos 'nR (13.80)
sin "'R
Since there are quite a number of steps in the development

just presented, no explanation has been given for each step,
but at each line the number of the equation used to justify
the step has been written in brackets under the equals sign.
The same procedure will be used again later, wherever it is
warranted by the number of steps in a proof.
The angle between the vectors n~ and n~ in Figure 13.20
is ('1'/2 - 'nR)' so we can derive an expression for sin 'nR in a
similar manner.
sin 'nR
sin 'nR cos "'b sin(BA-B G)

(13.79, 13.52)
sin 'nR cos "'b sin 'tR (13.81)

(13.68)
Finally, we combine Equations (13.80 and 13.81) to

obtain an expression for tan 'nR'
tan 'nR
tan 'nR
(13.82)
Normal Pressure Angle
The normal profile angle of a gear at its standard pitch

cylinder is called the normal pressure angle of the gear, and
it is represented by the symbol ~ns. We can find its value
from Equation (13.82), if the angles ~tR and ~R are replaced
by If>ts and ~s' their values at the standard pitch cylinder.
tan <P ts cos ~s (13.83)
In Equation (13.7) we gave an expression for <P nr , the

normal pressure angle of the basic rack,
(13.84)
We have shown in Equations (13.62 and 13.28) that the

transverse pressure angle and the helix angle of the gear are
equal to the corresponding angles in the basic rack. A
comparison of Equations (13.83 and 13.84) therefore shows
that the two normal pressure angles are also equal.
(13.85)
Generator Inclination Angle at Radius R
We introduce the symbol "R to represent the angle

between the generator through A and the helix tangent at A,
where A is a point on the tooth surface at radius R. There is
no name in common use for the angle "R' but we will refer to it
as the generator inclination angle. An expression for cos "R
can be found in the usual manner.
cos "R sin ~b sin ~R cos(eA-e G) + cos ~b cos ~R

(13.76, 13.50)
cos -Ji R
cos "R (13.86)
cos -Jib
We now use Equation (13.86) to derive an expression for

sin "R.
sin "R
sin "R
sin "R
2
sin "R sin -Ji R y'( 1 - cos 'tR)
(13.59)
sin "R (13.87)
We will show in Chapter 14 that the orientation of the

contact line between two meshing gears is related to the value
of "R at the pitch cylinder, and this value is therefore
called the contact line inclination angle.
Independent Angles
Early in the description of helical gear geometry, we

introduced the transverse profile angle 'tR and the helix
angle -Ji R, each defined at radius R. We then used these angles
to define a number of new angles, the base helix angle -Jib' the
normal profile angle 'nR' and the generator inclination
angle "R. All five angles are useful in describing different
aspects of helical gear geometry. However, only two can be
regarded as independent, and it is already clear that there
are a considerable number of relations between the angles. In
working through the trigonometric steps necessary for some of
the proofs that we will encounter, it is often convenient to
express all the angles in terms of the two which are regarded
as independent.
Independent Angles 343
We must now decide which of the angles to choose as the

independent pair, and it is perhaps a matter of opinion which
are the most important. We will choose the base helix angle "'b
and the normal profile angle ~nR' since the base cylinder is
certainly fundamental to an involute gear, and the normal
profile angle has a special significance, as we will show when
we describe the hobbing of gears in Chapter 16. We now express
the remaining three angles in terms of ~nR and "'b.
We obtain sin "'R directly from Equation (13.80),
sin "'b
sin "'R (13.88)
cos ~nR
and we then derive an expression for cos "'R'

v(cos2~nR - sin 2"'b)
cos 4>nR
It is convenient to introduce a function f of ~nR and "'b'

defined by
(13.89)
and the expression for cos "'R can then be written,
f(~nR''''b)
(13.90)
cos 4>nR
An expression for cos ~tR was given by Equation (13.59),
tan "'b
cos 4>tR tan "'R
and we now use Equations (13.88 and 13.90) to express cos ~tR
in terms of ~nR and "'b'
cos 4>tR (13.91)
We obtain sin ~tR directly from Equation (13.81),
sin 4>nR
sin 4>tR (13.92)
cos "'b
Lastly, cos PR and sin PR are given by Equations (13.86

and 13.87), if we express 4>tR and "'R in terms of 4>nR and "'b.
(13.93)
cos 4>nR cos IPb
(13.94)
Several relations between the various angles have

already been proved. These are given in Equations (13.59,
13.80-13.82, 13.86 and 13.87). There are some additional
relations which are sometimes useful, and since they can all
be proved simply by expressing every angle in terms of 4>nR
and IPb' the relations will be stated here wi thout proof.
cos IPb cos 4>tR cos IPR cos 4>nR (13.95)
cos 4>tR cos 4>nR cos vR (13.96)
tan vR tan IPR sin 4>nR (13.97)
sin 4>nR cos vR sin 4>tR cos IPR (13.98)
All the relations discussed in this section are valid at

any radius R. As a special case, they are of course true at
the standard pitch cylinder. The relations can therefore all
be rewritten with the pressure angles in place of the profile
angles. Equation (13.88), for example, would then take the
following form,
(13.99)
It is not necessary to repeat the entire set of relations,

wi th the pressure angles in place of the prof ile angles.
However, in the remaining chapters we will often need to make
use of relations between the pressure angles, and for proof
the reader will simply be referred to the corresponding
relations between the profile angles.
Relations Between the Gear and the Basic Rack Parameters
We have already shown, in Equations (13.28, 13.62 and

13.85), that the helix angle of a gear at its standard pitch
Parameters of the Gear and Basic Rack 345
cylinder is equal to the basic rack helix angle, and that the
transverse and normal pressure angles of the gear are equal to
those of the basic rack. We will now prove that a similar set
of relations exist between the pitches of the gear and those
of the basic rack.
I n Chapter 2, we showed f or a spur gear that the circular
pitch at the standard pitch circle is equal to the pitch of
the basic rack, and that the base pitches of the gear an? the
basic rack are also equal. The same statements can therefore
be made in relation to the transverse pitches and the
transverse base pi tches of a helical gear and its basic rack,
( 13.100)
(13.101)
Expressions for the normal pitch of the gear at its

standard pitch cylinder, and for that of the basic rack, were
given by Equations (13.41 and 13.1),
Since the transverse pitches and the helix angles are equal,
as we showed in Equations (13.100 and 13.28), it is evident
that the normal pi tches are also equal.
( 13.102)
TO complete this section, we will prove that the normal

base pitch of the gear is equal to that of the basic rack. In
Equations (13.39 and 13.45) we gave expressions for the axial
pitch of the gear in terms of the normal pitch at radius R,
and of the normal base pitch,
PnR
sin "'R
Pnb
sin "'b
By equating the two expressions for Pz' we obt,in a relation

between the normal base pitch and the normal pitch at
radius R,
PnR sin "'b

(13.103)
sin "'R
The helix angles at the base cylinder and at radius Rare

related by Equation (13.80),
and we therefore obtain the following expression for the

normal base pi tch of the gear,
(13.104)
The right-hand side of this equation is an expression

that can be evaluated at any radius R. For our present
purpose, we want to express the normal base pitch in terms of
the normal pitch at the standard pi tch cylinder, and we
therefore set R equal to Rs '
(13.105)
The normal base pitch of the basic rack was given by

Equation (13.9),
We have proved in Equations (13.102 and 13.85) that the normal

pi tches and the normal pressure angles are equal, so a
comparison of the last two equations shows that the normal
base pitch of the gear is equal to that of the basic rack,
( 13.106)
Normal Base pitch
In Chapter 2, we defined the base pitch of a spur gear as

the distance between corresponding points of adjacent teeth,
Normal Base pitch 347
Base cylinder
Figure 13.21. Normals to the tooth surfaces

at points A and AI .
measured around the base circle. We then showed that the base
pitch is equal to the distance between adjacent tooth
profiles, measured along a common normal.
The normal base pitch of a helical gear was defined
earlier in this chapter, as the distance between
corresponding points of adjacent teeth, measured on the
developed base cylinder in a direction perpendicular to the
lines of the teeth. We will now show that the normal base
pitch, defined in this manner, is also equal to the distance
between adjacent tooth surfaces, measured along a common
normal.
Figure 13.21 shows the base cylinder of a gear, with the
base helices of two adjacent teeth. We consider two points, A
on one tooth and A' on the other, with generators starting at
points G and G', and we will determine what conditions must be
satisfied if there is to be a common normal at A and A'.
A first condition, necessary for the existence of a
common normal, is that the normals to the tooth surfaces at A
and A' should be parallel. This condition can be written as
follows,
(13.107)
and when we use Equation (13.79) to express the vectors n~ and

n~', the condition becomes:
- cos "'b sin eG n + cos "'b cos eG n sin "'b n z

G' x G' Y
- cos "'b sin e nx + cos "'b cos e ny sin "'b n z (13.108)
The solution to this equation can be seen by inspection,
eG' (13.109)
For the polar coordinates eG and eG' to be equal, the two

points G and G' must lie on the same axial line. The two
generators and the axial line GG' then form a plane, as shown
in Figure 13.22, and this plane is perpendicular to n G R• The
G G'
unit vectors n# and n# must be equal, in view of
Equation (13.109), and the two generators are therefore
parallel. The plane containing these generators is called a
base tangent plane, since it touches the base cylinder along
line GG' •
The unit vector n~ normal to the tooth surface at A is
parallel to n~, as we showed in Equation (13.78), and is
therefore perpendicular to n~ and to n~. It must then lie in
the base tangent plane, in the direction perpendicular to the
generators. The same is true of the uni t vector n~' , normal to
the second tooth surface at A'. Hence, if we choose A and A'
so that the line joining them is perpendicular to the
Figure 13.22. Coincident normals to the tooth surfaces

at points A and A' •
Normal Base pi tch 349
generators, the normals at A and A' will coincide, and we have

found a common normal. The length AA' can then be read from
Figure 13.22,
AA' Pz sin "'b (13.110)
We showed in Equation (13.45) that the axial pitch is related

to the normal base pi tch as follows,
and when the last two equations are combined, it is clear that
the length AA' in Figure 13.22 is equal to the normal base
pitch,
AA' (13.111)
We have therefore proved the statement made at the

beginning of this section, that the normal base pitch is equal
to the distance between adjacent tooth surfaces, measured
along a common normal.
We can also use Figure 13.22 to prove another important
result. The generators AG and A'G' are the lines where the
base tangent plane intersects the tooth surfaces containing A
and A'. The same plane would intersect the other teeth of the
gear in a set of parallel lines, each a distance Pnb apart,
and each making an angle "'b with the z axis. Hence, the
section formed by a base tangent plane looks the same as the
developed base cylinder, in which the teeth also appear as
straight lines, a distance Pnb apart, making an angle "'b with
the z axis. This result could also have been proved directly,
by considering the tooth surface in the manner described
earlier, as the surface swept out by the edge of a flexible
sheet unwrapping from the base cylinder.
Strictly speaking, the base tangent plane is not
absolutely identical to the developed base cylinder. In the
base tangent plane, the side of each tooth furthest from line
GG' is the generator, and is therefore straight, while the
other side is slightly curved. In the developed base
cylinder, as in every developed cylinder, both sides of the
teeth are straight. However, when we consider the base

tangent plane, we are almost always interested in the sides of
the teeth which coincide with the generators, so it is common
practice to regard the base tangent plane and the developed
base cylinder as identica1.
Tooth Thickness
For helical gears, we define the tooth thickness in both

the transverse and the normal directions, in exactly the same
manner as we defined the transverse and normal pitches.
Figure 13.23 shows the developed cylinder of radius R, and
each pair of diagonal lines represents the intersection
between the cylinder and the two faces of a tooth. The
transverse and the normal tooth thickness at radius Rare
defined as the distances between the tooth lines on the
developed cylinder, measured in the transverse and normal
directions. The relation between the transverse thickness ttR
and the normal thickness tnR can be read from Figure 13.23,
(13.112)
At the standard pitch cylinder, the tooth thicknesses

are represented by the symbols tts and t ns • When we refer to
the transverse and normal tooth thickness, without specifying
any particular radius, it is generally understood that we
21TR
Figure 13.23. Transverse and normal tooth thickness.

Profile Shift 351
mean tt s and t ns , the tooth thicknesses at the standard pitch

cylinder. These values must of course satisfy
Equation (13.112),
( 13. 113)
The transverse tooth thickness is defined in essentially

the same manner as the tooth thickness of a spur gear, so the
results derived in Part 1 for the spur gear tooth thickness
apply equally to the transverse tooth thickness of a helical
gear. In particular, we can use Equation (2.36), which gave
the relation between the tooth thickness at radius R and that
at the standard pitch circle. When applied to a helical gear,
this equation can be written,
( 13.114)
If the transverse tooth thickness is known at one radius

and we need to find its value at another, Equation (13.114)
can of course be used twice. There is no corresponding
equation relating the normal tooth thicknesses at different
radi i. However, when we know the normal thickness at one
radius, we can find its value at another by the following
procedure. We calculate the transverse thickness at the first
radius from Equation (13.112), then find the transverse
thickness at the second radius by means of Equation (13.114),
and lastly we use Equation (13.112) once more to obtain the
normal thickness at the second radius.
Profile Shift
The relation between the tooth thickness ts of a spur

gear and its profile shift e was given by Equation (6.1),
111'm + 2e tan ¢s ( 13.115)
The profile shift of a helical gear is defined in the

same manner as that of a spur gear. A helical gear has a
profile shift e if its teeth are conjugate to the basic rack,
when the distance between the gear axis and the reference
plane of the basic rack is equal to (Rs+e). Due to the
equivalence between the tooth thickness of a spur gear and the
transverse tooth thickness of a helical gear, we can
immediately write down an equation corresponding to
Equation (13.115), relating the profile shift of a helical
gear, and its transverse tooth thickness.
( 13.116)
The three relations between tts' mt , IP ts ' and the

corresponding quantities in the normal section, were given by
Equations (13.113,13.29 and 13.83),
When these equations are substituted into Equation (13.116),

we obtain the relation between the normal tooth thickness and
the profile shift,
(13.117)
Chordal Tooth Thickness in the Normal Section
The simplest method by which we can measure the tooth

thickness of a helical gear is to measure the normal tooth
thickness at the standard pitch cylinder, using a gear-tooth
caliper. However, the normal thickness is defined along a
line in the developed cylinder, as shown in Figure 13.24, so
that on the actual gear it is a measurement along a helix. As
we described in Chapter 8, the gear-tooth caliper measures
the tooth thickness along a straight line, or in other words,
it measures the chordal thickness. In order to derive a
relation between the normal tooth thickness and the
corresponding chordal thickness, we must first find the
Chordal Tooth Thickness in the Normal Section 353
Normal helix
21TR
Figure 13.24. Normal helix in the developed cylinder

of radius R.
radius of curvature of the helix along which the normal tooth

thickness is defined.
We will use the symbol PR to represent the radius of
curvature of the helix at radius R, with helix angle ~R. When
we consider a small movement along the helix, the helix
tangent unit vector changes by an amount which can be found
dn~ - sin ~R de A n~
Since the length of the unit vector is unchanged, the

magnitude of the angle through which it has turned is
(sin ~R de A). The corresponding distance moved along the
helix is (R deA/sin ~R). Hence, the radius of curvature, which
is equal to the distance moved divided by the angle through
which the tangent turns, can be expressed as follows,
R
(13.118)
sin2~R
The normal tooth thickness at any radius R is measured along a
helix known as the normal helix, which is shown in
Figure 13.24 as a line perpendicular to the teeth. Its helix
angle is (?r/2-~R)' and its radius of curvature PnR can
therefore be found from Equation (13.118),
R (13.119)
The relation between the normal tooth thickness t ns at

the standard pitch cylinder, and the corresponding chordal
thickness t nsch ' can be read from Figure 13.25.
t
2P n s sin ( 2 pnnss )
and we use Equation (13.119) to express Pns in terms of the

radius and the helix angle at the standard pi tch cylinder,
2
Rs . t ns cos ~s
2 --:2;-- sIn ( 2R ) (13.120)
cos ~s s
For gears with large amounts of profile shift, it may be more
convenient to measure the normal tooth thickness at a radius R
which is different from Rs. The chordal tooth thickness is
then given by the following equation, proved in exactly the
same manner as Equat ion (13.120),
R t cos2~R
2 sin( nR 2R ) (13.121)
cos2~R
Span Measurement
In Chapter 8, we described the span measurement of the

tooth thickness, in the case of a spur gear. The same method
Normal helix at the

standard pitch cylinder
t nsch
-::~~~_----l~ Chordal tooth
thickness
Figure 13.25. Tooth thickness and chordal tooth thickness

in the normal section.
Figure 13.26. Span measurement.
can be used for a helical gear, and the measurement is made in

a base tangent plane, since in this plane the normals to the
surfaces of different teeth all lie in the same direction.
A base tangent plane is shown in Figure 13.26, with the
shaded areas representing the sections through the teeth. The
span measurement is made in the direction perpendicular to
the teeth, and is shown in the diagram as the length S. Since
the base tangent section is essentially the same as the
developed base cylinder, as we pointed out earlier in this
chapter, the pitch and the tooth thickness in the direction of
the span measurement are equal to the normal base pitch Pnb
and the normal tooth thickness t nb at the base cylinder.
Hence, if the span is measured over N' teeth, the span length
is equal to (N'-1) normal base pitches, together with the
tooth thic kness,
S (13.122)
By expressing Pnb and t nb in terms of the corresponding

quantities in the transverse plane, and then relating these
to the quantities in the standard pitch cylinder, we can
express the span length S in the following manner,
(13.123)
Once the length S is measured, the normal tooth thickness is

found by rearranging Equation (13.123),
S - (N'-1)7I'm - Nm inv'ts (13.124)

cos 'ns n n
The radius R at which the measurement is made can be read

from Figure 13.26,
R (13.125)
We now have to choose the value of N' so that the span

measurement is made near the middle of the tooth face, or in
other words, at a radi us of approximately (Rs +e). The value of
S which would give the ideal measurement radius is found by
setting R equal to (Rs+e) in Equation (13.125),
(13.126)
We follow the same procedure that was used in the case of spur
gears. We express Rb in terms of Rs ' and expand the expression
for S as a power series in (e/R s )' retaining only the first
two terms,
( 13.127)
The span length S was given earlier by Equation (13.123). We

substitute this expression into Equation (13.127), and solve
for N', the number of teeth over which the span should be
measured,
1 N'ts
N' '2+-71'-+
We find, as we found with spur gears, that the value of

N' given by this equation is too high in cases where e is
large and N is low. This is because the expansion for S given
by Equation (13.127) is inaccurate when (e/R s ) is large. We
therefore multiply the coefficient of e in Equation (13.128)
by the factor [O.75-(2/N)], exactly as we did for spur gears,
and once again the angle 'ts in the second term is expressed
more conveniently in degrees, so that the final expression
Position of a Typical Point A on the Tooth Surface 357
for N' takes the following form,
N' ~ 1 + N1~8tos + N tan ~ns ::n2~b + 2e[0.75-(2/N)] (13.129)

- 2 'II' cos 'II'mn tan cfl ns
This equation generally gives a non-integer value for N' , and

the number of teeth to be spanned is equal to the integer
closest to this value.
There is one condition that must be met, for the span
measurement of a helical gear to be possible. The measurement
must obviously be made inside the end faces of the gear. The
projection of the span length in the axial direction, which is
shown in Figure 13.26, must therefore be less than the face
width,
S sin ~b < F (13.130)
Position of a Typical Point A on the Tooth Surface
We stated earlier that the tooth surface of a helical

gear is formed by a family of helices, each passing through a
specified profile in the transverse section z=O. So far in
this chapter, whenever we have discussed the position of a
typical point A, we have essentially given its position
relative to AO' the point where the gear helix through A cuts
the transverse plane z=O. However, we have not yet
established the position of AO. Having now defined tts
and t ns ' the two measures of tooth thickness in a helical
gear, we are able to specify the involute profile in the plane
z=O, and we can then determine the position of AO. We have
used the coordinates (R,eA,Z) to represent the position of
point A, and we will now derive an expression for e A as a
function of Rand z. In other words, we will find the position
of the point on the tooth surface that lies at radius R in the
transverse section at plane z.
It is convenient to choose the (x,y,z) coordinate system
in the position shown in Figure 13.27, so that the x axis
coincides with a tooth centre-line in the transverse section
z=O. As always, since the profile in a transverse section is
an involute, the results derived for spur gears can be used
(seCYlinder
n
80
Ao ~
nx
x
/
Figure 13.27. Transverse section at plane z=O.
directly, apart from the changes in notation. Hence, if AO is

the point at radius R on the tooth profile in the transverse
section z=O, the angular coordinate BAO can be found from
(13.131)
(13.132)
If point A lies on the surface of the same tooth, at the

same radius R as point AO' the gear helix through AO must also
pass through A, and the difference between the angular
coordinates of the two points is given by Equation (13.35),
tan l/Ib
R z (13.133)
b
We now combine Equations (13.132 and 13.133) to obtain an

expression for BA,
( 13. 134)
The Cartesian coordinates of point A can of course be found

from the cylindrical coordinates by the usual transformation.
Tooth Profile in the Normal Section
A gear tooth surface is specified by its shape in the

transverse section, but there are times when we may need to
know the corresponding shape in the normal section. For
example, by shining parallel rays of light at a gear, a
shadowgraph apparatus can project onto a screen a curve which
is almost exactly the shape of a normal section through the
tooth. The apparatus can therefore be used to check the
accuracy of the tooth surface, provided the theoretical shape
of the normal section is known.
Before discussing the tooth profile in a normal section,
it is important to clarify which normal plane is referred to.
The normal plane through a point D is defined as the plane
through D, perpendicular to the helix tangent direction nD. jJ.
The normal section profiles that we are most likely to require
are the sections either through a point on the tooth profile,
or through a point on the standard pitch cylinder. The method
is the same in both cases, so we will deal with the most
general situation, where D is an arbitrary point at any
radius R', not necessarily on the tooth surface. We introduce
local coordinates xn and Yn in the normal plane, as shown in
Figure 13.28, and in order to determine the shape of the
---.~nD
R
Figure 13.28. Normal section through point D.

normal section profile, we will show how to calculate the

values of xn and Yn for points on the profile.
We choose point D by specifying its cylindrical
coordinates R', 9D and zD. If the gear helix through D cuts
the transverse plane z=O at DO' the angular coordinate of DO
is given by Equation (13.35),
( 13.135)
The position vector to D and the direction of the helix

tangent at D can be found from Equations (13.46 and 13.50),
where the helix angle at radius R' is given by

Equation (13.49),
(13.138)
We now choose any radi us R, and we determine the posi t ion

of A, the point where the cylinder of radius R is intersected
by the tooth profile in the normal section through D. We use
Equation (13.46) once again, this time to obtain the position
vector to A,
COA A A Rb A AO
P =Rcos9nx+Rsin9n + (9-9)n (13.139)
y tan ~b z
where the angle eAO is given by Equations (13.131 and 13.132),

and 9A is at present still unknown.
If A lies in the normal section through D, the vector
from D to A must be perpendicular to the helix tangent at D,
and this condition can be put in the following form,
o (13.140)
The expressions given above for the position vectors and the
unit vector are substituted into Equation (13.140), and we
obtain the following equation for (9 A_e D),
Calculation of R 361
eAO - eDO (13.141)
The angle (eA_e D) is small in all cases of practical

interest, and we obtain an approximate solution with
negligible error when we replace the sine of the angle by the
angle itself. Hence, the solution to Equation (13.141) can be
written,
( 1.3. 142)
The local coordinate system (xn'Yn) will be positioned

with its origin at point D, and the coordinate axes in the
directions of the unit vectors n~ and n~. The position of A
relative to D is then given by the following two equations,
x~
C A C D
(p 0 _ pO) R sin (eA-e D) (13.144)
cos 1/I R,
For any chosen value of R, we find the value of (eA_e D) by

means of Equation (13.142), and then the position of point A
on the normal section profile is given by Equations (13.143
and 13.144). By carrying out the calculation for a number of
different R values, we can construct the entire tooth profile
in the normal section, including the fillet if required.
Calculation of R When the Transverse Profile Angle, the Helix

Angle, or the Normal Prof i Ie Angle I s Known
It sometimes happens that we want to find the radius at

which one of the angles 'tR' 1/IR' or 'nR' takes a specified
value. For example, knowing the value of one of the angles at
the pitch cylinder, we might want to use this information to
calculate the radius Rp'
First, we consider the case when the value of ~tR is
specified. The corresponding radius R is then given by
Equation (13.54),
R (13.145)
If the helix angle ~R is specified, the radius can be found

R ( 13.146)
Lastly, if ~nR is specified, we need to make use of Equations

(13.54, 13.91 and 13.89) to obtain an equation relating R
and ~nR'
Rb V(COS2~nR - sin2~b)
R cos ~tR
cos ~b
The value of R is then given by the following expression,
R (13.147)
Specifying a Helical Gear
The specification of a helical gear consists of the

quantities given in Chapter 2 for the specification of a spur
gear, together with a few additional values required
particularly for helical gears.
In place of the module and the pressure angle, which are
given for a spur gear, the specification of a helical gear
contains either the transverse module mt and the transverse
pressure angle ~ts' or the normal module mn and the normal
pressure angle ~ns' For reasons which will be explained in
Chapter 16, mt and ~ts are sometimes given when the gear is
cut by a pinion cutter, while mn and ~ns are generally given
for gears cut by a rack cutter or a hob. It does not matter
which pair of quantities is provided, since they are related
by Equations (13.29 and 13.83),
(13.148)
(13.149)
The remaining quantities in the specification of a

helical gear, which have no counterpart in that of a spur
gear, are the helix angle ~s and the axial pitch Pz' The sign
Speci fying a Helical Gear 363
convention that we have used for these two quantities, where

they are positive or negative depending on whether the gear is
right or left-handed, is not used in the specification. The
general practice is to give the magnitudes of the helix angle
and the axial pitch, and to state whether the gear is right or
left-handed.
For convenient reference, a number of the equations
derived in this chapter are repeated below, and they can be
used to calculate the remaining important gear parameters, in
terms of those that are specified.
Nm n
RS ( 13.150)
2 cos IPs
tan tP ns
tan tP ts ( 13.151 )
cos IPs
Rb Rs cos tP ts (13.152)
21rRs
L ( 13.153)
tan IPs
Rb tan IPs
tan IPb ( 13. 154)
Rs
Finally, we use the following equations to calculate the

profile angles and the helix angle at a typical radius R,
Rb
cos tPtR ( 13.155)
R
R tan IPs
tan IPR ( 13.156)
Rs
tan tPtR cos IPR (13.157)

Numerical Examples
Example 13.1
A helical gear with 24 teeth has a transverse diametral
pitch of 2, a transverse pressure angle of 20°, and a helix
angle of 23°. Calculate the following quantities: normal
module, normal pressure angle, standard pitch cylinder
radius, base cylinder radius, lead, axial pitch, base helix
angle, and normal base pitch. Also, calculate the generator
inclination angle at the tip cylinder, if the addendum is
equal to the normal module.
mt = 0.5000 inches (13.5)

mn 0.4603 (13.148)
IPns 18.523° (13.149)
Rs 6.0000 (13.16)
Rb 5.6382 (13.152)
L = 88.8135 (13.153)
Pz = 3.7006 (13.36)
!Jib = 21.746° ( 13.154)
Pnb = 1.3710 inches (13.45)
as = 0.4603 inches
RT = Rs + as = 6.4603
IPtT = 29.221° (13.155)

~T 24.562° (13.156)
vT = 11.708° (13.87)
Example 13.2
A 78-tooth gear has a normal module of 8 mm, a normal
pressure angle of 20D, a helix angle of 30.176°, and a normal
tooth thickness of 12.35 mm. First, determine the axial
pi tch, and then calculate the span measurement, and the
normal tooth thickness at the tip cylinder, if the addendum is
equal to the normal module.
Examples 365
RS = 360.908 mm (13.150)
~ts = 22.832° ( 13.151)
Rb = 332.629 ( 13. 152 )
L = 3900.0 ( 13.153)
Pz = 50.000 mm (13.36)
The value of the helix angle was chosen specifically to

give a round number for the axial pitch. There is no
particular advantage in choosing a round number, such as 30°,
for the helix angle. However, we will show in Chapter 16 that
it is very much easier to select the change gears for a
hobbing machine, when the axial pitch of the gear is a round
number.
"'b = 28.187° (13.154)

e = - 0.297 mm (13.117)
N' = Integer closest to 13.349 = 13 (13.129)
5 = 308.218 mm ( 13.123)
Measurement radi us R = 359.295 mm ( 13.125)
Ideal measurement radius = Rs + e = 360.611 mm
tts =
14.286 (13.113)
RT = Rs as = 368.908
+
~tT = 25.623° ( 13.155)
ttT = 7.311 (13.114)
"'T = 30.725° (13.156)
tnT = 6.285 mm (13.112)
Chapter 14
Helical Gears in Mesh
Introduction
In this chapter we will describe the geometry, first of a

helical gear meshed with a rack, and then of a pair of helical
gears, and in each case we will determine what conditions must
be satisfied for correct meshing. We will also discuss how the
contact ratio of a pair of helical gears differs from that of
a pair of spur gears, and we will show that the calculations
for interference, undercutting and backlash in helical gears
are essentially the same as for spur gears. Finally, we will
make a detailed study of the position and orientation of the
contact line between any pair of meshing teeth.
A Pinion Meshed wi th a Rack
We showed in Chapter 3 that a spur gear can mesh wi th any

rack whose teeth are straight-sided, provided the base pitch
of the rack is equal to that of the gear. We now investigate
whether a helical gear can mesh with a rack whose tooth faces
are planar, but with parameters which are not necessarily
equal to those of the bas ic rac k.
We consider a gear with normal module mn , normal
pressure angle ~ns and helix angle ~s' and we will determine
the conditions that must be satisfied if the gear is to mesh
with a rack whose independent parameters are P~r' ~~r and ~~.
The remaining parameters of the rack can be expressed in terms
of the first three by means of Equations (13.10 - 13.13),
P~r (14.1)
cos ~~
tan ¢~r
(14.2)
cos "'~
(14.3)
(14.4)
We consider first the meshing geometry in the transverse

plane z=O, and, as always when we consider a transverse plane,
we make use of the results derived earlier for spur gears to
write down the corresponding results for the transverse plane
of the helical gear. The condition for correct meshing is that
the transverse base pitch of the rack must be equal to that of
the gear,
(14.5)
The pitch cylinder radius of the gear is then given by

Equa t i on (3.4),
(14.6)
The transverse profile angle, the normal profile angle

and the helix angle of the gear at its pitch cylinder are
called the operating transverse pressure angle ¢tp' the
operating normal pressure angle ¢np' and the operating helix
angle "'p. In addition, the transverse pitch and the normal
pitch at the pitch cylinder are known as the operating
pi tches, and are represented by the symbols Ptp and Pnp
Expressions for the helix angle and the profile angles
of the gear at an arbitrary radius R were given in Equations
(13.34, 13.54 and 13.82). When we replace R in these equations
by the pitch cylinder radius Rp ' we obtain the corresponding
expressions for the operating helix angle and the operating
pressure angles,
(14.7)
(14.8)
(14.9)
368 Helical Gears in Mesh
The operating tooth pitches are found in exactly the same

manner, by substituting Rp for R in Equations (13.37 - 13.39),
271'Rp
N
(14.10)
Ptp cos .pp (14.11)
Pnp
sin .pp (14.12)
We proved in Equations (3.13 and 3.15) that when a spur

gear is meshed with a rack, the operating circular pitch and
the operating pressure angle of the gear are equal to the
pitch and the pressure angle of the rack. We therefore know
that for a helical gear, the operating transverse pitch and
the operating transverse pressure angle are equal to the
corresponding quantities in the rack,
(14.13)
(14.14)
We have now obtained all the information available from

a consideration of the single transverse section at plane
z=O. Next, we determine the value of the rack helix angle .p~
for correct meshing at the transverse plane z. The procedure
is the same as that used in Chapter 13, except in one respect.
We were trying then to find the tooth shape of a gear that
would mesh with the basic rack, while now the tooth shape of
the gear is known, and we are looking for the shape of a rack
which wi 11 mesh correctly wi th the gear.
The helix rotation ~e of the gear tooth surfaces between
plane z=O and plane z was given by Equation (13.65),
(14.15)
We use Equation (14.7) to relate the base helix angle .pb of

the gear with its operating helix angle .pp, and the expression
for ~e then takes the following form,
tan .pp
R z (14.16)
P
Due to the helical rotation of the gear teeth between the

two transverse sections, the rack tooth profile at plane z
must be displaced relative to that at plane z=O. The rack
displacement ~ur corresponding to a gear rotation ~f3 was
(14.17)
If we choose the value of ~f3 in this relation equal to the

helical rotation ~e given by Equation (14.16), we obtain the
required relative displacement between the transverse rack
sections at plane z=O and plane z,
z tan I/I p (14.18)
For a rack with helix angle I/I~, the value of this relative
displacement is equal to (z tan I/I~), as we can see in
Figure 14.1. We therefore substitute this expression for ~ur
in Equation (14.18), and it is immediately clear that the rack
helix angle must be equal to the operating helix angle of the
gear,
1/1'r (14.19)
Plane Plane z
z=Q
Figure 14.1. A helical rack.

370 Hel ical Gears in Mesh
A relation between the operating pressure angles and the

operating helix angle of the gear was given by
Equa t i on (14. 9) ,
tan I/Itp cos "'p
and in Equation (14.2) we gave the corresponding relation

between the angles in the rack,
tan I/I~r tan I/Itr cos "'~
Since we have just proved that I/Itp and "'p are equal to I/I tr
and ",~, it is clear that the two normal pressure angles must
also be equal,
(14.20)
The operating normal pitch of the gear and the normal

pitch of the rack were given by Equations (14.11 and 14.1),
Again, we have shown that the transverse pi tches and the helix
angles are equal, so the normal pi tches must also be equal,
(14.21)
Lastly, we compare the normal base pitches of the gear

and the rack. In Equation (13.104) we gave a relation between
the normal base pitch of the gear, and its normal pitch at any
radius R,
By setting R equal to Rp in this relation, we can express the

normal base pitch in terms of the operating normal pitch,
= (14.22)
Minimum Condi tions for Correct Meshing 371
The normal base pitch of the rack was given by

Equation (14.3),
P~r cos q,~r
and since we have already proved that the normal pitches and
the normal pressure angles are equal, a compar i son of the last
two equations shows that the normal base pitches of the gear
and the rack must be equal,
(14.23)
Minimum Condi tions for Correct Meshing
We have shown that if a rack can mesh correctly with a

helical gear, the transverse and normal base pitches of the
rack and the gear must be equal, and the remaining five
parameters of the rack must be equal to the corresponding
quantities of· the gear, measured at the pitch cylinder. We
proved in Chapter 3, for a spur gear and rack, that the base
pitches must be equal, and that the pitch and the pressure
angle of the rack must be equal to the operating circular
pitch and the operating pressure angle of the gear. However,
we then showed that the condition of equal base pitches is
sufficient to ensure correct meshing of the spur gear and
rack, and that the other two results follow automatically. We
will now prove the corresponding statements for a helical
gear. We will show first, that a helical gear can mesh with
any rack, provided the transverse base pitch and normal base
pi tch of the rack are equal to those of the gear, and
secondly, that when these two conditions are met, the other
five requirements are automatically satisfied.
Since the steps in the proof are mostly the same, apart
from the order, as those we used in Equations (14.20 - 14.23),
we will make the the proof as brief as possible. We consider a
rack whose transverse and normal base pitches Ptbr and P~br
are equal to the base pitches Ptb and Pnb of the gear. First,
we take the results proved in Chapter 3 for a spur gear, and
we apply them to the transverse section of the helical gear.
We know, therefore, that since the transverse base pitches of

the gear and the rack are equal, the pitch cylinder radius is
given by Equation (3.4), and the operating transverse pitch
Ptp and the operating transverse pressure angle ~tP of the
gear are equal to the corresponding parameters Ptr and ~tr of
the rack.
Next, we use the condition that the normal base pitch of
the gear is equal to that of the rack. We use Equations
(14.22, 14.11 and 14.9) to express the normal base pitch of
the gear in terms of the operating transverse pitch and the
operating pressure angles,
sin 4>np
Ptp cos 1/I p cos ~np Ptp tan ~tP
and we obtain a similar expression for the normal base pitch

of the rack by means of Equations (14.3, 14-.1 and 14.2),
sin ~~r
P~r cos ~~r Ptr tan ~i:r
We equate the two expressions for the normal base pitches, and
since we have already shown that the transverse pitches and
the transverse pressure angles are equal, we have proved that
the normal pressure angles are also equal. Finally, by
comparing Equations (14.22 and 14.3), we show that the
operating normal pitch of the gear is equal to the normal
pitch of the rack, and we use Equations (14.9 and 14.2) to
prove that the operating helix angle of the gear is equal to
the helix angle of the rack.
In summary, we have shown that when the transverse and
normal base pitches of the gear and the rack are equal, the
other five rack parameters Ptr' P~r' ~tr' ~~r and 1/1~ are equal
to the corresponding quantities of the gear, measured at the
pitch cylinder. Since the transverse base pitches are equal,
we know that the gear and the rack will mesh correctly in the
transverse section at plane z=O. We also proved, in
Equation (14.19), that we obtain the correct relative
displacement of the rack teeth between the transverse
sections at plane z=O and at plane z, if the rack helix angle
is equal to the operating helix angle of the gear. We have now
shown that this condition is satisfied, provided that the
Plane of Act ion 373
transverse base pitch and the normal base pitch of the rack
are equal to those of the gear. We have therefore proved that
the gear and the rack will mesh correctly in the transverse
section at any plane z, and hence throughout the axial length
of the gear.
Plane of Action
A typical transverse section through the gear and the

rack is shown in Figure 14.2, and the line from the pitch
point to the contact point is the line of action. The angle 't
between this line and the rack pitch line is called the
operating transverse pressure angle of the gear pair, and it
is equal to the transverse pressure angle of the rack, as we
proved in Equation (3.10),
(14.24)
Operating transverse
pressure angle <Pt
Plane of action
t+----+-Rack reference plane
Figure 14.2. Transverse section through the gear and rack.

-1- p
L;Jez
I I
z=O Transverse
Axial line through the

pitch points
Figure 14.3. The plane of action.
The lines of action at each transverse section form a

plane, which is called the plane of action. This is shown in
Figure 14.3, with a coordinate system consisting of the axial
coordinate z, and a second coordinate s. The coordinate s is
the same as the quant i ty introduced in Chapter 3, which
indicates the position of the contact point on the path of
contact, relative to the pitch point. The coordinate origin
in Figure 14.3 is therefore PO' the pitch point in the
transverse section at plane z=O.
The displacement ~s of the contact point between a spur
gear and rack, corresponding to a rotation ~f3 of the gear, was
~s (14.25)
Hence, for a helical gear, we can find the difference in the s

values of the contact points at plane z=O and at plane z, if
we replace the gear rotation ~f3 in Equation (14.25) by the
helical rotation ~(} of the gear teeth, given by
Equation (14.15). The expression for ~s then takes the
following form,
~s z tan "'b (14.26)

The quantity As is therefore linear in z, with a

coefficient equal to tan ~b. Hence, we have shown that the
contact points in the different transverse sections lie on a
straight line, which makes an angle ~b with the z direction,
as shown in Figure 14.3. The only straight lines in the gear
tooth surface are the generators, and we proved in Chapter 13
that these also make an angle ~b with the gear axis. The
contact line between the gear and the rack is therefore a
straight line coinciding with one of the generators, and
later in this chapter we will discuss in more detail the
position of the particular generator which is in contact with
the rack.
A Pair of Helical Gears in Mesh
We now discuss the meshing geometry of a pair of helical

gears, mounted so that their axes are parallel. Once again, we
start by considering the geometry in the transverse section
at plane z=O, and we apply the results derived in Chapter 3
for a pair of spur gears. The condition for correct meshing in
the transverse plane is that the transverse base pitches of
the two gears should be equal,
(14.27)
The pitch cylinder radii and the operating transverse

pressure angle of the gear pair are then given by Equations
(3.40, 3.41 and 3.44),
N1C
RP1 (N 1+N 2 ) (14.28)
N2C
RP2 (N 1+N 2 ) (14.29)
Rb1 +R b2
cos ¢t C (14.30)
The operating transverse pressure angles of the two gears,

¢tp1 and ¢tp2' can be found from Equation (3.46),
Rb1
cos ¢tp1 (14.31)
Rp1
cos I/Itp2 (14.32)
We also know, from Equations (3.45 and 3.49), that the

operating transverse pitches are equal, with a value given by
Equation (4.27), and that the operating transverse pressure
angle of each gear is equal to the operating transverse
pressure angle of the gear pair,
(14.33)
(14.34)
Next, we determine the relation between the helix angles

of the two gears, if there is also to be correct meshing in
the transverse section at plane z. The helical rotation ~8 of
the teeth of a gear, between the transverse sections at plane
z=Q and at plane z, was given by Equation (14.16). Hence, for
the two gears we are considering, the helical rotations are as
follows,
tan IP121
~81 = z (14.35)
Rp1
tan IP122
~82 z (14.36)
RP2
In Equation (3.55), we gave the relation between the
rotations ~1J1 and ~1J2 of a pair of spur gears,
RP1~1J1 - RP2~1J2 (14.37)
If we substitute the helical rotations ~81 and ~82 in place of

~1J1 and ~fi2' we obtain a condition that must be satisfied if
the teeth of the two gears are to mesh correctly at plane z,
and this gives the relation we require,
IPp1 - IPP2 (14.38)
The operating helix angles, therefore, must be equal in

magni tude, and the gears must be of opposi te hand.
We are now in a position to derive the relations between
the other parameters of the two gears. The base helix angle of
a gear was given by Equation (13.59), in terms of the helix

angle and the transverse profile angle at radius R. We use
this relation to express the base helix angle of each gear in
terms of the operating helix angle and the operating
transverse pressure angle,
tan Wp1 cos 4>tp1
tan Wp2 cos 4>tp2
We have proved that the operating helix angles are equal and
opposite, and that the operating transverse pressure angles
are equal, so a comparison of these equations shows that the
base helix angles are also equal and opposite,
(14.39)
The normal base pitch of a gear was given by

Equation (13.44),
Again, we write down this relation for each gear, making use
of the results already proved, and we show that the normal
base pi tches of the two gears are equal,
(14.40)
We follow the same procedure for the remaining

parameters. The operating normal pressure angle, the
operating normal pitch and the axial pitch of a gear are given
by Equations (14.9, 14.11 and 14.12),
tan 4>tp cos Wp
Ptp cos Wp
Pnp
sin Wp
We apply these equations to each of the gears, using the

earlier results, and we prove the following new relations,
tP np1 ( 14.41 )
(14.42)
- Pz2 (14.43)
We have therefore proved that, for a pair of helical

gears with parallel axes to mesh correctly, the transverse
and the normal base pitches of the two gears must be equal,
and at the two pi tch cylinders the normal and transverse
pitches are equal, the normal and transverse pressure angles
are equal, and the helix angles are equal and opposite. In
addition, we have shown that the base helix angles and the
axial pitches are also equal and opposite.
Imaginary Rack
At the beginning of this chapter, we showed that a

helical gear can mesh with any rack, provided their
transverse and normal base pitches are equal. We now consider
an imaginary rack inserted between the teeth of the two
helical gears. The tooth surfaces of the imaginary rack are
formed by flat planes of zero thickness. The transverse base
pitch Ptbr and the normal base pitch P~br are chosen equal to
the corresponding quantities in the two gears.
( 14.44)
(14.45)
From the results proved earlier, we know that the other rack
parameters Ptr' P~r' tP tr ' tP~r' and "'~ are equal to the
corresponding parameters of gear 1, measured at its pitch
cylinder. The same is true of gear 2, except that the helix
angles "'~ and "'p2 are equal and opposite, and thi.s is because
the two gears lie on opposite sides of the imaginary rack
tooth surface.
Imaginary Rack 379
For the pair of helical gears, the plane which is tangent

to both pitch cylinders is called the pitch plane, and of
course thi s plane coincides wi th the pi tch plane of the
imaginary rack. The line of action in any transverse section
is the common tangent to the base circles. Hence, the plane of
action, which is the plane formed by all the lines of action,
is the plane which is tangent to both base cylinders. The
angle shown in Figure 14.4 between the pitch plane and the
plane of action is the operating transverse pressure
angle 4J t , whose value was given by Equation (14.30).
We can now use the imaginary rack to find the nature of
the contact between the teeth of the two helical gears. We
proved earlier that, when a gear is meshed with a rack, the
contact points between the teeth form a straight line lying in
the plane of action, and making an angle ~b with the gear
axis. Hence, the lines of contact between the imaginary rack
and the two helical gears lie in the plane of action, and make
angles ~b1 and ~b2 with the gear axes. These angles are of
opposite sign, but once again, the reason is because the two
Operating transverse
pressure angle cPt
Plane of action
Pitch cylinder of gear 1
Base cylinder of gear 1
Base cylinder of gear 2
c
Figure 14.4. Transverse section through a gear pair.
gears lie on opposite sides of the imaginary rack tooth

surface, and the lines of contact in fact make the same angle
with the gear axes. When we introduced the imaginary rack for
spur gears in Chapter 3, we showed that the two gears and the
imaginary rack all touch at the same point. Hence, for the
helical gears and the imaginary rack, there is at least one
transverse plane where the contact points coincide, and since
the contact lines are parallel, they must coincide throughout
the axial length of the gears. I f each gear touches the
imaginary rack along the same line, they must also touch each
other along that line, and we have therefore shown that the
contact between two helical gear teeth takes place along a
straight line.
We can also use the imaginary rack to establish the
minimum condi tions required to ensure correct meshing between
the gears. I f the two gears have equal transverse base
pitches, equal normal base pitches, and helices of opposite
hand, then it is possible to find an imaginary rack that can
mesh simultaneously with each gear. Since the Law of Gearing
is satisfied between each gear and the imaginary rack, it must
also be satisfied between the two gears. These are therefore
the minimum conditions for correct meshing between a pair of
helical gears.
In practice, a helical gear pair is designed so that the
two gears have the same normal modules mn , the same normal
pressure angles ~ns' and helix angles ~s which are equal and
opposite. The normal and transverse base pitches can then be
found from the following set of relations, which are derived
from Equations (13.102, 13.3, 13.105, 13.42, 13.45
and 13.44),
Pns 1rmn (14.46)
Pnb Pns cos ~ns (14.47)
Pns (14.48)
Pz sin ~s
Pnb (14.49)
sin ~b
Pz
Ptb Pz tan I/I b (14.50)

Standard Center Distance 381
It can be seen from these equations that, if the normal

modules and the normal pressure angles are equal, and the
helix angles are equal and opposite, then the normal base
pitches and the transverse base pitches of the two gears are
also equal, and the gears will therefore mesh correctly.
Center Distance C, and Standard Center Distance Cs
In Chapter 3, we defined the standard center distance Cs

of a pair of spur gears as the sum of the standard pitch
circle radii, and we showed that in a gear pair for which the
center distance C is equal to Cs ' the operating pressure angle
;p of each gear is equal to the pressure angle ;s. We also
pointed out that, in cases where C is not equal to Cs ' the
gear pair is always designed so that C and Cs are
approximately equal, and in this case the value of ;p does not
differ substantially from that of ;s.
Exactly the same considerations apply in the case of a
helical gear pair. The radii of the standard pitch cylinders
are given by Equation (13.30),
N1mn
RS1 2 cos "'s (14.51)
N2mn
RS2 2 cos 1/1~ (14.52)
and the standard center distance is defined as the sum of

these radi i ,
Cs RS1 + RS2 (14.53)
Helical gear pairs, like spur gear pairs, are also

designed so that the values of C and Cs are either equal or
approximately equal, and this is done for the same reason. A
standard cutter can only be used to cut gears with a limited
amount of profile shift, which means that the tooth thickness
is only suitable when the radius of the pitch cylinder is
approximately equal to that of the standard pi tch cylinder.
The angles ;nR' ;tR and "'R are all functions of the
radius R. Hence, the values of ;np' ;tp and "'p are equal to
'ns' 'ts and 1/I s whenever the pitch cylinder radius Rp is equal
to the standard pitch cylinder radius Rs' or in other words,
whenever C is equal to Cs • And in other cases, the values of
'np' 'tp and 1/I p are approximately equal to 'ns' 'ts and 1/I s • In
addition, the operating transverse pressure angle tfl t of the
gear pair, which we showed in Equation (14.34) is equal to the
operating transverse pressure angle 'tp of each gear, is
either equal or approximately equal to 'ts' depending on
whether or not C is equal to Cs •
There is one small difference between spur gears and
helical gears, in regard to the standard center distance. The
values of Cs for a spur gear pair and a helical gear pair are
given by the following two equations,
1
'2(N 1+N 2 )m (14.54)
(N 1+N 2 )mn
2 cos 1/I s (14.55)
Whenever possible, standard values are used for the module of

the spur gears, and for the normal module of the helical
gears. If a spur gear pair is to be designed for a specified
center distance C, it is clear that there may be no standard
value of the module which makes Cs equal to C, and it is
therefore often necessary to design spur gear pairs in which
Cs differs from C. On the other hand, the helix angle 1/I s in a
helical gear pair can generally be chosen so that Cs is equal
to C. However, it should be emphasized that, for helical gears
as well as for spur gears, there is no particular advantage to
be gained by designing so that the center distance and the
standard center distance are exactly equal.
Contact Ratio
The contact ratio mc of a spur gear pair was defined by

Equation (4.1),
(14.56)
In this expression, apc is the angle of contact for either one

Contact Ratio 383
of the gears in the pair, and ~9p is the angular pitch of the
same gear. We proved in Chapter 4 that we obtain the same
value for the contact ratio, whichever gear we consider.
For a helical gear pair, the contact ratio is defined in
exactly the same manner, but due to the helical nature of the
teeth, the angle of contact ~f3c is found by a different
procedure from that used for spur gears. The ends of the
helical gear are formed by the transverse sections at plane
z=O and plane z=F, where F is the face-width of the gear. We
consider first the contact in the transverse section at plane
z=F. The symbol ~f3p is introduced to represent the rotation of
the gear during one meshing cycle in this transverse section,
and the calculation of ~f3p is therefore identical with the
calculation of ~f3c for a spur gear. However, when the contact
ends for the tooth section at plane z=F, the meshing cycle at
any other transverse section through the same tooth is not yet
finished, due to the helical rotation of the teeth. The tooth
remains in contact until the meshing cycle is completed in the
transverse section at the other end of the gear, in the plane
z=O. I f ~f3F is the angle through which the gear rotates
between the end of the meshing cycle at plane z=F, and the end
of the meshing cycle at plane z=O, the angle ~f3F is equal to
the helical rotation ~9 between the two sections. The value of
~9 between the sections at plane z=O and at plane z was given
and the value of ~f3F is therefore found by substituting the

face-width F in place of z,
(14.57)
The contact period for one tooth lasts from the initial
contact at plane z=F until the final contact at plane z=O, and
the angle of contact ~f3c is therefore equal to the sum of the
two rotations ~f3p and ~f3F'
( 14.58)
We substitute this expression for apc into the definition of

the contact ratio, given by Equation (14.56),
(14.59)
and the two terms in this expression are used to define two
new quantities. These are called the profile contact ratio mp
and the face contact ratio mF ,
(14.60)
(14.61)
When Equations (14.59 - 14.61) are combined, it is clear that

the contact ratio mc is equal to the sum of the profile
contact ratio and the face contact ratio,
(14.62)
and for this reason, when we are considering a helical gear

pair, mc is generally known as the total contact ratio.
The quantity mp is called the profile contact ratio, or
alternatively the transverse contact ratio, because its value
depends only on the tooth profiles of the meshing gears in a
transverse section. Its definition is equivalent to that of
the contact ratio mc for a pair of spur gears, and we can
therefore use Equation (4.5) to express mp in terms of the
length as c of the path of contact in a transverse section, and
the transverse base pitch Ptb'
as c
(14.63)
Ptb
We then use Equations (4.9 and 4.13) to write down expressions

for the profile contact ratio, first for the case of a pair of
helical gears, and secondly for a helical pinion and rack,
(14.65)
Contact Ratio 385
In order to obtain an expression for the face contact

ratio mF , we combine Equations (14.57 and 14.61). The angular
pitch ~ep was given by Equation (4.2),
211 (14.66)
N
and the base circle radius is expressed in terms of the

transverse base pitch by means of Equation (13.43),
211Rb
(14.67)
N
The expression for mF then takes the following form,
F tan "'b
(14.68)
Ptb
In Chapter 4, when we discussed the contact ratio of a
pair of spur gears, we suggested that the positions of the
contact points could be pictured as a series of points moving
up the line of action, with those points within the path of
contact representing the contact points. A similar analogy is
possible for the case of a helical gear pair. We imagine a
series of lines moving upwards in the plane of action. Each
line makes an angle "'b with the z axis, as shown in
Figure 14.5, and the vertical spacing between the lines is
equal to the transverse base pitch Ptb. The region of contact
is a rectangle of width F and height ~sc. The lines within
this region represent the contact lines of the gear pair.
The diagram in Figure 14.5 shows the rectangular contact
region, and in addition we have constructed a triangle
T 10 T 1F T', whose sloping side is parallel to the contact
lines, so that the length of the side T 1F T' is equal to
(F tan "'b). This diagram can be used to explain the
significance of the various contact ratios.
The profile contact ratio mp is equal to the length ~sc
divided by the transverse base pitch Ptb' as we showed in
Equation (14.63). It can therefore be interpreted as the
average number of contact lines passing between T2F and T 1F ,
or in other words, the average number of contact points in any
transverse section. The face contact ratio mF , which we
showed in Equation (14.68) is equal to (F tan "'b) divided
T'- - - - - - - , -
Region of
=X
contact
lb
Figure 14.5. The region of contact.
by Ptb' can be interpreted as the average number of contact

lines passing between T1F and T'. Since each of these lines
intersects the line T 10 T 1F , the face contact ratio is equal to
the average number of contact points in any axial line through
the region of contact, and for this reason mF is sometimes
called the axial contact ratio. Finally, the total contact
ratio mc is equal to the sum of mp and mF • It can therefore be
interpreted as the average number of contact lines passing
between T2F and T', and this is equal to the average of the
total number of teeth in contact.
It was pointed out in Chapter 13 that helical gears run
more smoothly and more quietly than spur gears cut with the
same accuracy. This is partly because the total contact ratio
of a helical gear pair is invariably larger than the contact
ratio of a spur gear pair, and partly because there are no
sudden changes in the length of any of the contact lines. For
each tooth pair, the initial contact occurs at the point
labelled T2F in Figure 14.5. The initial length of the contact
line is zero, and it then increases smoothly as the contact
line moves up the plane of action. After the contact line
passes through point T 1F , its length remains constant until
the line reaches point T20 , after which the length diminishes
smoothly to zero. The intensity of the contact force is
Interference and Undercutting 387
determined by the total length of all the contact lines, and a

method for calculating that length will be described in
Chapter 17, where we discuss the stresses in the teeth.
A spur gear pair with tooth profiles identical to the
transverse section through a helical gear pair would have a
contact ratio equal to the profile contact ratio of the
helical gear pair. In Chapter 4, we suggested that the contact
ratio for a spur gear pair should be at least 1.4. However,
for the helical gear pair, the total contact ratio is equal to
the sum of the profile contact ratio and the face contact
ratio, so a value for mp of less than 1.4 is acceptable, and a
minimum of 1.0 is generally considered sufficient. Values in
use for the face contact ratio mF are occasionally less
than 1.0, but in order to obtain the full benefit of the
helical action,"a minimum value of 2.0 is recommended.
Interference and Undercutting
The checks for interference in a helical gear pair are

identical with those made for a pair of spur gears. In other
words, we check to see that there is no interference in a
transverse section. When this condition is satisfied, then
there is no contact between the tooth tips of one gear and the
tooth fillets of the other, and hence there is no interference
whatsoever.
The phenomenon of undercutting in a helical gear can be
discussed in exactly the same manner as that of interference
in a helical gear pair. The check for undercutting in a
helical gear is made in the transverse plane, exactly as if we
were checking a spur gear, and we are therefore ensuring that
there is no undercutting in a transverse section. Obviously,
if the tooth profile is complete in a transverse section, then
it is complete in any section, and there is no undercutting of
any sort.
Backlash
In this section, we will describe three methods by which

the backlash of a helical gear pair is most commonly defined.
These are called the circular backlash, the backlash along

the common normal, and the normal backlash. The relations
between the three types of backlash will be discussed in the
next section.
The circular backlash B of a pair of spur gears was
defined in Chapter 4 as the difference between the space width
of one gear and the tooth thickness of the other, both
measured at the pitch circles. An expression for B was given
by Equation (4.28),
We also showed that the circular backlash can be interpreted

as the distance moved by a point on the pitch circle of one
gear, if that gear is rocked to and fro while the other gear
is held fixed.
We define the circular backlash of a helical gear pair in
the same way, as the difference between the transverse space
width of one gear and the transverse tooth thickness of the
other, both measured at the pi tch cylinders,
B (14.69)
Since the geometry of a helical gear pair in any transverse

section is identical with that of a spur gear pair, it is
clear that the circular backlash of a helical gear pair has
exactly the same physical interpretation as that of a spur
gear pair.
The backlash along the common normal of a spur gear pair
was defined as the shortest distance between the trailing
profile of a meshing tooth in the driving gear, and the
adjacent tooth profile in the driven gear. We define the
backlash B' along the common normal of a helical gear pair in
exactly the same manner, as the shortest distance across the
gap between the adjacent tooth surfaces.
When we discussed the circular backlash of a spur gear
pair in Chapter 4, we drew a diagram in Figure 4.13 showing
the tooth profiles, and two imaginary racks between the
teeth. The tooth thicknesses of the imaginary racks were
chosen exactly equal to those of the two gears, measured at
Backlash 389
their pitch circles. In Figure 4.14 we showed the pitch plane

section through the imaginary racks, and we then proved that
the circular backlash of the gear pair is equal to the
distance that either imaginary rack can move, when the other
is held fixed.
We follow the same procedure for the case of a helical
gear pair. Figure 14.6 shows a transve~se section through the
gear pair, with the imaginary racks drawn in, and Figure 14.7
shows the pitch plane section through the imaginary racks. A
typical pair of teeth are in contact along line ArA~, and the
gaps between the teeth are represented by the narrow un shaded
bands. As we proved earlier in this chapter, the transverse
pi tch, normal pi tch and helix angle of the imaginary racks are
equal to the corresponding quantities in the gears, measured
at their pitch cylinders. The transverse tooth thicknesses of
the imaginary racks are chosen equal to those of the gears,
Imaginary rack 1
n~ n
Figure 14.6. Transverse section with imaginary racks.

Ir-------.I
Ir+-------+-,
Imaginary rack 2
Imaginary rack 1
Figure 14.7. Pitch plane section

through the imag i nary rac ks.
and it then follows that the corresponding normal tooth

thicknesses are also equal. These values are therefore shown
on Figure 14.7, and it is clear that the circular backlash of
the gear pair, defined by Equation (14.69), is equal to the
width of the gap between the teeth of the imaginary racks,
measured in the transverse direction.
We now introduce a third method for defining the
backlash in a helical gear pair. We define the normal backlash
Bn of the gear pair in a manner similar to Equation (14.69),
as the difference between the normal space width of one gear
and the normal tooth thickness of the other, both measured at
the pi tch cylinders,
p
np - t
np1 - t
np2 (14.70)
The tooth thicknesses in the normal and transverse directions

are related by Equation (13.112),
(14.71)
Backlash 391
Hence, with the definition given in Equation (14.70), it can

be seen in Figure 14.7 that the normal backlash is equal to
the width of the gap between the teeth of the imaginary racks,
measured normal to the tooth profiles in the pitch plane.
Relations Between the Different Types of Backlash
The relation between the normal backlash Bn and the

circular backlash B can be seen immediately from Figure 14.7,
B cos I/t p (14.72)
In order to find a relation between the backlash B' along

the common normal and the circular backlash, we first
consider a typical transverse section through the gear pair,
as shown in Figure 14.8. The two interior common tangents to
the base cylinders are labelled E1E2 and E;Ei. The contact
point in this section lies on line E 1E2 , while line E;Ei cuts
the non-contacting tooth profiles at points A; and Ai.
Figure 14.9 shows the plane through E; and Ei, which is
tangent to both base cylinders. We proved in Chapter 13 that
any plane which is tangent to the base cylinder of a helical
gear intersects the tooth surface along a generator, and we
Figure 14.8. Transverse section showing the backlash.

E'1
Plane z
Figure 14.9. Common tangent plane
to the base cylinders.
showed that all the generators of a gear make the same angle
"'b with the .gear axis. The plane shown in Figure 14.9 is
tangent to both base cylinders, and it therefore intersects
the tooth surfaces along two parallel straight lines, which
pass through A; andAi. We will show, later in this chapter,
that the normals to the tooth surfaces at A; and Ai lie in
this plane, and that they are perpendicular to the
generators. Hence, the backlash B' along the common normal,
which is defined as the shortest distance between the tooth
surfaces, is equal to the perpendicular distance between the
two generators in Figure 14.9.
If as is the distance between points Ai and Ai in the
transverse section shown in Figure 14.8, then in Figure 14.9,
as is the vertical distance between the two generators. We can
therefore express the backlash along the common normal in
terms of as,
B' as cos "'b (14.73)
We now consider holding one gear fixed, and rotating the other
to close the gap between Ai and Ai. The relation between the
displacement as and the corresponding rotation ap was given
by Equation (3.60),
Position and Orientation of the Contact Line 393
(14.74)
We use Equation (14.31) to express the base cylinder radius of

the moveable gear in terms of its pitch cylinder radius,
(14.75)
and we then combine Equations (14.73 - 14.75) to obtain an

expression for B' ,
B' (14.76)
The product Rp~~ is equal to the circular backlash B, as

we proved in Equation (4.36), and we can express the remaining
terms by means of Equat ion (13.95),
When these substitutions are made in Equation (14.76), we

obtain the relation we require between B' and B,
B' (14.77)
Finally, we combine Equations (14.72 and 14.77), to

express the backlash along the common normal in terms of the
normal backlash,
B' (14.78)
Position and Orientation of the Contact Line
We now consider once again the contact line between a

pinion and rack. We stated earlier that the contact line
coincides with a generator of the pinion, and we will now
determine, for any specified angular position of the pinion,
which generator is in contact with the rack tooth, and the
orientation of the line of contact on the rack tooth. These
results were not required when we described the meshing
geometry of a pinion and rack, and this is the reason why they
have been left to the end of the chapter. However, they will
be used in the next chapter, when we discuss the meshing of a
crossed helical gear pair.
We start by specifying the exact directions of the
various sets of unit vectors that will be used in the
analysis. The vectors n x ' ny and n z are fixed in the pinion,
with n z along the gear axis, and nx in the direction of the x
coordinate axis, which coincides with a tooth center-line in
the transverse section z=O, as shown in Figure 14.10. The
vectors n~, nT/ and nS are fixed in the rack, with n~
perpendicular to the rack pitch plane, in the direction from
the pinion towards the rack. The vectors nT/ and nS form a
plane parallel to the pitch plane, and their directions are
perpendicular to and parallel wi th the rack teeth, as shown in
Figure 14.11. We define a new set of fixed unit vectors,
nx(O), ny(O) and nz(O), as the directions of n x ' ny and n z
when the pinion is in the reference position, from which the
angle ~ is measured. For a spur gear, the angular position ~
was defined as the angle between the line CP and the x axis.
In order to remain consistent with that definition, we now
Pitch cylinder
Base cylinder
Figure 14.10. Transverse section z=O.

choose the direction of nx(O) perpendicular to the rack pitch

plane, so that it coincides with n~. The set of vectors nx(O),
n y (0) and n z (0) is shown in Figure 14.11, and we can now write
down the relations between these vectors and the set n~, n~
and nS' We have proved in Equation (14.19) that the rack helix
angle ~~ is equal to the operating helix angle ~p of the
pinion, and in relating the various sets of unit vectors, it
will be convenient to describe all the angles in terms of
those defined on the pinion. We therefore obtain the
following relations from Figure 14.11,
(14.79)
cos ~p n~ + sin ~p nS (14.80)
(14.81)
Figure 14.12 shows the transverse section through the

pinion at plane z=O, when the pinion has rotated through an
angle p. The vectors n x ' ny and n z are expressed in terms of
their reference directions by the following set of relations,
Tooth
centerline
Figure 14.12. Transverse section z=O, when the pinion

is in the angular position fl.
(14.82)
(14.83)
(14.84)
We now introduce another pair of unit vectors fixed in

the rack. A normal section through the rack tooth is shown in
Figure 14.13, and the vectors nnr and n Tr are defined in the
direction normal to the tooth surface, and in the direction of
the tangent pointing towards the tooth tip. The normal
pressure angle I/l~r of the rack is equal to the operating
normal pressure angle I/l np of the pinion, as we proved in
Equation (14.20). Once again, we use the angle defined on the
pinion when we express the relations between the different
un i t vectors,
- sin I/l np n~ - cos I/l np n'T/ (14.85)
(14.86)
In order to determine which of the pinion generators is

in contact with the rack, we make use of the following
condition. If A is a contact point on the pinion tooth, then
Figure 14.13. Normal section through the rack tooth.
the unit vector n~, which is normal to the plnlon tooth

surface at A, must point in exactly the opposite direction
to nnr' the unit vector normal to the rack tooth surface. In
other words, the two unit vectors must be equal and opposite,
(14.87)
The vector nnr is given by Equation (14.85), and n~ was

expressed by Equation (13.79) in terms of the unit vectors
n x ' ny and n z '
In this equation, G is the point where the generator through A

touches the base cylinder. By using the condition given in
Equation (14.87), we can determine the value of eG , and hence
we can find the pos i t ion of G.
Before we substitute for n~ and nnr in Equation (14.87),
we use Equations (14.79 - 14.84) to express both vectors in
terms of nx(O), ny(O) and nz(O),
n~ cosl/l b [- sin(eG+tnnx(O) + cos(eG+p)ny(O)] - sinl/lbnz(O)

(14.89)
nnr - cos .pb [sin <l>tp nx(O) + cos <l>tp ny(O)] + sin .pb nz(O)
(14.90)
The derivation of Equation (14.90) involves some of the

trigonometric relations which were proved in Chapter 13.
However, it is not practical, at this stage of the book, to
include each step of every proof. The results can always be
verified by the method described earlier, in which all the
angles are expressed in terms of <l>np and .pb.
The expressions for n~ and nnr given by Equations (14.89
and 14.90) are substituted into Equation (14.87), and the
value of 8G which satisfies the equation can then be seen by
inspection,
- fJ - <l>tp (14.91)
This expression for 8G can be given a physical

interpretation. Figure 14.14 shows a typical transverse
section through the pinion, with the line of action in that
section touching the base cylinder at E. If point A of the
tooth profile is in contact with the rack tooth, it must lie
Figure 14.14. Transverse section through the pinion and rack.

in the plane of action, and the generator through A must touch

the base cylinder at a point on the line where the plane of
action touches the base cylinder. This means that G lies on
the axial line through E, and its angular coordinate eG is
given by the expression in Equation (14.91).
The direction n: of the generator through G and A was
G
n", . .1.
- SIn 'l'b sIn
• eG nx + sIn 'l'b cos eG ny + cos .1.'l'b n z (14 • 92)
• .1.
If we substitute the value for eG given by Equation (14.91),

and then express the unit vectors in terms of nx(O), ny(O)
and nz(O), we obtain the following expression for n:,
n: = sin VJb[sin "tp nx(O) + cos "tp ny(O)] + cosVJb nz(O)
(14.93)
The value of eG is also substituted into Equation (14.89), and

A
we obtain the vector nn' also expressed in terms of nx(O),
ny(O) and nz(O),
n~ = cosVJb[sin"tpnx(O) + cos "tpny(O)] - sinVJbnz(O)

(14.94)
In Equations (14.93 and 14.94), the terms in the square

brackets represent a unit vector in the plane of action, which
is shown in Figures 14.14 and 14.15. The equations therefore
prove that the generator through A and the normal to the tooth
surface at A each lie in the plane of action. The generator
makes an angle VJ b with the z axis, as we proved in Chapter 13,
and the normal to the tooth surface is perpendicular to the
generator.
These conclusions apply to any point A of the tooth
surface which lies in the plane of action. Hence, if we
consider a point A' on the opposite face of the tooth, and A'
lies in the other interior common tangent plane to the base
cylinders, then the same proof shows that the generator
through"A' and the normal to the tooth surface at A' must lie
in that plane. This is the result that was used earlier in
this chapter, when we discussed the backlash along the common
G z=o E z=F
Plane z Plane of action
Figure 14.15. Position of the contact line.
normal in a helical gear pair.

In order to describe the position of G, we find its
position relative to PO' the pitch point in the transverse
plane z=O. The vector from Po to G can be expressed as
follows,
(14.95)
where Co is the center of the gear in the transverse section

at plane z=O. The vector from Po to Co can be written down by
inspection, and we obtain the vector from Co to G, if we
replace A and R in Equation (13.46) by G and Rb ,
POCO (14.96)
P
In the second of these equations, GO is the point where the

helix through G cuts the transverse section z=O. Since the
helix through G and GO is the base helix, it meets the
transverse section z=O at point BO' and GO therefore
coincides with BO' The position of BO is shown in

Figure 14.10, and we can use that diagram to express the
angular coordinate eGO in terms of the transverse tooth
thickness at the pi tch cylinder,
~.
2R + lnv cP tp (14.98)
p
The angles eG and eGO in Equation (14.97) are replaced by trre

expressions in Equations (14.91 and 14.98). We now combine
Equations (14.95 - 14.97), and express all the unit vectors in
terms of n x (0), n y (0) and n z (0). The resulting equation can be
simplified by means of Equation (14.93), and we obtain the
following expression for the position of G,
(14.99)
This equation can be interpreted wi th the help of

Figure 14.15, which shows the plane of action. The s
coordinate is defined, as always, as the vertical distance of
any contact point above the axial line through PO' If sb is
the coordinate of the contact point in the transverse section
z=O, its value is given by Equation (3.28),
(14.100 )
The first term in Equation (14.99) can therefore be

interpreted as the horizontal distance between Po and Gp ' the
point where the generator through A cuts the axial line
through PO' The second term represents the distance along the
generator from Gp to G, the point where the generator touches
the base cylinder.
If we use the coordinate s to specify the position of
point A on the generator, we can describe the position of A
with the help of Figure 14.15. The vector from Po to A is
written as the sum of the vector from Po to Gp ' and the vector
from Gp to A,
Rb (ttn s nG
-=..I;;.+/J)n + ( 14.101 )
tan "'b 2Rp z sin "'b jJ
By using Equations (14.7 and 14.71) to express Rb and ttp in

terms of Rp and t np ' we can give the position of point A in a

form that will be used in the next chapter,
The last question to be considered in this chapter is the

orientation of the contact line on the rack tooth face. The
direction of the generator in contact with the rack tooth was
given by Equation (14.93). We now use Equations
(14.79 - 14.81) to express nx(O), ny(O) and nz(O) in terms of
nt, n~ and nS. The result we obtain can be expressed in the
following form,
(14.103)
where n Tr is the tangent vector in the rack tooth face, given

by Equation (14.86). The angle ~p is the value at the pitch
cylinder of the generator inclination angle ~R' which was
defined in Equation (13.86). The expression for n: in
Equation (14.103) shows that the contact line makes an angle
~p with the tip of the rack tooth, and ~p is therefore called
the contact line inclination angle.
We have found the position and orientation of the
contact line, for the case of a pinion meshed with a rack.
There is no need to repeat the analysis for the case of two
meshing gears. We simply consider an imaginary rack between
the teeth, and we know that the contact line between the gears
coincides with the contact line between either gear and the
imaginary rack. The orientation of the contact line is
therefore given by Equation (14.93), where the unit vector
nx(O) is now defined in the direction of a common
perpendicular joining the gear axes, and Equations (14.99
and 14.101) can then be used to give the positions of points G
and A on the contact line.
Helical Gears in Mesh 403
Numerical Examples
Example 14. 1
A helical gear pair has a normal module of 8 mm, a normal
pressure angle of 20°, and a helix angle of 30°. The tooth
numbers are 36 and 75, with the pinion having the right-handed
helix. The normal tooth thicknesses are 12.847 mm and
12.750 mm; the tip cylinder diameters are 350.0 mm and
710.0 mm; the face-width is 60.0 mm, and the gears are to
operate at a center distance of 514.0 mm. Calculate the
operating pressure angles, the operating helix angle, the
various types of contact ratio, and the three types of
backlash.
mn=8, ~ns=20°, ~Sl=300, ~s2=-30°, N1=36, N2 =75

t ns1 =12.847, t ns2 =12.750, RT1 =175.0, RT2 =355.0
F=60.0, C=514.0
RS1 = 166.277 mm (13.150)

Rs2 346.410 (13.150)
~ts 22.796° (13.151)
Rb1 153.289 (13.152)
Rb2 319.352 (13.152)
~b= 28.024° (13.154)

Ptb = 26.754 (13.43)
tts1 14.834 (13.113)
tts2 = 14.722 (13.113)
Rp 1 = 166. 703 mm (14.28)

RP2 = 347.297 (14.29)
qlt = 23.142° (14.30)

'"
"'tp = 23 . 142° (14.34)
~p = 30.063° (13.156)
~np = 20.299° (13.157)
1.400 (14.64)
1.194 (14.68)
2.594 (14.62)
Ptp = 29.095 mm (14.33)

ttp1 = 14.511 (13.114)
ttp2 = 14.007 (13.114)
B = 0.577 (14.69)
Bn = 0.499 (14.72)
B' = 0.468 mm (14.78)
Example 14.2
Find the pressure angles, the helix angle, and the
pitches for the imaginary rack which could mesh with the gear
pair specified in the previous example. Also determine the
angle that the contact lines would make with the tooth tips of
the imaginary rack.
As we proved earlier in the chapter, the parameters of

the imaginary rack are all equal to the corresponding
parameters of the gears, measured at the pitch cylinders. And
the angle between each contact line and the tooth tip of the
rack is equal to Pp ' the contact line inclination angle. We
can therefore write down immediately the following results.
~tr ~tP = 23.142°

w'r W
p = 30.063°
~'nr = 20 • 299°
~ np
Ptr = Ptp = 29.095 mm (14.33)
P~r = Pnp = 25.181 mm (14.11)
Pp= 11.355° (13.87)
Chapter 15
Crossed Helical Gears
Introduction
In this chapter we will describe the meshing geometry of

a pair of helical gears, when their axes are not parallel.
Each gear of the pair is an ordinary helical gear, of the type
described in Chapter 13. We proved in Chapter 14 that, when
two helical gears are mounted on parallel shafts, they must
have helix angles ~s that are equal and opposite. We will now
show that two helical gears whose helix angles are not equal
and opposite can be mounted on non-parallel shafts, and that,
provided certain conditions are met, the angular velocity
ratio of the two gears will remain constant.
Crossed helical gears can be used whenever it is
necessary to transmit motion between two non-intersecting and
non-parallel shafts. However, as we will show in this
chapter, the contact between each pair of meshing teeth takes
place theoretically at only one point, instead of along a line
of contact, as it does when the shafts are parallel. In
practice, the contact extends over a small area, due to the
deformation of the teeth, but the contact stress is
nevertheless very high. The amount of power that can be
transmitted is therefore severely limited, and for this
reason, crossed helical gears are used mostly in instrument
gear trains rather than in power gearing. However, even
though their use is far less frequent than that of
parallel-axis gears, it is important to understand the
meshing geometry of a crossed helical gear pair, since it
forms the theoretical basis of the hobbing process. The
technique of hobbing is the most common method by which gears
are cut. It is essentially a process in which the gear blank
406 Crossed Helical Gears
and the hob operate as a pair of crossed helical gears. A

brief description of hobbing was given in in Chapter 5, but
for a more detailed explanation, it is first necessary to
describe the meshing geometry of crossed helical gears.
Rack and Pinion
A helical rack and pinion, of the type discussed in

Chapter 14, is shown in Figure 15.1. The rack is supported in
guides which allow movement only in the direction
perpendicular to the pinion axis. We showed in Chapter 14 that
a rack and pinion will mesh correctly, provided the normal
base pi tch and the transverse base pi tch of the rack are equal
to those of the pinion. The pi tch cylinder radi us of the
pinion is given by Equation (14.6),
(15.1)
where Ptr is the transverse pitch of the rack. We also proved

that on the pinion the normal and transverse pitches, the
Figure 15.1. A helical rack and pinion.

Rack and Pinion 407
helix angle, and the normal and transverse pressure angles,

all measured at the pitch cylinder, are equal to the
corresponding quantities on the rack.
The operating helix angle ~p and the operating normal
pressure angle ~np of the pinion must satisfy
Equation (13.88),
sin ~b
(15.2)
cos ~np
where ~b is the base helix angle of the pinion. Since ~p and

~np are equal to ~~ and ~~r' the corresponding angles on the
rack must also satisfy the same relation,
sin ~~ (15.3)
Figure 15.2 shows a pinion which is identical to the

pinion in Figure 15.1, but it is meshed this time with a rack
whose guides allow movement in a different direction from the
ra€k in Figure 15.1 The teeth of both racks have the same
(1T/2)-"'~
Figure 15.2. A crossed helical rack and pinion.

408 Crossed Hel ical Gears
normal section, and the helix angle "'~ between the pinion axis
and the rack teeth is the same in each case, so for each rack
and pinion, the tooth shapes in the regions of the contact
I ines are ident ical.
In order to determine the velocity of the rack in
Figure 15.2, we compare the motions of the two racks when the
pinions have the same angular velocity. The velocity of the
rack in Figure 15.2 can be resolved into two
non-perpendicular components v~ and v~, the first in the
direction perpendicular to the pinion axis, and the second
parallel to the rack teeth, as shown in Figure 15.2. A motion
of the rack in the direction of its teeth would cause no
rotation of the pinion, so the only component of the rack
velocity related directly to the pinion angular velocity
is v~. The value of v~ for the rack in Figure 15.2 is
therefore equal to the velocity of the rack in Figure 15.1,
and the other component v~ must be such that the resultant
velocity is in the direction allowed by the guides. Since the
angle between the component directions is fixed, the
components· v~ and v~ remain in a constant ratio, and a
constant angular velocity of the pinion will therefore
produce a constant velocity of the rack.
To distinguish between the two types of rack shown in
Figures 15.1 and 15.2, we regard each rack as the limiting
case, when the number of teeth becomes infinite, of a gear
whose axis is perpendicular to the direction of motion of the
rack. In the case of Figure 15.1, the axis of this gear is
parallel to the pinion axis, so the rack and pinion can be
thought of as a special case of a parallel-axis gear pair. On
the other hand, the rack in Figure 15.2 is the limiting case
of a gear whose axis is not parallel to the pinion axis, and
the angle between these two axes is shown in the diagram as t.
Since the axes are not parallel, the rack and pinion can be
regarded as a crossed helical gear pair. The two types of rack
and pinion will be referred to as either a parallel-axis, or a
crossed helical, rack and pinion.
The conclusion reached in the earlier discussion,
relating to the velocity of the crossed helical rack, can now
be stated in a more general manner. In a crossed helical rack
and pinion, the relation between the rack velocity and the
Transverse Direction in the Rack 409
pinion angular velocity will remain constant, provided the

Law of Gearing is satisfied for a parallel-axis rack and
pinion with the following characteristics. The parallel-axis
rack has the same normal section and the same helix angle as
the crossed helical rack, and the two pinions are identical. A
rack and pinion defined in this way will be called the
e~uivalent parallel-axis rack and pinion.
Transverse Direction in the Rack
A transverse section of a gear was defined in Chapter 13

as any section perpendicular to the gear axis. This
definition did not seem appropiate for a rack, since it does
not turn about an axis. We therefore defined a transverse
section of the rack, when we discussed the meshing geometry of
a parallel-axis rack and pinion in Chapter 14, as any section
perpendicular to the pinion axis. If we now regard the rack
and pinion in the manner suggested earlier, as a special case
of a parallel-axis gear pair, it can be seen that the two
definitions for the transverse sections in the rack are
equivalent.
In a crossed helical gear pair, a transverse section of
ei ther gear is again defined as a section perpendicular to the
corresponding gear axis. In this case, however, a transverse
section in one gear is not parallel to a transverse section in
the other, since the two gear axes are not parallel. In each
gear, a transverse plane coincides with a plane of motion. For
a crossed helical rack and pinion, we define a transverse
section of the rack in a manner which is consistent with the
definition of the transverse sections in a crossed helical
gear pair. We regard the rack, once again, as the limiting
case of a gear whose axis is perpendicular to the direction of
motion of the rack, and a transverse section in the rack is
therefore defined as any section perpendicular to that axis.
In other words, the transverse direction in a helical rack is
parallel with the direction of motion allowed by the guides.
This definition remains valid, whether the rack is meshed in a
parallel-axis or in a crossed helical manner.
The two racks in Figures 15.1 and 15.2 are identical in
their normal sections, so all quantities defined in the

normal section, such as P~r' P~br and '~r' have the same
values in each rack. We also stated that the two racks are
oriented so that they have the same helix angle ~~. However,
we have shown that the transverse directions in the two racks
are different, so quantities defined in the transverse
section, such as P~r' P~br and '~r' do not have the same
values in each rack.
Pinion Pitch Cylinder
We proved in Chapter 1 that the motion of a spur gear and

rack can be regarded as if the pitch circle of the gear made
rolling contact with the pitch line of the rack. The same
analogy can be used for a parallel-axis helical rack and
pinion, but not for a crossed helical rack and pinion, since
the direction of motion of the rack is not perpendicular to
the pinion axis. We therefore have to decide, for the case of
the crossed helical rack and pinion, whether- there is any need
for a pitch cylinder, and if so how it should be defined.
The concept of the pitch cylinder does turn out to be
useful in the geometric analysis of a crossed helical rack and
pinion. We start by defining it, and then we will explain the
reasons for the way in which it is defined. The pitch cylinder
of a pinion, meshed with a rack in a crossed helical manner,
is defined as the cylinder with the same radius as the pinion
pitch cylinder in the equivalent parallel-axis rack and
pinion. With this definition, the radius of the pinion pitch
cylinder in Figure 15.2 is equal to that in Figure 15.1.
The pitch cylinder radius for the pinion in Figure 15.1
was given by Equation (15.1) in terms of the transverse pitch
of the rack,
We cannot use the same equation for the pinion in Figure 15.2,
because the transverse pitches of the two racks are
different. We therefore use Equation (14.1) to express the
transverse pitch of the rack in Figure 15.1, in terms of its
Pinion pi tch Cylinder 411
normal pitch and its helix angle. We then obtain the following
expression for the pitch cylinder radius,
(15.4)
271' cos I/I~
This equation can now be used to give the pitch cylinder

radius for the pinion in Figure 15.2, since the values of the
rack normal pitch and the rack helix angle are the same in the
two diagrams.
The most important advantage of defining the pi tch
cylinder in this manner is that we know, from the meshing
geometry of the parallel-axis rack and pinion described in
Chapter 14, that the normal pitch, the normal pressure angle,
and the helix angle of the rack are equal to the corresponding
quantities on the gear, measured at this particular radius,
(15.5)
4>np (15.6)
1/1'r (15.7)
There is, of course, no longer any relation between the

transverse quantities of the rack and those of the pinion,
since the transverse quantities on the rack are all different
from those on the parallel-axis rack in Figure 15.1.
The only disadvantage we find, when the pitch cylinder
is defined in this way, is that the rack velocity is no longer
equal to RpW, as it is in the case of a parallel-axis rack and
pinion. However, it is not difficult to express the rack
velocity in terms of the pinion angular velocity. We proved
earlier that if the pinions in Figures 15.1 and 15.2 have the
same angular velocity, the velocity of the rack in Figure 15.1
is equal to v~, the velocity component of the rack in
Figure 15.2 perpendicular to the pinion axis. We know that the
rack in Figure 15.1 has a velocity equal to R w. For the rack
p
in Figure 15.2, it is therefore the velocity component v~,
rather than the resultant veloc i ty, which is equal to Rpw,
v'r (15.8)
We now use the velocity vector triangle in Figure 15.2,

to express the resultant rack velocity vr in terms of the
pinion angular velocity,
cos "'~ v~ cos "'~

cos("'~-~) Rpw (15.9)
cos("'~-~)
If we combine Equations (15.4 and 15.9), we obtain an

alternative expression for the rack velocity,
211' cos("'~-~) W
(15.10)
This equation could have been derived directly, using the

method described in Chapter 1, from the consideration that in
any period of time the same number of pinion teeth and rack
teeth must pass through the meshing zone.
We proved in Equation (15.6) that the normal pressure
angle of the pinion at, its pitch cylinder is equal to the
normal pressure angle of the rack. This property is true, not
only for a crossed helical rack and pinion, but also for a
parallel-axis rack and pinion, and even for a spur gear and
rack. For this reason, the pitch cylinder of a pinion meshed
with a rack has sometimes been defined as the cylinder on
which the normal pressure angle is equal to that of the rack.
However, this particular definition was not used in this
book, because it would have been difficult to explain the
reason for the definition in the early part of the book. By
defining the pitch point in terms of the Law of Gearing, and
then defining the pitch circle as the circle through the pitch
point, the book has followed the order in which the geometric
theory of gears was originally developed.
Minimum Condi tions for Correct Meshing
We proved earlier in this chapter that the relation

between the rack velocity and the pinion angular velocity is
constant for a crossed helical rack and pinion, provided the
Law of Gearing is satisfied for the equivalent parallel-axis
rack and pinion. ~he minimum conditions for correct meshing
of a parallel-axis rack and pinion were discussed in
Minimum Conditions for Correct Meshing 413
Chapter 14, and we showed that the normal base pitch and the
transverse base pitch of the rack must be equal to those of
the pinion. The equivalent parallel-axis rack was defined as
a rack with the same normal section as the crossed helical
rack, so their normal base pitches must be equal, and the
normal base pitch of the crossed helical rack must therefore
be equal to that of the gear,
(15.11)
The transverse sections of the two racks are not the same, so
their transverse base pitches are different, and there is no
relation between the transverse base pitch of the crossed
helical rack, and that of the pinion. However, the equivalent
parallel-axis rack was also defined as having the same helix
angle as the crossed helical rack, and we showed that the
helix angle of a parallel-axis rack must satisfy
Equation (15.3). Hence, the helix angle of the crossed
helical rack must satisfy the same equation,
sin 1/Ib
sin 1/1~ (15.12)
cos I/I~r
We have proved that if the equivalent parallel-axis rack

and pinion mesh correctly, then the crossed helical rack must
satisfy Equations (15.11 and 15.12). To show that the reverse
is true, we need to prove that when the two equations are
satisfied, the normal and transverse base pitches of the
equivalent parallel-axis rack are equal to those of the
pinion.
We know immediately, from Equation (15.11), that the
normal base pitches are equal. The proof that the transverse
base pi tches are also equal is given by the following sequence
of equations.
P~r cos 1/1~

Ptr cos I/Itr cos .1.' 2 2
(14.1,14.2) 'l'r v'(cos 1/1'
r + tan 1/1'nr )
P~r cos I/I~r

cos 1/I b
(15.12) (14.3) (15.11) (13.44)

We have shown, in effect, that Equations (15.11

and 15.12) are equivalent to the two minimum conditions for
correct meshing of the parallel-axis rack and pinion. The
crossed helical rack has the same normal section as the
parallel-axis rack, and its teeth make the same angle w~ with
the gear axis. We now apply these results, to obtain the two
minimum conditions which must be satisfied for correct
meshing of the crossed helical rack and pinion. The normal
base pitch of the rack must be equal to that of the pinion,
and the rack must be oriented so that the angle w~ between its
teeth and the pinion axis has the value given by
Equation (15.12).
A Crossed Helical Gear Pair
We now consider the meshing of two helical gears,

mounted on non-parallel, non-intersecting shafts. There is
one line joining the two gear axes which is perpendicular to
both axes, and this is called the common perpendicular to the
axes. It is also the shortest distance between the two axes.
The points where the common perpendicular intersects the axes
are labelled COl and CO2 ' as shown in Figure 15.3, and the
distance between these two points is known as the center
distance C of the gear pair. The angle between the gear axes
is called the shaft angle E.
In order to determine whether the gear pair will mesh
correctly, we consider whether it is possible to insert an
imaginary rack between the teeth. I f a constant angular
velocity of gear 1 would cause a constant velocity of the
imaginary rack, and this in turn would cause a constant
angular velocity of gear 2, then the angular velocity ratio is
constant for the two gears.
When a rack meshes with a pinion, the pitch plane of the
rack is parallel to the plane of the rack tooth tips, and it
touches the pinion pitch cylinder. Hence, if an imaginary
rack meshes simultaneously with both gears in Figure 15.3,
the two pitch planes in the imaginary rack must be parallel to
each other, and in order that they can touch the pitch
cylinders of the two gears, they must be perpendicular to the
A Crossed Helical Gear Pair 415
Axis of
gear 2
Line through C01

parallel to gear 2 axis
Pitch plane 1 of imaginary rack

Pitch plane 2 of imaginary rack
Figure 15.3. The pitch cylinders in a

crossed helical gear pair.
line of centers C01 C02 '

For correct meshing between each gear and the imaginary
rack, Equations (15.11 and 15.12) must be satisfied for each
gear,
P~br Pnb1 (15.13)

sin 1/Ib1
sin 1/1~ 1 (15.14)
cos qJ~r
P~br Pnb2 (15.15)

sin 1/Ib2
sin 1/1~2 (15.16)
cos qJ~r
In addition, since each rack helix angle is defined as the

angle between the direction of the rack teeth and the
corresponding gear axis, the sum of the rack helix angles must
be equal to the shaft angle,
(15.17)
If we can find values of ~'1'

r ~'2 and~'
r nr which satisfy
Equations (15.13 - 15.17), then we can construct the imaginary
rack, and we have shown that the crossed helical gear pair
will mesh correctly. One condition that must be satisfied,
which can be seen immediately from Equations (15.13 and
15.15), is that the normal base pitches of the two gears must
be equal,
( 15.18)
To solve the remaining equations, we first eliminate ~~r
sin ~~1
(15.19)
sin ~b1
Equations (15.17 and 15.19) can now be solved to give the rack
helix angles,
sin ~b1 sin 2:
tan ~~ 1 (15.20)
(sin ~b1 cos 2: + sin ~b2)
sin "'b2 sin 2:

tan ~~2 (sin "'b2 cos 2: + sin ~b1 ) (15.21)
and the normal pressure angle ~~r is then found from Equations
(15.14 or 15.16),
cos ~~r (15.22)
We have therefore shown that, provided the normal base

pitches of the two gears are equal, it is possible to find an
imaginary rack which can mesh simultaneously with each of the
gears. Hence, the requirement that the normal base pitches
are equal represents the only condition that must be
satisfied, to ensure that the crossed helical gear pair will
mesh correctly.
Each gear makes contact with the imaginary rack along a
line in the rack tooth face. However, these lines are not
parallel, as they are in the case of a parallel-axis gear
pair. Later in this chapter, we will determine the angle
between the two lines, but for the moment it is sufficient to
Pi tch Cylinders 417
note that they are not parallel. This means that the gears are
in contact at one point only, which is the point where the two
lines intersect.
pi tch Cylinders
We showed in Equations (15.5 - 15.7) that in a crossed

helical rack and pinion, the operating normal pitch Pnp' the
operating normal pressure angle ¢np' and the operating helix
angle Wp of the pinion are equal to the corresponding
quantities on the rack. The same results are true when a gear
is meshed with an imaginary rack. Hence, for the crossed
helical gear pair, the operating helix angles WP1 and Wp2 are
given by Equations (15.20 and 15.21), and the operating
normal pressure angles of the two gears are equal, and are
sin wb1 sin l:

(15.23)
(sin Wb1 cos l: + sin wb2)
sin wb2 sin l:
(15.24)
(sin Wb2 cos l: + sin wb1 )
sin wb1 sin wb2
(15.25)
sin WP1 sin Wp 2
Since the helix angles at the pitch cylinders are now

known, we can use Equation (13.146) to find the corresponding
pi tch cylinder radi i ,
Rb1 tan WE1
RP1 (15.26)
tan Wb1
Rb2 tan WE2
RP2 (15.27)
tan Wb2
It is interesting to note that, for a crossed helical

gear pair, there is no relation between the pitch cylinder
radii and the center distance C. In particular, the center
di stance is not generally equal to the sum of the pi tch
cylinder radii. The pitch cylinders, therefore, do not touch
each other, as they do in the case of a parallel-axis gear
pair, and the analogy of rolling contact is no longer
applicable.
Special Solution
In certain cases, the shafts of a crossed helical gear

pair are oriented so that the shaft angle is equal to the sum
of the gear helix angles,
(15.28)
We know that the helix angles are related to the normal

pressure angle by Equation (13.99),
sin "'b1
sin"'sl cos (15.29)
cf>ns
sin "'b2
sin "'s2 cos (15.30)
cf>ns
We have assumed, in these equations, that the normal pressure
angles of the two gears are equal. This assumption is correct
in all cases of practical interest, since gear pairs are
invariably designed so that each gear has the same normal
module and the same normal pressure angle. By combining
Equations (15.29 and 15.30), we obtain a relation between the
hel ix angles of the two gears,
sin "'s1
(15.31)
sin "'b1
For the case we are considering, when the shaft angle is

equal to the sum of the helix angles, "'s1 and "'s2 satisfy
Equations (15.28 and 15.31), which are identical to Equations
(15.17 and 15.19) satisfied by "'~1 and "'~2. Hence, for this
particular case, the imaginary rack helix angles "'~1 and "'~2'
and therefore the gear operating helix angles "'p1 and "'p2' are
equal to the gear helix angles'" s 1 and", s2.
(15.32)
(15.33)
Since the operating helix angles are equal to the helix

angles, it means that the pitch cylinders coincide with the
standard pitch cylinders. Once again, there is no relation
Standard Center Distance and Standard Shaft Angle 419
between the center distance C and the sum of the pi tch

cyl inder radi i.
Standard Center Distance and Standard Shaft Angle
We define the standard center distance Cs as the sum of

the standard pitch cylinder radii, and the standard shaft
angle I:s as the sum of the gear helix angles,
(15.34)
(15.35)
There is no need to design a gear pair so that the actual

center distance C and shaft angle I: are equal to Cs and I: s '
However, we pointed out earlier that gears can only be cut
with a limited amount of profile shift, if standard cutters
are to be used. For this reason, crossed helical gear pairs
are generally designed so that the values of C and I: are
ei ther equal, or approximately equal, to Cs and I: s '
It is one of the major advantages of all involute gears
that small errors or changes in the center distance do not
affect the operation of a gear pair, since the value of C does
not have to be equal to the standard value Cs ' Crossed helical
gears have the further advantage, that small errors or
changes can also be made in the shaft angle, and in spite of
this, the angular velocity ratio remains constant.
Relations Between the Uni t Vectors
Before we discuss the meshing geometry in detail, it is

necessary to define the directions of the various sets of unit
vectors, and this is done in a manner which is consistent with
the definitions given at the end of Chapter 14.
The n~ direction is chosen perpendicular to the pitch
planes of the imaginary rack, in the direction from COl
towards CO2 ' The two pitch cylinders and the imaginary rack
pitch planes are shown in Figure 15.4, viewed in the n~
Tooth direction of Pitch cylinder

imaginary rack of gear 2
Pitch cylinder
Imaginary rack of gear 1
direction. The unit vectors n~ and nS are defined, as usual,

in the directions perpendicular to and parallel with the
teeth of the imaginary rack.
We use points C01 and CO2 as the origins of the x,y,z
coordinate system in each gear. This means, of course, that
the origin of each coordinate system no longer lies in the end
face of each gear, as it did when we discussed the geometry of
parallel-axis gears in Chapter 14. There is a set of unit
vectors nx1 ' ny1 and n z1 fixed in gear 1, and a second set
n x2 ' ny2 and nz2 fixed in gear 2. The reference directions,
from which the gear rotations are measured, are chosen so that
n z1 (0) and nz2 (0) are parallel with the gear axes. n x1 (0) and
n x2 (0) are parallel to line C01 C02 ' so that they are
perpendicular to the imaginary rack pitch planes, and in each
case they point in the direction from the gear towards the
imaginary rack. Finally, n y1 (0) and ny2 (0) complete the
right-handed sets.
The relations between the reference directions of the
gears and the vectors fixed in the imaginary rack can be read
from Figure 15.4. Once again, it is more convenient to express
these relations in terms of the operating helix angles of the
gears, rather than the rack helix angles.
Relations Between the Uni t Vectors 421
(15.36)
cos "'p1 n1/ + sin "'p1 nS (15.37)
(15.38)
(15.39)
(15.40)
(15.41)
We will make use again of nnr and n Tr , the unit vectors

perpendicular and tangent to the tooth profile in a normal
section through the imaginary rack. The vectors n E and n1/ can
be expressed in terms of nnr and n Tr by means of Equations
( 14 • 85 and 14 • 86) ,
- sin 9>np nnr - cos 9>np n Tr (15.42)
- cos 9>np nnr + sin 9>np n Tr (15.43)
After the gears have rotated through angles P1 and P 2

from their reference positions, the vectors fixed in each
gear are given in terms of their reference directions by
Equations (14.82-14.84). Since the relations are the same
for each gear, they will only be written out once, and it is
understood that the subscript i stands for either 1 or 2,
depending which gear is referred to.
nxi (15.44)
n.
yl (15.45)
(15.46)
The two pitch cylinders and the imaginary rack pitch

planes are shown again in Figure 15.5, viewed this time in the
negative n1/ direction. Since the sum of the pitch cylinder
radii is not generally equal to the center distance, we define
CO2
--.-----+-+ - - - - - - + - - -+---,-
r Axis of gear 2
Rp2
/,"Pitch plane 2 of
C ---"'----r-'---t--:.;::.......,-----"-....<'---~I imagi nary rack
Pitch plane 1 of
/
Axis of gear 1
imaginary rack
\
Figure 15.5. View of the pitch cylinders in the direction

perpendicular to the teeth of the imaginary rack.
a length ~Cp as the difference,
( 15.47)
When we discussed the geometry of a helical rack and

pinion at the end of Chapter 14, we introduced a point PO'
defined as the pitch point in the transverse section z=O. If
Co is the center of the pinion in the same transverse section,
then Po lies at the foot of the perpendicular from Co to the
pitch plane of the rack. If the two gears in Figure 15.5 are
regarded as meshing with the imaginary rack, they each have a
pitch point in their transverse sections zl=O and z2=O, and
these points are shown in the diagram as POl and P02 • They lie
on line C01 C02 ' and the distance between them is ~Cp.
The points COl and CO2 are satisfactory as reference
points for each gear separately, but we need a single point to
serve as a reference for the gear pair. We introduce a point P
on line C01 C02 ' as shown in Figure 15.5, at a distance ~Cl
from POl and ~C2 from P 02 • The values of ~Cl and ~C2 will be
chosen later, but of course their sum must be equal to ~Cp'
Path of Contact 423
(15.48)
The point P is not a pitch point, since it does not lie on

either pitch cylinder. It will simply be used as a reference
point, from which we can locate the position of the contact
point.
Path of Contact
For an ordinary rack and pinion, the vector from Po to a

typical point A on the contact line was given by
Equation (14.102),
sin1 1/I p (~tnp + Rp cos I/I p tnnz(O) + sins I/Ib n: (15.49)
where n: is the direction of the generator through A, and the

coordinate s is the perpendicular distance between point A
and the axial line through PO.
For the crossed helical gear pair shown in Figure 15.5,
we can use Equation (15.49) to write down expressions for the
vector from P to a typical point A1 on the contact line
between gear 1 and the imaginary rack, and for the vector
from P to a corresponding point A2 on gear 2.
s1 G1
+ . ,t, n (15.50)
Sln "'b1 /.11
aC2n~ - Sin1I/1p2(~tnp2 + Rp2cOSl/lp2P2)nz2(O)
( 15.51 )
If A1 and A2 are to be the points where the two gears are

in contact, the vectors from P to A1 and A2 must be equal,
(15.52)
We substitute the expressions for these vectors given by

Equations (15.50 and 15.51), and we obtain a vector equation
that must be satisfied by Pl' P2 , sl and s2' if Al and A2 are

to be the contact points.
In order to replace the vector equation by three scalar
equations, we express every unit vector in terms of a single
set of unit vectors, and the most convenient set turns out to
be nnr' n Tr and nS. The vector n~ was given already by
Equation (15.42), and we can use Equations (15.38, 15.41 and
15.43) to express n zl (O) and n z2 (0) in terms of nnr' n Tr
and n S '
sin "'p1 cos 4>np nnr - sin "'pl sin 4>np n Tr

+ cos"'pl nS (15.53)
- sin "'p2 cos 4>np nnr + sin "'p2 sin 4>np n Tr

+ cos "'p2 nS (15.54)
The vectors n: ~ and n:~ were given by Equat ion (14.93),

G,
njlf sin "'bi [sin 4>tpi nxi(O) + cos 4>tpi nyi(O)]
+cos"'b'1 n Zl.(0) (15.55)
We have already made the set of vector transformations for

gear 1, with the result given in Equation (14.103),
- sin vpl n Tr + cos vpl nS (15.56)
The corresponding transformations for gear 2 are the same,

apart from some differences in sign, and we obtain the
following expression for n:~,
(15.57)
The unit vectors n:~ and n:~ represent the directions of

the lines where each gear is in contact with the imaginary
rack. The angle between these unit vectors is therefore the
angle between the two contact lines, and it can be seen from
Equations (15.56 and 15.57) that this angle is equal to
(V Pl +V P2 )·
·
We now su b stltute t h e expressIons
' f or p PA 1 an d pPA2'
Into
Equation (15.52), expressing all the unit vectors in terms of
Path of Contact 425
nnr' n Tr and n S ' and then we equate the coefficients of the

three unit vectors on each side of the equation. We make use
of the relations between the various angles, derived in
Chapter 13, and we obtain the following three scalar
equations,
flC p tan tP np (15.58)
+ s2 flC p
(15.59)
cos ~b2 sin tP np
s1 s2
cos ~b1 tan ~p1 cos ~b2 tan 1/I P2
cos tP np 1
tan 1/1 ('2 t np1 + RP1 cos 1/I P1 ~ 1 )
p1
cos tP np 1
tan 1/1 ('2 t np2 + RP2 cos 1/I P2 ~2) (15.60)
p2
The first of these three equations gives the relation
between the angular positions ~1 and ~2 of the two gears. The
equation is exactly comparable with Equation (3.56), which
gave the corresponding relation for a pair of spur gears. If
we differentiate the equation with respect to time,
o (15.61)
we confirm that the angular velocity ratio is constant. The

coefficients of w 1 and w2 can be expressed in the following
manner,
Ni Pnpi
Rpl. cos 1/1 pl• 2 'IT
The operating normal pitches Pnp1 and Pnp2 are each equal to
the normal pitch of the imaginary rack, and are therefore
equal to each other, so that Equation (15.61) can be
simplified to the following form,
o (15.62)
In other words, the angular velocity ratio is inversely

proportional to the ratio of the numbers of teeth, as we would

expect.
The remaining two scalar equations that were derived
earlier, Equations (15.59 and 15.60), can be solved to give
expressions for s1 and s2'
s1 _ ~Cp sin "'p1 cos "'p2 + 1
cos "'b1 - cos I/l np ( tan I/l np sin I: 2t np1 + Rp1 cos "'p1 fj1)
(15.63)
cos "'b2
It is now a good moment to choose values for ~C1 and ~C2'

bearing in mind that their sum must be equal to ~Cp. We define
~C1 and ~C2 as follows,
~CE sin "'E1 cos "'E2

~C1 sin I: ( 15.65)
~CE sin "'E2 cos "'E1
~C2 sin I: (15.66)
and the expressions for s1 and s2 then simplify to the

following form,
+ ~tnp1 + RP1 cos "'p1 fj1) (15.67)
1
cos "'b2 + "2t np2 + Rp2 cos "'p2 fj2) (15.68)
The expressions in brackets in these two equations occur

frequently in the geometric theory of crossed helical gears,
and it is therefore more convenient to use s1 and s2 to
identify the angular positions of the gears, rather than fj1
and fj2. When either s1 or s2 is known, Equation (15.59) can be
used to find the other s value, and then of course the
corresponding fj values can be found from Equations (15.67
and 15.68).
The position of the contact point is now given by
Equation (15.50), when we use Equation (15.67) to express fj1
in terms of s1. As before, we express all the unit vectors in
terms of nnr' n Tr and n S ' and we obtain the following
expression for the vector from P to the contact point,
Path of Contact 427
AC 1 sl
(. ~ cos'" b1 ) nnr + tan ~np tan "'p1 nS (15.69)
Different values of sl give the positions of different

contact points, so this equation can regarded as the equation
of the path of contact. Since the coefficient of nS is
constant, the path of contact lies in a plane perpendicular to
the nS direction, as shown in Figure 15.6.
A rotation AP1 of gear 1 causes a change AS 1 in the value
of sl' which can be found from Equation (15.67),
AS 1
(15.70)
The corresponding displacement of the contact point is then

(15.71)
It can be seen that the displacement is always in the

direction of nnr' or in other words, perpendicular to the
plane of the imaginary rack tooth face. Since the direction is
always the same, it means that the path of contact is a
Path of contact
dC p COSl/lp1 COS I/IP2

tan <pnpsin!
Figure 15.6. View in the direction of the

line of centers, showing the path of contact.
Pitch plane 1 of
imaginary rack Pitch plane 2 of
imaginary rack
Figure 15.7. View of the pitch cylinders in the direction

along the ,teeth of the imaginary rack.
straight line, and it makes an angle ~np with the n~

direction, as shown in Figure 15.7. The common normal at the
contact point is also perpendicular to the tooth face of the
imaginary rack, so the path of contact coincides with the line
of action, exactly as it does in the case of a spur gear pair.
In order to find the relation between the gear rotation
and the distance moved by the contact point along the path of
contact, we combine Equations (15.70 and 15.71), and then use
Equation (13.95) to simplify the resulting expression,
flp (15.72)
It is not easy to visualize the path of contact, when it

is given by Equation (15.69) in terms of the unit vectors
associated with the imaginary rack. However, we can determine
its position and direction, in a form that can be more easily
understood, if we construct the vector from C01 to the contact
point,
Path of Contact 429
(15.73)
We substitute the expression in Equation (15.50) for pPA1,

and we use Equation (15.55) to express n~l in terms of x1 (0), n
n y1 (0) and n z1 (0). We then obtain the following equation for
the path of contact,
C01 A1
P (R p1 + sl sin I/Itp1) n x1 (0) + sl cos I/Itp1 ny 1(0)
~C1
(15.74)
I/I np sin 1/I p1 - sl tan 1/Ib1)n z1 (0)
+ (tan
This equation demonstrates a result which may be

considered somewhat remarkable. If the gear is viewed in the
axial direction, as shown in Figure 15.8, the path of contact
appears exactly the same as the path of contact in a spur gear
pair, and we can see that the straight line containing the
path of contact touches the base cylinder of the gear. We can
also use the diagram to obtain a relation between the radius
R1 of the contact point, and the corresponding value of sl'
<Ptp1
Path of contact
Figure 15.8. pitch cylinder of gear 1,

viewed along the gear axis.
2 2 (15.75)
v'(R 1-R b1 ) - Rbl tan 4>tpl
Point POl was defined earlier as the point where line

C01 C02 ' the common perpendicular to the gear axes, intersects
the pitch cylinder of gear 1. When the gear is viewed in the
axial direction, as in Figure 15.8, POl appears as the point
where the radius in the n xl (O) direction meets the pitch
cylinder. By setting sl equal to zero in Equation (15.74), we
obtain the position vector to the point where the path of
contact intersects the pitch cylinder. This point is
labelled P l , and its position is given by the following
expression,
(15.76)
It is clear that P l lies on the axial line through POl' so

that in Figure 15.8 the two points appear to coincide, and the
distance between the two points is equal to the coefficient of
n zl (O) in Equation (15.76).
An alternative form of Equation (15.74) can be found,
simply by bringing together the terms containing the
variable sl'
(15.77)
The terms in the square brackets represent a unit vector,

giving the direction of the path of contact. Since the
coefficient of n zl (O) has a magnitude of sin ~bl' the path of
contact must make an angle C7r/2 - ~bl) with the gear axis. The
coefficients of n x1 (0) and n yl (O) are in the ratio of
tan 4>tpl : 1, which confirms that when the path of contact is
viewed in the axial direction, it appears to make an angle
4>tpl with the n yl (O) direction, as we showed in Figure 15.8.
By using the relations developed in Chapter 13 between
the various angles, we can express the position vector from
Co 1 to the contact point in yet another form,
Path of Contact 431
(15.78)
Once again, the terms in the square brackets represent a unit

vector. Since the coefficient of n x1 {O) is sin ~np' the path
of contact must make an angle (7r/2-~np) with the n x1 {O)
direction. The coefficients of n z1 {O) and n y1 {O) are in the
ratio of (- tan lP p1 ) : 1, so when the path of contact is viewed
in the n x1 {O) direction, as shown in Figure 15.9, it appears
to make an angle lPP1 with the n y1 {O) direction.
We obtain the corresponding set of results for gear 2 if
we express the direction of the path of contact in terms of
n x2 {O), n y2 {O) and n z2 {O). Since the equations are exactly
analogous, they will not be repeated here. The only equation
which we will write out is the one corresponding to
Equation (15. 75), giving the relation between s2 and the
radi us R2 of the contact point,
(15.79)
Path of contact
{in,,(o)
n y1 (O)
( n,,(O)
Line in pitch plane 1

parallel with gear 1 axis
Figure 15.9. Path of contact, viewed in the direction

of the line of centers.
By substituting these expressions for sl and s2 into

Equation (15.59), we obtain a relation between the radii of
the contact points in each gear,
i(R 21-R b1
2 ) i(R 22-R b2
2 )
+
cos Wb1 cos Wb2
Rb1 tan ~tp1 + Rb2 tan ~tp2 + ~6_C~p~
(15.80)
cos Wb1 cos wb2 sin ~np
Contact Ratio
The contact ratio mc of a crossed helical gear pair is

defined, as always, as the rotation of either one of the gears
during a single meshing cycle, divided by the angular pitch of
the same gear,
(15.81)
In order to prove that we obtain the same value for the

contact ratio, whether we use gear 1 or gear 2 in the
definition, we express the angular pitch 68 p1 by means of
Equation (4.2), and we use Equation (15.72) to relate the gear
rotation 6fJ 1 to the magnitude 16pl of the contact point
displacement along the path of contact,
271')
(if'" Rb1 cos wb1
1
The denominator in this equation is equal to the normal
base pitch of gear 1, as we can see from Equations (13.43
and 13.44),
The contact ratio is therefore equal to the displacement of

the contact point during a meshing cycle, divided by the
normal base pitch of gear 1, and since the normal base pitches
in the two gears are equal, we could clearly have defined the
contact ratio in terms of gear 2, with no change in its value.
Hence, the contact ratio can be expressed in the following
form,
Contact Rat io 433
(15.82)
This equation proves that the contact ratio is equal to

the length of the path of contact, divided by the normal base
pitch. In Chapter 13, we showed that the normal base pitch is
equal to the distance between adjacent tooth surfaces,
measured along a common normal. The contact ratio therefore
represents the average number of tooth pairs in contact at any
particular time, in exactly the same way as the contact ratio
in a spur gear pair or in a parallel-axis helical gear pair.
The expression for mc given by Equation (15.82) is not
particularly convenient when we want to calculate the value
of the contact ratio. We obtain a more useful expression, if
we use Equation (15.71) to substitute for IApl in terms
of As 1 ,
(15.83)
cos lPb1 Pnb
In this relation, s~l and s~2 are the values of sl at the ends
of the path of contact, or in other words, at the points where
the path of contact intersects the two tip cylinders. The
contact ratio can be calculated most easily if it is expressed
in terms of RT1 and RT2 , the radii of the tip cylinders. In
order to do so, we first use Equation (15.59) to relate s~2
and 52T2 ' resulting in the following expression for mc '
T1 T2
1 sl s2
-( + (15.84)
Pnb cos lPb1 cos lPb2
We then use Equations (15.75 and 15.79) to express sT1 and sT2
1 2
in terms of the tip cylinder radii, and we obtain the final
expression for the contact ratio,
2 2 2 -R 2 )
v(R T2
1 v(R T1 -R b1 ) b2
mc -[ +
Pnb cos lPb 1 cos lPb2
Rb1 tan 4>tE1 Rb2 tan 4>tE2 ACE
] (15.85)
cos lPb1 cos lPb2 sin 4>np
We pointed out earlier that the maximum power which can

be transmitted by a crossed helical gear pair is very limited,
since theoretically there is only point contact between the
meshing teeth, and the contact stress is therefore very high.
For this reason, it is advantageous if there are at least two

pairs of teeth in contact at all times, so crossed helical
gear pairs are designed whenever possible with a contact
ratio greater than 2.
Interference
The conditions necessary to ensure that there will be no

interference are very similar to the corresponding conditions
for a spur gear pair, described in Chapter 4. Once again, we
will discuss only the conditions relating to interference at
the tooth fillets of gear 1. The corresponding conditions for
gear 2 can be found simply by interchanging the subscripts 1
and 2 in every equation.
We proved earlier in this chapter that the line
containing the path of contact touches the base cylinders of
the two gears. The points where the line meets the two
cylind~rs are again called the interference points E1 and E2 ,
exactly as they are in the case of a spur gear pair. The first
condition for no interference is that the ends of the path of
contact should lie between E1 and E2 • The end point T2 of the
path of contact is the point where line E1E2 intersects the
tip cylinder of gear 2. The value of s2 at this point is given
(15.86)
and the corresponding value of s1 at the same point can be

found from Equation (15.59),
(15.87)
The interference point E1 is shown in Figure 15.8, and the

value of s1 at this point can be read from the diagram,
- Rb1 tan IP tp1 (15.88)
For T2 to lie between E1 and E2 , the value of s~2 must be

greater than s~1, and we therefore obtain the first
Minimum Face Width 435
condition for no interference,
> 0 (15.89)
The limit circle of a gear was defined in Chapter 4 as

the circle with radius RL , where RL is the minimum radius at
which contact takes place. For gear 1, the minimum value of Rl
occurs at point T2 , provided Equation (15.89) is satisfied,
and the limit circle radius is then given by Equation (15.75),
(15.90)
In order to eliminate the possibility of contact at the

tooth fillets of gear 1, the radius Rfl of the fillet circle
must be less than that of the limit circle, exactly as in the
case of a spur gear pair. As before, it is customary to allow
a small margin for possible errors in the center distance, and
the second condition is therefore the same as
Equa t i on (4. 23 ) ,
(15.91)
The two conditions given by Equations (15.89 and 15.91)

must both be satisfied, in order to ensure that there is no
interference at the tooth fillets of gear 1.
Minimum Face Width
When we discussed the path of contact, the contact

points on each gear were labelled Al and A2 • The position
vector p C01 Al 0 f Al relative to COl was given by
Equation (15.77), in terms of the fixed unit vectors n xl (O),
n y1 (0) and n z1 (0). I t would be possible to express the
position vector in terms of n x1 ' n yl and n z1 ' using Equations
(15.44 - 15.46). In this case, we would obtain the coordinates
x~l y~l and z~l of the contact point in gear 1 as the
coefficients of the three unit vectors. If we calculated the
values of x~l, y~l and z~l for different values of sl' we
would obtain the locus of the contact point on the tooth face
of gear 1.
It is not generally necessary to carry out this
procedure, since the exact shape of the locus is not
important. The only coordinate which we will need is z~l, and
this can be obtained immediately as the coefficient of n z1 (O)
in Equation (15.77),
tan ~np sin ~P1 - sl tan ~b1 (15.92)
The corresponding coordinate of the contact point on gear 2

can be wri t ten down wi thout further proof,
tan ~np sin ~P2 - s2 tan ~b2 (15.93)
The locus of the contact point is a curve on the tooth

face, and this curve reaches the edge of the tooth face either
at the tooth tip, or at the end face of the gear. We assumed,
when we discussed the contact ratio and the possibility of
interference, that the path of contact ends when the contact
point reaches the tooth tip of ei ther gear. I n other words, we
assumed that the contact locus on the tooth face of each gear
stops at the tooth tip, rather than at the end face of the
gear. A crossed helical gear pair should be designed so that
this condition is satisfied, since otherwise part of the
tooth face on each gear is unused, and the contact ratio is
reduced. We will now determine the minimum face-width
necessary for each gear, and the correct axial positioning,
in order that this condition should be satisfied.
In Equations (15.87 and 15.86), we gave the values of sl
and s2 for the contact point when it reaches the end T2 of the
path of contact. If these values are substituted into
Equations (15.92 and 15.93), we obtain the axial coordinates
z~2 and z~2 at one end of the contact locus on each tooth
face. I n a simi lar way, we can calculate the axial coordinates
z~l and z~l at the other end of each contact locus. On gear 1,
the contact locus lies between the two transverse sections
zl=zlTl and zl=zlT2 • The gear must therefore be designed so that
the two end faces lie outside this interval, and a similar
consideration applies to gear 2. It will be found that if the
face-width of each gear is to be kept to an absolute minimum,
Backlash 437
the gears must be mounted unsymmetrically relative to points

COl and CO2 • However, we have so far considered rotation of
each gear in one direction only. If rotation occurs in the
opposite direction, the new contact locus on the tooth face of
gear 1 will lie between the two transverse sections zl=-z~2
and Zl=-z~l. Hence, in order to allow for rotation in both
directions, the distance in gear 1 between COl and each end
face must be equal to the magnitude of either z~l or z~2,
whichever is larger, and the gear is then positioned
symmetrically relative to COl. These positions of the two end
faces determine the minimum theoretical value of the gear
face-width, but the actual value should be increased
slightly, to ensure that the end points of the contact locus
lie at a certain distance inside each end face.
Backlash
The three different types of backlash in a crossed

helical gear pair are defined in essentially the same manner
as they were in the case of parallel-axis helical gears.
However, there are some differences in the expressions used
to calculate the backlash values, and in the relations
between the different types of backlash.
When we discussed the normal backlash of a parallel-axis
gear pair, we showed in Figure 14.7 a section through the
pitch plane of two imaginary racks, whose tooth thicknesses
are chosen so that each imaginary rack is in contact with both
faces of the teeth in the corresponding gear. As a
consequence, the normal and transverse tooth thicknesses of
each imaginary rack at its pitch plane are equal to the normal
and transverse tooth thicknesses of the corresponding gear at
its pitch cylinder. The normal backlash Bn of the gear pair
was then defined as the gap width, measured in the normal
direction, between the tooth profiles of the two imaginary
racks in the pitch plane section.
The corresponding diagram for a crossed helical gear
pair is shown in Figure 15.10. However, in this case the pitch
planes of the two imaginary racks do not coincide,. so it is
impossible to show a section through both pitch planes
Imaginary rack 1
Imaginary rack 2
Figure 15.10. Section through the imaginary racks.
simultaneously, and Figure 15.10 shows a section through the

pitch plane of imaginary rack 1. The normal tooth thickness of
imaginary rack 1 at its pitch plane is labelled t npr1 ' but in
the case of imaginary rack 2 the symbol t~r2 is used, to
indicate that this is not the tooth thickness at its own pitch
plane. As before, each imaginary rack is in contact with both
tooth faces of the corresponding gear, so the normal tooth
thicknesses t npr1 and t npr2 of the imaginary racks at their
pitch planes are equal to t np1 and t np2 ' the normal tooth
thicknesses of the gears at their pitch cylinders.
Figure 15.11 shows a normal section through a tooth of
imaginary rack 2, and we can use the diagram to obtain a
relation between t~r2 and t npr2 ' the normal tooth thicknesses
of the rack at the two pitch planes.
(15.94)
The normal backlash Bn is defined as the gap width,

measured in the normal direction, between the tooth profiles
of the two imaginary racks in any section parallel to the
Backlash 439
Pitch plane of
imaginary rack 1 Pitch plane of imaginary rack 2
dC p
d<t>~r=<t>np
t nTJ
'n !"'n t 0
p p2 n
:
n(
Imaginary rack 2
Figure 15.11. Normal section through imaginary rack 2.
pitch planes. Since the adjacent non-contacting tooth faces

are parallel to each other, the gap has the same width in any
section parallel to the pitch planes, and we can therefore
read the value of Bn directly from Figure 15.10,
p'nr - t npr1 - t'nr2 (15.95)
We now combine Equations (15.94 and 15.95), replacing

all quantities defined on the imaginary racks by the
corresponding quantities defined on the gears, and we obtain
the final expression for Bn'
(15.96)
The circular backlash B in a parallel-axis helical gear

pair was defined as the difference between the transverse
space width in one gear, and the transverse tooth thickness in
the other. This definition is unsuitable in the case of a
crossed helical gear pair, since the transverse sections in
the two gears are no longer parallel.
For a parallel-axis gear pair, we showed that, in

addition to this definition, there are two other ways in which
the circular backlash can be described. It can be regarded
either as the product (Rpap) of one gear, when the other is
held fixed, or as the displacement aU r of the imaginary rack
associated with one gear, when the other imaginary rack is
held fixed. Either one of these descriptions can be used to
suggest a definition for the circular backlash in a crossed
helical gear pai r.
We choose the first of these methods, and we define a
quantity B1 as the pitch cylinder radius of gear 1, multiplied
by the maximum rotation aP1 of gear 1 when gear 2 is held
fixed,
(15.97)
The reason for the use of the symbol B1 , rather than simply B,
will be explained shortly. We know, from Equation (14.17),
that the product (Rp1 a p 1 ) is equal to the displacement aU r1 of
an imaginary rack, provided it is only free to move in the
direction perpendicular to the gear axis. Hence, the quantity
B1 is also equal to the imaginary rack displacement,
B1 (15.9B)
Figure 15.10 shows the two imaginary racks associated

with the crossed helical gear pair, and each imaginary rack is
guided so that it can only move in a direction perpendicular
to the corresponding gear axis. Since the initial gap between
the teeth of the two imaginary racks is Bn in the normal
direction, the maximum displacement of rack 1, when rack 2 is
held fixed, is given by the following expression,
cos IPP1
By combining the last two equations, we obtain a relation

between B1 and the normal backlash,
Bn
(15.99)
Backlash 441
It is clear that if we defined another quantity B2 as the

product (Rp2~P2) when gear 1 is held fixed, we would obtain a
similar relation,
(15.100)
We can see from Equations (15.99 and 15.100) that in

general the values of B1 and B2 are different, so neither can
be regarded as the circular backlash of the gear pair. It is
more accurate to describe B1 as the circular backlash of
gear 1 when gear 2 is held fixed, and B2 as the circular
backlash of gear 2 when gear 1 is held fixed.
The third type of backlash is defined in exactly the same
manner as it was before. The backlash B' along the common
normal is the shortest distance between adjacent
non-contacting tooth faces, when the opposite faces are in
contact. Since the common normal to the tooth faces coincides
with the path of contact, the shortest distance between the
faces is equal to l~pl, the magnitude of the contact point
displacement during the rotation of one gear, when the other
is held fixed. The contact point displacement was given by
Equation (15.72), and the backlash along the common normal is
therefore equal to the coefficient of nnr in that equation,
B' Rb1 cos "'b1 ~P1
We express the base cylinder radius in terms of the pitch

cylinder radius, then use Equation (13.95) to relate the
various angles; and finally we use Equations (15.97 and
15.99) to express the rotation ~P1 in terms of the normal
backlash. We finally obtain the same relation between B' and
Bn that we found for a parallel-axis gear pair,
B' (15.101)
Sliding Velocity
If A1 is the point of gear 1 which is in contact with

gear 2, the velocity of A1 is found in the usual manner,
(15.102)
We substitute the expression for pC01Al given by

Equation (15.74), and the velocity of Al is then expressed as
follows,
The velocity of A2 , the contact point in gear 2, is found in

exactly the same way,
Finally, in order to obtain the sliding velocity, we

subtract the velocity of A2 from that of A1 , and express the
result in terms of a single set of unit vectors,
cos", (w 1 s 1 cos "'tpl + w2 s 2 cos tl>tp2)n Tr

np
+ [W 1Rp1 sin "'pl - w2Rp2 sin "'p2

+ tan "'np(w 1s 1 tan "'bl - w 2 s 2 tan "'b2)]n S (15.105)
It can be seen that the sliding velocity lies in the

plane of the imaginary rack tooth surface. This is to be
expected, since the velocity components of Al and A2 along the
common normal at the contact point must of course be equal. If
the sliding velocity is evaluated for various positions of
the contact point along the path of contact, it will be found
that the coefficient of n Tr changes sign, in the same manner
as the sliding velocity in a spur gear pair, but that the
coefficient of nS is generally larger, and remains
essentially constant. The high value of the sliding velocity
in a crossed helical gear pair is somewhat of a disadvantage,
but in the hobbing process, it is the relative velocity
between the hob and the gear blank which provides the cutting
action, and a high value of the sliding velocity in a
relatively constant direction is therefore an essential
requirement.
Crossed Helical Gears 443
Directions of the Vector Systems
When the geometric analysis is required for a crossed

helical gear pair, it is not always easy to decide which are
the correct directions for the various unit vectors. For
example, the magnitude of the shaft angle E is defined as the
angle between the unit vectors n z1 (O) and n z2 (O) along the
gear axes, but it is not immediately clear which way along the
axes these vectors should point. The answer is important,
since it determines whether the shaft angle is the acute or
the obtuse angle between the axes. Even when the magnitude of
E is known, it is still necessary to determine whether the
value is positive or negative. The following procedure is
helpful in deciding which are the correct directions for the
unit vectors.
We consider first the case of an existing gear pair. We
. choose one of the gears as gear 1, and the vector n E is then
directed along the common perpendicular to the gear axes,
pointing from gear towards gear 2. The approximate
direction of the teeth in the meshing zone can be seen, simply
by inspection of the gear pair, and nS is parallel with this
direction. The exact direction will be determined later, once
the values of "'p1 and "'p2 have been calculated. At this stage,
it is only necessary to know the general direction, and we are
free to choose which way along this line the vector should
point. The third fixed vector, n , must be directed so that
1'/
the three vectors form a right-handed set. The vector n z1 (O)
is parallel with the axis of gear 1, in the direction which
has a positive component in the nS direction. This is because
the angle "'~1 between n z1 (O) and nS is equal to the operating
helix angle on gear 1, and must therefore be acute. Finally,
n x1 (O) is parallel to n E, and n y1 (O) completes the
right-handed set. The directions of n z2 (O), n x2 (O) and n y2 (O)
are found in the same way, except that n x2 ( 0) is in the
direction opposite to n~.
The magnitude of E is equal to the angle between n Z1 (O)
and n z2 (O). Since we are considering the analysis of an
existing gear pair, we know the helix angles "'s1 and "'s2' and
we therefore know the standard shaft angle Es • The value of E
is always close to that of Es ' and this enables us to
determine the sign of ~, and also serves as a check that we

have used the correct angle between the shafts.
The second situation where the analysis of a gear pair
may be required is at the design stage. The positions of the
two axes are then known, and we must also know the required
direction of rotation of each shaft. Again, we start by
choosing one of the gears as gear 1. We proved in
Equation (15.62) that the two angular velocities must be
opposite in sign. We therefore choose the directions of
n z1 (O) and n z2 (O) along the gear axes, so that one angular
velocity is positive and the other negative. As before, the
magnitude of ~ is equal to the angle between the two unit
vectors.
We can now choose the gear helix angles ~s1 and ~S2' so
that their sum is equal, or approximately equal, to ~.
Generally, if the shaft angle is sufficiently large, the two
gears are designed with helix angles of the same sign, but if
the shafts are almost parallel, we choose gears with helix
angles of opposite sign, so that no gears are required with
very small helix angles. As soon as the values of ~s1 and ~s2
are chosen, the value of ~s is known, and the sign of ~ is
therefore determined. The directions of the remaining unit
vectors can be found in the manner described earlier.
In many of the diagrams in this chapter, the vector nT/ is
shown in the upward vertical direction. When we found the
position of the contact point, we considered the contact
between two teeth where the contact tooth surface of gear 2
lies above the contact tooth surface of gear 1. For a gear
pair which is oriented differently, so that nT/ is no longer
vertical, the contact point analysis applies to a tooth pair
such that the contact tooth surface of gear 2 lies in the
positive nT/ direction, relative to the contact tooth surface
of gear 1. If the driving gear is now rotated in the opposite
direction, the contact point will shift to the opposite face
of each tooth, and the equations given earlier in this chapter
no longer apply. When the geometry of a gear pair is being
analysed, we should check to see that the contacting tooth
surfaces of gears 1 and 2 are in the positions we have
assumed. If this condition is not satisfied, it would be
possible to repeat the derivation of the path of contact
equations, for the case when the contact occurs on the

opposite tooth faces. However, there is an alternative
solution, which is much quicker. We can simply reverse the
directions of every unit vector except n~, n x1 (0) and n x2 (0).
The condition will then be satisfied, and all the equations
derived earlier in this chapter can therefore be used
directly.
Tooth Contact Force and Bearing Reactions
Since the contact force acting on each gear has a

component along the gear axis, it is obvious that each gear
must be supported by at least one thrust bearing. The purpose
of this section is to determine the value of the contact
force, and hence the magnitude of the reaction to be carried
by each thrust bearing.
We use the symbols M1 and M2 to represent the torques
applied to the shafts, and thevalues are positive or negative
depending whether the moments are right or left-handed about
the corresponding unit vector directions. We showed in
Equation (15.62) that the two angular velocities are opposite
in sign, and a consideration of the energy balance for the
gear pair shows that the applied torques must both be the same
sign. In the following discussion, we will assume that the
directions of n Z1 (0) and n z2 (0) are chosen so that M1 and M2
are both positive. This assumption corresponds exactly to the
assumption made in the previous section, regarding the tooth
faces which are in contact. Once again, if the condition is
not satisfied, then the directions of the unit vectors should
be reversed, so that the equations we derive can be used
directly.
When we discussed the path of contact, we stated that the
line of action coincides with the path of contact, whose
direction is given by the unit vector contained in square
brackets in Equation (15.77). The direction of the
outward-facing normal to the tooth surface of gear 1 at the
contact point is therefore given by the following expression,
cos !Ji b1 sin IP tp1 n x1 (0)

+ cos !Ji b1 cos IP tp1 n y1 (0) - sin !Ji b1 n z1 (0) (15.106)
The tooth force on gear 1 acts in the direction opposite

to n~l. If its magnitude is W, we can see from
Equation (15.106) that its component along the gear axis is
(W sin ~bl)' so the component perpendicular to the gear axis
must be (W cos ~bl). Since the line of action touches the base
cylinder, we can calculate the moment of this component about
the gear axis, and equate it to the applied torque,
(W cos ~bl) Rbl (15.107)
We write down the corresponding equation for gear 2,
(15.108)
and then we eliminate W, to obtain a relation between the

applied torques,
(15.109)
When either torque is known, we can use these equations

to calculate the contact force and the second torque. The
contact force acting on gear 1 has a component along the gear
axis of (W sin ~bl) in the n zl (O) direction. Similarly, the
contact force on gear 2 has an axial component of (W sin ~b2)
in the n z2 (0) direction. The thrust bearings must therefore
be designed to resist axial movements in the positive nz(O)
direction for a gear with a right-handed helix angle, and in
the negative nz(O) direction for a gear with a left-handed
helix angle.
The remaining components of the contact force acting on
gear 1 can be seen from Equation (15.106) to be
(-wcos~bl sinq,tpl) in the n xl (O) direction, and
(- W cos ~bl cos q,tpl) in the n yl (O) direction. For the
purpose of calculating the bearing reactions, these forces
may be regarded as acting at any point on the line of action,
and the most convenient point is P l , whose position is given
by Equation (15.76). Once the positions of the bearings are
chosen, the equations of static equilibrium can then be used
to determine the reaction at each bearing.
Finally, we calculate the bearing reactions for gear 2
by exactly the same method. The direction of the

outward-facing normal n~2 at the contact point on gear 2 is
given by Equation (15.106), if the subscript 1 is replaced
by 2 throughout the equation. The contact force has a
magnitude W, and acts in the direction opposite to n~2. Once
again, for the purpose of finding the bearing reactions, it is
convenient to regard the contact force as if it acted at
point P2' and the position of P2 is given by Equation (15.76),
when the subscripts 1 and 2 are interchanged.
Numerical Examples
Example 15. 1
A crossed helical gear pair has a shaft angle of 64° and
a center distance of 320.3 mm. The gears have the following
spec i f icat ions: normal module 4 mm; normal pressure
angle 20°; tooth numbers 42 and 95; helix angles 35° and 28°;
tip cylinder diameters 216.3 and 440.3 mm; and normal tooth
thicknesses 7.342 and 6.874 mm. Calculate the contact ratio,
the angle between the two generators which are in contact, and
the backlash.
t=64°, C=320.3, mn=4, ~ns=20°

N1=42, N2 =95, ~Sl=35°, ~s2=28°
RT1 =108.15, ~2=220.15, t ns1 =7.342, t ns2 =6.874
RS 1 = 102.545 mm
Rs2 = 215.188
~ts1 23.957°
~ts2 = 22.403°
Rb 1 = 93.711
Rb2 198.948
~b1 = 32.615°
~b2 = 26.178°
Pnb = 11.809 (13.105)
tts1 8.963 (13.113)
tts2 = 7.785 (13.113)
~P1 35.569° (15.23)

~P2 28.431° (15.24)
~np 22.089° (15.25)
~tP1 = 26.515° (13.82)
~tp2 = 24.773° (13.82)
RP1 = 104.727 (15.26)
RP2 = 219.111 (15.27)
tlC p = - 3.538 mm (15.47)
mc 1.755 (15.85)
IIp1 15.051° (13.87)

IIp2 11.508° (13.87)
Examples 449
Angle between generators = v p1 +P p2 26.559°
Pnp = 12.744 (13.104)

ttp1 7.072 (13.114)
ttp2 4.466 (13.114)
t np1 5.753 (13.112)
t np2 3.927 (13.112)
Bn 0.192 mm (15.96)
B' 0.178 mm (15.101)
Example 15.2
Suppose it is required to increase the contact ratio for
the gear pair specified in Example 15.1. Determine how much
the tip cylinder radius of each gear can be enlarged, without
causing interference, and calculate the new contact ratio.
Assume the gears are cut by a hob with an addendum of 5.40 mm,
and a tooth tip radius of 1.52 mm. Then calculate the minimum
face-width of each gear, assuming the gears may rotate in
either direction.
We start by calculating the radius at the top of the

fillet in each gear, or in other words, the radius of the
fillet cylinder.
h = 4.400mm (5.40)
e1 1.455 (13.117)
e 2 = 0.812 (13.117)
Rf1 = 99.820 (5.48)
Rf2 211. 779 (5.48)
The maximum values for RT1 and RT2 , if there is to be no

interference, are obtained when the limit cylinder radii are
greater than the fillet cylinder radii by only 0.025mn •
RL1 = 99.920
RL2 = 211.879
The radius RT2 is found directly from the equations given

earlier in the chapter. To find RT1 , the subscripts 1 and 2

must be interchanged.
- 12.080 (15.90)
(15.87)
RT2 = 221.003 (15.86)
s~l = - 18.926
T1
sl = 9.838
RT1 = 109.474 mm
(15.85)
Finally, we calculate the axial coordinates zl and z2 of

points T1 and T2 , the ends of the path of contact, and we use
these values to find the minimum face-width required for each
gear.
- 2.014 (15.65)
~C2 =- 1.525 (15.66)
Z~l = - 14.826 (15.92)
- 0.800 (15.92)
2 [ I z 1 Imax + O. 1 mn ] 30.451 mm
1.413 (15.93)
Z~2 = - 10.066 (15.93)

Chapter 16
Gear Cutting I I, Helical Gears
Shaping with a Pinion Cutter
We showed in Chapter 14 that two helical gears mounted on

parallel axes can mesh correctly together, provided their
normal base pitches and transverse base pitches are equal. We
can therefore use a helical pinion cutter to cut helical
gears, and the normal base pi tch and the transverse base pi tch
of the gear will then be equal to those of the cutter.
During the cutting process, the pinion cutter and the
gear- blank are each rotated, exactly as if they were a pair of
meshing gears. In order to obtain the cutting action, the
cutter is given a reciprocating motion in the axial
direction. Since both the cutter and the gear have helical
teeth, the cutter must also be rotated during the
reciprocating strokes, and this motion is achieved by means
of a helical guide, whose lead is equal to that of the cutter.
The end face of each tooth in the cutter is generally angled
so that it coincides with a normal section through the tooth,
as shown in Figure 16.1.
The specification of a pinion cutter usually includes
the transverse module mt , the transverse pressure angle ~ts'
and the helix angle ~sc. The normal module and the normal
pressure angle are then found from Equations (13.148
and 13.149),
( 16. 1)
tan ~ts cos ~sc (16.2)
In this chapter, we will use the symbol ~Sg for the helix
452 Gear Cutting I I, Helical Gears
Cutting faces
Figure 16.1. A helical pinion cutter.
angle of the gear, when it is necessary to distinguish it from

that of the cutter. In many cases, no such distinction is
required, and then we will use the ordinary symbol 1/I s •
Before deciding how the shaper can be set up to cut a
particular gear, we will prove that any gear cut by the pinion
cutter must have the same values of mt , mn , ~ts and ~ns as the
cutter, and a helix angle 1/I sg which is equal in magnitude
to 1/I s ' but opposite in sign. This result would be obvious if
c .
the cutting pitch cylinders were to coincide with the
standard pitch cylinders. In general, however, they do not
coincide, so although we know that the various gear
quantities are equal to those of the pinion cutter on the
cutting pitch cylinders, it is still necessary to prove that
they are also equal on the standard pi tch cylinders.
When we say that the gear has the same values of mt and
mn as the cutter, this is equivalent to stating that the
pitches Pts and Pns of the gear are equal to those of the
cutter. The proof, for the entire set of quantities Pts' Pns'
~ts' ~ns and 1/I s ' is essentially the same as the proof given in
Chapter 5 for a spur gear. The pinion cutter is conjugate to
the basic rack with parameters equal to those of the cutter.
Any gear cut by the pinion cutter has a transverse base pitch
and a normal base pitch equal to those of the cutter, and
therefore equal to those of the basic rack. Hence, the gear
can mesh correctly with the basic rack. The standard pitch
cylinder of the gear is, by definition, the pitch cylinder
when it is meshed with the basic rack. The meshing theory of
Chapter 14 then shows that the transverse and normal pitches,
the transverse and normal pressure angles, and the helix
angle of the gear, all measured on this cylinder, are equal to

the corresponding quantities on the basic rack. They are
therefore also equal to the corresponding quantities on the
pinion cutter, except that the helix angles of the gear and
the cutter must be opposite in sign, as in any parallel-axis
helical gear pair.
When we determine how the shaper should be set up to cut
a particular helical gear, it is simplest to consider the gear
and cutter geometry in the transverse plane, since this is
essentially the same as the geometry of a spur gear and a
pinion cutter. We now describe the settings necessary to cut a
helical gear with Ng teeth, transverse module mt , transverse
pressure angle ~ts' helix angle ~sg' and transverse tooth
thickness ttsg. The radius of the standard pitch cylinder of
the gear is given by Equation (13.16),
(16.3)
and this of course is the cylinder on which the quantities

Pts' ~ts' ~sg and ttsg are defined.
As we proved earlier in this section, the cutter must
have the same transverse module mt and transverse pressure
angle ~ts as those required in the gear, and the helix angle
~sc of the cutter must be equal and opposite to that of the
gear,
- ~sg (16.4)
In order to obtain the required number of teeth in the

gear blanks, the change gears or the stepping motor speeds in
the shaper must be chosen so that the angular velocity ratio
of the gear blank and the pinion cutter is the inverse of the
ratio of the tooth numbers,
(16.5)
where Nc is the number of teeth in the cut ter.

Finally, the cutting center distance CC required to give
the correct tooth thickness can be found by the same method
used for spur gears, which was described in Chapter 5. The
454 Gear Cutting II, Helical Gears
transverse pressure angle '~p of the cutter and the gear at

their cutting pitch cylinders is given by Equation (5.18),
. c
lnv 'tp (16.6)
In this equation, C~ is the standard cutting center distance,

equal to the sum of the standard pitch cylinder radii of the
gear and the cutter, Pts is the transverse pitch, equal
to ~mt' and ttsc is the transverse tooth thickness of the
pinion cutter. Once the value of inv '~p has been calculated,
the angle '~p is found by means of Equations (2.16 and 2.17).
The transverse cutting pressure angle ,~ and the cutting
center distance CC are then given by Equations (5.19
and5.20),
c (16.7)
'tp
Rbg+R bc
(16.8)
cos 'i
where Rbg and Rbc are the two base cylinder radi i.
Shaping with a Rack Cutter
Since we know that a rack can mesh correctly with a

helical gear, it is evident that we can also use a rack cutter
to cut a helical gear. A rack cutter and a gear blank are
shown in Figure 16.2. During the cutting process the gear
blank is rotated, while the cutter is moved perpendicular to
the gear axis, so that the movements of the cutter and the
gear blank correspond to those of a meshing rack and pinion.
In addition, the cutter is given a reciprocating motion in the
direction of its teeth, and this motion provides the cutting
action.
In Chapter 15 we discussed the minimum conditions for
correct meshing, in a crossed helical manner, of a rack and a
helical gear. We showed that correct meshing is possible,
provided their normal base pi tches are equal, and the teeth of
the rack are set at the correct angle with the gear axis,
given by Equation (15.12). I t is therefore possible, in
Shaping with a Rack Cutter 455
I~-----,I
Reciprocating strokes of cutter
I~--I
Figure 16.2. Shaping a helical gear with a rack cutter.
principle, for the rack cutter to have arbitrary values of

normal pitch and normal pressure angle, so long as the normal
base pitch of the cutter is equal to the normal base pitch
required in the gear. In practice, however, rack cutters are
almost always the same shape as the basic rack, so this is the
only case we will consider. Equation (15.12) then takes the
following form,
sin "'b
(16.9)
cos I/l nr
and this relation can be used to give the base helix angle "'b
that will be cut in the gear, when the cutter is set at an
angle "'r'
Since the rack cutter has the same shape as the basic
rack, it is an immediate consequence that a gear cut by the
rack cutter is conjugate to the basic rack, and the cutting
pitch cylinder of the gear coincides with its standard pitch
cylinder. The gear parameters Pns and I/l ns are therefore equal
to Pnr and I/l nr on the cutter, and the gear helix angle "'sg is
equal to the angle "'r at which the cutter is set.

We now consider how the shaper is set up to cut a gear
with Ng teeth, normal module mn , normal pressure angle ~ ns ,
and normal tooth thickness t nsg • First, as we have just shown,
we choose a rack cutter with the same normal module and normal
pressure angle as those required for the gear. The angle "'r
between the cutter teeth and the gear axis is adjustable, as
shown in Figure 16.2, and this angle must be set equal to the
helix angle "'sg required in the gear.
In order to obtain the correct number of teeth in the
gear, the cutter velocity vr perpendicular to the gear axis
must be equal to the pitch line velocity of the gear. The
pitch line velocity is defined as the velocity of any point on
the pitch cylinder of the gear, and is therefore equal to
(R~gWg)' where Wg is the angular velocity of the gear blank,
measured in radians per second, and R~g is the radius of the
cutting pitch cylinder. As we pointed out earlier, the
cutting pitch cylinder coincides with the standard pitch
cylinder, and the radi i of both cylinders are given by
Equation (13.30),
(16.10)
2 cos "'s
The settings in the shaper must therefore be chosen so that

the cutter velocity vr is related to the gear blank angular
velocity Wg in the following manner,
Ngm n
(16.11)
This equation must be satisfied exactly, if the gear is

to be cut correctly. When the drives are controlled by
stepping motors, the speeds are infinitely variable, and
there is no difficulty in satisfying the equation. However,
for machines using change gears, it may sometimes be
difficult, or impossible, to find a combination of change
gears giving the required relation between the rack cutter
veloci ty and the gear blank angular veloc i ty. In thi s case, it
is necessary to alter the helix angle "'sg of the gear, and
therefore also the cutter setting "'r' in order that the exact
relation can be achieved.
Hobbing 457
The tooth thickness of the gear is determined by the

depth to which the cutter is fed into the gear blank. Since
the cutter has the shape of the basic rack, the cutter offset
is equal to the profile shift e. The relation between the
required normal tooth thickness t nsg and the profile shift
}rmn + 2e tan 9'lns ( 16.12)
The cutter should therefore be positioned so that its

reference plane, which is the plane at which the normal tooth
thickness and the normal space width are equal, lies a
distance (Rsg+e) from the gear axis, and the offset e has the
value given by Equation (16.12).
Robbing
The most commonly used method for cutting helical gears

is by hobbing. As always in generating cutting, one gear is
used to cut another. A typical hob is shown in Figure 16.3,
and it can be seen that, apart from the gashes forming the
cutting faces, the hob is simply a helical gear, in which each
tooth is referred to as a thread.
Lead angle
~angle
Ash
!/Ish
Figure 16.3. A hob.

Since the hob is similar in shape to a screw, its helix

angle "'sh is always large, particularly when there is only one
thread. It is cust~mary to specify the shape of a hob by means
of its lead angle, rather than its helix angle. For a
right-handed hob, the lead angle Ash is defined as the
complement of the helix angle,
(16.13)
where Ash and "'sh are measured in degrees. For a left-handed

hob, whose helix angle is negative, the lead angle can be
def ined as follows,
- 90 0 ( 16.14)
- '"
sh
so that we obtain a negative lead angle for a left-handed hob.

In practice, it is generally the magnitude of the lead angle
which is given in the specification, together with a
statement to indicate whether the hob is right or
left-handed.
It is clear that the lead angle can be determined from
the helix angle, and vice versa. In describing the geometry of
the hobbing process, we will specify the shape of the hob by
means of its helix angle, since the symbols will then agree
with the notation used in Chapter 15, where we described the
geometry of crossed helical gears.
Figure 16.4 shows a hob in position to cut a gear blank,
and since their axes are not parallel, it is clear that they
form a crossed helical gear pair. During the cutting process,
the hob and the gear blank are rotated about their axes with
angular veloci ties wh and wg ' I n order to cut the teeth of the
gear across the entire face-width, the hob is moved slowly in
the direction of the gear axis, and the velocity of the hob
center is called the feed velocity v h .
The values required for the three variables wh ' Wg and v h
are achieved by means of change gears or stepping motors in
the hobbing machine. There are two additional settings which
must be made when the hobbing machine is being set up. These
are the shaft angle ~, which is the angle between the axes of
the hob and the gear blank, and the cutting center
Hobbing 459
Hob
Figure 16.4. A hob cutting a gear.
distance CC, which is the distance between the two axes. In

the remainder of this section, we will determine the values
required for the machine parameters wh ' wg ' v h ' E and CC, if
the hob is to cut a gear with Ng teeth, normal module mn ,
normal pressure angle ~ns' helix angle ~sg' and normal tooth
thickness t nsg
Before we discuss the details of the cutting process, we
will first prove that, as usual, the gear will have the same
normal module and normal pressure angle as those of the hob.
We showed in Chapter 15 that the minimum condition for correct
meshing of two crossed helical gears is that their normal base
pitches should be equal. The corresponding result, when we
consider a gear being cut by a hob, is that the normal base
pitch of the gear will always be equal to that of the hob.
Since the normal base pitch of the hob is equal to that of the
basic rack, we can conclude that the normal base pitches of
the gear and the basic rack are equal, and the gear can
therefore mesh correctly with the basic rack. As always, the
standard pitch cylinder of the gear is defined as its pitch
cylinder when it is meshed with the basic rack. The normal
pitch Pns and the normal pressure angle ~ns of the gear must
then be equal to those of the basic rack, and hence equal to

those of the hob. This result remains true, whether or not the
cutting pitch cylinders of the gear and the hob coincide with
the i r standard pi tch cylinders.
In order to cut the gear described earlier, we must
therefore use a hob with the same normal module and normal
pressure angle as those specified for the gear. We consider
next how to cut the required number of teeth, and the correct
helix angle. When a rack cutter is used to cut a gear, the
helix angle of the gear depends on the angle at which the
cutter is set, so it might be expected that the helix angle of
a gear being hobbed would be determined by the value of the
shaft angle ~. This is not the case, however, and we will now
show that the number of teeth cut in the gear blank, and the
helix angle at which they are cut, depend only on the values
chosen for wh ' Wg and v h •
In Chapter 5, we defined the cutting point as the point
where the cutter makes a cut on the final tooth surface, and
we showed that this point corresponds to the contact point
when the gear blank and the cutter are regarded as a pair of
meshing gears. The situation is no different when the cutter
is a hob. We described in Chapter 15 how to find the position
of the contact point in a crossed helical gear pair, and this
point becomes the cutting point when we consider a hob cutting
a gear.
As in any metal-cutting process, the shape of each tooth
cut in a gear blank is the envelope of positions through which
the hob moves, relative to the gear blank. For the purpose of
determining this shape, it is helpful to neglect the gashes in
the hob thread, so that the threads are regarded as
continuous, and we can imagine that the teeth are formed in
the gear blank by grinding, rather than by cutting.
If the hob and the gear blank were a pair of crossed
helical gears, there would always be at least one thread of
the hob making contact with the gear. Hence, for the hob and
the gear blank, there is always at least one thread which is
in contact with the final tooth surface of the gear. We label
the points in contact AOh on the hob, and AOg on the gear.
After the hob turns through exactly one angular pitch, the
position of the thread containing point AOh is occupied by the
Hobbing 461
next thread, and the corresponding point Alh on this thread

will now be the cutting point, touching a point A1g on the
gear tooth adjacent to the tooth containing AOg.
As the hob rotates, we can identify a sequence of points
such as AOh and Alh on the hob threads, and AOg and A1g on the
gear teeth. The points on the hob lie in the same transverse
section and are evenly spaced, at angular intervals equal to
the angular pitch. Of course, if the hob has only one thread,
the angular pitch is 360 0 , and the points all coincide. On the
other hand, the gear points do not lie in one transverse
section, due to the feed of the hob in the direction of the
gear axis, and each point is displaced axially a small amount
relative to the next point.
We now consider the position on the gear of point ANg ,
the cutting point when the hob has turned through Ng angular
pitches. Since the gear is to have Ng teeth, points AOg and
ANg must be on the same tooth. Hence, if the gear is a spur
gear, ANg must lie on the axial line through AOg' while if the
gear is a helical gear, ANg must lie on the gear helix
through AOg. The distance through which the hob is fed during
one revolution of the gear blank is called the feed rate f.
Since the magnitude of f is small compared with the tooth
dimensions, point ANg always lies close to the axial line
through AOg. The gear blank must therefore turn through
approximately one revolution while the hob turns through Ng
angular pitches, which is a rotation equal to (Ng/N h )
revolutions.
In order to meet this requirement, the angular velocity
ratio (wh/w g ) must be approximately equal to (Ng/N h ), or
exactly equal, when a spur gear is being cut. In the case of a
helical gear, the small difference between the two ratios is
one of the factors which determine the helix angle of the
gear, as we will show later in this section.
Once the settings are chosen for the hobbing machine,
the value of (wh/w g ) is established, and the number of teeth
that will be cut in the gear is then given by the following
expression,
NhWh
Integer closest to (--) (16.15)
Wg
Having found how the value of Ng depends on the hobbing

machine angular velocities wh and wg ' we now consider the
helix angle. If points AOg and A1g lie at radius R, the
positions of these points at various times can be plotted on a
developed cylinder of radius R, as shown in Figure 16.5. The
times at which the hob touches points AOg and A1g are called T
and T', and the diagram shows the positions of AOg at time T,
and A1g at time T'. Since the feed of the hob is in the
direction of the gear axis, the line in the diagram joining
AOg and A1g is in the same direction. The diagram also shows
the gear helices through these points, which appear as
straight lines making an angle ~Rg with the gear axis, and
these are labelled helix 0 and helix 1. The point on helix 0
in the transverse section through A1g is labelled Ag • The
position of helix 0 at time T' is shown by the dotted line,
and the positions of Aog and Ag at this time are shown as AOg
and Ag •
In Figure 16.5, the length AOgA1g represents the hob
feed between the times T and T', and AgAg represents the arc
!-Direction of gear axis
,
,,
A'g,',
,
,,
,, ,
,,
,,
~-------. '
, ,/ Aog
/..,'
0,'
.$,'
-..;,
..... '
Cl)"
0/
.;r,'
af'
.:t,/
Figure 16.5. Cutting points, shown on the

developed cylinder of radius R.
Hobbing 463
length moved by point Ag in the same time interval. Since

helix 0 and helix 1 are gear helices on adjacent teeth at the
same radius, their positions at any instant are exactly one
tooth pitch apart. A1g and Ag lie on the two helices in their
positions at time T', so the distance between these points is
equal to the transverse pitch. We therefore obtain the
following expressions for the three lengths,
A A'
9 9
A A'
19 9
The time interval required for the hob to rotate through one
angular pitch can be expressed in terms of the hob angular
velocity,
T' - T
We now use triangle AOgA1gAg to relate the three lengths,
A A' - A A'
19 9 9 9
and when their values are substituted, we obtain the

following relation between wh ' Wg and v h '
vh 211' tan l/I ( 16.16)

-N--
hWh R9
The feed rate f of the hob was defined earlier as the

distance moved by the hob during one revolution of the gear
blank. It is customary to express the feed velocity v h in
terms of f,
_f_
(211') (16.17)
Wg
and with this substitution, Equation (16.16) takes the
following form,
tan l/IRg
211'R ( 16.18)
The helix angle of the gear at radius R is expressed in

terms of the lead Lg by Equation (13.31),
tan IP Rg
and Equation (16.18) then becomes a relation giving the lead

that will be cut in the gear,
l(NhWh - Ng
) ( 16.19)
f Wg
The quantity (Ng/Lg) is equal to the reciprocal of the

axial pitch, as we showed in Equation (13.36), and this can be
expressed in terms of the helix angle IPsg by means of
Equation (13.42),
_1_ sin IPSg

(16.20)
Pzg Pns
Hence, Equation (16.19) can be put into two alternative
forms, giving either the axial pitch or the helix angle of the
gear,
_1_ l(NhWh - Ng
) (16.21 )
f Wg
Pzg
(16.22)
It is an interesting result that, as we pointed out

earlier, the helix angle cut in a gear is not affected by the
shaft angle ~ of the hobbing machine. This angle is generally
set equal to the standard shaft angle ~s' or in other words,
equal to the sum of the helix angles of the gear and the hob,
~s (16.23)
We showed in Chapter 15 that a pair of crossed helical gears

can mesh correctly, even when the shaft angle is not equal to
the standard shaft angle. It therefore follows that a hob can
cut an accurate involute gear, even when ~ is not exactly
equal to ~s. However, for the remainder of this section, we
will assume that the shaft angle is set equal to ~s' and in a
Hobbing 465
later section of the chapter we will discuss the consequences

of a small change in this value.
The last setting of the hobbing machine to be considered
is the cutting center distance CC , and its effect on the tooth
thickness of the gear. As we discussed earlier, the cutting
process can be considered as equivalent to meshing with zero
backlash. An expression for the normal backlash in a crossed
helical gear pair was given in Equation (15.96),
(16.24)
The length ~Cp in this expression was defined by

Equation (15.47),
(16.25)
and all the other quanti ties are defined on the pitch
cylinders, as indicated by the notation.
We are considering, at present, a hob cutting a gear
blank when the shaft angle ~ is set equal to the standard
value ~s. In this case the cutting pitch cylinders coincide
with the standard pitch cylinders, as we proved in Chapter 15.
If we replace RP1 and Rp2 in Equation (16.25) by Rsg and Rsh '
and set the backlash in Equation (16.24) equal to zero, these
two equations give an expression for the normal tooth
thickness cut in the gear,
(16.26)
The expression in brackets in this relation represents the

hob offset. When the normal tooth thickness t ns h of the hob is
equal to O.5Pns' Equation (16.26) has exactly the same form
as Equation (16.12), which gave the normal tooth thickness of
a gear cut by a rack cutter. If the normal tooth thickness of
the hob is greater than O.5Pns' the normal tooth thickness of
the gear is reduced by the same amount. Whatever the value
of t nsh ' the effect of a change in the hob offset on the tooth
thickness of the gear is identical to the corresponding
effect caused by a change in the offset of a rack cutter. In
Chapter 5, we stated that the tooth thickness of a gear cut by
a hob is generally calculated as if the gear were cut by a

rac k cutter. We have now shown that thi s procedure is
essentially correct, prpvided the hobbing machine is set with
its shaft angle ~ equal to the standard value ~s'
There is a second manner in which the cutting action of a
hob resembles that of a rack cutter. In the discussion
following Equations (15.74 and 15.77), we showed that the
path of contact in a crossed helical gear pair touches each
base cylinder, and makes an angle (~- 'tp1) with the line of
centers, when viewed in the direction of the axis of gear 1.
Hence, in the case of a hob cutting a gear, the path followed
by the cutting point touches the base cylinders of the gear
and the hob, and makes an angle (~- 'tpg) with the line of
centers, when viewed in the direction of the gear axis. If the
shaft angle is set at the standard value, this angle becomes
(1[2 - 't sg ), as shown .in Figure 16.6, and the path of the
cutting point then appears identical with the corresponding
path when the gear is cut by a rack cutter. It is for this
reason that, when we check for undercutting in a gear, we can
regard the hob as equivalent to a rack cutter. We check that
Gear base cylinder
Hob base cylinder Path of the

cutting point
Figure 16.6. Path of the cutting point, viewed

in the direction of the gear axis.
Swivel Angle 467
there would be no undercutting if the gear was cut by the rack

cutter, and this implies that there will also be no
undercutting when in fact the hob is used.
Swi vel Angle
Earlier in this chapter, we stated that it is common

practice to specify the lead angle of a hob, instead of its
helix angle. It is also customary to specify the angular
setting of the hobbing machine by means of the swivel angle,
rather than by the shaft angle.
Since a hob is shaped like a screw, its helix angle is
always large, particularly in the case of a single-thread
hob, for which the helix angle is typically about 85°. The
helix angle of the gear being cut may of course have any
value, but in the majority of gears, the magnitude of the
helix angle is between 0° and 30°. In general, right-handed
hobs are used to cut right-handed gears, and left-handed hobs
are used for left-handed gears. In most cases, therefore, the
shaft angle is approximately equal to a right angle, and the
swivel angle is defined as the amount by which the shaft angle
differs from a right angle. For example, if the axis of the
gear is vertical during the cutting process, the swivel angle
a is defined as the angle which the hob axis makes with the
Figure 16.7. Right-handed hob and spur gear.

Figure 16.8. Right-handed hob and right-handed gear.
horizontal.
The standard shaft angle was defined by
Equation (16.23), as the sum of the gear and the hob helix
angles. We express the helix angle of the hob in terms of its
lead angle, by means of Equation (16.13 or 16.14), and we
obtain the following expression for the standard shaft angle,
,f,
"'sg -
+ 90° - A
sh (16.27)
where the plus and minus signs refer to a right or
Figure 16.9. Left-handed hob and spur gear.

Figure 16.10. Left-handed hob and left-handed gear.
left-handed hob. We now define the standard swivel angle os'

so that it differs by a right angle from the standard shaft
angle,
(16.28)
As discussed earlier, the hobbing machine is generally

set so that the shaft angle is equal to the standard shaft
angle, and it then follows that the swivel angle is equal to
the standard swivel angle. Figures 16.7 and 16.8 show the
relations between the shaft angles and the swivel angles when
a right-handed hob is used to cut a spur gear or a
right-handed helical gear, while Figures 16.9 and 16.10 show
the corresponding relations when a left-handed hob is used to
cut a spur gear or a left-handed helical gear.
Hobbing Machine Gear Train Layout
We showed in Equations (16.15 and 16.22) that the number

of teeth and the helix angle cut in a gear depend on the feed
rate f and the angular velocity ratio (wh/w g ) in the hobbing
machine,
NhWh
Integer closest to (----) (16.29)
Wg
sin I/I sg l(NhWh )
f - Ng (16.30)
Wg
It is helpful to examine how the gear trains in some typical

hobbing machines are arranged, in order to achieve the values
of Ng and I/I sg required in the gear.
One type of hobbing machine is shown schematically in
Figure 16.11. The rectangular boxes in the diagram represent
gear pairs or gear trains, with the output-input ratio in each
case given by the constant k. The symbol k i stands for the
ratio of the index change gears, k f is the ratio of the feed
change gears, and the other k values represent the gear trains
built into the machine, whose ratios cannot be altered by the
user. The values of wh and wg , and of the hob feed
velocity vh ' can be read from the diagram in terms of the
input angular velocity w 1 '
(16.31)
(16.32)
Index Wg Table
change
gears
Hob
Figure 16.11. Hobbing machine gear train layout.

(16.33)
The feed rate f was given by Equation (16.17), in terms

of Wg and v h ' and when these are expressed by means of
Equations (16.32 and 16.33), we obtain a relation between the
feed rate and some of the gear ratios in the hobbing machine,
The terms in brackets are combined into a single constant,

known as the machine feed constant Cf , whose value is provided
by the manufacturer of the hobbing machine. The feed rate is
then expressed solely as a function of the ratio k f of the
feed change gears,
f (16.34)
To obtain the ratio (wh/w g ) in terms of the hobbing

machine gear ratios, we express wh and Wg by means of
As before, the terms in brackets are combined into another

constant, the machine index constant Ci , whose value is also
provided by the manufacturer, and the angular velocity ratio
is then given by the following expression,
C·1
k."1 (16.35)
We substitute this expression into Equations (16.29

and 16.30), and we obtain the number of teeth that will be cut
in the gear, and its helix angle, in terms of the hobbing
machine gear ratios,
NhC.
Integer closest to ( _ _l) (16.36)
ki
{16.37l
We now determine how the machine ratios should be

472 Gear Cutting I I, Helical Gears
chosen, in order to cut a gear with the number of teeth and

helix angle required. The feed rate f and the hob angular
velocity wh are chosen to obtain good metal-cutting
characteristics. The values depend on the size of the hob, the
hardness of the material being cut, and the surface finish
required. For more details, the reader should consult
references such as the Gear Handbook [2]. Once a value for f
is. chosen, the required ratio k f for the feed change gears is
found from Equation (16.34),
f
Cf (16.38)
The value chosen for wh is obtained by setting the input speed

change, shown in Figure 16.11, to a suitable value.
With the feed change gear ratio already selected, the
index change gear ratio is used to determine both the number
of teeth cut in the gear, and its helix angle. We choose the
ratio k i so that it satisfies Equation (16.37), in order to
obtain the required helix angle,
NhCi
ki f sin ~Sg (16.39)
(1rm + N )
n g
When this value for k i is substituted into Equation (16.36),
we find that we also obtain the correct number of teeth,
because the magnitude of the term (f sin ~Sg/1rmn) in the
expression for k i is always very much less than 0.5.
It is sometimes difficult to find change gears which
provide exactly the value of k i given by Equation (16.39).
Once the change gears have been chosen, their actual ratio k i
should be calculated, and this value is substituted into
Equation (16.37), to give the helix angle that will in fact be
cut in the gear.
Use of a Differential in the Hobbing Machine
There is one major problem associated with hobbing

machines, when they are designed in the manner shown in
Figure 16.11. If a second cut is required, as is often the
case, it is necessary to disconnect the feed drive, in order
to return the hob quickly to its starting position. I t is then

very difficult to reset the machine, with the work table and
the hob in exactly the correct positions. This problem can be
overcome if a differential is incorporated into the hobbing
machine.
In order to determine the relation that must be
maintained between the hob feed, the work table rotation and
the hob rotation, we once again consider Equation (16.30),
We use Equation (16.17) to express the hob feed rate f in

terms of the feed velocity v h ' and we obtain the relation
which must be maintained throughout the cutting process
between the hob feed velocity, the table angular velocity,
and the hob angular veloci ty,
(16.40)
A gear train with one degree of freedom can always be

represented by a linear equation relating the angular
velocities of the input and the output shafts. A differential
is a gear train with two degrees of freedom, and it has three
shafts, either two input and one output, or one input and two
output. The angular velocities of the three shafts are always
related by a single linear equation. Hence, as we can see from
Equation (16.40), if the hob feed, the work table drive and
the hob drive were all connected to the three shafts of a
suitable differential, they would then always maintain the
correct relative positions.
The differential may be a simple planetary gear train,
or one which is constructed of bevel gears. In either case,
the output angular velocity w3 is a linear combination of the
input angular velocities w 1 and w2 ' and can therefore be
represented by the following equation,
(16.41)
The constants k7 and ka of the differential depend on the

design of the gear train, and need not concern us here.
Table
Feed
Hob
Figure 16.12. Hobbing machine with differentiaL
The complete layout of the hobbing machine is shown in

Figure 16.12, where the differential is represented as a
simple planetary gear train. The hob drive is connected to the
sun gear of the differential, the table drive is connected to
the planet carrier, and the feed is connected to the internal
gear. As before, the index change gears and the feed change
gears are represented by symbols k i and k f , and now there is a
third set of change gears, the differential change gears,
represented by the symbol kd • The constants k1 to k6 are the
fixed ratios of the gear trains in the hobbing machine. The
constant k6 represents the ratio of a worm and gear,
connecting the differential change gears to the internal gear
of the differential. This ratio is shown with a minus sign,
since the hand of the helix in the worm is chosen so that a
positive angular velocity in the worm produces a negative
angular veloci ty in the gear.
We pointed out earlier that the number of teeth and the
helix angle cut in the gear depend on the feed rate f and the
angular velocity ratio (wh/w g ). We therefore need to express

these two quantities in terms of the hobbing machine gear
ratios. We start by writing down a number of relations between
the angular velocities,
Wh k 1w1 (16.42)
Wg k2ki k 3w3 (16.43)
vh k2kik4kfw3 (16.44)
w2 k2kik4kfkd(-k6)w3 (16.45)
The feed rate f, which was given by Equation (16.17), can

now be expressed in terms of the gear ratios,
As before, the terms in brackets are combined into a single

quantity, the machine feed constant Cf , and the feed rate is
then given simply in terms of the feed change gear ratio,
f (16.46)
When Equations (16.42 and 16.43) are used to express wh

and wg 'the angular velocity ratio takes the following form,
wh k 1w1
Wg k2k3kiw3
and the relation between w1 and w3 is found from Equations

(16.41 and 16.45),
The last two equations are combined to give the angular

velocity ratio in terms of the gear ratios, and we use
Equation (16.46) to express the ratio k f in terms of the feed
rate f,
(16.47)
We now define the machine index constant Ci and the machine

di fferent ial constant Cd as follows,
k1
C.
1 k2 k 3 k7
k3 k 7Cf
k1k4 k6 kS
As usual, the values of the machine constants Cf ' Ci and Cd

are all provided by the manufacturer of the hobbing machine.
Ci is a ratio, but Cf and Cd are lengths, since they are
defined in terms of the feed rate f, which is the distance
moved by the hob during one revolution of the work table. When
the constants are substituted into Equation (16.47), we
obtain the final expression for the angular velocity ratio,
(16.4S)
This expression is substituted into Equations (16.29

and 16.30), and we obtain the number of teeth and the helix
angle that will be cut in the gear, corresponding to the feed
rate f and the change gear ratios k i and kd in the hobbing
machine,
C· fkd
Integer closest to [Nh(k: + c ) ] (16.49)
1 d
(16.50)
Once again, we must determine how the change gear ratios

k f , k i and kd should be chosen, in order to cut a gear with Ng
teeth and helix angle ~sg' As before, we choose the feed rate
f from metal-cutting considerations, and the ratio k f is then
(16.51)
If we are cutting a spur gear, or in other words a gear

with zero helix angle, we can satisfy Equation (16.50) by
setting the value of kd equal to zero, and choosing the value
of k i as follows,
k. (16.52)
1
The conventional method for cutting a helical gear is to use

the same value for k i , and to choose kd in a manner which then
satisfies Equation (16.50),
Cd sin IPsg
(16.53)
Nh '/I'mn
An alternative expression for the required differential

change gear ratio is found by combining Equations (16.20
and 16.53),
(16.54)
When we compare the last two equations, it is clear that it is

much easier to select suitable change gears, giving the
correct value for kd , if we design the gear so that its axial
pitch Pzg is a round number, rather than its helix angle IPsg.
There are times when it is difficult, or even
impossible, to find change gears which provide the exact
values for k i and kd , given by Equations (16.52 and 16.53).
For example, when the value required for Ng is a large prime
number, we cannot obtain the exact value for k i , since most
sets of change gears do not contain gears with more than 120
teeth. Also, when the helix angle ~sg is very small, it may be
difficult to obtain a sufficiently accurate value for kd •
When these situations occur, we can choose the index
gears so that their ratio k i differs slightly from the value
given by Equation (16.52), and the differential change gears
are then used to ensure that Equation (16.50) is still
satisfied with sufficient accuracy. Since the index change
gear ratio is close to the value given by Equation (16.52), it
can be represented by an expression with the following form,
k. (16.55)
1
where the quantity ~ may be either positive or negative. This

expression for k i is substituted into Equation (16.50), and
we obtain the corresponding value of the differential change
gear ratio required to cut the correct helix angle,
(16.56)
We have determined the values of k i and kd in a manner

that satisfies Equation (16.50), so we know that the correct
helix angle will be cut. I t is now necessary to substitute the
values of k i and kd into Equation (16.49), in order to confirm
that the gear will also be cut with the correct number of
teeth. The expressions for k i and kd given by Equations (16.55
and 16.56) are substituted into the right-hand side of
Equation (16.49), with the following result,
(16.57)
As we pointed earlier, the magni tude of the term

(f sin ~sg/wmn) is always less than 0.5, so with these values
of k i and kd , the number of teeth cut in the gear will indeed
be equal to the number required. The change gear ratios given
be Equations (16.55 and 16.56) can be used for cutting either
helical or spur gears, whenever it is difficult to obtain the
values given by Equations (16.52 and 16.53).
It is interesting that the quantity a has cancelled out
from the expression in Equation (16.57). This means that
there is no theoretical limit to the value of a which can be
used, and the ratio k i may therefore differ considerably from
the value given by Equation (16.52). In practice, however, it
is usually easier to select the differential change gears to
obtain an accurate value for kd , if the index gears are chosen
so that their ratio is close to the value given by
Equation (16.52), and the magnitude of a is therefore small
compared wi th 1.
I t is evident that a differential is useful in the design
of a hobbing machine, since it facilitates the selection of
the necessary change gears. However, the original purpose for
which the differential was introduced, as we discussed
earlier in the chapter, was to maintain the correct relation
between the hob feed, the work table rotation and the hob
rotation, during a rapid return of the hob to its starting
position. Figure 16.13 shows how this purpose is achieved.
The drive is disconnected, by means of a dog clutch, between
the feed change gears and the feed drive. An auxiliary motor,
Theoretically Correct Shape for the Hob Thread 479
Hob
Figure 16.13. Machine set for hob rapid traverse.
known as the hob rapid traverse motor, is then used to drive

the hob feed. The drive passes through the di fferent ial,
causing the work table to turn at exactly the correct speed,
so that the helical teeth in the gear mesh continuously with
the threads of the hob. During the entire return motion of the
hob, only a very small rotation of the table is required,
compared with the many revolutions that take place while the
gear is being cut. Hence, the return of the hob can be carried
out quite quickly, without damage to the gearing driving the
work table.
Theoretically Correct Shape for the Hob Thread
We stated in Chapter 5 that a hob whose thread profile is

straight-s;ded in the normal section will not cut exact
involute tooth profiles. We are now in a position to estimate
the amount of error, and to determine the correct normal
profile in the hob thread.

In Chapter 15, we proved that two involute helical gears
can mesh with crossed axes, and maintain a constant angular
velocity ratio. The hobbing process is essentially the same
as the meshing of a pair of crossed helical gears. It
therefore follows that, in order to cut correct involute
profiles in the gear, the thread of the hob must also have the
shape of an involute helicoid. In other words, the thread has
an involute profile in the transverse section. The
corresponding profile in the normal section is a convex
curve, and not a straight line. However, because the helix
angle of a hob is so large, the profile in the normal section
is extremely close to the straight line. Hence, when a
straight-sided hob is used to cut gears, the resulting error
in the gear tooth profiles is generally small.
We can estimate this error in the following manner. We
described a method in Chapter 13 for calculating the profile
of the normal section through a helicoid. We now use this
method to find the profile of the normal section through the
hob thread. We calculate the distances, at the thread tip and
at the top of the fillet, between this profile and its tangent
at the standard pitch cylinder, as shown in Figure 16.14. The
profile of a straight-sided hob would coincide with this
tangent, and a hob of that type would therefore cut too deeply
into the teeth of the gear, in the regions near the fillet and
near the tip. Figure 16.15 shows the normal section through an
Involute hob thread profile
Figure 16.14. Normal section through an involute hob thread.

Effect of a Non-Standard Shaft Angle 481
Approximately llT
Tooth profile cut 1- __ _
Approximately llf
by a straight-sided J !
hob
Tooth profile of
involute gear
Figure 16.15. Normal section through a gear tooth.
exact involute helicoid tooth, and it also shows the profile

we obtain when the gear is cut by a straight-sided hob. The
maximum differences between the two profiles are
approximately equal to the distances described earlier, by
which the normal section profile of the involute hob deviates
from the straight line.
As we can see in Figure 16.15, the tooth shape cut by a
straight-sided hob is similar to the shape of a tooth cut with
tip and root relief. The errors caused by the use of a
straight-sided hob are therefore sometimes beneficial, and
this is one of the reasons for the continued use of
straight-sided hobs, when true involute hobs are also readily
obtainable. There are times, however, when the errors caused
by straight-sided hobs may be excessive. This is often the
case for gears cut by multi-thread hobs, or by single-thread
hobs of large module, whose helix angles are usually less
than 85°. Whenever there is a possibility that a
straight-sided hob may cut too much tip and root relief in a
gear, the procedure just described can be used to determine
whether a true involute hob should be used.
Effect of a Non-Standard Shaft Angle
In an earlier section of this chapter, we described how

to calculate the tooth thickness cut in a gear, when the shaft
angle ~ of the hobbing machine is set equal to the standard
value ~s. We stated at that time that we would still obtain a
correct involute profile in the gear tooth, even if the values

of E and Es wer~ not the same. The only effect of the altered
shaft angle is a change in the tooth thickness, and we will
now discuss briefly how the new tooth thickness can be found.
Since it is not generally necessary to make this calculation,
we will simply outline the steps, without presenting all the
equations.
When the shaft angle is not equal to its standard value,
the cutting pitch cylinders of the gear and the hob do not
coincide with their standard pitch cylinders. The first step
is therefore to calculate the cutting pitch cylinder radii
R~g and R~h. Knowing the normal thread thickness t nsh of the
hob at its standard pitch cylinder, we then calculate its
normal thread thickness t nph at the cutting pitch cylinder.
To find the normal tooth thickness cut in the gear, we regard
the hobbing process as the meshing of a crossed helical gear
pair with zero backlash. An expression was given in
Equation (15.96) for the normal backlash in a crossed helical
gear pair,
The length ~cp in this equation was defined by

Equation (15.47), as the difference between the center
distance and the sum of the pitch cylinder radii. For the
situation of a hob cutting a gear, ~cp would represent the
difference between the cutting center distance and the sum of
the cutting pitch cylinder radii,
We combine these equations, and set the backlash Bn equal to

zero, to obtain the normal tooth thickness t npg cut in the
gear. The final step is to calculate the corresponding normal
tooth thickness t nsg of the gear at its standard pi tch
cylinder.
If we carry out this calculation, we will find that the
normal tooth thickness t nsg cut in the gear is almost
independent of the shaft angle E. In other words, the tooth
thickness is hardly affected by a small change in the shaft
angle, provided of course that the cutting center distance is

left unchanged. However, the radii of the cutting pitch
cylinders are very sensitive to the shaft angle value. In
particular, a small change in the value of ~ can move the
cutting pitch cylinder of the hob right off the surface of the
hob thread. In the absence of experimental evidence, it is not
certain what effect this may have on the tooth surface
quality. Therefore, although the shaft angle need not
theoretically be set equal to its standard value, it is
nevertheless recommended that in practice this value should
continue to be used.
Geometric Design of a Helical Gear Pair
In the final section of this chapter, we outline a

procedure by which we can choose the helix angle, the profile
shift values and the gear blank diameters, for a pair of
helical gears intended to mesh on parallel shafts at an
arbi trary center di stance C.
Since the standard center distance depends on the helix
angle,
(16.58)
it would appear that we can always choose the helix angle so

that the standard center distance Cs is equal to the center
distance C. In this case, the pitch cylinder of each gear
would coincide with its standard pitch cylinder. However, as
we will show, it is not always practical to choose the helix
angle in this manner, and there is no particular advantage in
doing so.
When the gears are cut by a pinion cutter, the helix
angle of each gear is equal to that of the cutter, so the
choice of ~s is limited by the cutters that are available.
When a rack cutter is used to cut the gears, the cutter
veloci ty v r and the gear blank angular veloci ty must be
related by Equation (16.11),
This equation must be satisfied exactly, because an incorrect

value for vr would result in uneven spacing of the teeth on
the gear. However, when ~s is chosen so that Cs is equal to C,
it may be impossible to find change gears giving the exact
relation between vr and w g • In general, it is probably easiest
to obtain the required helix angle when the gear is cut by a
hob, and the differential change gear ratio is given by either
Equation (16.53) or Equation (16.56). Even in this case, it
may be difficult to find a set of change gears giving a
sufficiently small error. The effort required is seldom
justified, because a gear pair can be designed quite
satisfactorily, assuming only that Cs is approximately equal
to C. The procedure is essentially the same as the one
described in Chapter 6, for the design of a spur gear pair.
For the reasons just outlined, it is generally best to
choose the helix angle ~s so that the gears can be cut wi thout
difficulty, and at the same time the standard center distance
Cs is slightly less than the center distance C. The value of
Cs should lie within the range given by Equation (6.14),
C (16.59)
The design procedure now consists in the choice of

suitable profile shift values, and the gear blank diameters,
in order to obtain the backlash required, and adaquate values
for the working depth and the clearances at each root
cylinder. We consider the meshing geometry in a transverse
plane, and the design steps are then identical to those used
in the design of a spur gear pair. For a helical gear pair, it
is customary to specify the normal backlash Bn' rather than
the circular backlash B. It is therefore necessary to
calculate a number of the gear parameters in the transverse
plane, before we can consider the transverse plane geometry.
The values of mt' Rs1 ' ~ts' Rb1 , Rp1 ' ~p' ~tP' Ptp' and Bare
found from Equations (13.148, 13.150, 13.151, 13.152, 14.28,
14.7, 14.8, 14. 10 and 14.72).
(16.60)
(16.61)
tan tl>ns
(16.62)
cos "'s
(16.63)
(16.64)
Rp1 tan "'s

(16.65)
Rs1
Rb1
(16.66)
Rp1
21TC (16.67)
B (16.68)
The design of a helical gear pair with parameters mn

and tl>ns' and normal backlash Bn' has now been effectively
replaced by the design of a spur gear pair with parameters mt
and tl>ts' and circular backlash B. We use the method described
in Chapter 6, and in particular Equations (6.45 - 6.53), to
carry out the necessary steps. Since the procedure was
explained in Chapter 6, the equations will be presented here
with very little explanation.
We start by writing down the transverse tooth
thicknesses at the pi tch cylinders,
1
2"(Ptp-B) + tlttp (16.69)
1
2"(Ptp -B) - tlttp (16.70)
where tlttp is a quantity chosen by the designer, to increase

the tooth thickness in one gear, and reduce it in the other.
The next four equations are given for gear 1 only, since the
corresponding equations for gear 2 are found by interchanging
the subscripts 1 and 2.
t
R [.:..!E..!. + 2(inv tP tp - invtl>ts») (16.71)
ttsl s 1 Rpl
e1 1 1 (16.72)
2 tan tI> (tts1- 2"1Tm t )
ts
b s1 ar - e1 (16.73)
b + R - R (16.74)
sl p1 sl
The addendum values a p1 and a p2 are chosen to give a working

depth of 2.0mn , and equal clearances at each root cylinder,
mn - ~(bp1 - bp2 ) (16.75)
1
mn + 2(b p1 - bp2 ) (16.76)
And finally, we obtain the diameters of the two gear blanks,
(16.77)
(16.78)
Once the dimensions of the gear pair are all chosen, the
designer should of course check, as in the design of a spur
gear pair, that there is no interference or undercutting, and
that the contact ratio, the root cylinder clearances, and the
tip cylinder tooth thicknesses are all adaquate.
Gear Cutting II, Helical Gears 487
Numerical Examples
Example 16. 1
A 55-tooth helical gear with normal module 4 mm, normal
pressure angle 20 0 and helix angle 30 0 , is to be cut with a
normal tooth thickness of 6.915 mm. Calculate the cutting
center distance, and the radius of the root cylinder in the
gear, if it is cut by a 32-tooth pinion cutter with a normal
tooth thickness of 6.40 mm, and a tip cylinder diameter of
158.12mm.
mn =4, ~ns=200, ~s=300, Ng =55, t nsg =6.915

Nc =32, t nsc =6.40, RTc =79.06
Rsg = 127.017 mm
~ts 22.796 0
Rbg = 117.096
ttsg = 7.985 (13.113)
73.901
68. 129
7.390 (13.113)
inv ~~p = 0.024565 (16.6)
~~p = 23.471 0 (2.16,2.17)
(16.7)
201.932 mm (16.8)
122.872 mm
Example 16.2
A hobbing machine has an index constant C. of 24, and a
1
differential constant Cd of 25 mm. Calculate the change gear
ratios required to cut a 49-tooth gear with a normal module of
5 mm and a l)elix angle of 23 0 , using a 2-thread hob.
C.=24,
1
Cd =25, Ng =49, Nh =2, mn =5, ~
s
=23 0
k.1 = (48/49) (16.52)

kd = 0.3109340 (16.53)
40.201 mm (16.20)
The index change ratio can obviously be provided by a

single gear pair. The differential ratio can be achieved with
good accuracy by two gear pairs, having ratios of (24/66) and
(59/69). It is not always easy, however, to find change gears
which give the required ratio. In the case described in this
example, it would have been simpler if the gear pair had been
designed with an axial pitch of 40 mm, in which case the
required differential change gear ratio would have been
exactly (25/80).
Example 16.3
When lead screws and other transfer mechanisms are
converted from inches to mms, it is sometimes necessary to
introduce a factor of 25.4 into their drives. This factor
requires a gear with 127 teeth, which is difficult to cut
using conventional change gear ratios, because 127 is a prime
number, and most sets of change gears do not contain gears
with more than 120 teeth. Use Equations (16.55 and 16.56) to
choose the ratios to cut a 127-tooth spur gear wi th a
single-thread hob, when the hobbing machine has a feed rate of
0.020 inches, and the machine constants Ci and Cd are 24 and
0.5 inches.
Required k i = 0.1889764 (16.52)
Choose index change gears with ratios (24/41) and (31/96).
(24/41) x (31/96)
- (1/31) (16.55)
0.8064516 (16.56)
The differential ratio can be provided by a single gear pair

with a ratio of (25/31).
Chapter 17
Tooth Stresses in Helical Gears
Introduction
The calculation of the tooth stresses in a helical gear

is considerably more complicated than the corresponding
calculat ion for a spur gear. The contact stress and the fillet
stress in each tooth depend on the intensity of the load, and
on its position. Since the load intensity varies, as the
position of the contact line moves up or down the tooth face,
it is not easy to decide when the maximum stresses will occur.
As we pointed out in Chapter 11, we consider in this book
only the static stresses that would occur if the gears were
not rotating. The actual stresses that exist in normal
operation are found by multiplying the static stresses by
various factors, to account for dynamic effects, type of
loading, and so on. Values for these factors are given in the
AGMA Standard referred to in Chapter 11 [6]. The method
described in this chapter for calculating the static stresses
is based on the AGMA method, but differs from it in certain
respects. A summary of the differences will be presented at
the end of the chapter.
Tooth Contact Force
In a helical gear pair, there are generally several

tooth pairs which are simultaneously in contact. The contact
in each tooth pair takes place along a straight line, which
coincides with one of the generators in each tooth. In order
to calculate the tooth stresses, we assume that the load
intensity w is constant along all the contact lines. The value
490 Tooth Stresses in Helical Gears
of w at any instant is then equal to the total contact

force W, divid.d by the total contact length Lc'
w (17.1)
In this section of the chapter, we determine the value

of W, corresponding to any specified value of the applied
torque. And in the following section, we will describe how to
calculate the contact length Lc.
The direction n~ of the normal to the tooth surface at A,
when A is a point on the contact line, was given by
Equation (14.94),
n~ = cos "'b [sin t/ltp nx(O) + cos t/ltp ny(O)] - sin "'b nz(O)
(17.2)
In the absence of friction, the contact force acts in the

direction opposite to n~, and its component parallel to the
gear axis is therefore (w sin "'b). Hence, the component
perpendicular to the gear axis, which is the useful
component, is equal to (W cos "'b) •
The base cylinder of gear 1 is shown in Figure 17.1, with
Figure 17.1. Tooth force component in the transverse plane.

Contact Length 491
the plane of action of the contact force touching the base

cylinder. The diagram also shows the component of the contact
force perpendicular to the gear axis. We take moments about
the axis, to obtain a relation between the applied torque M1
and the contact force W,
(17.3)
and we use the same method to find the corresponding relation

between the contact force and the torque M2 appl ied to gear 2,
(17.4)
The contact force is found from either of these equations. By

combining the two equations, we obtain a relation between M1
and M2 , which is the same as Equation (11.3), the
corresponding relation between the torques applied to a pair
of spur gears.
(17.5)
Contact Length
As we stated earlier, there generally several tooth

pairs in contact at any instant, and the contact length Lc is
the sum of the contact lengths on each of these tooth pairs.
In this section, we will derive a general expression for Lc'
It turns out that we do not often need to make use of the
general expression, since the cases required for the stress
analysis are always special, and therefore simpler. However,
it is a matter of interest to have the general result, and it
also helps to determine when the maximum and minimum values of
Lc occur.
A transverse section through the gear pair is shown in
Figure 17.2, with the plane of action touching the two base
cylinders. As usual, the ends T1 and T2 of the path of contact
are the points where the tip cylinders intersect the plane of
action. Figure 17.3 shows the plane of action, with the axial
lines through T1 and T2 meeting the transverse plane z=O at
Plane of action
Tip cylinder of gear 1 Base cylinder
of gear 2
Base cylinder
of gear 1
Tip cylinder of gear 2
Figure 17.2. Transverse section through the gear pair.
T 10 and T 20 , and meeting the transverse plane z=F at T1F

and T 2F • The region of contact is the rectangle T10T20T2FT1F.
We stated in Chapter 14 that the lines of contact on the
different contacting tooth pairs can be represented by a set
of diagonal lines in the region of contact, each making an
angle "'b with the gear axis, and with a vertical spacing equal
to the transverse base pi tch Ptb.
To find the length of the contact lines in the rectangle,
it is helpful to construct two additional triangles T'T 10 T 1F
and T 10 T"T 20 , as shown in Figure 17.3. The value of Lc is then
found as the length of the diagonal lines in triangle T' T"T 2F'
minus the lengths in triangles T'T 10 T 1F and T 10 T"T 20 •
We proved in Chapter 14 that the lengths T' T 1F and T 1FT 2F
are equal to mFPtb and mpptb' where mF and mp are the face
contact ratio and the profile contact ratio, given by
_1_ (17.6)
Ptb F tan "'b
Contact Length 493
T 20 T2
I I
z=O Plane z
I. F
Figure 17.3. The plane of action.
In addition, the length T'T 2F is equal to mcptb' where mc is

the total contact ratio, equal to the sum of mF and mp ,
(17.8)
In order to find the value of Lc' we first consider a

general triangle of height mPtb' where m can represent any of
the contact ratios me' mF or mp. This triangle is shown in
Figure 17.4, and the upper contact line is shown in a typical
position, lying a vertical distance ePtb below the top corner
of the triangle, where e is any number between 0 and 1.
The number of contact lines in the triangle is equal to
Ptb
Figure 17.4. A general triangle with contact lines.

494 Tooth Stresses in Hel ical Gears
(n e +1), where n e represents the integral part of the number

(m-e). If e is greater than m, there are no contact lines in
the triangle, and the value required for ne is -1. We
therefore define a function,
n int(f) (17.9)
where f is any number, and n is the largest integer which is

less than or equal to f. If, for example, f has the values
2.2, 1.0 and -0.3, the corresponding values of n are 2, 1
and -1. The val ue of n e can then be expressed by the funct ion,
n int(m-e) (17.10)
e
In the triangle shown in Figure 17.4, the upper contact

line has a length (m-w)ptb/sin ~b' The next contact line is
shorter than the first by Ptb/sin ~b' and so on. The total
contact length Le can therefore be expressed as an arithmetic
series, whose sum is given by the following expression,
(17.11)
We now apply this result to the three triangles in

Figure 17.3. Once again, we consider the gear pair when the
upper contact line lies a distance ePtb below point T'. The
contact length Lc in the gear pair is then found from the
following equations,
n int(mc-e) (17.12)
ce
(17.13)
(17.14)
Si~t~ b [(n Cf +l)(mC -e-0.5n Cf )
(17.15)
If we use this method to calculate the contact length Lc

for various values of e, we will find the following results.
Minimum and Maximum Values for Lc 495
The value of L is always a minimum when e is zero, and a

c
contact line passes through the upper corner T 10 of the region
of contact. And the value of Lc is a maximum when e is equal to
[m F - int(m F )], and a contact line passes through the other
upper corner T1F of the contact region.
Minimum and Maximum Values of Lc
For the purpose of the stress analysis, we would expect

to be most interested in the minimum value of Lc' since this
corresponds to the maximum load intensity. Now that we know
that the contact length is a minimum when a contact line
passes through T 10 , it is possible to find simpler
expressions for the value Lcmin • We can simplify the
expressions further, if we consider only gear pairs in which
every transverse section has either one or two contact
points. This condition means that the profile contact ratio
lies between the following limits,
< 2 (17.16)
and this range includes all gear pairs of normal design.

In the transverse section shown in Figure 17.2, there
are two points Q and Q' marked on the plane of action. Point Q
lies a distance Ptb below T l ' and Q' lies a distance Ptb
above T2 • If the diagram represented a spur gear pair, Q and
Q' would be the points on the path of contact corresponding to
the ends of the period of single-tooth contact. In a helical
gear pair, there is generally no period of single-tooth
contact, because the total contact ratio mc is usually larger
than 2. However, Q and Q' would represent the ends of the
period of single-tooth contact in any particular transverse
section, and it is therefore still customary to refer to these
points as the end points of single-tooth contact.
The region of contact is shown again in Figure 17.5, with
the axial lines through Q and Q' cutting the transverse plane
z=O a~ QO and QQ' and cutting the transverse plane z=F at QF
and Qp.. We have stated that the value of Lc is a minimum when a
contact line passes through point T 10. There must
T10 "'b
(m p -1)Ptb T1F
Q'0 Q'F
(2 - mp)Ptb
A~mFPtb
QO QF
(mp -1)Ptb
T201 •
F
.I T2F
Figure 17.5. Minimum contact length for gear pairs
wi th mF S; 2 - mp
simultaneously be a second contact line through QO' since the

distance between T 10 and QO is equal to the transverse base
pitch Ptb' Due to the symmetry of the rectangle, we can also
argue that Lc is again a minimum when there are contact lines
through T2F and QF'
We now consider a particular gear pair, with the contact
lines shown in Figure 17.5. One contact line passes through
point T 10 , while a second line starts at QO' and intersects
the plane z=F at point AF , somewhere between QF and QF' For
this situation to be possible, the length mFPtb must be less
than (2-m p )ptb' as we can see from the diagram. Such a gear
pair is therefore defined by the condition,
(17.17)
and will be referred to as a very low face contact ratio

(VLFCR) gear pair. A spur gear pair, in which the face contact
ratio is zero, would fit into this category.
The condition given by Equation (17.17) is equivalent to
the statement that the total contact ratio mc is less than 2.
This means that there are periods of the meshing cycle when
only one tooth pair is in contact, which is the situation
shown in Figure 17.5. The contact length Lcmin for this case
can be read directly from the diagram,
F
L . (17.18)
cmln cos "'b
Figure 17.6. The same contact region as Figure 17.5,

with the contact line passing through Qp..
The same region of contact is shown in Figure 17.6, but

the contact line has moved up, so that it now passes through
point Qp., and a new contact line is about to enter the region
at T2F • During the period when the contact line moves between
the positions of Figures 17.5 and 17.6, there is only one
tooth pair in contact, and the contact length Lc remains
constant, with the value equal to Lcmin given by
Equation (17.18).
The region of contact for a second gear pair is shown in
Figure 17.7. The contact line which starts at QO now
F
intersects the plane z=F at a point between Q and T 1F • The
face contact ratio must lie wi thin the following range,
(1 - mF)Ptb
T 10 "'b
T1F
!
r
Ptb
00
T2°1.
-t-
0 (2- mp)Ptb
O'F AF
OF
t2F
mFPtb
(m F + mp - 2)Ptb

with 2 - mp < mF ~ 1
< (17.19)
and this type of gear pair will be described as a low face

contact ratio (LFCR) gear pair.
We know that the contact length is at its minimum value,
since one contact line passes through T 10 • To calculate the
value of Lcmin ' we take the length of the contact line
through QO' and we add the length of the short contact line
near T2F ,
L .
F + Ptb (m +m -2)
cmln cos 1/I b sin 1/Ib F P
The expression is simplified if we use Equation (17.6) to

express Ptb in terms of F,
L .
cmln (17.20)
Lastly, we consider gear pairs in which the face contact

ratio is greater than 1,
> (17.21)
Gear pairs that fall within this category are known as normal
helical gear pairs, since most helical gear pairs are
designed with a face contact ratio larger than 1.
The region of contact for a gear pair of this type is
shown in Figure 17.8, with the contact lines in the positions

with mF > 1
corresponding to the minimum contact length. Starting from

the left, there is one contact line passing through QQ' then
there are a number of complete contact lines stretching from
the bottom edge to the top edge of the region, and finally
there are either one or two lines which intersect the
right-hand edge. To find the value of Lcmin' we consider in
turn each of the three groups of contact lines just described.
We start by defining two new quantities nc and n F , as the
integer parts of mc and mF ,
(17.22)
(17.23)
The number of contact lines crossing the upper edge of the

region is nF , which means that the number of complete lines is
(n F-1). The total number of contact lines is nc ' so the number
crossing the right-hand edge is (nc-n F ). Hence, the contact
length Lcmin is found as follows,
Ptb [1 + m (n -1) + (m -n ) + (m -n +l)(n -n -1)]

p F
c F
L . • • 1.
cmln sIn "'b c c c c
The result is then simplified, and expressed in terms of the

face-width F,
L .
cmln
Figure 17.9. Maximum contact length for gear pairs

wi th mF S mp - 1
We pointed out earlier that the maximum load intensity

on a gear tooth corresponds to the minimum contact length, and
for this reason we derived expressions for Lcmin ' However, as
we will show later in this chapter, the fillet stress is often
a maximum when the contact line passes through the corner T1F
of the contact region, and this occurs when the load intensity
is a minimum. We therefore also need expressions for Lcmax '
the maximum contact length.
A region of contact is shown in Figure 17.9, with one
contact line through T 1F , and a second passing through QF'
Both lines extend to the left-hand edge of the region. For
this to be possible, the lower line must intersect the
left-hand edge above point T20 , which requires the following
condition,
(17.25)
The contact length is t~en equal to the combined lengths of

the two contact lines,
2F (17.26)
cos IItb
When the face contact ratio increases above the value

given by Equation (17.25), we obtain the region of contact
shown in Figure 17.10. We are still considering the case where
there are only two contact lines, so the upper contact line
must intersect the left-hand edge above point QO' and mF must
~
T O...--------r----",T1F
mFPtb 1 0'0 O'F
Ptb!
-----..:::::....---'f
00
T20 1,.....
OF--hm p -1 )Ptb
2F-f
Figure 17.10. Maximum contact length for gear pairs

wit h mp - 1 < mF :s; 1
Minimum and Maximum Values for Lc 5{)1
lie in the following range,
< (17.27)
The contact length is again the sum of the two lengths,
and, as usual, we express the result in terms of F,
F '" (17.28)
mF cos b (mc -1)
Figure 17.11 shows the region of contact for a gear pair

with mF greater than 1. Starting from the right, there is one
contact line through QF' then a number of complete contact
lines, and lastly either one or two lines passing through the
left-hand edge of the region.
If the contact line through T1F meets the lower edge of
the contact region. at T, the distance T20T is equal to
(mF-mp)pz' We define a quantity nFP as follows,
(17.29)
where the function int is the same function introduced in

Equation (17.9). The number of contact lines crossing the
(m F -n FP -l)pz
I' 'I
T 10 ,-----r------r-----..,.,T, F
0 /0 O/F
T201:-.
QO QF=*m p -l)ptb
--"-----.T=I---~~f2F
(m F - mp)pz mppz
Figure 17.11. Maximum contact length for gear pai rs

with mF > 1
lower edge of the region is then equal to (n FP +2), and the

total number of contact lines in the region is (n F+2). Hence,
the number of complete contact lines is (n FP +1), and the
number of lines crossing the left-hand edge of the region is
(nF-n FP )' By considering the three groups of contact lines
described earlier, we-obtain the following expression for the
contact length,
As before, we simplify this result, and express Lcmax in terms

of F,
Contact Stress
In the last section of Chapter 14, we proved that when A

is a contact point between a rack and a pinion, the line of
contact through A and the common normal at A both, lie in the
plane of action. The same is true when A is a contact point
between a pair of helical gears. To prove this statement, we
need only consider the imaginary rack between the gears, and
make use of the result just stated, first for one gear and the
imaginary rack, and then for the second gear and the imaginary
rack.
The plane of action for a gear pair is shown in
Figure 17.12, with the contact line GA making an angle..pb with
the n direction, as we proved in Equation (14.93). Near
z
point A, the tooth surfaces can be represented by two circular
cylinders in contact, with their axes lying in the plane of
action. Their radi i are shown as Pc 1 and Pc2' with the
subscript c indicating that these are the radii of curvature
when we make a section through the cylinders perpendicular to
the line of contact. If we make a transverse section, as shown
in the diagram, the cylinders appear as ellipses. For gear 1,
the semi-minor axis of the ellipse is Pc1 ' while the
semi-major axis is equal to (pc 1/cOS ..pb)' The radius of
Contact Stress 503
Plane of action Section normal to

contact line
(itA
----.~nz
/ G
/ np' /"(3lPcl
.Y-~"""'::"~ ~
Pt2W
/ Pc2
~--".L:"""""'~~ A cos r/lb
Ptl~e~
-+--- COSr/lb
Pel
Transverse section
G E
I
Transverse plane z
Figure 17.12. The contact line through point A,

in the plane of action.
curvature Pt 1 at point A in the transverse section through the

tooth profile is then equal to the radius of curvature at the
corresponding point of the ellipse,
2
Pc l
(17.31)
The corresponding equation for gear 2 can be written down

immediately,
(17.32)
The maximum contact stress 0c between two cylinders of

radii Pc1 and Pc2 was given by Equation (11.5),
C v[w(P C 1+ PC2)] (17.33)

p Pc l Pc2
where w is the load intensity, and Cp is the elastic

coefficient given by Equation (11.6),
2 w(1-v 2 )
= v[ w(1-v 1 ) + 2 ] (17.34)
El E2
Plane of action
cPt
c
Figure 17.13. Radii of curvature in the transverse section.
The radii Pc1 and Pc2 are expressed by means of Equations

(17.31 and 17.32) in terms of Pt1 and Pt2' the radii of
curvature of the tooth profiles in the transverse section
through A. We proved in Equation (10.1) that Pt1 and Pt2 are
equal to the lengths E1A and AE2 in the transverse section,
which is shown in Figure 17.13. We can see from the diagram
that the sum (P t1 +P t2 ) is equal to (C sin ~t)' where C is the
center distance, and ~t is the operating transverse pressure
angle of the gear pair. The contact stress is then given by
the following expression,
(17.35)
We showed in Equation (14.34) that ~t is equal to ~tP' the

operating transverse pressure angle of either gear. And, as
we proved in Equation (13.92), the product (sin ~tP cos l/Ib) is
equal to sin, np • We can therefore simplify the expression for
0c to its final form,
C sin 'np
Cp v' [ w ( P P )] (17.36)
t 1 t2
Contact Stress 505
The values of Pt1 and Pt2 depend on the position s of

point A on the path of contact in the transverse section. We
now have to determine at which point the contact stress should
be calculated. We use Figure 17.13 to express Pt1 and Pt2 in
terms of s,
Rb1 tan 4>t + s (17.37)
(17.38)
We showed in Chapter 11 that the minimum value of the product

(P t1 Pt2 ) is obtained when the smaller of the two radii of
curvature is as small as possible. In other words, if gear 1
is the pinion, (P t1 Pt 2) is a minimum when s reaches its
largest negative value, which occurs at the lowest possible
posi tion in the region of contact. However, the contact
stress also depends on the load intensity w, and we therefore
need consider only the contact lines for which the load
intensity is a maximum.
In VLFCR gear pairs (m F ~ 2-m p )' the lowest point of a
contact line for which the load intensity is a maximum is QO'
as shown in Figure 17.5, which corresponds to the lowest point
of single-tooth contact in the pinion. The contact region for
a LFCR gear pair (2-m p < mF ~ 1) is shown in Figure 17.7, with
one contact line passing through point QO' The load intensity
is a maximum when there are contact lines through T 10 and QO'
and due to the symmetry of the contact region, the load
intensi ty is also a maximum when the contact lines pass
through T2F and Qp' If the contact lines in Figure 17.7 were
moved down the contact region until one of them passed
through Qp, the other end of this line would intersect the
left-hand edge of the region below point QO' In other words,
there are positions of the contact line extending below the
lowest point of single-tooth contact on the pinion, for which
the load intensity is a maximum. For normal helical gear pairs
(m F > 1), there are contact lines of maximum load intensity
reaching right to the bottom edge of the contact region, which
corresponds to the limi t radi us on the pinion.
It would seem that the contact stress should be
calculated at the points closest to the pinion limit radius of
the contact lines just described. However, it is found that

the tooth surface pitting is generally initiated close to the
pitch cylinder. It is therefore more realistic to calculate
the contact stress at the radius where damage is expected to
occur. Until recently, the contact stress in a spur gear pair
was calculated with the load applied at the lowest point of
single-tooth contact in the pinion, while in a helical gear
pair it was calculated with the load applied at the pitch
cylinder. It is now recognized that there should be a smooth
transition between these two cases. This transition can be
achieved if, for gear pairs with a face contact ratio of less
than 1, the contact stress is calculated at the following
position,
s (17.39)
The term in the square brackets corresponds to the lowest

point of single-tooth contact in the pinion. The factor
(1-m F ) causes the point at which the calculation is made to
move up the pinion tooth face as mF inc~eases, reaching the
pitch cylinder when mF is equal to 1. Having determined the
value of s at the point where the contact stress is to be
calculated, we substitute this value into Equation (17.37),
and we obtain the radius of curvature P t l'
(17.40)
For normal helical gear pairs (m F > 1), the contact

stress is calculated at the pitch cylinder, and the value of
P t1 is found by setting s equal to zero in Equation (17.37),
(17.41)
The pinion radius of curvature P t1 is given by Equation (17.40

or 17.41), depending on the value of mF • In either case, the
corresponding value of Pt2 can be found from Equations (17.37
and 17.38),
(17.42)
Contact Stress 507
Once the radii of curvature Pt 1 and Pt2 have been

calculated, the values are substituted into Equation (17.36),
and we obtain the contact stress. In Chapter 11 we introduced
the factors kc and k t , to represent the influence of the gear
pair geometry on the values of the contact stress and the
fillet stress. As before, we now express the contact stress in
(17.43)
The expression for kc is then found by comparing Equations

( 17.36 and 17.43),
(17.44)
The expressions in Equations (17.36 and 17.44) for the

contact stress 0c and the geometry factor kc must be modified
for a rack and pinion, because the radius of curvature of the
rack tooth face is infinite. We return to Equation (17.33),
which we put in the following form,
C v[w(--1-- + __1__ )]
P Pc 1 Pc 2
We set the rack tooth curvature (1/P c 2) equal to zero, and

then complete the analysis in exactly the same manner as
before.
(17.45)
(17.46)
We conclude this section of the chapter by summarizing

the steps necessary to calculate the contact stress. We start
by using Equation (17.3) to find the total contact force W.
The maximum contact stress always occurs when the load
intensity is a maximum, so for the contact length L we use
c
the minimum value Lcmin ' given by Equation (17.18, 17.20
or 17.24), depending on the value of the face contact
ratio mF • We then use Equations (17.40 - 17.42) to find the
radii of curvature Pt1 and Pt2 at the point where the contact
stress is to be calculated. And finally, the factor kc is

given by Equation (17.44 or 17.46), and we substitute into
Equation (17.43) to obtain the contact stress.
Fillet Stress, and the Equivalent Spur Gear
Before we calculate the maximum fillet stress in the

tooth of a helical gear, we first consider a more general
case. Figure 17.14 shows a tooth profile, loaded by a force of
intensity w at a typical point Aw' which is at radius Rw' The
tooth profile shown is the profile in the normal section
through Aw' so that the tooth force acts in the plane of the
section, and along the normal to the profile. Since Aw does
not lie on the tooth center-line, the tooth profile is not
exactly symmetrical.
Although it is possible to calculate the shape of the
tooth profile in the normal section, by the method described
in Chapter 13, the procedure is very long. It would be much
simpler if we could represent the profile by a spur gear tooth
of similar shape, because the tooth shape is then easy to
calcula te, and we can use the method of Chapter 11 to find the
fillet stress. The spur gear used for this purpose is known as
the equivalent spur gear, and the quantities used in its
specification will all be distinguished by the subscript e.
Figure 17.14. Load of intensity w acting at radius Rw'

In order that the tooth profile of the equivalent spur

gear should resemble as closely as possible the normal tooth
profile of the helical gear, we define the equivalent gear in
the following manner. We construct a circle of radius Rde ,
equal to the radius of curvature of the normal helix in the
pitch cylinder of the helical gear. This circle will be called
the defining circle of the equivalent spur· gear, and
quantities measured on this circle will be indicated by the
subscript d. The teeth of the equivalent spur gear are shaped
so that on the defining circle their circular pitch Pde'
pressure angle ~de' dedendum bde and addendum a de , are equal
to the corresponding quantities Pnp' ~np' b p and a p on the
pi tch cylinder of the helical gear.
The radius Rde of the defining circle of the equivalent
spur gear is given by Equation (13.119),
(17.47)
cos 21/1 p
and the radii of the root circle and the tip circle are then
found as follows,
Rroot,e (17.48)
Rd e + a p (17.49)
By expressing the circumference of the defining circle as the

number of teeth multiplied by the circular pitch, we obtain
the number of teeth Ne in the equivalent spur gear,
N
(17.50)
cos 31/1 p
The base pitch Pbe of the equivalent spur gear is equal
to (Pde cos ~de)' and since Pde and ~de are chosen equal to
Pnp and ~np' the base pitch is equal to the normal base pitch
Pnb of the helical gear,
(17.51)
The equivalent spur gear is therefore conjugate to a basic

rack with module mn and pressure angle ~ ns • The radius Rse of
the standard pitch circle, and the radius Rbe of the base
circle, are then given by Equations (2.30 and 2.20), where the
module and the pressure angle now have the values mn and q,ns'
(17.52)
(17 .53)
As part of the specification of the equivalent spur gear, it

is also convenient to calculate its dedendum b se ' measured
from the standard pitch circle,
(17.54)
To determine the tooth shape of the equivalent spur

gear, including its tooth thickness and the shape of the
fillet, it is necessary to decide how the gear might be cut.
It seems likely that the fillet shape of the equivalent spur
gear will be closest to that of the normal section through the
fillet of the helical gear~ if the cutter used to calculate
the equivalent spur gear shape is as similar as possible to
the actual cutter used for the helical gear.
If the helical gear is cut by a rack cutter or a hob,
then the choice is obvious. We calculate the tooth shape of
the equivalent spur gear, assuming it is cut by the same
cutter. To obtain the correct dedendum in the equivalent spur
gear, given by Equation (17.54), the cutter offset ee must
have the following value,
(17.55)
where a is the cutter addendum. The tooth profile shape can

r
now be calculated, including the fillet, by the method
described in Chapter 9. We are not free to choose the tooth
thickness of the equivalent spur gear, since this is
effectively determined by the dedendum value. However, we
will find that the tooth thickness tde on the defining circle
is extremely close in value to the helical gear tooth
thickness t np • Although the two quantities are not generally
identical, the difference is absolutely negligible.
When the helical gear is cut by a pinion cutter, it is

not possible to use the same cutter for the equivalent spur
gear, since a helical pinion cutter can only cut gears with
the same helix angle as itself. Instead, we use a spur pinion
cutter, and we must now choose its shape, which cannot be
identical to the normal section through the helical cutter,
since this is not an involute. We can nevertheless choose an
involute cutter with module, pressure angle, addendum,
dedendum and tooth thickness, all measured at the standard
pitch circle, equal to the corresponding quantities mn , ~ns'
a sc ' b sc and t nsc in the normal section of the helical cutter.
If the teeth of the helical cutter are rounded at their tips,
then the teeth of the equivalent spur cutter should be rounded
in the same manner.
The only quantity remaining to be chosen in the
equivalent cutter is the number of teeth Nce ' The best choice
is to relate the value of Nce to that of the helical cutter Nc
in the same manner as Equation (17.50),
(17.56)
cos 31/1 p
The radius Rsce of the standard pitch circle in the equivalent
cutter is given by Equation (2.30),
(17.57)
and the radius RTce of the tip circle is found by adding the
addendum of the helical cutter,
(17.58)
The cutting center distance Cc is then chosen to give the

correct dedendum in the equivalent spur gear,
R
root,e + R
Tce (17.59)
As before, we use the method of Chapter 9 to calculate the

shape of the tooth profile. We will find, once again, that the
tooth thic kness tde of the equivalent spur gear on its
defining circle is almost identical to the normal tooth
thickness t np of the helical gear. This is a consequence of

the choice of Nce given by Equation (17.56). If we choose any
other value for Nce ' the error in the tooth thickness may
sometimes be substantially larger.
Tooth Load on the Equivalent Spur Gear
On the helical gear, we consider the tooth force acting

at point Aw' which lies at a height (Rw-Rp) above the pitch
cylinder. We therefore apply the load on the equivalent spur
gear at a radius Rwe' the same height above the defining
circle,
(17.60)
The contact line on the helical gear coincides with a

generator, and therefore makes an angle with the tooth tip.
The angle between the generator and the helix tangent at
radius R is the generator inclination angle vR ' which was
defined in Chapter 13. In order to use the equivalent spur
gear to calculate the fillet stress in a helical gear, we must
represent the real load on the helical gear, which acts along
an oblique line at an angle with the tooth tip, by an
equivalent load on the spur gear acting along a line parallel
to the tooth tip.
This equivalent load was studied by Wellauer and
Figure 17.15. Oblique line load on a cantilevered plate.

Tooth Load on the Equi valent Spur Gear 513
Seireg [8], who considered the cantilevered plate shown in

Figure 17.15. The plate is loaded by a force of intensity w,
acting along an oblique line at an angle v with the plate
edge. They showed how to calculate the bending moment
intensity at point A, which can then be expressed in the form
(WH/C h ), where H is the height of point Aw above point A. The
quantity Ch is defined as the bending moment intensity if the
plate were loaded along a line parallel with the plate edge,
divided by the maximum bending moment intensity when the
plate is loaded with the same force intensity along the
oblique line. In the original paper, the quantity (1/C h ) is
plotted in a diagram as a function of v. The values of Ch
given by the diagram are believed by the author of this book
to be inaccurate. They have therefore been recalculated [11],
using essentially the original method, and they can be
represented by the following expression,
(17.61)
The angle v must be expressed in degrees, as indicated by the

notation, and the equation is valid for values of v between 0°
and 25°.
In order to calculate the value of Ch required for a
particular helical gear, we must choose the value of v to be
used in Equation (17.61). On the helical gear, the generator
inclination angle v R varies with the radius R. Hence, the load
on the plate in Figure 17.15 should really lie along a curve,
as shown in Figure 17.16, instead of a straight line. However,
the bending-_moment intensity at A is determined primarily by
the load in the immediate vicinity of point Aw' so it is
sufficiently accurate to represent the load curve by a
straight line at an angle v w, where v w is the generator
inclination angle at point Aw• The value of v w is given by
Equation (13.87), in terms of the helix angle and the
transverse profile angle of the helical gear at radius Rw'
sin v w sin "'w sin 9>tw (17.62)
When this value of Vw is substituted into Equation (17.61),

the quantity Ch is called the helical factor of the gear.
Load curve on the

equivalent spur gear A
Figure 17.16. The ideal load curve.
The fillet stress in a spur gear was given by

Equation (11.28),
w 1.5m(x D-x) O.Sm tan Yw

°t iii cos Yw [Kf( 2 - )]max (17.63)
y y
The first term in the round brackets represents the tensile
stress caused by the bending moment in the fillet, while the
second term represents the reduction in tensile stress caused
by the radial component of the tooth load. To calculate the
fillet stress in the tooth of a helical gear, we use
Equation (17.63), applied to the equivalent spur gear.
However, the first term in the round brackets is divided by
the helical factor Ch , to compensate for the oblique loading.
The second term is left unchanged, since the oblique loading
does not affect the radial component of the load. We also
replace the module m by the normal module mn of the helical
gear, since this is the value used for the module of the
equivalent spur gear. The fillet stress is then given by the
O.Smn tan Yw
--.:..:....-----"-) ]max (17.64)
y
The quantities x, y, xD' Yw and Kf in this equation are all

defined on the equivalent spur gear, and the expression for 0t
is evaluated in the manner described in Chapter 11.
Equation (17.64) gives the fillet stress in the tooth of
a helical gear, when the load point Aw lies at any radius Rw'
Critical Load position 515
The value of the fillet stress obviously depends on the

position of the contact line, and in the next section of this
chapter we will determine the value of Rw that gives the
maximum fillet stress.
Critical Load position
The fillet stress given by Equation (17.64) depends on

the load intensity w, as well as on the load position. If w
were constant, the maximum fillet stress would occur when the
contact line passed through the corner of the tooth, and the
radius Rw would then be equal to the radius RT of the tip
circle. However, the load intensity w is not constant, and we
already know that for a spur gear, the maximum fillet stress
occurs when the load is applied at the highest point of
single-tooth contact.
In the design of a gear pair, the fillet stress
calculation is carried out separately for each gear. However,
in order to be specific in the description of the method, we
will assume at present that we are calculating the fillet
stress in gear 1. Hence, when a contact line passes through
the corner of a tooth, this contact line is represented by the
line through point T1F in the region of contact, which is
We stated at the beginning of this chapter that, when a
contact line passes through T 1F , the load intensity is at its
minimum value. We would therefore expect this position of the
contact line to be the critical position for gear pairs in
which the load intensity is fairly constant. On the other
hand, if there are large changes in the load intensity, we
would expect the fillet stress to be a maximum when the
contact line is in a position of maximum load intensity.
The ratio of the maximum load intensity to the minimum
load intensi ty is equal to (L cmax / L . ) . The values of Lcmax
cmln
and Lcmin depend on the face contact ratio mF , as we showed
earlier in this chapter. For gear pairs with a profile contact
ratio between 1 and 2, the ratio (L / L . ) starts at 2
cmax cmln
when mF is zero, and remains at 2 for very small values of mF .
Then the ratio drops, reaching the value 1 when mF is equal
to 1. As mF increases above 1, the ratio is 1 whenever mF is

exactly equal to any integer, and is fairly close to 1 at
other values of mF •
With these considerations in mind, we can determine the
position of the contact line corresponding to the maximum
fillet stress. For gear pairs with mF less than 1, there is
considerable variation in the load intensity, and the maximum
fillet stress occurs when the load intensity is a maximum.
However, when mF is greater than 1, the load intensity is
relatively constant, and the maximum fillet stress occurs
when the contact line passes through the tooth corner. These
conclusions can be confirmed, for any particular gear pair,
by ~&ing Equations (17.1 and 17.15) to calculate the load
intensity at a number of different positions of the contact
line, and then finding the corresponding fillet stress by
means of Equation (17.64).
We now consider the three types of gear pair defined
earlier, and for each type we will determine the contact
length Lc and the radius Rw for the critical position of the
contact line. For VLFCR gear pairs, the highest point reached
by a contact line with maximum load intensity is shown in QF'
Figure 17.6, which is the highest point of single-tooth
contact. The transverse section z=F is shown in Figure 17.17,
F
with Q lying a distance (m p -1)ptb below the upper end of the
path of contact. When the contact line is in this position,
the contact length is equal to Lcmin ' and the radius Rw of
point Aw can be read from Figure 17.17.
When mF :!> 2-m p

Lc L . F (17.65)
cmln cos .,pb
R2 R2 [v'(R2_R2) - 2
w b
+
T b (m p -1)ptb 1 (17.66)
Equations (17.65 and 17.66) were derived from a

consideration of gear 1. If we considered gear 2 instead, the
cri tical position of the contact line would pass through
point QO in the region of contact, and the contact length
would be unchanged, due to the symmetry of the contact region.
The equations are therefore valid for either gear, and this is
why there are no subscripts 1 or 2 in the equations. The same
Critical Load position 517
T1F
Q';)m p - 1lPtb
Figure 17.17. Transverse section at plane z=F.
comments apply to Equat ions (17.67 - 17.70), which give the

critical contact lengths and load positions for gear pairs
wi th larger values of mF •
The region of contact for an LFCR gear pair was shown in
Figure 17.7. The highest position of a contact line with
maximum load intensity is the position passing through QO'
and this line reaches within (l-m F )ptb of the upper edge of
the contact region. The contact length is again Lcmin' and the
radius Rw is found by the same method as before.
When 2-m p < mF S 1,

Lc Lcmin (17.67)
( 17 • 68)
Lastly, for normal helical gear pairs, the critical

contact line passes through the tooth corner, so the contact
length is equal to Lcmax' and the radius Rw is equal to the
radius of the tip cylinder,
When mF > 1,
F
Lc Lcmax mF cos ~b [m p (n FP +2) + (mF-nFP-2)(nF-nFP)]
(17.69)
(17.70)
Once again, it is convenient to express the maximum

fillet stress in terms of the geometry factor k t , defined as
follows,
(17.71)
A comparison of Equations (17.64 and 17.71) shows that k t is

0.5mn tan Yw
----'''----.!!.) ] max (1 7 • 72 )
Y
Comparison with the AGMA I and J Factors
In Chapter 11, we presented relations between the

geometry factors kc and k t defined in this book for spur
gears, and the corresponding AGMA factors I and J. Relations
of this sort are not possible in the case of helical gears,
because the stresses calculated by the method of this chapter
are not the same as those calculated by the AGMA method. There
are a number of differences between the two procedures, of
which the following are the most important. The procedure
described in AGMA 218.01 [6] uses an approximate method for
calculating the load intensity in gear pairs with mF less
than 1, and this obviously affects the calculated values of
both the contact stress and the fillet stresses. To find the
fillet stresses in gear pairs with mF greater than 1, the AGMA
procedure uses the maximum load intensity, even though the
stress is calculated with the contact line passing through
the tooth corner, which is a position of minimum load
intensity. And finally, the AGMA procedure uses an expression
for calculating the helical factor Ch which gives
significantly higher values than those given by
Equation (17.61). Each of these variations between the two
methods contributes to differences between the calculated
stress values, and for this reason it is not possible to
express I an J in terms of kc and k t •
Tooth Stresses in Helical Gears 519
Numerical Examples
Example 17.1
The pinion described in Example 16.1 is meshed with a
124-tooth gear at a center distance of 415.0 mm. Calculate the
normal tooth thickness of the pinion at its pitch cylinder.
Then determine the parameters of the equivalent spur gear for
the pinion, and calculate the tooth thickness tde of this spur
gear at its defining circle.
mn=4, ~ns=200, ~s=300, C=415.0, N1=55, N2=124

t ns1 =6.915, Nc =32, t nsc =6.40, RTc =79.06
RS1 = 127.017 mm
~ts 22.796°
Rb 1 = 117.096
ttS1 = 7.985 (13.113)
Rp 1 = 127 • 5 14
qltp = 23.321° (13.155)
~ = 30.097° (13.156)
P
ttp1 = 7.592 (13.114)
t np1 = 6.569 mm (13.112)
The specification of the equivalent spur gear is then

found as follows,
Rde = 170.352 mm (17.47)

Ne 84.927 (17.50)
169.854 (17.52)
159.611 (17.53)
The dedendum bde of the equivalent spur gear, measured

from the defining circle, is chosen equal to the dedendum b P1
of the helical pinion, which must therefore be calculated.
Rroot ,1 = 122.872 (Example 16.1)
b P1 = RP1 - Rroot ,1 = 4.642
Rroot,e = 165.710 (17.48)

Finally, we introduce the equivalent cutter, and we

calculate the tooth thickness of the equivalent spur gear,
first at its standard pitch circle, and then at radius Rde •
The superscript c indicates quantities during the cutting of
the equivalent spur gear by the equivalent cutter.
Nce = 49.412 (17.56)

Rsce 98.824 (17.57)
Rbce 92.864
tsce = t nsc = 6.400
a sc = RTc - Rsc = 5.159
RTce = 103.983 (17.58)
269.693 (17.59)
,pc 20.584° (5.10)
20.585° (5.11)
268.678 (5.16)
tse = 6.916 (5.17)

~de = 20.455° (2.18)
tde = 6.568mm (2.36)
In this example, the value of tde is almost identical to

that of t np1 ' It is obviously essential, when the equivalent
spur gear is used to represent the helical gear in the fillet
stress calculation, that both the dedendum and the tooth
thickness of the equivalent spur gear should be as close as
possible to those of the helical gear.
Example 17.2
Two helical gears are cut by a hob with normal diametral
pitch 4, normal pressure angle 20°, addendum 0.333 inches,
and tooth tip radius 0.107 inches. The gears are cut with
helix angles of 25°, and the face-width of each gear is 1.2
inches. The tooth numbers are 65 and 136, the profile shift
values are 0.1797 and 0.0872 inches, and the tip cylinder
diameters are 18.8 and 38.2 inches. The gears are meshed at a
Examples 521
center distance of 28.0 inches. Calculate the static contact

stress, and the stat ic fillet stress in each gear, if the
material constant Cp is 2290 (psi)O.5, and the torque applied
to the pinion is 50000 lb-inches.
Pnd=4, ~ns=20°, a r =0.333, rrT=0.107

N1=6 5, e 1=0 • 1797, RT 1=9 • 4
N 2=136, e 2 =0.0872, RT2 =19.1
~s=25°, F=1.2, C=28.0, Cp =2290, M 1=50000
mn = 0.2500 inches
Rs1 = 8.9649
Rs2 = 18.7574
..
"'ts = 21 . 880 0
Rb1 = 8.3192
Rb2 = 17.4062
~b = 23.399 0 ( 13. 154 )
Ptb = 0.8042 (13.43)
~t = 23.254 0 (14.30)
mF 0.6457 (17.6)
mp 1.4736 (17.7)
mc 2. 1194 (17.8)
Lcmin 1.5492 (17.20)

Lcmax 2.2666 (17.28)
RP1 = 9.0547
Rp2 = 18.9453
~p = 25.219 0
tP tp 23.254 0
.."'np = 21 • 244 0
Pt1 = 3.5739 (17.40)

Pt2 = 7.4807 (17.42)
kc = 0.2711 (17 .44)
W 6549 lbs (17.3)
Fmn = 21829 psi

.Ji...
91720 psi (17.43)

When we calculate the fi llet stresses, the contact

length Lc is equal to Lcmin' because we are considering a gear
pair whose face contact ratio mF is less than 1.
Rwl = 9.2708 (17.68)

IP twl = 26.188° (13.155)
"'wl = 25.744° (13.156)
/I
wl = 11.051° (17.62)
Chl = 1 • 173 (17.61)
Rdel = 11.0632 (17.47)
b Pl = 0.2431
Rroot ,el = 10.8202 (17.48)
Nel = 87.7858 (17.50)
Rsel = 10.9732 (17.52)
Rbel = 10.3115 (17.53)
b Sel = 0.1531 (17.54)
eel = 0.1799 inches (17.55)
We carry out the fillet stress analysis for the

equivalent spur gear, using the method described in
Chapter 11, and we obtain the following results.
ktl = 1.4134
0tl = 30850 psi (17.71)
We then repeat the procedure for gear 2. Since the method

is identical, we will present only the final results.
kt2 = 1.5515
0t2 = 33870 psi (17.71)
Example 17.3
Repeat the calculation shown in Example 17.2, with the
following differences. The face-width is increased to 2.4
inches, and the torque applied to the pinion is increased to
100000 lb-inches.
F=2.4, Ml =100000
Many of the quantities to be calculated are the same as

Examples 523
in the previous example, so they will not be repeated here.

The quant i ties which are changed are those which depend on the
face contact ratio, and the position of the load point.
mF = 1.2914 (17.6)
mc = 2.7651 ( 17.8)
Lcmin = 3.5741 inches (17.24)
Lcmax 4.1643 inches (17.30)
Pt1 = 3.5749 (17.41)
Pt2 = 7.4797 (17.42)
kc = 0.2524 (17.44)
W 13098 lbs ( 17.3)
Fm = 21829 psi
-.!L
n
85390 psi (17.43)
In this gear pair the face contact ratio is greater

than 1. We therefore use Lcmax for the contact len~th Lc' when
we calculate the fillet stress, and the load is applied at the
tooth tip.
Rw1 = RT1 = 9.4 inches (17.70)
4>tw1 = 27.746 0 ( 13.155)
"'w1 = 26.056 0 (13.156)
"w1 = 11. 800 0 (17.62)
Ch 1 = 1.185 (17.61)
kt1 = 1.3411
O't1 = 29280 psi (17.71)
Once again, we give only the final results for gear 2,

without the intermediate steps.
kt2 = 1.4336
O't2 = 31290 psi (17.71)
The last two examples illustrate an interesting property

of helical gears. If we double the face-width, and double the
applied torque, the stresses do not remain exactly constant.
This is because the contact length is not exactly doubled, and
the position of the load point is also changed.
Bibliography
The first five references listed are books on gearing.

Some of them deal not only with the geometry, but also with
many other aspects of gearing. However, the books are
included in this bibliography because they all contain
excellent material on the geometry of gears.
The sixth reference is a Standard published by the
American Gear Manufacturers Association. It is the only AGMA
publication referred to directly in the text of this book, but
there are many other useful publications on gearing available
from the AGMA, at 1500 King Street, Suite 201, Alexandria,
Virginia 22314, U.S.A.
The remaining five references are papers reporting the
results of specific research projects. There are a few
results in this book which, because of space limitations,
have been quoted without proof. The full derivations of these
results are given in the papers listed in references [7 - 11].
[1] Buckingham, Earle: "Analytical Mechanics of

Gears", McGraw-Hill, New York, 1949, and republished by
Dover, New York, 1963.
[ 2 ] Dudley, Dar le W., (Edi tor) : "Gear Handbook",

McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962.
[3] Tuplin, W.A.: "Involute Gear Geometry", Chatto and

Windus, London, 1962, and also published by Ungar, New York.
[4] Merritt, H.E.: "Gear Engineering", Pitman, London,

1971.
[ 5 ] Dudley, Darle W.: "HandtJook of Pract ical Gear

Design", McGraw-Hill, New York, 1984.
526 Bibliography
[6] "AGMA Standard For Rating the Pitting Resistance

and Bending Strength of Spur and Helical Involute Gear
Teeth", AGMA 218.01, Dec. 1982.
[7] Dolan, T.J. and Broghamer, E.L.: "A Photoelastic

Study of Stresses in Gear tooth Fillets", Univ. Illinois Eng.
Expt. Sta. Bull. 335, March 1942.
[8] Wellauer, E.J. and Seireg, A.: "Bending Strength

of Gear Teeth by Cantilever-Plate Theory", Journal of
Engineering for Industry, Trans. ASME, Vol 82, Series B,
No.3, pp. 213-222, Aug. 1960.
[9] Polder, J .W.: "Overcut Interference in Internal

Gears", Proc. International Symposium on Gearing and Power
Transmissions", Tokyo, 1981.
[10] Colbourne, J.R.: "Optimum Number of Teeth for

Span Measurement", AGMA Paper No. 85 FTM 9, Oct. 1985.
[11] Colbourne, J .R.: "Effect of Oblique Loading on

the Fillet Stress in Helical Gears", AGMA Paper No. 86 FTM 6,
Oct. 1986.
Index
Addendum c i rc Ie 45
Addendum, measured from the standard pitch circle 45
measured f rom the pi tch c i rc Ie 76
Addendum modification 168
Angle of contact 83
Angles of approach and recess 89
Angular pi tch 83
Axial assembly of internal gear pairs 275
Axial contact ratio 386
Backlash, in a spur gear pair 97
in a helical gear pair 387
in a crossed helical gear pair 437
Balanced strength design 162
Base cylinder, of a spur gear 28,78
of an internal gear 262
of a hel ical gear 323
Base helix 335
Base helix angle 323
Base pitch, of a spur gear 35
transverse, normal 326,346
Basic rack, for gears in general 23
for involute gears 24
for helical gears 309
Bearing reactions, crossed helical gears 445
Center distance, in a spur gear pair 20
Chordal addendum 193
Chordal tooth thickness, of spur gears 193
of helical gears 352
Clearance 77
Close-mesh operation 100
Conjugate profiles 23
528 Index
Contact force, in spur gear pairs 243

in helical gear pairs 489
in crossed helical gear pairs 445
Contact length, in helical gear pairs 491
Contact line inclination angle 342,402
Contact ratio, in a spur gear pair 83
when one gear is undercut 184
in a rack and pinion 88
in an internal gear pair 270
Contact stress, in spur gears 244
in hel ical gears 502
Correction 168
Cutting center distance, spur gear and pinion cutter 116,121
internal gear and pinion cutter 282
helical gear and pinion cutter 453
Cutting circular pi tch 116
Cutting point 132
Cutting pressure angle 116
Cutting, spur gears 110
internal gears 279
helical gears 451
Cycloidal gears 148
Dedendum circle 45
Dedendum, measured from the standard pitch circle 45
measured from the pi tch circle 76
Developed cylinder 320
Diametral pi tch 39
transverse, normal 310
Differential 472
End points of the path of contact 85
during cutting 140
Equivalent spur gear 508
Euler-Savary equation 229
External gears 9
Face contact ratio 384
Face-width 50
minimum value, for crossed helical gears 435
Index 529
Fillet 48
Fillet circle 91,138
Fillet shape, cut by a rack cutter 212
of an undercut gear 216
cut by a pinion cutter 221
of internal gears 283
Fillet stress, in spur gears 248
in helical gears 508
Form cutting 110
Form diameter 177
Gear-tooth vernier caliper 192
Generating cutting 112,122
Generator 331
Generator inclination angle 341
Geometric design, of spur gear pairs 155
of internal gear pairs 294
of helical gear pairs 483
Geometry factor kc 247,507
Geometry factor k t 252,518
Geometry factors I and J 254,518
Helical factor 513
Helical gears 303
Helix 318
Hel ix angle, of a gear 321
of a rack 309
of a crossed helical rack 408
Highest point of single-tooth contact 174
Hobbing machine gear train layout 469
Hobbing, of spur gears 128
Imaginary rack 72,378
Interference, in a spur gear pair 91
in an internal gear pair 271
Interference points 97
Internal gears 9,259
Inverse involute function 32
Involute 27
Involute function 30
530 Index
Involute helicoid 318

Law of Gearing 9
Lead 318
Lead angle of a hob 130,458
Left-handed helical gear 319
Limit circle 94
Line of action 28,57,67,71
Long and short addendum system 160
Low face contact ratio gear pairs 498
Lowest point of single-tooth contact 174
Measurement between pins 297
Measurement over pins 200
Module 39
Normal direction to involute helicoid surface 337
Normal section 338
Normal section tooth profile 359
Operating helix angle 367
Operating pressure angle, of a spur gear pair 67
of a rack and pinion 28,57
of a pinion meshed wi th a rack 58
of a spur gear 68
transverse, of a helical gear pair 373
transverse, normal, of a helical gear 367
Path of contact, of a spur gear pair 22,28,71
of a crossed helical gear pair 423
Pinion 13
Pinion cutter, spur 112
helical 451
Pitch, circular 18
operating circular 58,99
transverse, normal, axial 323
of a rack 13
pitch cylinders, of a spur gear pair 20,67
of a pinion meshed wi th a rack 17,55
of a helical gear pair 312,375
Pitch line of a rack 17,57
pi tch point 17
Plane of action 373
Index 531
Pressure angle, of a rack 24

of a spur gear 33
transverse, normal 330,341
Profile angle, of a rack 14
of a spur gear 31
Transverse, normal 329,338
Profile contact ratio 384
Profile modification 218
Profile shift, of spur gears 148
Rack 13
Radial assembly of internal gear pairs 275
Radius of curvature, of the involute tooth profile 229
of spur gear tooth fillets 235
of internal gear tooth fillets 286
Recess action gears 163
Reference line of a rack 14
Reference plane of a helical rack 312
Region of contact 385
Right-hand rule of vectors 307
Right-handed helical gear 319
Roll angle 31
Root circle 44
Root relief 220
Rubbing, during cutting of internal gears 292
Shaft angle 414
Shaping, spur gears with a pinion cutter 112
spur gears wi th a rack cutter 123
internal gears 279
helical gears wi th a pinion cutter 451
helical gears with a rack cutter 454
Sliding velocity, in a rack and pinion 63
in a spur gear pair 73
Space width 42,99
Span measurement, of spur gears 196
Specification, of a spur gear 49
of a hel ical gear 362
53-2 Index
Spur gears 7
Standard center distance, of a spur gear pair 74
of a helical gear pair 381
Standard cutting center distance 120
Standard pi tch cyl inder, of a spur gear 25,78
of a helical gear 313
Standard shaft angle 419
Stress concentration factor 249
Swivel angle 130,467
Threads on a hob 128,479
Tip circle 44
Tip interference 272
Tip relief 220
Tooth thickness 41
Tooth thickness measurement, of spur gears 191
Total contact ratio 384
Transverse section, through a gear 312
through a rack 309
through crossed helical gears 409
Undercut circle 142,179
Undercutting, in a spur gear 140
in an internal gear 288
in a helical gear 387
Vectors, use of 306
Very low face contact ratio gear pairs 496
Whole depth of teeth 45
Working depth 77

The Geometry of Involute Gears

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The Geometry of Involute Gears

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The Geometry of Involute Gears

With 217 Illustrations

Library of Congress Cataloging in publication Data

[SBN-13: 978-1-4612-9146-6 e-[SBN-13: 978-1-4612-4764-7

PART SPUR GEARS

1. The Law of Gearing 9

2. Tooth Profile of an Involute Gear 24

4. Contact Ratio Interference and Backlash 83

5. Gear Cutting I Spur Gears 110

6. Profile Shift 148

7. Miscellaneous Circles 174

8. Measurement of Tooth Thickness 191

9. Geometry of Non-Involute Gears 207

10. Curvature of Tooth Profiles 229

11. Tooth Stresses in Spur Gears 241

12. Internal Gears 259

PART 2 HELICAL GEARS

13. Tooth Surface of a Helical Involute Gear 305

14. Helical Gears in Mesh 366

15. Crossed Helical Gears 405

16. Gear Cutting II Helical Gears 451

17. Tooth Stresses in Helical Gears 489

Lower Case Symbols

Upper Case Symbols

A Point on tooth profile

Upper Case Symbols (continued)

b At the base cylinder

Of all the many types of machine elements which exist

is included in the book simply because the tooth profiles of

the existing terminology is confusing. For example, the

The second part of the book deals with the geometry of

particularly helpful in his own study of gear geometry. In

External and Internal Gears

A spur gear is a gear cut from a cylindrical blank, with

The Requirement for a Constant Angular Veloci ty Ratio

When two gears rotate together, as shown in Figure 1.3,

Figure'. ,. An external gear.

revolutions in radians and dividing by the time taken, we

Figure '.2. An internal gear.

where the minus sign indicates that the direction of rotation

Equation (1.3) is true for all gears, whatever the shape

Figure 1.3. A gear pair.

machine designers began to make greater demands on the gears

The purpose of this chapter is to determine the

Figure 1.5. Rack pitch and profile angle.

Rack and Pinion

A rack is a segment of a gear whose radius is infinite.

the intersection of this line with the tooth profiles will

where vr is defined as positive in the upward direction, and W

Equation (1.7) is exactly analogous to Equation (1.3).

Figure 1.6 shows the rack tooth and pinion tooth

Since Ar is the contact point, the unit vector nnr lies

I..-Rack reference line

Figure 1.6. The common normal at the contact point.

where the dot indicates the scalar product between two

VA wnS x (xnE+Yn~) - wYn e + wxn~ (1.12)

where the symbol x in Equation (1.12) indicates the vector

I-Rack reference line

Figure 1.7. pitch point of a rack and pinion.

In Equation (1.8), we gave the relation that we require

The line in the rack which touches the pinion pitch

The circular pitch of the pinion teeth at any radius R is

In the case when the circular pitch is measured on the pitch

Figure 1.8. Circular pitch.