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PERMEABILITY AND CAPILLARITY
OF SOILS
A Symposium
presented at the
Sixty-ninth Annual Meeting
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR
TESTING AND MATERIALS
Atlantic City, N. 1, 26 June-1 July, 1966
ASTM SPECIAL TECHNICAL PUBLICATION NO. 417
List price $10.50; 30 per cent discount to members
published by the
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS
1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 19103
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© BY AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS 1967
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 67-16980
NOTE
The Society is not responsible, as a body,

for the statements and opinions
advanced in this publication.
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Foreword
The papers and discussions included in this Symposium on Permeabil-

ity and Capillarity of Soils were presented on July 1, 1966, during the
69th Annual Meeting of the Society in Atlantic City, N. J. Committee
D-18 on Soils and Rocks for Engineering Purposes sponsored this sym-
posium. A. I. Johnson, U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colo., devel-
oped the program and served as symposium chairman.
The objective of this symposium was to bring to the attention of
ASTM members the test methods and apparatus used by a variety of
technical disciplines in the testing of soils and rocks for their permeability
and capillarity.
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Related
ASTM Publications
Compaction of Soils, STP 377 (1965), $7.00
Instruments and Apparatus for Soil and Rock Me-

chanics, STP 392 (1965), $8.50
Vane Shear and Cone Penetration Resistance Testing

of In-Situ Soils, STP 399 (1966), $2.25
Contents
Introduction 1
Moisture Flow and Equilibria in Unsaturated Soils for Shallow Foun-
dations B. J. RICHARDS 4
Discussion 34
Pumping Test Methods for Determining Aquifer Characteristics
S. M. LANG 35
Hydraulic Properties of Disturbed and Undisturbed Soils—G. E. LALI-
BERTE AND A. T. COREY 56
Apparatus for Measuring Hydraulic Conductivity of Undisturbed Soil
Samples—K. E. WIT 72
Permeability and Capillarity in Petroleum Reservoir Engineering
o. c. BAPTIST 84
Discussion 104
Abnormalities in Hydraulic Flow Through Fine-Grained Soils
J. K. MITCHELL AND J. S. YOUNGER 106
Discussion 140
Field Determination of Permeability by the Infiltration Test—w. E.
SCHMID 142
Discussion 158
—^ir and Water Permeability of Compacted Soils—E. L. MATYAS 160 160
•'Selected Bibliography on Permeability and Capillarity Testing of Rock
and Soil Materials—A. i. JOHNSON AND R. c. RICHTER 176
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STP417-EB/Aug. 1967
PERMEABILITY AND CAPILLARITY OF SOILS
Introduction
The facility with which water, as well as other fluids, will move
through, or be held in or drawn into, the pores of soils and rocks is very
significant in many types of engineering, hydrologic, agricultural, and
geologic problems. Permeability and capillarity that measure this facility
thus represent some of the most important properties of soils and rocks
and the determination of these properties is a most important aspect of
the testing of these materials. These properties play a vital part in prob-
lems related to drainage of highways and agricultural lands, seepage
through earth dams and levees, uplift pressure beneath concrete dams and
other construction, estimating available groundwater storage, dewatering
construction sites, moisture distribution above the groundwater table, re-
covery of petroleum from oil-bearing strata, groundwater recharge by
wells or spreading basins, disposal of atomic and other wastes by well
injection, and seepage pressures that cause earth slides.
Although the permeability and capillarity tests of rocks and soils are
quite simple in theory, many factors affect such tests, both in the field and
in the laboratory. Thus, the movement of water through soils and rocks,
whether driven by pressure or capillary forces, is immensely complicated.
The testing engineer must be aware constantly of the many factors that
may affect the results obtained from tests for permeability and capillarity.
The empirical law discovered in 1856 by Darcy provides us with a funda-
mental law for flow of water through soils and rocks. This law has been
extensively tested, and its validity apparently has been established under
a wide variety of conditions. A knowledge of Darcy's law is essential to an
understanding of the flow of water through soils and rocks and for analy-
sis of the many problems mentioned previously.
ASTM Committee D-18 on Soils and Rocks for Engineering Purposes
has responsibility for developing methods of testing soils and rocks and
for furthering research activity in the general field of properties and be-
havior of soils and rocks for engineering purposes. The members of Com-
mittee D-18, however, are very much aware that natural materials such
as soil and rock cannot be treated like most controlled materials. Thus,
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2 PERMEABILITY AND CAPILLARITY OF SOILS
quality soil and rock testing never should be a simple routine matter.
As indicated by Holtz,1 soil and rock must be evaluated in terms of their
past history, constituent parts, the treatment comtemplated, and the con-
ditions to which they will be subjected. Thus, some details of soil and
rock testing procedures must be flexible to take into account these fac-
tors, and experiment and judgment of a high order are demanded from
the testing engineers.
Because of the importance of permeability and capillarity of soils and
rocks in many modern-day problems of engineering and other disciplines,
and because of the need to develop new or revised methods for testing
these important properties, members of Subcommittee 4 (Permeability
and Capillarity Properties) of Committee D-18 believed that a symposium
on this subject was appropriate. In addition, it was believed important
that results of laboratory and field testing from a variety of disciplines be
assembled to encourage cross-communication of ideas, techniques, and
applications. Furthermore, a Symposium on Permeability of Soils2 was
held at Chicago on June 15, 1954, at the Fifty-Seventh Annual Meeting
of the American Society for Testing Materials, but no symposium includ-
ing capillarity as subject matter had ever been held by ASTM.
The 1966 symposium sponsored by ASTM described permeability and
capillarity testing techniques—as used in engineering, agriculture, geol-
ogy, and hydrology—and their application to engineering problems as-
sociated with soil and rock materials. The interdisciplinary program
included papers on both laboratory and field testing techniques, written
by an international group of authors—from Australia, Canada, England,
and the Netherlands, as well as the United States.
In presenting an interdisciplinary symposium, there is, unfortunately,
considerable chance for lack of communication between the engineers
and scientists of the various disciplines. For example, a variety of terms
have been used to describe the pressure condition existing above the
groundwater table, where the soil-moisture pressure is negative. Soil-
moisture tension seems to be favored by most soil scientists in the United
States, and soil-moisture suction by those in Europe. Civil and petroleum
engineers use capillary pressure or pore pressure to designate essentially
the same phenomenon. The capillary pressure curves of the petroleum
engineer are similar, in general, to the moisture-tension curves of the
soil physicist, and both in turn are used by the hydrologist to represent
the moisture distribution in the unsaturated zone above the water table.
Furthermore, there is no standardization of units used to express either
permeability or capillarity.
To assist in better communication between the disciplines involved
1
W. G. Holtz, "Introduction," Laboratory Shear Testing of Soils, ASTM STP
36J, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., 1964, p. 2.
2
Permeability of Soils, ASTM STP 163, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., 1955.
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INTRODUCTION 3
in permeability and capillarity testing of soils and rocks, the reader is

referred to the following references:
"Glossary of Geology and Related Sciences," American Geological Insti-
tute, Publication 501, Washington, D.C., 1960, 325 pp.
"Standard Definitions of Terms and Symbols Relating to Soil Mechanics,"
1961 Book of ASTM Standards, American Society for Testing Ma-
terials, Part 4,1961, pp. 1402-1419.
"Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division," Proceedings,
American Society Civil Engineers, Vol. 84, No. SM4, Part 1, 1958
pp. 1826-1831 and 1826-1843.
"Bulletin of the International Society of Soil Science," Bulletin 20, In-
ternational Society Soil Science, Amsterdam, Holland, 1963, pp.
2-5.
"Glossary of Terms Approved by the Soil Science Society of America,"
Proceedings, Soil Science Society America, Vol. 26, No. 3, 1962, pp.
305-317.
A. I. Johnson
Chief, Hydrologic Laboratory,
U. S. Geological Survey,
Denver, Colo., symposium chairman
STP417-EB/Aug. 1967
B. G. Richards1
Moisture Flow and Equilibria in

Unsaturated Soils for Shallow Foundations
REFERENCE: B. G. Richards, "Moisture Flow and Equilibria in Un-

saturated Soils for Shallow Foundations," Permeability and Capillarity of
Soils, ASTM STP 417, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., 1967, p. 4.
ABSTRACT: The performance of engineering structures on shallow foun-
dations in Australia is largely dependent on moisture movement and
equilibria in soils which are unsaturated. No suitable theory for the
foundation design of these structures exists, and this paper outlines
briefly a rational design approach based on considerable experimental
evidence. This approach is suggested, not as one that has been tried suc-
cessfully in many instances and therefore one which can be used without
reservation, but rather to convince practical engineers that there is a ra-
tional solution to this problem which should lead to adequate design
techniques in the near future. Techniques for the measurement of the
required soil moisture properties are also mentioned and briefly discussed.
KEY WORDS: soil (material), foundations, roads, buildings, permeability,
diffusivity, soil water, capillarity
Most of the developing road systems in Australia traverse flat, semi-

arid to arid regions with extensive areas of clay soils. Road pavements
therefore can be founded directly on these soils, which are generally
extremely dry in their natural condition. Therefore, the use of design
techniques such as those based on the determination of the California
Bearing Ratio of the soil in the soaked condition, which is common
practice in Australia, may result in unduly conservative designs and un-
necessary expenditure of money. Many residential and industrial build-
ings have shallow foundations on clay soils and are prone to damage
caused by movement of the soil with changing moisture conditions. For
all engineering structures with shallow foundations on clay soils, it is
necessary, firstly, to understand, and secondly, to predict the moisture
movement and moisture equilibria which will occur during the lifetime
of the structure. The majority of the soils in Australia are in the unsatu-
rated condition, and to date the theory of moisture flow in these soils
1
Senior research scientist, Soil Mechanics Section, Commonwealth Scientific
and Industrial Research Organization, Syndal, Victoria, Australia.
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RICHARDS ON MOISTURE FLOW AND EQUILIBRIA 5
has not been understood, partly due to the lack of adequate techniques
for measuring the moisture variable.
Consequently, a broad-scale investigation study of moisture conditions
in pavement subgrades in Australia was undertaken by the Soil Me-
chanics Section of CSIRO. The main emphasis was on road problems,
but it was realized that, in general, the conclusions might apply equally
to the building problem. A comprehensive report on this work has been
published [1,2],2 together with a full statement of the engineering con-
cepts of moisture equilibria and moisture changes in soils beneath covered
areas [5]. This present paper is an attempt to express the results of this
investigation and of the approach adopted in terms of a practical engi-
neering design statement and to discuss some of the outstanding prob-
lems.
Theory of Moisture Retention, Movement, and Equilibria

In order to understand the problem of moisture movement and equi-
libria in soils, it is necessary to have a workable theory with which to
relate the experimental evidence, at least qualitatively. It is now agreed
by most workers in this field [3] that the thermodynamic approach
coupled with the theory of diffusion provides the best theoretical ap-
proach at the present time.
Most soil engineers are familiar with the theory of water flow in satu-
rated soils, based on Darcy's law
(1a)
where:
v = velocity of flow,
k = permeability (a constant in saturated soils),
d^/dX = gradient of potential or total head, ^ in the X direction,
t = z + u,
z = elevation above datum, and
u = pore pressure in height of water.
When this equation is coupled with the law of continuity or conser-
vation of mass, it gives the one-dimensional consolidation equation [4]
(1b)
where:
2
The italic numbers in brackets refer to the list of references appended to this
paper.
6 = volumetric water content,

cv = (du/86)k = coefficient of consolidation, and
t = time.
As dfy/dX2 = d^/dX2 for most practical cases, we get the widely used
expression for the consolidation equation,
(1)
However, in unsaturated soils, the pore pressures become negative, and

the assumption that the permeability k is a constant no longer applies.
k is in fact a function of the water content, so Darcy's law, Eq la, no
longer holds. Richards [5] and Childs and Collis-George [6] have shown
that a modified Darcy's law applies to unsaturated soils, namely,
(2a)
where:
/c(0) = permeability as a function of the volumetric water content, 6
When coupled with the law of continuity, this gives the diffusion
equation in three dimensions [3,7].
(2a)
where:
h = total suction (discussed in following section) and
= — u, in salt-free soils.
This equation, therefore, is identical to the consolidation equation in
salt free soils, except that k is no longer a constant.
For many soils, and especially expansive soils, this equation can be
simplified to the more convenient form, assuming the variable d\f//36
to be relatively constant over the range considered [2]
(2c)
where:
D = D(k) = (dh/d6)k(h),
= diffusivity, which is a function of h,
= cv in a saturated soil,
k(h) = fc(0), but expressed as a function of h for convenience,
V = mathematical operator, and
= (d)/(dxi) where Xi represents the three dimensions x\,2*,
and xz.
There are many difficulties in applying Eq 26 or c to practical cases,
and at the present time the following assumptions must generally be

made: (1) isothermal conditions, (2) low and uniform solute concen-
trations, (3) small suction gradients, (4) light overburden and applied
pressures, (5) relatively homogeneous and isotropic soils, (6) no hyste-
resis, and (7) no structure or fissures.
The first five are reasonable assumptions for most practical cases.
Hysteresis is not a serious problem, as most changes occur in the one
direction, and, providing measurements are made along an identical
path, D can be expressed as a unique function of ^. Assumption 7 causes
the greatest difficulty in the application of the diffusion equation and
will be discussed further under the measurement of D.
This diffusion equation, therefore, provides a mathematical expression
of moisture flow in soils, enabling moisture flow and equilibria problems
to be analyzed in terms of two parameters only, namely, D and \ft.
This equation can now be readily solved using numerical methods on a
high-speed digital computer [2]. However, the greatest restrictions in its
practical use are the determination of D and \l/ and the relevant boundary
conditions for the problem considered. For this reason, as well as eco-
nomic reasons, it is often more convenient to fall back on semiempirical
methods based on this theory for predicting moisture changes and equi-
libria.
Parameter ^ or h
The total potential3 of the soil moisture, ^, is fundamentally a thermo-
dynamic variable and for isothermal conditions, is identical to the rela-
tive free energy of the soil moisture, A/ [3]. For the practical purposes
considered here
(3)
where:
z = gravitational potential (cm water),
h = total suction,3
= hm + hs,
hm = matrix suction3 (cm water) = — u cm water, and
hs = solute suction3 or osmotic pressure due to dissolved salts.
Therefore, in the absence of dissolved salts, when hs = 0 or for uni-
form concentrations, when V/zs = 0, and hs can be neglected
(3a
In this form, ^ is identical to the potential or total head used in the
consolidation Eq Ic.
3
For definition of these terms see Ref 3.
The parameter \jj has proved to be a useful variable, certainly more so

than the commonly used variable of water content. The diffusion equation
clearly establishes the advantage of using potential, suction, or the free
energy parameters for describing moisture flow and equilibria.
It has also been demonstrated [7] that while it is quite difficult to make
a realistic field measurement of soil water content, the field measurement
of the soil suction or free energy parameter is relatively easy with modern
techniques.
The effect of moisture on the strength of soils and particularly partly
saturated soils is not adequately understood, but has been investigated
by numerous workers [8-11 etc.]. However, they have shown that the
only practical way of relating strength of soil to its environment available
at present is by means of effective stress, which is a function of pore water
pressure or suction. A similar relation for resistance to elastic deforma-
tion, E, has been demonstrated [12]; Blight [13] has also shown that the
only existing practical way of relating volume change to the various
processes is by means of the effective stress law and the suction parameter.
Measurement of h
An adequate summary of all the available techniques for the measure-
ment of soil suction has been described elsewhere [3]. The following
techniques are those that can be recommended at this stage.
In Situ Measurements
The only tested technique available is the gypsum block technique
[/] in which the resistance of the porous element is measured when its
moisture potential is in equilibrium with the surrounding soil. However,
among its disadvantages are slow time response, limited range, sensitivity
to dissolved salts and temperature change, hysteresis, and chemical de-
terioration. Sensitivity to dissolved salts, a serious problem in natural
soils, is now being partly overcome by measuring the dielectric constant
or thermal conductivity of similar blocks. Another device which shows
considerable promise is the thermistor hygrometer [14] which has proved
to be successful under simulated field conditions in the laboratory, but
still has to be tried in the field.
Tensiometers, which have been successfully used by agricultural
workers, have proved to be useless in expansive soils, even over a limited
suction range. The reasons for this are:
1. Due to the very low permeability of these soils, field tensiometers
have too low a time response.
2. Volume changes during drying cause shrinkage of the soil away
from the tip, resulting in an air gap around the tip. This lowers the time
response even further and causes the tensiometer to be very temperature
sensitive.
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3. Most expansive soils have appreciable solute suctions and the

equalization of these suctions is also time dependent.
Laboratory Measurements
Laboratory measurements can be made on undisturbed sealed speci-
mens, in an attempt to estimate the in situ suction of the specimen. How-
ever, there are serious limitations on the usefulness of these measure-
ments, irrespective of the accuracy of the technique used, due to
disturbance, stress removal, and so forth, in the specimen.
The psychrometer [25] is now proving to be the most useful laboratory
technique available. It is relatively cheap, simple to use, reliable, rapid,
and extremely accurate over the whole range of suctions found in soils.
It also determines total suction and its components matrix and solute
suction, enabling the effect of these components to be examined.
In order to reduce the effects of disturbance, handling, and time on the
soil specimen, portable versions of the psychrometer are now in use in
Australia, enabling rapid determinations to be made at the bore hole
itself.4
The null-point technique first proposed by Coleman and Marsh [16]
and later modified [7] has proved successful, but the many inherent
disadvantages rather restrict its usefulness.
Parameter D
The diffusivity D has no real physical meaning and is only a convenient
mathematical parameter, useful in the diffusion equation. Philip [17] has
defined Eq la as the "diffusion of potential or energy," and it should not
be confused with the widely used concentration dependent diffusion Eq 7.
It can be compared with the coefficient of consolidation cv and is defined
as k(dh/d 0) where k is the permeability and 6 is the volumetric water con-
tent. Like cv , it can be measured directly through the diffusion equation
and for this and other reasons is the most convenient flow parameter for
use in engineering applications.
Measurement of Diffusivity D
The most satisfactory technique for the measurement of diffusivity
over a wide range of suctions at the present time has been shown to be
the pressure plate outflow technique [18], which can be adapted to en-
gineering applications. The consolidation technique will also give dif-
fusivity or cv , for a range of pressures, but as the degrees of saturation
used in the technique are different to those in the field, it gives values of
D which are much too high.
For determining in situ diffusivities the laboratory technique has severe
limitations. The removal of in situ stresses and the nonrepresentative na-
4
B.Copyright
G. Richards, unpublished
by ASTM data,
Int'l (all 1966.
rights reserved); Sun Jan 11 13:16:39 EST 2015
ture of a small specimen may cause serious errors. Attempts have been
made to determine D in situ from the rate of change of in situ suction
measurements [18], and these indicate that the in situ values of D may be
much higher than for the small specimen. This was obviously due to the
effect of the macrostructure of the soil in situ, for example, fissures.
The effect of vegetation is another factor which creates difficulties in
the use of the diffusion equation and the determination of D in situ. Root
systems in the soil can remove large quantities of water and cause very
complex diffusion patterns, which cannot be handled quantitatively on
the macroscale.
Solute Suction
The potential parameter ^ has two components, namely, matrix suc-
tion, hm , and solute suction, hs. In the past, most measurements made in
partially saturated soils have been in terms of the matrix suction com-
ponent only. This was due both to the lack of satisfactory measuring
techniques for the determination of the total suction and the lack of
knowledge concerning the magnitude of solute suctions in soils. The prob-
lem of suitable measuring techniques has now been overcome with the
development of instruments such as the psychrometer, which enables the
total suction to be measured directly. The significant magnitude of solute
suctions even where small quantities of solutes are present is indicated
by Table 1.
The total free energy or total suction parameter is that controlled by
the environmental factors. This is shown by the improved correlation
between total suction and the Thornthwaite Moisture Index I5 than be-
tween matrix suction and I [1]. In some areas, for example, Woomera,
South Australia, the solute suction completely dominates. In this particu-
lar case, the mean atmospheric humidity controls the total suction at a
high value, with approximately zero matrix component. So it is possible
to have, in arid areas, soils fully saturated without the presence of a
water table near the surface. In less extreme cases, the solute suctions
may appreciably depress the matrix suctions and increase the moisture
contents. In these cases, quite large variations in total suction can pro-
duce only negligible variations in matrix suction and moisture content.
The flow of water in soils is also controlled by the total potential or
suction gradients. However, it may not be possible to simply replace the
5
The Thornthwaite Moisture Index I [57] is defined by the equation
where:
D = soil drainage,
d = soil moisture deficit, and
EP — potential evaporation.
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TABLE 1—Values of solute suction, h, , cm water.
Water Content, %
Total Soluble Salts,
s 10 15 20 30 40 50
0.02 . .3.16 X 103 1.58 X 103 1.05 X 103 7.90 X 102 5.27 X 102 3.95 X 102 3.16 X 102
0.04 ..6.32 X 103 3.16 X 103 2.10 X 103
1.58 X 103 1.05 X 103
7.90 X 102
6.32 X 102
0.06 . .9.48 X 103 4.74 X 103 3.16 X 1033 2.37 X 103
1.58 X 1033 1.19 X 103 9.48 X 102
0.08 . .1.26 X 104 6.32 X 103 4.20 X 10 3 16 X 103 2.11 X 10 1.58 X 103 1.26 X 103
3
0.10 ..1.58 X 104
7.90 X 10 5.25 X 103 3.95 X 103 2.64 X 103 1.98 X 103 1.58 X 103
0.15 . .2.37 X 104 1.19 X 104 7.88 X 103 5.92 X 103 3.96 X 103 2.97 X 103 2.37 X 103
0.20 ..3.16 X 104 1.58 X 104 1.05 X 104 7.90 X 103 5.27 X 103 3.95 X 103 3.16 X 103
0.40 ..6.32 X 104 3.16 X 104 2.10 X 104 1.58 X 104 1.05 X 104 7.90 X 103 6.32 X 103
0.60 ..9.48 X 104 4.74 X 104 3.16 X 104 2.37 X 104 1.58 X 104 1.19 X 104 9.48 X 103
&&
1.00 ..1.58 X 10s 7.90 X 104 5.25 X 104 3.95 X 104 2.64 X 104 1.98 X 104 1.58 X 104
2.00 1 58 X 104 1.05 X 104 7 90 X 104 5 27 X 104 3.95 X 104 3.16 X 104
* h, for sea water = 2.3 X10 cm water.
** h, for saturated solution NaCl at 20 C = 2.7
matrix component with the total suction or total potential as has been
done in Eq 2b and c. Kemper [19] has suggested that the liquid phase
flow should be divided into normal Darcy type viscous flow under pres-
sure and gravitational potential gradients and diffusive flow under total
potential gradients including the solute and temperature gradients. How-
ever, the quantitative definition of this flow problem has yet to be re-
solved satisfactorily.
Solute suctions can affect the physical properties of soils appreciably.
FIG. 1—Relation between solute suction and volume change in a clay soil.
It is not the purpose of this paper to discuss these effects fully, but they
have been mentioned here to show the importance of the solute suction
component.
It has been well established, for example, Quirk [20], Bolt [21], that
solute concentrations or suctions control intercrystalline swelling of clay
minerals and therefore volume changes in clay soils, as shown in Fig. 1.
Therefore, matrix suction alone should not be considered in volume
change measurements. An increase in solute suction not only reduces
the volume of the soil, but also increases the flocculation of the soil
particles, both of which tend to reduce the future potential volume change
by changes in matrix suction only. Above a certain solute suction, at
which the intercrystalline spacings have been reduced to their minimum
values, future volume changes with changes in total suction or moisture

content generally will be negligible, providing the solute suctions are not
reduced below this critical value.
One obvious problem, therefore, is the reduction of solute suctions by
repeated watering of gardens with relatively solute-free water or dis-
charge of rain water in the vicinity of a dwelling. Large volume changes
(heave) may occur with relatively small changes in matrix suction. Pre-
cautions must also be taken in laboratory and field testing, as distilled
water will alter both solute and matrix components, whereas water at a
similar composition to the soil water will only vary the matrix component.
Solute suctions will also affect the strength of soil. Lambe [22] has
shown the dependence of soil strength on the interparticle forces, which
are strongly influenced by the solute suctions. The resulting strength
from these forces excluding the effects of the external and pore water
pressure, is lumped together in the cohesion term. In the past, suction
measurements have been made in terms of the matrix component only
[23] via the equation
a)
where:
<T = effective stress,
<r = applied stress,
MO = pore air pressure,
X = effective stress parameter, and
MU, = pore water pressure.
However, in practice, most measurements of M^ , the matrix com-
ponent, are made with distilled water in the pore pressure apparatus.
This results in the solute suctions in the specimen being reduced to zero,
the measurement of suction being in terms of total suction; or an inter-
mediate condition may be established, depending on the flow properties
of the system. Use of Eq 4 consistently gives small values of cohesion,
suggesting that if accurate values of the total suction were used or pref-
erably, accurate values of its components were used in an equation,
such as Eq 5, then the cohesion term might be reduced to a negligible
value.
5
where:
Xm = effective stress parameter for matrix suction, and
Xs = effective stress parameter for solute suction.
The use of an equation such as Eq 5 may also give better correlations
between theory and experimental results.
Design of Road and Aerodrome Pavements

Soil volume changes, that is, heave or settlement due to moisture
variations beneath the pavements are often important [24]. The resulting
deformation can cause severe cracking, reducing the life and increasing
the maintenance of the pavement as well as affecting the trafficability.
This problem of volume change will be discussed later under design of
buildings.
The major problem in the design of pavements is the determination of
the most critical strength or resistance to deformation of the subgrade.
In Australia, as in many other places, the determination of the California
bearing ratio (CBR) of the soil in the soaked condition is still the basis
for designing pavement thicknesses. Although many highway depart-
ments now use empirical tests or relations between simple tests such as
Atterberg limits, particle size grading, and so forth, and the pavement
thickness, these techniques were based originally on experience with the
soaked CBR method. In drier areas some road authorities do make al-
lowances, such as reducing the pavement thickness or allowing poorer
grade materials to be used in the pavement. However, these are based on
local knowledge and cannot be classed as rational design procedures.
The Australian Commonwealth Department of Works has developed
a rational design technique [25,26] based on the ratio field moisture
content/plastic limit. This ratio makes allowance for the variability of
moisture content, and Russam [3] has shown how it can be utilized in a
more complete design approach.
As already mentioned, soil strength can only be satisfactorily related
to moisture conditions through the effective stress parameter. In this
particular case, the overburden pressures are generally negligible, and
strength can be related directly to suction. Values of CBR versus suction
(or — u) are shown in Fig. 2 for two typical and widespread Australian
clays. These are compared with the theoretical prediction of CBR for
English clays [27]. The curves show the considerable increase in CBR
with suction. Figure 2a shows the significant reduction in thickness of
pavement that can be achieved when high suctions are maintained under
the pavement. This is in agreement with theoretical considerations of
capillary forces in soils by Ingles [25]. He showed that higher tensile and
compressive strengths could be achieved in fine grained soils through the
action of capillary forces than by other natural forces, and were of an
order which could only otherwise be achieved by stabilization.
The determination of strength-suction relationships has been most
difficult in the past, but new rapid and direct techniques now enable these
relations to be determined on specimens prepared at arbitrary suctions
or water content.
Results of field investigations have conclusively shown [1,29-31] that
the soil under covered areas, except near the vicinity of the edges, is
isolated from rapid changes and tends to a stable moisture distribution.

The equilibrium condition can readily be predicted and with adequate
design procedures, can be maintained at this condition with considerable
savings in pavement thickness. The magnitude of the edge effects depends
largely on the soil type and the shoulder or verge design. However, with
normal maintenance and design precautions, the magnitude of the varia-
FIG. la—Relation between CBR and suction.
tions and the lateral extent of the affected zone is extremely limited and
can generally be neglected.
The problem therefore resolves to that of predicting the equilibrium
moisture conditions. With a knowledge of the conditions at the time of
construction, the most critical conditions can be determined.
Buildings
In contrast to pavements, the strength of the soil is rarely of impor-
tance for house dwellings on clays, which are our main concern in this
discussion. Consolidation type settlement under structural load is gener-
ally insignificant. However, it must be realized that consolidation is only

a particular case of the more general problem of water movement and
should not be considered separately in any complete analysis.
The most common problem met in the performance of buildings is
the heave or settlement of the soil due to the climatic and drainage en-
vironment and changes in this environment brought about by the erection
FIG. 2b—Relation between CBR and pavement thickness (after Kerkhoven and
Dormari).
of the building. Some of the most common causes of failure based on ex-
perience in a number of countries are as follows:
1. Seasonal variations in climate cause moisture variations under the
extremities of the structure, resulting in differential movements in the
structure. Abnormal wet or dry seasonal changes may result in serious
damage in some areas.
2. Long-term wetting or drying under the structure may be a slow
process in expansive soils, due to the low permeabilities which exist in
these soils. These variations are the result of changing the environment
by placing the structure on the surface, and the associated heave or settle-
mentCopyright
may give rise to differential settlements between the center and the
by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Sun Jan 11 13:16:39 EST 2015
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extremities. This is clearly seen in the doming or dishing of many flat

slab constructions.
3. Hydrological changes over a small or large area will result in mois-
ture variations in the soil, for example, a change in land use such as rural
to suburban. Willoughby [32] has examined this problem in the recently
established satellite town of Elizabeth, South Australia. Over large areas,
these changes may cause raising or lowering of water tables, if they exist,
and general moisture variations in the soil profile. Theoretically, this
should cause uniform movements, which would have no effect on struc-
tures, but in practice, the normal soil variations result in uneven move-
ments, which may or may not affect small structures. On large structures,
for example, roads, this distortion often causes serious problems. Also
changes in hydrology and consequent changes in water table, and so
forth, will give rise to different equilibria conditions under the structure,
which may result in a different settlement pattern and increased differ-
ential settlements and distortion.
4. The most serious damage to small structures is often caused by
localized man-made effects, for example, broken water pipes, nonuniform
watering of gardens, inadequate drainage of storm water, and so forth,
generally leading to localized heave. Large trees and shrubs, furnaces,
central heating plants, and so forth, cause localized desiccation and with
nonuniform loading, such as heavy chimney construction in a lightweight
structure, may result in localized settlement.
The environmental factors which cause damage can now more or less
be predicted, but the man-made factors will always remain an uncer-
tainty. With reasonable care the effects of the man-made factors can be
minimized; for instance, experience has shown that an impervious apron
around a domestic dwelling reduces them considerably.
This problem resolves itself to one of being able to predict the volume
changes and therefore moisture variations which will occur under the
center of the structure relative to the seasonal changes occurring at the
edges.
Prediction of Equilibrium Soil Suction Under Covered Areas

From the results of the Australian investigation [1] and similar in-
vestigations overseas [29-37], the following procedures have been de-
veloped.
Shallow Water Tables

Where water tables exist close to the surface, that is, 20 ft in clay, 10
ft in sandy clays and silts, and 3 ft in sand, then regardless of the climate,
the equilibrium suction profile will be that given by static equilibrium
with Copyright
the water table Int'l
by ASTM [33]. Hence
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(6)
where:
(hm)z = matrix suction at the depth z, and
zw = depth of the water table from the surface.
Where fluctuations occur in the water table throughout the year,
then suction changes will occur in the profile, but not necessarily in
FIG. 3—Suction profile with nonzero total suction at the water table.
phase with the water table. For design purposes, the highest level of the
water table should be considered, as this corresponds to the wettest and
weakest condition. In this case, hm is the matrix suction relative to the
zero suction at the water table, and any measurement of suction should
be carried out with water identical with the soil water at the water table.
In more detailed examinations, the profile should be determined in
terms of total suction, noting that nonzero total suctions will be the
rule at the water table level. The advantage of this approach is that it
enables not byonly
Copyright ASTMthe
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examined, but also
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the possible effects of changes in solute suctions due to leaching, and so

forth. This condition is shown in Fig. 3.
Prediction of Regional Values

Where no shallow water tables exist, the moisture conditions at depth
in the soil are controlled by the moisture balance between rainfall and
evapotranspiration. Therefore estimates of regional values of the equi-
librium soil suction can be obtained by empirical relations between soil
suction in the subgrade and climatic indices such as the Thornthwaite's
Moisture Index I [1, 34] as shown in Fig. 4. The best correlation was ob-
tained in terms of the total suction.
This correlation only gives regional values based on adequate surface
and subsurface drainage. Drainage, deep water tables, soil permeability,
type of cover, vegetation, and local topography will all affect this corre-
lation. Generally drainage and deep water tables have the greatest effect
and tend to depress the equilibrium soil suctions. Russam and Coleman
[34] have related the effect of internal drainage to the soil type. However,
for practical purposes, the single curve for optimum drainage conditions
shown in Fig. 4 should be used for regional values and where these opti-
mum drainage conditions cannot be obtained, reductions in the predicted
values should be made based on experience. Where the surface drainage
conditions can be determined, corrections can be made to the climatic
index, allowing for, say, the increase in water available to the area. This
improves the correlation shown in Fig. 4 and greatly improves the appli-
cation of this correlation to local areas.
To aid the use of Fig. 4 in determining regional subgrade moisture
conditions, maps of I values can be produced based on climatic data [1].
Prediction of Equilibria Suction Values from Deep Suction Profiles

1. In Nonarid Areas (where no permanent surface desiccation ex-
ists)—Field investigations in nonarid areas [7] show that the suction
profile under a covered area is either a static equilibrium profile6 or a
dynamic equilibrium profile7 not significantly different from the static
profile. Also this profile is identical to the suction profile under natural
surface cover away from the structure and below the depth of seasonal
variations. These seasonal variations have been found to occur to depths
of from 2 to 10 ft throughout Australia. It was concluded that structures
of 20 to 30 ft width appear to have negligible effect on moisture condi-
tions below the depth of seasonal variations. The equilibrium suction
profile beneath the structure can therefore be predicted by the extrapola-
6
Suction profile for a steady-state condition with zero flux of moisture in the
profile.
7
Suction profile for a steady-state condition with constant vertical flux of
moisture in the profile.
S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst of Tech Chennai) pursuant to Licens
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rightsCLIMATIC INDEX,
reserved); Sun I
Jan 11 13:16:39 EST 2015
S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst of Tech Chennai) pursuant to License A
+Measured matrix suction—gypsum blocks.
DTotal suction from gypsum blocks and total soluble salts.
ATotal suction measured in laboratory.
O Estimated design total suction based on suction measured at 10-ft depth.
1. Adelaide. 9. Jondaryan.
2. Horsham. 10. Gordon.
3. Bordertown. 11. Tullamarine.
4. Alice Springs 62 m. 12. Nyngan 5% m.
5. Alice Springs 17 m. 13. Nyngan 3^ m.
6. Woomera Road. 14. Cloncurry 8 m.
7. Woomera Aerodrome. 15. Cloncurry 3J£ m.
8. Midland Junction. 16. Winton.
17. Tongala.
to
FIG. 4—Data from road site installations and postulated design curves for values of subgrade suction.
FIG. 5—Determination of the equilibrium suction profile beneath a structure

(nonarid areas), q = vertical flux of moisture.
TABLE 2—Relation between suction and humidity.

Aqueous Relative
Suction, cm water Humidity, %
3.16 X 104 97.73

1.00 X 10s 93.00
3.16 X 10s 79.51
1.00 X 106 48.43
3.16 X 106 10.10
1.00 X 107 0.07
tion of the near static equilibrium profile below the zone of seasonal varia-
tion as shown in Fig. 5. This curve can be expressed approximately by
the relation
S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst of Tech Chennai) pursuant to License Agreement. No
FIG. 6—Determination of the equilibrium suction profile beneath a structure

(arid areas), q = vertical flux of moisture.
7
where:
hz = total suction at depth z, and
hzo = total suction at a depth greater than depth of seasonal var-
iations,
Copyright namely,
by ASTM Int'lz(all
0.
In most cases, the suctions at the depth of seasonal variation were in

excess of about 1000-cm water, and a good approximation was obtained
in this case by assuming the same suction would occur at the surface.
A detailed examination of one of the test sites [2] using computer
FIG. 7—Determination of the equilibrium suction profile beneath a structure,

where desiccation is only a few feet in depth, q = vertical flux of moisture.
solutions of the diffusion equation, further verified these conclusions for

this and other similar sites.
The equilibrium suctions are best predicted in terms of total suction,
but adequate design
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Sun Jan 11 be obtained in
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clays using matrix suction values, providing water identical to the soil
water is used.
2. In Arid Areas (where permanent surface desiccation occurs)—
Russam and Coleman [34] and Aitchison and Richards [1] have shown
that regional subgrade moisture conditions can be determined from the
mean atmospheric humidity, for example, Table 2. Where desiccation
occurs to appreciable depths relative to the width of the structure, for
example, of the order of 10-ft depth, moisture conditions are unaffected
by the structure and remain desiccated. Moisture flow in the desiccated
part of the profile will be mainly in the vapor phase giving the near verti-
cal section of the suction profile in Fig. 6. The equilibrium subgrade
suction can be predicted as that measured at 10 ft before the structure
is built. In this case, only measurements of total suction describe the
equilibria process. However, neither the strength nor the volume change
of the soil are appreciably affected by moisture variations in this suction
range, so accurate determinations are quite unnecessary. Where the desic-
cation is only a few feet in depth, the equilibrium suction profile cannot
be exactly predicted by the simple technique above. This is perhaps the
most critical condition for buildings on shallow foundations in semiarid
areas, where most of the damage due to heaving has been reported [35,
13, 36]. Large moisture changes are possible as shown in Fig. 7, using
the method of prediction for nonarid areas. This prediction gives only the
maximum possible change, but it will always be conservative.
As in other cases, measurements are preferably made in terms of total
suction, but a design heave can be predicted in terms of the matrix suc-
tion.
The true ultimate suction profile and therefore the actual moisture
change, can, however, be determined by theoretical analyses as discussed
below.
Exact Solution of Diffusion Equation
The preceding method of predicting the equilibrium suction profile ap-
plies only to the stable zone under the structure and is applicable only
when adequate drainage can be maintained. In most cases for roads and
small buildings, this approach is not only adequate, but all that is eco-
nomically possible. There are some instances, such as major airports,
where a more extensive investigation is warranted. Edge effects, poor
drainage, permeable and impermeable layers, different boundary condi-
tions are all important factors which may have to be considered. These
can at least be qualitatively examined using solutions of the diffusion
equation by numerical methods on a high speed computer [2].
The preceding methods also give no indication of the time rate of mois-
ture change, which may be required for planning purposes, and so forth.
In some cases,bythe
Copyright determination
ASTM of the coefficient
Int'l (all rights reserved); of consolidation,
Sun Jan 11 13:16:39 EST 2015 cv ,
FIG. 8—Measured and predicted equilibrium matrix suction profiles, at the

H orsham, Victoria, road site.
and use of the classical consolidation theory for saturated soils, will give
some indication of the time rates in clays at low suctions. However, in
general, the only satisfactory method is the solution of the diffusion equa-
tion, as already mentioned. As with the classical consolidation theories,
determination of rates of change will be much less accurate than the ulti-
mateDownloaded/printed
change. by
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FIG. 9—Moisture content-matrix suction relation for the Horsham, Victoria,

road site.
Care should be exercised in the use of this equation, and quantitative

results should be treated with caution. The determination of the true flow
parameters D and h, and the quantitative expression of the various boun-
dary conditions are the main source of error. The actual solution of the
equation itself can be achieved accurately in only a few minutes on a mod-
ern high-speed computer. However, if a range of flow parameters and
boundary conditions
Copyright by ASTMare Int'l
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2015
readilyDownloaded/printed
be obtained. by
Prediction of Heave or Settlement

In the preceding section it has been shown how the equilibrium suction
profile can be predicted. The suction profile at the time of construction
can be measured readily, and thus possible future variations in the suction
profile can also be determined. In Fig. 8 the matrix suction profiles are
shown for the experimental road site at Horsham, Victoria [2]. This fig-
ure shows the close agreement between the predicted curves and the meas-
ured equilibrium suction profile. Similar agreement has been found for
some 17 other experimental road sites [1].
Figure 9 shows the moisture content-matrix suction curve for this site.
As the structural units of the clay remain saturated to over 105 cm water
suction, this curve can be used to determine the volume change and sur-
face movement, where
where:
wi = initial water content, and
w2 = final water content.
Then assuming equal volume changes in the vertical and horizontal
directions, the fractional height change is
Assuming the soil profile is homogeneous and characterized by Fig. 9,

then the following surface movements can be calculated (see Appendix 1).
1. Heave of the center of the structure, if construction was completed
at the driest condition, is \1A in.
2. Seasonal surface movement is ll/z in.
If these seasonal surface movements occur at the outside extremities of
the structure, a differential movement of 11A in. could be expected. How-
ever, experience has shown that the lateral extent of these seasonal varia-
tions under structures is small. They can be readily isolated from under
the structure by properly designed impervious aprons around the struc-
ture.
Differential movements will also occur due to variations in soil type,
depth of soil, and so forth. In any complete investigation, a careful inves-
tigation of the whole site should be made. The assumption that the soil is
homogeneous with depth is rarely a good one, and in practice, volume
change characteristics should be determined at various depths down the
profile.
The factor l/s used in Eq 9 assumes equal vertical and lateral volume
change. This is approximately true for expansive soils, which undergo se-
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vere cracking or fissuring on drying. During heave of the soil from the dry
and fissured state, some volume change takes place closing the fissures.
Light surface loadings, relative to the suctions, would have little effect on
this. In fact, they would tend to reduce the heave further, not only by re-
ducing the swelling pressures, but also by causing plastic creep of soil into
the fissures, as the equilibrium suction profile is usually not the wettest
profile.
FIG. 10—Predicted and measured seasonal soil movements at two road sites.
In consolidation studies, the fractional height changes are assumed to

be equal to the fractional volume changes. This is reasonable as the soil
is in a state of compression under external pressures. In general, the sur-
face loadings of structures considered in this paper will be negligible.
However, should this not be the case, the stress distribution can be in-
cluded in the final effective stress term, 57 in Column 5, Appendix I. In
the case considered, the effective stresses due to the soil suction in the top
few feet varied from 100 to 1000 psi, compared with surface loadings of
domestic construction
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The estimate given for the maximum heave could not be checked ex-
perimentally as the road site was already at equilibrium and no further
surface movements occurred. Seasonal movements were measured at two
nearby sites. In one, no movements were detected, and in the other a
surface movement of 2 in. was observed as shown in Fig. 10. This serves
to indicate the large variations that can occur in expansive soils from one
point to another.
The time rate of heave can be obtained from the computer solutions,
carrying out similar calculations to those shown in Appendix 1 on the
computer itself. However, it cannot be expected that these predictions will
be very accurate at the present time.
The predictions of heave given above are only those occurring due to
the effect of the structure on the natural environment. Various additional
and avoidable factors which have already been discussed will cause addi-
tional heave or settlement and care should be taken to keep these move-
ments to a minimum.
Conclusions
This paper presents a brief summary of the practical aspects of mois-
ture movement and equilibria under engineering structures and how they
can be used to produce an adequate design technique for the foundations
of structures founded at shallow depths. This technique has been used at
least as a guide in the design of buildings on flat slabs in the vicinity of
Melbourne, Victoria, but has not been tested adequately at the present
time. It should not be used without reservation, but can be a useful guide
in most designs of shallow foundations. However, the main aim in pre-
senting this approach is to convince practical engineers that there is a
rational solution to this problem, and to encourage them to support
further work in this important field of soil engineering.
References
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1965, pp. 184-232.
[2] B. G. Richards, "An Analysis of Subgrade Conditions at the Horsham Ex-
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High-Speed Digital Computer," Moisture Equilibria and Moisture Changes in
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[3] G. D. Aitchison, K. Russam, and B. G. Richards, "Engineering Concepts of
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Moisture Changes in Soils Beneath Covered Areas, Butterworths, Sydney,
1965, pp. 7-21.
[4] K. Terzaghi, Erdbaumechanik auf bodenphysikalischer Grundlage, Deuticks,
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[6] E. C. Childs and N. C. Collis-George, 'The Permeability of Porous Materials,"
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S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst of Tech Chennai) pursuant to License Agreement. No further
APPENDIX I
Calculation of Soil Movement
where:
w0 = initial water content,
Aw = change in water content, and
Gs = specific gravity of solids = 2.70.
FROM DRIEST CONDITION TO EQUILIBRIUM PROFILE (FiG. 10)

Initial Effective Final Effective
L, cm Suction, Suction, J> tress, w0, %
h0 , cm Stress, (T0 , hf , cm Of , cm Aw, % Ai, cm
water cm water water water
0 to 10 90 000 90 000 1400 1400 11.5 15.7 1.08

10 to 20 45 000 45 000 1400 1400 14.6 12.6 0.82
20 to 30 10 000 10 000 1300 1300 21.0 6.4 0.37
30 to 40 5 000 5 000 1300 1300 23.3 4.1 0.23
40 to 60 3 200 3 200 1300 1300 24.6 2.8 0.30
60 to 80 2 500 2 500 1300 1300 25.1 2.3 0.25
80 to 100 1 800 1 800 1300 1300 26.4 1.0 0.11
100 to 120 1 500 1 500 1300 1300 27.1 0.3 0.03
120 to 140 1 400 1 400 1300 1300 27.2 0.2 0.02
Surface movement 3.21 cm
FROM DRIEST TO WETTEST CONDITION, THAT is, SEASONAL MOVEMENT
L, cm h0 , cm <T0 , cm hf , cm fff , cm
? AL, cm
water water water Water wo AMI, %
0 to 1 90 000 90 000 800 800 11.5 16.7 1.15

10 to 20 .45 000 45 000 700 700 14.6 13.8 0.90
20 to 30 10 000 10 000 600 600 21.0 7.8 0.45
30 to 40 5 000 5 000 520 520 23.3 5.8 0.33
40 to 60 3 200 3 200 580 580 24.6 4.3 0.46
60 to 80 . . 2 500 2 500 870 870 25.1 2.9 0.32
80 to 100 . 1 800 1 800 1120 1120 26.4 1.1 0.13
100 to 120 1 500 1 500 1350 1350 27.1
120 to 140 .1 400 1 400 1300 1300 27.2
Surface movement 3.73 cm
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DISCUSSION
Invin Remson1 (written discussion)—One of the points made in Dr.

Richard's excellent paper is that soil-moisture systems may be solved by
obtaining solutions of the pertinent differential equations. To those not
familiar with these methods, this might seem like a formidable task. How-
ever, canned computer programs are now available for the routine solu-
tion of such equations.
B. G. Richards (author)—The author is in complete agreement with
Professor Remson that the solution of the pertinent differential equations
is now routine and extremely simple. The difficulty in applying these
solutions to practical problems lies in the quantitative expression of the
necessary parameters and boundary conditions. However, common sense
and ingenuity on the part of the engineer can overcome this difficulty in
most cases. The successful use of the classical consolidation equation,
where applicable, is an example of this.
The computer program which was used in the work mentioned in this
paper is written in Fortran II and is available from the author on request.
1
Professor of civil engineering and mechanics, Drexel Institute of Technology,
Philadelphia, Pa.
34
STP417-EB/Aug. 1967
S. M. Lang1
Pumping Test Methods for Determining

Aquifer Characteristics*
REFERENCE: S. M. Lang, "Pumping Test Methods for Determining

Aquifer Characteristics," Permeability and Capillarity of Soils, ASTM
STP 417, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., 1967, p. 35.
ABSTRACT: Data describing the shape and manner in which the cone
of depression forms about a well discharging at a constant rate are used
with various formulas to determine the hydraulic characteristics of aquifer
materials. The solutions to these formulas generally are graphical and
may be used to detect the presence of hydraulic or geologic boundaries to
the aquifer.
KEY WORDS: pumping test, aquifers, permeability, soil (material), hy-
draulics, transmissibility, water wells, capillarity
Pumping water from a well lowers the piezometric surface around the
well and creates a cone of depression. The manner and rate by which
the cone forms and its ultimate shape may be used to determine the
hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer from which the water is with-
drawn. In a carefully controlled pumping test the pumping rate is uni-
form, and the start of pumping and water-level measurements in sur-
rounding observation wells are synchronized. Drawdown data are then
evaluated by means of various formulas to obtain the magnitude of the
two most important hydraulic characteristics—the coefficients of permea-
bility and storage.
The coefficient of permeability of a water-bearing formation is a meas-
ure of the capacity of the material comprising the formation to transmit
water. As used in the Geological Survey, the permeability is expressed in
Meinzer units—that is the rate of flow of water in gallons per day through
a cross-sectional area of 1 ft2 under a hydraulic gradient of 1 ft/ft at a
temperature of 60 F. In field practice the adjustment to the standard
temperature of 60 F is seldom made, and it is understood that the per-
meability is then a field coefficient at the prevailing water temperature.
* Publication authorized by director, U.S. Geological Survey.
1
Chief, Reports Section, Ground Water Branch, Water Resources Div., U.S. Geo-
logicalCopyright
Survey, Washington,
by ASTM Int'l D.
(allC.
35of Tech Chennai) pursuant to License Agreement. No further
S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst
In 1935, Theis [I]2 introduced the term "coefficient of transmissibility"

which is expressed as the rate of flow of water in gallons per day through
a 1-ft-wide vertical strip of the aquifer under a hydraulic gradient of 1
ft/ft and at the prevailing water temperature. In Fig. 1, the relations be-
FIG. 1—Diagram for coefficients of permeability and transmissibility.
tween the field coefficient of permeability (Area A) and the field coefficient
of transmissibility (Area B) may be observed.
As implied by its name, the coefficient of storage is a measure of the
quantity of water that is available to wells and not retained in the aquifer
by capillary forces. It is expressed as the volume of water an aquifer
releases or takes into storage per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit
change in the component of head normal to that surface.
2
paper.Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Sun Jan 11 13:16:39 EST 2015
LANG ON PUMPING TEST METHODS 37
Standard Well Methods

The formulas that are available to determine aquifer characteristics
may be grouped into two main categories: (a) equilibrium formulas and
(ft) nonequilibrium formulas—both of which are related to Darcy's law
[2]. Equilibrium formulas may be used to determine aquifer permeability
if one knows the rate of discharge of a pumped well, as well as the draw-
down in each of two observation wells at different known distances from
the pumped well after the cone of depression has stabilized or assumed
an unvarying shape (Fig. 2). The nonequilibrium formulas permit the
determination of aquifer characteristics when the discharge rate is known
and by analysis of either the change in rate of drawdown as a function
FIG. .2^^-Section -showing -assttmed- -grottndwnter condition? for the develop-

ment of the equilibrium formula from artesian conditions.
of time for one well at a known distance or the drawdowns at any one
time in a group of wells at known distances.
The equilibrium formula was first used by Thiem [3] to determine
aquifer permeability, and it is often associated with his name. The Theim
formula in consistent units is as follows:
Using the usual units of the Geological Survey and common logarithms
(base 10), Eq 1 may be written:
2
where P is the coefficient of permeability in gallons per day per square
foot; ri and r2 are the distances from the pumped well to the first and
secondCopyright
observation wells
by ASTM in rights
Int'l (all feet; reserved);
Si and sSun2 are
Janthe drawdowns
11 13:16:39 in the first
EST 2015
and second observation wells in feet; Q is the rate of discharge of the

pumped well in gallons per minute; and m is the thickness of the water-
bearing zone in feet. Because the Theim formula is an equilibrium
formula, the drawdowns (Fig. 2) reflect the shape of the cone of depres-
sion after it has stabilized or assumed an unvarying form. In addition to
this controlling factor, other assumptions made in the derivation of the
• formula are: (a) the aquifer is homogenous, isotropic and of infinite area!
extent; (ft) the discharging well penetrates and receives water from the
entire thickness of the aquifer; (c) the coefficient of permeability is con-
stant at all places and all times; and (d) the flow is laminar.
In spite of the many restrictive assumptions on which this equation
is based, the Thiem formula has wide application to many groundwater
problems. It is also the simplest of the formulas that may be applied to
pumping test data. The basic field situation to which it is most applicable
is where the thickness of the zone of saturation remains essentially uni-
form, such as in an artesian aquifer. However, the formula may be used
for water-table tests if the thickness of the zone of saturation is relatively
large compared to the amount of drawdown. Under such circumstances
the reduction in aquifer thickness in the vicinity of a pumping well will
have little effect on the validity of the test results.
All too often, tests are run at sites for which complete geologic infor-
mation is not available. The total thickness of the aquifer is an item of in-
formation frequently lacking. Prior to 1935 the lack of this item of data
precluded the running of a pumping test because the Thiem formula
could not be solved unless the aquifer thickness was known. However,
when Theis introduced the term "coefficient of transmissibility," it was
then possible to run tests at sites where wells only partly penetrated an
aquifer. Ideally, the pumping well fully penetrates the aquifer; however,
where the part of the aquifer not penetrated is small compared to the
suspected total thickness, the shape of the cone of depression and the
rate at which it develops are little affected. Because the relation of the
coefficient of transmissibility, T, to the coefficient of permeability, P, is
T = Pm, Eq 2 becomes
(3)
This form of the Thiem formula is the one most frequently used in the
Survey.
The nonequilibrium formulas used for the analysis of pumping test
data were derived relatively recently. The first, and still the most widely
used, is that developed by Theis [7] in which the rate of drawdown as a
function of time or the drawdown as a function of distance at any one
time may be used to determine the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer.
Theis introduced
Copyright the term
by ASTM Int'l"coefficient of storage"Sun
(all rights reserved); to the
Janfield of hydrol-
11 13:16:39 EST 2015
S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst of Tech Chennai) pursuant to Licens
ogy in addition to the "coefficient of transmissibility." The concepts

associated with these terms as well as the overall derivation of the formula
was based on the analogy between groundwater flow and heat flow.
The Theis nonequilibrium formula in consistent units is
(4)
where
5
The exponential integral in Eq 4 has been assigned the symbol W(u)
which is read "well function of H."
The Theis formula is as follows when expressed in the units used by
the Survey:
where
....(8)
and s is the drawdown, in feet, at any point of observation in the vicinity

of a well discharging at a constant rate; Q is discharge in gallons per
minute; T is the transmissibility in gallons per day per foot; r is the dis-
tance, in feet, from the discharging well to the point of observation; 5
is the coefficient of storage expressed as a decimal fraction; and t is the
time in days since pumping began.
The nonequilibrium formula is based on the following assumptions:
(a) the aquifer is homogenous and isotropic, (b) the aquifer has infinite
areal extent, (c) the discharge well penetrates and receives water from
the entire thickness of the aquifer, (d) the coefficient of transmissibility
is constant at all times and all places, (e) the well has an infinitesimal
diameter, and (/) water removed from storage is discharged instantane-
ously with declining head. As with the equilibrium formula, these restric-
tive assumptions do not prevent successful application of the nonequili-
brium formula to many problems of groundwater flow.
The Theis equation is solved graphically. From an inspection of Eqs
6 and 8 it may be noted that the unknowns T and 5 are also part of
W(ii) and u. Hence, the solution cannot be direct. Rearranging Eqs 6 and
8
S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst of Tech Chennai) pursuant to L
Downloaded/printed by FIG. 3—Logarithmic graph of the well function W(u)—constant discharge.
(9)
and
(10)
If the discharge is held constant, the bracketed parts of Eqs 9 and 10

are constant for a given pumping test, and W(u) is related to u in the
manner that s is related to rz/t.
FIG. 4—Relation of W(u) and u to s and rVt.
By substituting assumed values for u in Eq 7 corresponding values of

W(u) may be computed. A logarithmic plot of W(u) with respect to u
is made and is usually called the "type curve" (Fig. 3). The test data are
plotted (s versus r2/f) on logarithmic paper identical to that used for
the type curve, and then, with the axes of the papers parallel, the best
fit of the test data to the type curve is obtained (Fig. 4). From this fit,
values of u and W(u) may be determined from the type curve for any
selected point on the graph of observed data and may be used, in con-
junction with the observed values for that point, to determine the coeffi-
cients of transmissibility and storage (T and 5).
Previously, it was stated that drawdown as a function of distance at
any one time also may be used to find T and S. A further inspection
of Eqs 9 and 10 shows that when t is constant, s is related to r2 in the
same manner that
Copyright by Int'l is
W(u)
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Jan 11 a plot of
13:16:39 versus r2 may
ESTs 2015
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be matched to the type curve and will yield the same results as a plot of
s versus r2/t or l/t for time-drawdown data from one point of observa-
tion.
A simplified form of the Theis equation was developed by Cooper and
Jacob [4] who recognized that for either large values of t or small values
of r the series for W(u) may be expressed with sufficient accuracy by the
first two terms. This allows simplification of the Theis equation to the
following two forms:
(ID
and
(12)
In Eq 11, ti and t2 are the times since start of pumping when drawdown
Si and £2 are observed in a particular well. The information collected
during the test (drawdown with time) is plotted on a semilogarithmic
graph with the drawdown on the arithmetic scale and the time on the
logarithmic scale. The data will plot as a straight line when « is less than
0.02; hence, if this line is extended over one log cycle, the equation be-
comes simpler.
(13)
where the terms T and Q are as previously defined and As is the differ-
ence in drawdown over a log cycle.
In Eq 12, TI and r2 are the distances from the pumped well to the
observation wells in which drawdowns Si and s2 are observed at one par-
ticular time. The information collected during the test (drawdown with
distance) is plotted on a semilogarithmic graph with the drawdown on the
arithmetic scale and the distance on the logarithmic scale. A straight line
fitted to the plotted points will result in an appropriate value for T if u
is less than 0.02. If the straight line is extended over one log cycle, Eq 12
may be written as:
(14)
where the terms are as previously defined.
Effects of Slow Drainage

The equilibrium and nonequilibrium formulas previously discussed
describe rather accurately the effects of groundwater withdrawals in an
extensive artesian
Copyright system.
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Downloaded/printed by FIG. 5—Nonsteady-state water-table type curves.
of data from tests in water-table aquifers. However, the nonequilibrium

formula is not valid for use with the early test data for water-table tests
because of the great disparity between the assumption of immediate
discharge of water released from storage and what actually takes place
when saturated materials are dewatered. The dewatering of formerly satu-
rated material within the cone of depression takes place over a relatively
long period of time which tends to distort greatly the shape of the draw-
down curve for the first part of the test. Hence, the nonequilibrium for-
mula can be applied only to those data collected during the latter part of
the test when the effects of slow drainage are small. The equilibrium
formula is not significantly effected by slow drainage because data can be
used only after the cone has stabilized which does not occur for many
hours, or maybe even days, after the start of the test.
Recognizing the problems in using the Theis nonequilibrium formula
for water-table tests, Boulton [5] and Stallman [6] independently devel-
oped methods for analyzing data from water-table tests. Each derived a
series of type curves to which a plot of s versus t may be matched to ob-
tain values for parameters in their equations.
Figure 5 shows the nonequilibruim water-table type curves developed
by Prickett [7] based on the work of Boulton. The relation of the type
curves to the Theis nonequilibrium type curve is shown. The shapes of
the type curves indicate that the cone of depression progresses through
three different stages of development: (1) immediately after pumping is
started, water is released from storage as from an artesian aquifer; how-
ever, this release represents only a small part of the water available, and,
hence, the next stage is approached; (2) slow drainage from the material
above the cone of depression acts as a source of recharge to the saturated
zone causing the rate of drawdown to decrease; as the drainage decreases
in volume the third stage is reached; (3) the cone begins to expand more
rapidly and continues to expand with pumping until it either reaches a
source of recharge or the limits of the aquifer; during this latter period
incremental release of water from storage is very small because of the
large area encompassed by the cone of depression; during this stage
water-table type curves join the Theis nonequilibrium type curve.
Analysis of data by means of the water-table type curves is made in
a similar manner to that used with the Theis nonequilibrium type curve.
Time-drawdown data for a particular well are plotted on logarithmic
paper of the same scale used for the type curves. The data curve is super-
imposed on the type curves and adjusted vertically and horizontally to
obtain the best fit of the data to one of the type curves. However, the
fitting is actually done in two stages. The data collected early in the test
are matched first to the parts of the curves to the left of the r/D values.
From this match, values for s, t, W(u
for substitution
Copyright byinASTM
the following equations:
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LANG ON PUMPING TEST METHODS 45 4
(15)
(16)
The data curve is then shifted horizontally, and the later data are matched
to the curves to the right of the r/D values. This second matching should
be to a curve of the same r/D value as noted in the matching of the
early data. From the latter matching, values for s, t, W(u
and I/My are obtained for use in Eq 15 and the following:
(17)
(18)
.(19)
The terms in these equations are the same as in the Theis nonequilibrium
equation except as follows:
W(u
(20)
(21)
(22)
S is the storage coefficient from the early data; ST is the storage co-
efficient from the later data and is a measure of the total volume of water
released from storage (commonly referred to as specific yield); t is time
since pumping began in minutes, and a is the reciprocal of the "delay in-
dex," in minutes-1.
Note the similarity between Eqs 6 and 15 and Eqs 8 and 16 and 17.
When the delay index is large, Eq 15 is equivalent to Eq 6; the only
difference between the latter equations is that time is expressed in days
in Eq 8 and in minutes in Eq 16 and 17.
These methods are relatively new and have had little use to date in
the field. The great difficulty in using a series of type curves is in deter-
mining which of the curves provides the best fit to the test data. Varia-
tions in horizontal
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differences in
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B. HYDRAULIC COUNTERPART OF REAL SYSTEM

FIG. 6—Idealized section views of a discharging well in a semi-infinite aquifer
bounded by a perennial stream and of the equivalent hydraulic system in an in-
finite aquifer.
storage capacity of the aquifer materials may distort the data curves to
the degree that it may be possible to fit the data to more than one type
curve. This does not rule out the use of these methods, but it does in-
dicate that the new formulas should be used with caution and that all
methods, perhaps, should be applied to test data to determine the most
appropriate values for hydraulic characteristics.
The running of a pump test and its analysis is straightforward and al-
most routine in nature when the aquifer being tested is homogenous and
areally extensive.
Copyright However,
by ASTM Int'l (allitrights
is very seldom
reserved); Sunthat these
Jan 11 idealEST
13:16:39 conditions
2015
B. HYDRAULIC COUNTERPART OF REAL SYSTEM

FIG. 7—Idealized section views of a discharging well in a semi-infinite aquifer
bounded by an impermeable formation and of the equivalent hydraulic system in an
infinite aquifer.
are encountered in the field. More than likely, the aquifer is not uniform
in thickness, nor homogenous in character, nor areally extensive. Usually,
the field conditions are such that the characteristics of the water-bearing
material are highly variable; the aquifer may be a part of a more exten-
sive hydrologic unit; or it may be finite in extent because a geologic
boundary—such as an impermeable barrier or stream—may be present.
Analysis of a test in such an aquifer is far from routine and unless the
hydrologist has complete understanding of the geologic controls within
the area hydraulically
Copyright by ASTM sampled by the
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reserved); Sun test, he13:16:39
Jan 11 will notEST
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able
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FIG. 8—Plan atjjxi3ge-we.il system.for a.discharging well in an aquifer bounded

by two impermeable barriers intersecting at right angles.
to fully analyze the test data. This is especially true for a water-table test
where the solution depends either upon the equilibrium shape of the cone
of depression or requires use of data not affected by slow drainage. The
use of the various type curves developed by Boulton and Stallman also
may be rendered ineffective if a boundary is present and is not fully
effective—for example, a gradual thinning of the aquifer. This type of
boundary merely distorts the shape of the drawdown curve to the degree
that it would not be possible to make a proper selection of one of the type
curves.
Theory of Images and Boundary Analysis

The presence of a geologic boundary and its effect on the movement
of water within
Copyright by an aquifer
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Sun Jan 11 13:16:39 of the
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FIG. 9—Plan of image-well system for a discharging well in an aquifer bounded

by two impermeable barriers intersecting at an angle of 45 deg.
Theis nonequilibrium formula in conjunction with the image well theory

(Ferris et al [5]). According to the theory the hydraulic effects actually
caused by a geologic boundary may be theoretically ascribed to a strategi-
cally placed imaginary well. The application of this image well method
makes it possible to treat a problem involving boundary conditions like
one of a multiple-well system in an infinite aquifer.
A boundary is represented as an abrupt and total discontinuity of the
aquifer, resulting from changes in either lithologic or hydraulic character.
Two examples of this type of discontinuity commonly encountered are:
(1) the aquifer that is hydraulically connected with a fully penetrating
surface stream and (2) the permeable material of a buried valley abutting
the relatively impermeable walls of the valley.
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved);
REDUCED PLAN Sun
VIEWJan
OF 11 13:16:39 EST
HYDRAULIC 2015
COUNTERPART OF REAL SYSTEM
Downloaded/printed by system for a discharging well in an aquifer bounded by an impermeable barrier parallel to a perennial stream.
FIG. 10—Image-well
In the first example, the line of contact between the stream and aquifer
is referred to as a "line source," or a line along which the head on the
aquifer remains constant and cannot be drawn down. In the second ex-
ample, the line of contact between the permeable material and valley
wall is an impermeable barrier across which there can be no flow be-
cause the impermeable valley wall effectively limits the extent of the
aquifer. These examples are shown in Figs. 6 and 7 in which both the
real systems and hydraulic counterparts of the real systems are shown.
As shown in Fig. 6, the hydraulic counterpart for a stream is an
imaginary well (image well) placed the same distance from the stream
as the real well but on the opposite side of the stream. The image well
operates at the same time and rate but in the reverse manner as the real
FIG. 11—Match of the observed data curve to the Theis type curve.
well—that is, it adds or recharges water to the system. The buildup in

head resulting from the recharging of water by the image well acts to
cancel out the drawdown effects of the discharging real well all along
the line of the boundary; hence, no drawdown occurs along the boundary.
In Fig. 7, the hydraulic counterpart of an impermeable boundary is an
imaginary well placed the same distance from the effective line of the
boundary as the real well, but on the opposite side of the line. In this
case, the image well is the same type as the real well and operates at the
same time and rate. The effects of the image well are similar to those of
the real well and the magnitude of its effect along the boundary is equal
to that of the real well. Hence, a groundwater divide is created—the
position of which coincides with the effective line of the boundary and
across which there is no flow.
With only one boundary, the hydraulic system is balanced by the
proper positioning
Copyright of one
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reserved); Sun Jan patterns forEST
11 13:16:39 single-
2015
S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst of Tech Chennai) pursuant to License Agreeme
boundary problems are described by Lang [9] in more detail. For an

aquifer having two boundaries, the least number of image wells is three,
if the boundaries intersect at a right angle (Fig. 8). For certain vertically
bounded, wedge-shaped aquifers (Fig. 9), equations are available for
determining the number of image wells. If either two parallel boundaries
(Fig. 10) or more than two boundaries are involved, an infinite number
of image wells results.
As previously mentioned, the Theis formula may be used in either
of two ways: the hydraulic characteristics may be computed: (a) from
TIME SINCE PUMPING BEGAN. IN MINUTES

FIG. 12—Hydrograph showing drawdown in well Mt 290.
the drawdown curve of one well or (6) from drawdown observed at any
one time in a group of wells—that is, from the form of the cone of de-
pression. However, if a boundary is present, the second method can be
applied only to those data collected prior to the time the effects of the
boundary reach the observation wells.
The effects of a boundary may be discerned when matching the ob-
served data curve to the Theis type curve. Beginning with the earliest
data, the data curve is superimposed on the type curve, and those data
not affected by the boundary match the type curve, whereas the later data
influenced by the boundary depart from the type curve. The type curve,
beyond the point of departure, indicates the drawdown that would have
takenCopyright
place ifbythe aquifer
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2015 the
FIG. 13—Family of type curves for the solution of the modified Theis formula.
type curve (Fig. 11) indicate a reduced rate of drawdown which gen-
erally is the result of water being added to the system; in other words,
a line source may be present, which may be represented by an imaginary
recharging well. Conversely, data departing above the type curve indi-
cate an increase in the rate of drawdown and the presence of an imperme-
able barrier; this may be simulated by the substitution of an imaginary
discharging well for the barrier.
Figure 12, which is from a report by Baker et al [10], shows a semi-
logarithmic plot of drawdown versus time for an analysis by the modified
Theis formula (Eq 11). The early data showing the drawdown resulting
solely from the withdrawal of water through the pumped well fall on a
straight line. Later drawdown affected by the boundary depart from the
straight line. As shown in Fig. 12, the departure is in the direction de-
noting a decrease in the rate of drawdown, or a line source is present
adding water to the aquifer. Hence, as demonstrated, test data plots are
used not only to determine the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer
system but also to indicate the presence of geologic boundaries. However,
in order to determine the location of the boundary at least three observa-
tion wells are necessary. Various techniques have been described by
Ferris et al [8] and Lang [11].
One of the methods frequently used in solving problems involving
single-boundary problems is that of Stallman [12]. It includes a family
of type curves with which it is possible not only to determine the hy-
draulic characteristics directly from boundary-affected data, but also to
determine the distance between the image and observation wells (Fig. 13).
Each of the type curves in the family of curves is constructed for a
different ratio of image well distance to pumping well distance, r
Distances are with respect to the observation well. A logarithmic plot of
the observed data is fitted to the family of curves in the same manner
as a data plot is fitted to the Theis type curve. The curve best fitting
the data plot is determined, and its ratio of /•,-//•„ is noted. From this
fit, values for necessary parameters are determined for use with the
Theis formula to determine coefficients of transmissibility and storage.
Knowing the distance from the pumping well to the observation well,
p, and the ratio, rt/rp , the distance from the observation well to
the image well, r t , may then be computed. When this type of analysis
is done for three observation wells, the image well is located by swing-
ing arcs from each observation well at the respective image well distances.
Where the arcs intersect is the location of the image well. The straight
line geologic boundary is then midway between the pumping and image
wells and perpendicular to the line connecting these two wells.
The Stallman type curves have been used at times in a reversed fashion
to determine hydraulic characteristics of an aquifer. When sufficient
data Copyright
reflectingby only
ASTMthe
Int'l effects
(all rightsofreserved);
the pumping well
Sun Jan 11 are not
13:16:39 available
EST 2015
and the presence of abyboundary is known from geologic or topographic
Downloaded/printed
boundary-effected drawdowns are plotted and matched directly to the

boundary-effected drawdowns are plotted and matched directly to the
curve of the family of type curves for that particular ratio. Values of the
various parameters in the Theis formula are determined from the match-
ing, and the coefficients of transmissibility and storage are then com-
puted.
Summary
The methods previously described are those most frequently used by
the Geological Survey in analyzing pumping-test data. A pumping test
provides a means to hydraulically sample a relatively large part of an
aquifer, thus making it possible to evaluate the capacity of the aquifer to
store and transmit water. Hydrologic and geologic controls on the move-
ment of water in the aquifer also may be determined, and the effective-
ness of these controls on the utilization of the aquifer as a source of
supply may be evaluated. An analysis of test data results in values for
hydraulic characteristics of an ideal aquifer that behaves hydraulically
like the aquifer tested.
References
[1] C. V. Theis, "The Relation Between the Lowering of the Piezometric Surface
and the Rate and Duration of Discharge of a Well Using Ground-water
Storage," Am. Geophysical Union Transactions, Pt. 2, 1935, pp. 519-524.
[2] Henry Darcy, Les Fontains Publiques de la Ville de Dijon (The Water Supply
of Dijon), Victor Dalmont, Paris.
[3] Gunther Thiem, Hydrologische Methoden (Hydrologic Methods), J. M. Geb-
hardt, Leipzig, Germany, 1906, p. 56.
[4] H. H. Cooper, Jr., and C. E. Jacob, "A Generalized Graphical Method for
Evaluating Formation Constants and Summarizing Well-Field History," Am.
Geophysical Union Transactions, Vol 27, No. 4, 1946, pp. 526-534.
[5] N. S. Boulton, "Analysis of Data from Nonequilibrium Pumping Tests Al-
lowing for Delayed Yield from Storage," Proceedings, Institute Civil Engs.
(British), Vol 26, No. 6693, 1963.
[6] R. W. Stallman, "Effects of Water Table Conditions on Water Level Changes
Near Pumping Wells," Water Resources Research, Vol 1, No. 2, Second
Quarter, 1965.
[7] T. A. Prickett, "Type Curve Solutions for Aquifer Tests under Water Table
Conditions," Ground Water, Vol 3, No. 3, July, 1965.
[8] J. G. Ferris, D. B. Knowles, R. H. Brown, and R. W. Stallman, "Theory of
Aquifer Tests," Paper 1536-E, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper,
1962.
[9] S. M. Lang, "Drawdown Patterns in Aquifers Having a Straight-Line Bound-
ary," Shortcuts and Special Problems in Aquifer Tests, Paper 1545-C, U.S.
Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper, 1963, pp. 56-68.
[10] ]. A. Baker, S. M. Lang, and M. P. Thomas, "Geology and Hydrology of the
Hartford Research Center CANEL Site, Middletown, Connecticut," Bulletin
1133-G, U.S. Geological Survey, 1965.
[11] S. M. Lang, "Interpretation of Boundary Effects from Pumping-Test Data,"
Journal Am. Water Works Assn., Vol 52, No. 3, 1960, pp. 356-364.
[12] R. W. Stallman, "Type Curves for Solution of Single-Boundary Problems,"
Shortcuts
Copyrightand SpecialInt'l
by ASTM Problems
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Jan 11 1545-C,
13:16:39 U.S. Geo-
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logical Survey Water-Supply
Downloaded/printed by Paper, 1963, pp. 45-47.
STP417-EB/Aug. 1967
G. E. Laliberte1 andA.T. Corey2
Hydraulic Properties of Disturbed and

Undisturbed Soils
REFERENCE: G. E. Laliberte and A. T. Corey, "Hydraulic Properties

of Disturbed and Undisturbed Soils," Permeability and Capillary of Soils,
ASTM STP 417, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., 1967, p. 56.
ABSTRACT: A study was made to determine whether or not disturbed
materials are suitable for modeling undisturbed porous media. One re-
quirement for similitude between a model and prototype involving par-
tially saturated flow is that the relationship between permeability and
capillary pressure be similar. In the case of disturbed media, the rela-
tionship is usually represented by a straight line on a log-log plot for
capillary pressures greater than the bubbling pressure. The requirement
for similitude of media is satisfied if the slope is the same, provided the
model is scaled in relation to the magnitude of the bubbling pressure.
Apparently, a medium obtained by pulverizing the material at the site of
the prototype usually would not be suitable for a model. Suitable dis-
turbed materials are available, however, for modeling the undisturbed
media studied to date. The relationship between permeability and capillary
pressure for structured soils may not be adequately described by slopes
of the function on a log-log plot alone. Further study is needed to de-
termine the role of sample boundary effects for such materials. Uncon-
solidated sands usually are not suitable media for modeling structured
soils, the pores of sands being more uniform in size.
KEY WORDS: permeability, capillarity, soil (material), porous materials,
capillary pressure, similitude, hydraulic properties
Permeabilities of soils as a function of capillary pressure can be repre-

sented to a close approximation by a straight line on a log-log plot over
a large range of capillary pressures. This fact was first pointed out by
Gardner3 who represented the functional relationship of permeability to
capillary pressure over the entire range of capillary pressures by
(1)
1
Engineer, Canada Agriculture Research Station, Lethbridge, Alberta, Can.
2
Professor of agricultural engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins,
Colo.
3
W. R. Gardner, "Some Steady-State Solutions of the Unsaturated Moisture
Flow Equation with Application to Evaporation from a Water Table," Soil Science,
Vol 85, April, 1958,
Copyright p. 229.
56of Tech Chennai) pursuant to License Agreement. No further
LALIBERTE AND COREY ON HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES 57
where:
K = permeability, cm2,
pc = capillary pressure, dynes/cm2,
n = positive constant, dimensionless, and
a, b = constants, units dependent on the units of permeability,
capillary pressure and on the value of n.
In Eq 1 "capillary pressure" refers to the difference in pressure between
air and a liquid which wets the medium solids, a quantity sometimes
called "suction."
Equation 1 represents permeability as a continuous smooth function
of capillary pressure and may often approximate the actual relationship
very closely. Published data on porous rocks and other materials of
interest to engineers show that the relationship between permeability
and capillary pressure is often not smooth, permeability being invariant
with capillary pressure over a finite range beginning with a capillary
pressure of zero. Brooks and Corey,4 therefore, have represented the
relationship as
(2)
where:
K0 = permeability when medium is fully saturated, cm2, and
Pb = bubbling pressure, dynes/cm2,
and the other quantities are as previously defined.
Brooks and Corey found that the bubbling pressure is closely related
to the largest pores forming a continuous network within a porous
medium. Its exact definition as used here is implicit in the method of its
determination, which is explained in the section dealing with methods.
Brooks and Corey proposed the use of bubbling pressure as a factor for
scaling capillary pressures in comparing two systems involving two-phase
flow. For systems in which gravity is a significant factor, they proposed
the use of bubbling pressure (divided by the difference in specific weights
of the two fluids) for scaling length dimensions in laboratory models.
Brooks and Corey also showed that the exponent n is an index of the
pore-size distribution of porous media, being larger the more uniform
the pore size. According to their theory, similitude between model and
prototype involving a two-fluid system can be obtained only if the two
media have pore-size distributions characterized by the same value of
the pore-size size distribution index.
4
R. Copyright
H. Brooksbyand
ASTMA. T.
Int'lCorey, "Properties
(all rights reserved);of Sun
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13:16:39 Fluid
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Flow," Downloaded/printed
Am. Society of Civil
by Engrs., Irrigation and Drainage Division Journal,
Vol 92, No. IR-2, June, 1966.
FIG. 1—Permeability as a function of capillary pressure for Fort Collins clay

loam.
Corey and Corey5 employed the theory of similitude suggested by

Brooks and Corey for studying drainage from soils. They found that soils
having equal values of the pore-size distribution index drained in a simi-
lar manner when the volume of discharge, the time of drainage, and the
dimensions of the models were scaled according to the theory.
According to this theory, significant properties (in addition to the
bubbling pressure and the pore-size distribution) are the "effective" or
5
G. L. Corey and A. T. Corey, "Similitude for Drainage of Soils," Irrigation
and Drainage
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FIG. 2—Permeability as a function of capillary pressure for Weld loam.
"drainable" porosity and the permeability. In order to apply the modeling

techniques of Corey and Corey for studying prototype systems, it is
necessary to measure the pertinent properties of the porous medium as it
exists undisturbed at the site. It is also necessary to locate a suitable me-
dium for a model having a pore-size distribution similar to the medium
at the site. In this connection, it would be desirable to determine whether
or not the pore-size distribution of undisturbed earth materials can be
characterized by the index proposed by Brooks and Corey.
This paper describes some initial studies designed to discover whether
or notCopyright
undisturbed earth materials have properties that can be modeled
FIG. 3—Permeability as a function of capillary pressure for Cass sandy loam.
using disturbed materials. In particular, an objective of the study is to

determine whether or not the pore-size distribution of undisturbed
materials can be characterized by a single dimensionless number as is the
case for most disturbed materials. If undisturbed media are similar to
disturbed media in this regard, it is hoped to determine the range of the
pore-size distribution index that can be encountered at field sites.
The portion of the study is not sufficiently extensive to justify final
conclusions with respect to the objectives, but it does provide interesting
comparisons between some undisturbed and the corresponding disturbed
earth materials.
FIG. 4—Permeability as a function of capillary pressure for Valentine loamy

sand.
Methods and Results

Equations 2 imply that the relationship between permeability and
capillary pressure is represented on a log-log plot by two straight lines.
The first is along the ordinate representing the permeability of the fully
saturated medium from a capillary pressure of zero to a capillary pres-
sure corresponding to the bubbling pressure. At higher capillary pres-
sures, the function is represented by another straight line having a slope
of —n.
Curves of measured values of permeability as a function of capillary
FIG. 5—Permeability as a junction of capillary pressure for a semiconsolidated

sand.
TABLE 1—Grain-size analysis.

Sample Description Sand, % Silt, % Clay, %
Fort Collins clay loam . . 44 26 30

Weld loam . . 55 24 21
Cass sandy loam . . 66 18 16
Valentine loamy sand . . . 80 4 16
Semiconsolidated sand Int'l (all rights reserved); Sun Jan
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7311 13:16:39 EST 13
FIG. 6—Sleeve-type sampler (ready for assembly).
pressure are shown in Figs. 1-5, indicating the degree to which Eqs 2
represent the actual function for the materials studied.
Methods
For this study, undisturbed samples were taken at five locations. Four
of the materials consist of soil material and another came from an out-
crop of semiconsolidated sand. The four soils include a wide range of
textures from loamy sand to clay loam. The semiconsolidated sand is
fine in texture and has a relatively uniform pore-size distribution. The
grain-size analysis for each of the materials used is presented in Table 1.
The undisturbed soil samples were obtained using a sleeve-type sam-
pler, a photograph of which is shown in Fig. 6. At each site, samples
were obtained in both a horizontal and vertical direction. The horizontal
samples were taken
Copyright such
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the vertical sample extended from 10 to 14 in. below the soil surface.
The inner plastic sleeve containing the sample was removed from the
sampler at the site, but all permeability measurements on the undisturbed
material were made in the laboratory without removing the soil from the
sleeve. The procedure used for determining the permeability as a function
of capillary pressure for the undisturbed soil materials is described in
Appendix I.
FIG. 7—Soil sample during test showing barrier holders and tensiometers.
The method used involved producing steady downward flow at a

hydraulic gradient of unity at increasing increments of capillary pressure.
The capillary pressures were measured using capillary barriers in contact
with the outer boundary of the sample at points between the inflow and
outflow pressure control barriers. A photograph of the apparatus is
shown in Fig. 7. With this method, the capillary pressure is uniform
throughout the test section at steady state, and there is no need of a
correction for the impedance of the inflow and outflow barriers. In
principle, this method is the same as that originally employed by
Richards.6
8
L. A. Richards, "Capillary Conduction of Liquids Through Porous Mediums,"
Vol 1, 1931.
Physics,Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Sun Jan 11 13:16:39 EST 2015
TABLE 2— Porosity (<t>), saturated permeability (K0), bubbling pressure (/>&), and pore-size distribution index (n) for several media.
Treatment (orientation) 0 Ko , cms Pb , mb° M
8
Fort Collins clay loam undisturbed (vertical) 0.454 27.65 X 1C- 3.4 3.5
undisturbed (horizontal) 0.463 13.12 4.2 2.7
passed No. 14 sieve 0.472 3.99 20.0 6.8
passed No. 48 sieve 0.469 1.58 38.1 9.4
Weld loam undisturbed (vertical) 0.504 18.93 15.4 7.9
passed No. 14 sieve 0.483 6.08 27.1 12.8
passed No. 48 sieve 0.502 4.81 27.2 12.0
Cass sandy loam undisturbed (vertical) 0.463 27.13 9.1 5.8
passed No. 14 sieve 0.473 14.91 10.0 6.5
passed No. 48 sieve 0.469 5.66 18.1 7.6
Valentine loamy sand undisturbed (vertical) 0.398 13.23 13.8 10.3
passed No. 14 sieve 0.396 9.59 19.0 15.6
passed No. 48 sieve 0.382 6.75 21.3 15.3
Semiconsolidated sand undisturbed 0.304 0.24 59.3 16.4
passed No. 14 sieve 0.505 7.87 19.9 8.2
passed No. 35 sieve 0.543 9.30 20.3 11.4
0
1 millibar (mb) = 103 dynes/cm2.
A hydrocarbon oil,7 Soltrol C, was used for the permeability measure-

ments, the oil being of a type commonly employed in the petroleum
industry for laboratory model studies. This oil has several advantages
over water for such studies. One advantage is that the structure of earth
materials changes very little during the period of testing from swelling
and dispersion of clays. The oil has more consistent wetting and inter-
facial properties in the presence of contaminants than water. Because
the bubbling pressure divided by specific weight is about half that with
soil water, models can be made half the size needed when water is used.
Porosity was determined by weighing the dry samples and measuring
the specific gravity of the solids with a pycnometer. The procedure used
is described in Appendix II. All measurements were made in an air-
conditioned laboratory such that the temperature varied within narrow
limits. The viscosity and density of the oil were determined as accurately
as possible for this range of temperatures.
The procedure used in the case of the semiconsolidated sand differed
from that described in detail but not in principle. A block of the outcrop
was removed and transported to the laboratory where a specimen was ob-
tained with a diamond core drill. Measurements of permeability of the
semiconsolidated sand were made using the same principle as for the
undisturbed soil materials but with a different apparatus.
After completing measurements on the undisturbed earth materials,
they were crushed sufficiently to pass through a No. 14 sieve, and the
measurements were repeated. They were later crushed to pass through a
No. 48 sieve, and the measurements were repeated for a third time. In
each case an attempt was made to reproduce the original porosity of the
undisturbed material.
Values of the pore-size distribution indexes were determined from
the slope of the straight-line portion of the curves shown in Figs. 1-5.
The bubbling pressures were determined from the intercept of the straight
lines at the ordinates representing the maximum permeabilities for each
sample. The statistical formulas for computing pore-size distribution in-
dex and bubbling pressure are included in Appendix I. The properties of
the samples studied are tabulated in Table 2.
Results
For undisturbed materials having large-scale structure, the relationship
between permeability and capillary pressure is not well described by
Eqs 2. In these cases, there is a gradual transition from the invariant
permeability to that represented by a straight line of slope — n. In all
cases, however, the curves approach a straight line at the higher capillary
pressures.
7
Soltrol C core
Copyright test fluid.
by ASTM Int'lPhillips Petroleum
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ville, Okla.
There is a possibility that the transition may be (at least in part) a

result of boundary effects resulting from large pores associated with
structure, worm holes, cracks, and root cavities. Samples having a much
larger ratio of volume to boundary area might result in a less significant
transition.
A somewhat surprising result for the soil materials tested is that with
the exception of the saturated permeabilities the properties of the undis-
turbed horizontal and vertical samples differed only slightly. The vertical
samples for the finer-textured soils had larger permeabilities when fully
saturated than did the corresponding horizontal samples. This could be
a result of a preponderance of vertical over horizontal cracks in these
soils. The samples were taken just below the plowed layer, and it is
possible that samples at other depths might exhibit greater isotropy.
In each case, the soil permeability is lower for the disturbed samples
than for the corresponding undisturbed material. The bubbling pressure
is higher, and the value of the pore-size distribution index is higher, indi-
cating a more limited range of pore sizes. For two of the soil materials,
the bubbling pressure and pore-size distribution index increased, the finer
the soil was pulverized. For the other two soils, little change was observed.
For all four soils, permeability decreased the finer the soil was pulverized,
as was expected. Failure to obtain exactly the same porosity in some
cases probably masked whatever effect the finer sieve might have pro-
duced.
In the case of the semiconsolidated sand, pulverization produced a
large decrease in the bubbling pressure and pore-size distribution index
and a large increase in permeability. This, no doubt, is a result of the
fact that the pulverization did not break down the weak cementation of
the sandstone completely, so that the pulverized material had more sec-
ondary porosity than the original material in the outcrop. The resulting
porosity and average pore size, therefore, was greater in the disturbed
material. Since the sand studied had an unusually uniform pore size in
the undisturbed state, conclusions cannot be made from this concerning
the effect of pulverizing sandstones in general.
Conclusions and Recommendations

Evidently, undisturbed earth materials have properties producing a
wide range of hydraulic behavior. Although disturbance by pulverization
may produce very large changes in the properties of materials from a
particular site, the range of properties observed to date is not wider
than that which has previously been observed by Brooks and Corey for
disturbed materials.
It appears, therefore, that it usually will be possible to find a suitable
medium for use in a laboratory model for most naturally occurring earth
materials. If the prototype
Downloaded/printed by is a soil having significant structure, however,
S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst of Tech Chennai) pursuant to License Agreement. No fu
unconsolidated sands should not be used in the model since the latter
have a much narrower range of pore sizes than structured soils.
The most difficult problem might be to simulate the portion of the
relationship between permeability and capillary pressure occurring at low
capillary pressures. Brooks and Corey, however, previously have ob-
served somewhat similar behavior for crushed (but not pulverized) clays.
Additional studies are needed to determine the effect of the ratio of vol-
ume of sample to boundary area on the significance of the transition in
the permeability-capillary pressure function at low capillary pressures.
Until such studies have been completed, it is not possible to conclude
whether or not the permeability-capillary pressure function for undis-
turbed soils with structure can be characterized adequately by the bub-
bling pressure and the pore-size distribution index alone.
For studies relating to irrigation and drainage, measurements should
be made on undisturbed samples using water available at the site. Since
in most cases laboratory models can be operated more conveniently with
oil, it would be desirable to study the properties affecting hydraulic be-
havior with water compared with corresponding properties determined
with oil.
Although in the study reported here an attempt was made to eliminate
porosity as a variable, there are indications that bubbling pressure, in
particular, is very sensitive to the degree of compaction. Since bubbling
pressure is sometimes a very critical factor in selecting a medium for a
model, another useful study would be the determination of the relation-
ship between porosity and bubbling pressure for various kinds of dis-
turbed materials.
APPENDIX I
Method of Test for Permeability as a Function of Capillary Pressure for
Undisturbed Soils
Scope
Test procedures are described for determining pore-size distribution and
bubbling pressure for undisturbed soils from the measurement of intrinsic
permeability as a function of capillary pressure.
Apparatus
The apparatus used in this test (shown in Figs. 6 and 7) consists of the
following:
Sleeve-type sampler—a 2-in. nominal diameter steel sampler, 7.50 in. long,
with blue clock-spring steel cutting edge. An acrylic plastic inner sleeve to fit
inside Copyright
sampler, by
4.75 in. long,
ASTM withrights
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20158
cm apart longitudinally. Two brass spacers for inner sleeve, each 1.20 in.
long.
Drying oven—vacuum oven.
Capillary barriers—two disks made from Porvic filter material8 mounted in
acrylic plastic to fit ends of acrylic plastic sleeve; ^-in. brass tap on each.
Tensiometers—two capillary barriers made from Porvic filter material
mounted in acrylic plastic and curved to fit the sample over a 90-deg segment
of its surface at the sleeve wall openings; 5-40 brass tap on each.
Retaining rods—three %6-in. threaded brass rods, approximately 8-in.
long with aluminum wing nuts and washers.
Saturating equipment—vacuum pump connected to acrylic plastic chamber
to accommodate entire assembly (sample and barriers).
Test fluid—Soltrol C core test fluid.
Supports—two thermometer clamps.
Supply bottle and siphon—a glass bottle, 1-gal capacity; tygon tubing,
%6-in. inside diameter, approximately 8 ft long.
Outflow siphon—tygon tubing, same as supply siphon.
Outflow buret—standard burets of 5, 10, 25, and 50-ml capacity.
Manometers and leads—two manometers of %2-in. inside diameter glass
tubing mounted on vertical boards covered with a grid of centimeter cross
section paper; two Teflon leads, %2-in. inside diameter, approximately 8 ft
long.
Thermometer—a thermometer accurate to 0.5 C in the range of room
temperature.
Stopwatch—a stopwatch reading to l/$ sec.
Field Sampling
Samples are obtained by forcing the sampler (with its sleeve insert) into
the soil during a period when the soil is relatively dry, at which time compac-
tion of the sample is slight. The sleeve containing the sample is removed from
the sampler at the site and protected from disturbance during transportation
to the laboratory.
Sample Preparation
Each sample is dried in a vacuum oven at 70 C. The capillary barriers are
bolted on the ends of the sample with the retaining rods to serve as inflow
and outflow pressure controllers. The tensiometers are placed in contact with
the sample at the openings in the sleeve to measure the capillary pressure and
the hydraulic gradient during flow.
Saturating Procedure
The entire assembly (sample and barriers) is placed in the saturating cham-
ber. After first removing air from the chamber with a vacuum pump, the test
fluid is admitted into the chamber until the sample is immersed. When air
removal from the sample has stopped (as indicated by the termination of
bubbling), atmospheric pressure is again slowly restored to the chamber per-
mitting saturation of the sample.
8
Porvic filter material, Pritchett and Gold and E.P.S., Co., Dagenham Dock,
Essex, England.
S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst of Tech Chennai) pursuant to License Agreement. No furthe
T
The sample and barrier assembly is mounted with thermometer clamps to
a support rod. Leads to manometers and the supply and outflow siphons are
connected to the brass taps on the tensiometer and capillary barriers. The
elevations of the siphons are adjusted to produce downward flow under a
hydraulic gradient of unity so that the capillary pressure of the entire sample
is as nearly uniform as possible.
The first measurements are made with capillary pressures low enough to
insure no desaturation. Afterwards, measurements are made with capillary
pressures increasing in increments. This is accomplished by raising the sample
in increments relative to the elevation of the supply and outflow siphons.
When the system reaches a steady state, the discharge rate is measured using
a stopwatch and buret, and capillary pressure is measured on the manometers.
The temperature of the measurement is recorded.
Calculation
The intrinsic permeability K in cm2 is calculated as follows:
where:
/z = dynamic viscosity of the test fluid in poises at the temperature of the
measurement,
p = density of the test fluid in dyne-sec2/cm4 at the temperature of the
measurement,
g = gravitational acceleration in cm/sec2,
q = volume flux in cm/sec through the specimen, and
V// = hydraulic gradient (dimensionless) between the tensiometers.
The intrinsic permeability measured at complete saturation is designated K
The capillary pressure p
where:
z = elevation difference in cm between a tensiometer and the corresponding
manometer meniscus (corrected for capillary rise in the manometer).
The pore-size distribution index n, a dimensionless positive number, is de-
termined statistically from the values of K and p
for which the relationship is nearly linear.
where:
N = number of determinations of K and p
The bubbling pressure pb in dynes /cm2 is determined statistically from the
same values of K and p
APPENDIX II
Method of Test for Porosity of Soils
Scope
This method describes a test procedure for determining porosity of dis-
turbed and undisturbed soils.
Apparatus
The apparatus used in this test consists of the following:
Calipers—calipers reading to 0.01 cm.
Drying oven—vacuum oven.
Balance—a balance of 1-kg capacity sensitive to 0.001 g.
Pycnometer—a 25 or 50-ml specific gravity pycnometer with thermometer.
Determination of Bulk Specific Gravity

The dimensions of the sample are measured using calipers, and the sample
volume is calculated. After drying in a vacuum oven at 70 C, the sample is
weighed on a balance. The bulk specific gravity Gm in g/cm3 is calculated as
follows:
where:
w = sample weight, g, and
v = sample volume, cm3.
Determination of Specific Gravity

The ASTM Method of Test for Specific Gravity of Soils (D 854 - 58) is
employed.
Calculation
The porosity 0 is calculated as follows:
where:
$ = porosity (dimensionless),
G = specific gravity of soil solids, and
Gm = bulk specific gravity of the sample.
STP417-EB/Aug. 1967
K. E. Wit1
Apparatus for Measuring Hydraulic

Conductivity of Undisturbed Soil Samples
REFERENCE: K. E. Wit, "Apparatus for Measuring Hydraulic Conduc-

tivity of Undisturbed Soil Samples," Permeability and Capillarity of Soils,
ASTM STP 417, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., 1967, p. 72.
ABSTRACT: Since undisturbed soil samples can be obtained to a depth
of about 50 m, a laboratory apparatus for the determination of the hy-
draulic conductivity has been developed. The tests with this apparatus
provide data on vertical hydraulic conductivity; horizontal conductivity;
the presence of semipervious or pervious confining layers; and the cor-
relation between hydraulic conductivity and granular composition, poros-
ity, minor structures, etc. The data are used for comparison with data ob-
tained from other methods and as a basis for computation of direction
and intensity of flow under natural conditions. The permeameter consists
of a container in which simultaneous tests of 50 samples are possible, with
both the constant-head and the falling-head methods. The hydraulic head
applied for the flow ranges from 2 to 20 mm, depending on structure and
texture of the samples.
KEY WORDS: hydraulics, hydraulic conductivity, permeability, soil
(material), porosity, permeameters, capillarity
The planning of drainage and irrigation projects is nearly always based

on geo-hydrological investigations. These investigations are carried out
to obtain an insight in the present hydrological situation, to obtain hydro-
logical constants of the soil, and to find out what criteria must be used for
a good functioning of the future system. The hydrological constants to
be determined comprise the hydraulic conductivity, K, the transmissibil-
ity, KD, and the vertical resistance or leakage factor, C, of the aquifer.
Dependent on the available equipment, several methods for the deter-
mination in the field of the soil constants are applied, ranging from the
auger hole method to pumping tests. On the other hand, these constants
can be computed from field observations of piezometric pressures by
applying known solutions for the flow conditions occurring in the profile,
as drainage, transmission of tidal movements in the aquifer, etc. For
1
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WIT ON MEASURING HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY 73
most of these methods piezometers must be placed. The borings required

for this purpose often are used also for obtaining other geo-hydrological
data as thickness of various layers, composition, texture, structure, etc.
As to laboratory methods, the hydraulic conductivity can be deter-
mined from undisturbed samples (cores). In this case the taking of cores
at greater depth, especially in noncohesive soils, formerly often gave
difficulties. After a new method for obtaining undisturbed samples from
all types of soils was developed [I],2 the laboratory methods to measure
the hydraulic conductivity of undisturbed samples could receive greater
application. The data from these undisturbed samples can now in all
cases be compared with the hydraulic conductivity data obtained with
field methods, which is an additional advantage.
Methods for this measurement described by Steams [2], Wenzel [3],
and Scheidegger [4] were designed only for special aims, however, or
did not answer our purpose. A new apparatus has therefore been de-
signed with which a small hydraulic head is applied at the bottom of the
samples, and both constant and falling head methods can be used. Fur-
thermore, simultaneous measurement of 50 samples is possible. The
principle of this apparatus and some results obtained with it are described
in this paper.
Samples
Before describing the apparatus itself, something must be said about
the samples to be investigated. Regarding the sampling procedure, un-
disturbed samples can be divided into two groups: (a) those obtained
from shallow depth, mostly from layers above the water table, and (b)
those obtained from below the groundwater table.
The first-mentioned samples are collected in stainless steel cylinders
with a wall thickness of 1.5 mm and a length and inside diameter of ap-
proximately 50 mm. The lower end of the cylinders is provided with a
cutting edge. The samples are collected from a bore hole or from a pit.
In the latter case samples are taken both in the horizontal and vertical
direction. For sandy soils, where the structure is of minor importance,
two to three samples are taken from each layer of which the hydraulic
conductivity has to be known. In clay soils often a larger variation in
structure occurs, and in that case experience learned that often 20 to 30
samples from each layer are required to obtain a reproducible mean
hydraulic conductivity.
The samples are transported in wooden boxes with top and bottom at
the inside covered with rubber sheets between which the samples are
clasped tightly to reduce moisture losses and prevent disturbance during
transport.
2
The italic numbers
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Samples from deeper layers were obtained with the core sampler de-
scribed by Wit [-/]. In this case only vertical samples are available. They
are taken in zinc cylinders having a diameter of 62 mm and a length of
300 mm. The cylinders are manufactured from normal 1 mm zinc sheet.
The open ends of the cylinders are sealed in the field with a mixture of
paraffin and petroleum jelly in order to prevent drying out.
FIG. 1—Part of the measuring tank. At the back the sliding gage with elec-
trodes and nonii.
Apparatus
The apparatus had to be suitable for the measurements on both types
of cylinders described above. In addition to this it should be possible to
measure the horizontal conductivity of the vertically taken large samples
from below the groundwater table. Since the measurements have to be
carried out with the same fluid as the soil contained (either fresh or salt
water), preferably a closed fluid circuit had to be used.
Figure 1 gives a view of the top of the apparatus. It consists of a
brass tank of 125 by 40 by 35 cm built in a frame of the same material.
Over this frame two 25-mm stainless steel rods, mounted horizontally
in front and back, carry a sliding gage with five movable electrodes which
are connected with a low tension ammeter, which, in turn, is connected
with batteries and the wall of the tank. A five-point switch can connect
each ofCopyright
these electrodes with
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rightsammeter. In Jan
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13:16:39 EST depth of
the water surface can be
Downloaded/printed by read on the calibrated electrodes the moment
FIG. 2—Schematic cross section of the measuring tank.
FIG. 3—Schematic representation of the measuring system, (left) 5 cm inside

diameter stainless steel cylinder (100 cm3) with attached water collecting cylinder
(with representation of constant head method); (right) zinc cylinder, inside diameter
6.2 cm, length 30 cm (with falling head procedure).
the point hits the water. For measurements with saline water a potentiom-
eter will have to be included in the circuit in order to increase the re-
sistance of it. With this system the water level both in the cylinders and
in theCopyright
tank can by with
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Sun Jan 11 13:16:39 accuracy
2015 of
0.1 mm.
The smaller samples are hung in ten rows of five each, in the holes
of a brass plate some 10 cm below the top of the tank.
Figure 2 gives a schematic cross section of the tank. The water in the
tank is maintained at a constant level by means of an overflow and a
circulation system. With the constant head method the water above the
sample is maintained at a constant level by means of a syphon (Fig. 3,
left). The water flowing from bottom to top through the sample flows
through a buret in front of the tank, so the discharge can be measured at
any desired time. When the flow rate is constant the existing head is
measured, ending the determination.
The falling head method is drawn in Fig. 3, right, as used for the large
cylinders. The syphon system is in that case disconnected, and the exist-
ing heads are measured at various time intervals. The top of the larger
samples is removed to give room for the water rising through the sample.
The bottom end of the samples is held in place by a sieve covered with
gauze. The large cylinders rest on a perforated brass plate a few milli-
meters above the bottom of the tank. The small cylinders are connected
with their top to a cylinder collecting the water flowing through the sam-
ple (collecting cylinder) by means of a screw and a rubber O-ring.
For the measurements of nonsaline samples demineralized tap water
is used. In the water conduit a special filter has been built to remove all
silt particles from the used water. Without such a filter an impervious
layer will be formed at the bottom end of the samples.
Procedure
The bottom end of the small cylinders is closed with a piece of hydro-
phile gauze and then a brass sieve. For samples of sandy soils this is done
without further preparation of the sample. The ends of samples of clayey
origin are prepared first to show the natural aggregates again. This is
done by removing carefully small pieces from the open ends with the aid
of a point of a knife. In this way root and wormholes which were closed
by the cutting-off of the ends of the sample, are opened again.
The samples in the small cylinders then are saturated by placing them
in a tank, with the water level about 1 cm below the top of the sample.
Dependent on soil type they are left one to three days, the largest time
being for clay samples. The cylinders are then hung by means of the
screwed-on collecting cylinder in the measuring tank, with the water
level about 1 cm higher than the top of the sample, but below the top
of the cylinder. When water appears on top of the sample, the syphon
system is connected. For small K values, to be concluded from the time
it takes for water to appear on top of the sample, a somewhat larger head
between the water inside the cylinder and the level in the measuring
tank is to be maintained than for large K values. The heads used range
from 2Copyright
to 20 mm. Measurements
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Jan 11hydraulic gradients
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of 0.05 to 0.2, but experiments with a sandy loam with gradients ranging
from 0.0015 to 1 did prove that within that range a good constancy of
the calculated K can be obtained. This is in agreement with experiments
of Meinzer and Fishel [5].
From the samples in the large cylinders, at the upper end 5 cm and at
the lower end 3.5 cm of soil plus paraffin are removed. The bottom end
is again held in place by a brass sieve and hydrophyle gauze. After satu-
FIG. A—Schematic representation of the procedure to measure the horizontal

conductivity. At the right, squares of equipotentials and stream lines during the
measurement.
ration as described for the small cylinders, the top end of the large cylin-
der is closed by a rubber stopper, and the samples are put with the bottom
end up in the measuring tank. By turning them around again under water,
an accumulation of air at the lower end of the sample cannot occur.
After removing the rubber stopper, the sample is left in the tank. As soon
as the water stands at a certain level above the soil the measurements
can start.
In the larger samples also the horizontal conductivity can be deter-
mined. After measuring the vertical conductivity, the lower end of the
cylinder is filled
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a rubber ring: an impermeable layer is in this way obtained. Next two

vertical holes (10 mm diameter) are made in the sample, situated opposite
each other at the edge of the sample. This is done by a small brass tube
connected to a water jet pump. Now tubular brass pipes are placed in
these holes, one of 22 cm and the other of 17.5 cm total length with the
bottom 10 cm of metal gauze (see Fig. 4). Then the top end of the sample
is sealed with a mixture of paraffin and petroleum jelly, and the sample
is placed in a tank with water under vacuum to get complete saturation.
After saturation the sample is placed in the measuring tank, and water
from the tank is conveyed to the longest filter by means of a syphon. It
flows horizontally through the soil into the smaller filter which is con-
nected with the already mentioned syphon system to the discharge cistern.
By measuring both outflow and head difference, the hydraulic conduc-
tivity can be calculated.
Calculation of Vertical and Horizontal Hydraulic Conductivities

For the constant head method the discharge Q and the head difference
h are measured when a constant flow has been attained. The vertical
hydraulic conductivity is computed from:
where L stands for the length and FI for the cross-sectional area of the
sample. When Q is expressed in cmVmin, L and h in cm, and FI in cm2,
the hydraulic conductivity in m/day is given by:
For the falling head method at least two heads hi and h2 measured at
times ti and t2 are required, for (see Fig. 3) according to Darcy's law:
or
Integration gives:
or
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from which follows, with F± = F2 , t2 — h in hours, hi and h2 in mm and

K in m/day:
Since the accuracy depends largely upon the accuracy of hi and h2

it is advisable, especially when having samples with small K, to prevent
the evaporation of the water in the cylinder or to apply a correction for
it.
For the horizontal conductivity Ernst3 derived an equation based on
the method of squares. Such a system of squares is given in Fig. 4. For
each square one has
Now for the given figure q — 1 A# and h = 1 A/z giving:
and
or
Since L is in this case the constant length of filters of 10 cm and Q the

discharge is expressed in cmVmin and h in mm, the conductivity in
m/day is:
Measurements did show that the resistance of the used filters of fine
metal gauze is negligible. For discharges Q > 10 cm3/min the loss in head
in the syphon tube connecting the inflow filter with the water in the tank
must be taken into account. It is therefore best to use always the same
type of syphon and determine the head loss for various values of Q. This
head loss must be used as a correction for h in Eq 5.
All calculated K values must be corrected for temperature. Normally
this is done for a standard temperature of 10 C according to the equation
3 Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Sun Jan 11 13:16:39 EST 2015
L. F. Ernst, private communication, 1960.
AN
where the index T stands for the temperature in Centigrade during the
measurements and the index 10 for the standard temperature of 10 C; ^
is the dynamic viscosity in poises and p the density of the fluid.
Some Results
In an experimental field the hydraulic conductivity was determined
by means of the auger hole method. By using different depths of the
TABLE 1—Hydraulic conductivities measured by the auger hole method.

Layer, cm below surface K, m/day Layer, cm below surface K, m/day
10 to 85 0.02 85 to 190 0.14

25 to 75 0 06 75 to 205 0 59
30 to 85 0.02 85 to 160 0.24
25 to 85 0 01 85 to 200 0 23
10 to 80 0.03 80 to 190 0.35
30 to 70 0 00 70 to 200 0 23
25 to 80 0 06 80 to 190 0 39
Mean 25 to 180 0.03 Mean 80 to 190 0.31
TABLE 2—Hydraulic conductivity in m/day calculated from undisturbed samples.

Horizontal Vertical .
Soil Type Depth, cm Arith- Geo- Arith- Geo-
metic metric metic metric
mean mean mean mean
Sticky clay 30 to 65 0.07 0.03 0.95 0.20

Humous layer 65 to 75 0.27 0.06 3.05 0.38
Heavy sticky clay 75 to 90 0.15 0.11 1.38 0.35
Sand 75 to 100 0.16 0.02 0.42 0.11
Sandy clay 75 to 105 0.10 0.10 0.07 0.05
Granulous clay 90 to 150 0.68 0.42 0.49 0.58
Tidal-flat sand 150 to 285 0.34 0.16 0.26 0.20
holes a complete picture of the different layers could be obtained. The

result is given in Table 1.
The mean value was calculated with the equation
n^
where d stands for the thickness of the layers.

From the same soil undisturbed samples were taken. The measured
vertical conductivities of these samples are given in Table 2, with a
description of the type of soil. In each layer 10 to 30 samples were taken,
of which the mean
Copyright values
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The undisturbed samples give a somewhat higher K value than the

auger hole method. The explanation is that the wall of the auger hole is
often sealed in heavier soils. A pumping test in the mud-flat sand under-
lying the profile gave a K value of 0.3 m/day, which is in close agreement
with that obtained from the undisturbed sample.
TABLE 3—Comparison of hydrological constants obtained from laboratory

measurements and from pumping tests for three boring sites [6].
Transmissibility in m2/day
No. of Site Laboratory
Pumping test measurement Granular analysis
H2b 300 270 310

H32a 510 530 480
H24a 300 300 320
FIG. 5—Sample ejector.
Remarkable is the much higher value of the vertical conductivity

found in this soil. This must be ascribed to cracks and root holes which
mainly occur in a vertical direction.
The results obtained from the large cylinders are in Table 3 compared
with values for the transmissibility obtained with other methods. The
results show a fair agreement.
Other Data to Be Obtained from Undisturbed Samples

Having possession of undisturbed samples, these lend themselves,
after having
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S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst of Tech Chennai) pursuant to License Agre
and geologic interpretation to gain an insight in the factors which deter-

mine the hydrological constants of a certain layer or profile. To gain
access to all layers of a still undisturbed sample, a sample ejector has
been developed (Fig. 5).
This ejector consists of a shaft which is moved by an electric motor
with reduction. At the front end of the shaft two halves of a cylinder,
similar to those in which the samples are collected but just fitting into it,
can be mounted. These halves are slowly pressed along the inside of the
sample cylinder which is kept fixed. The shaft can turn in two directions,
so after the sample has been completely taken over by the cylinder con-
sisting of two halves the turning direction of the shaft is reversed and the
FIG. 6—Longitudinal cross sections of undisturbed samples from old tidal flat
deposits in polder "De Oude Korendijk." The numbers h513 to h519 refer to sample
numbers. The numbers in brackets give in meters the depth from which the sample
was taken; Kv — vertical and Kh = horizontal conductivity.
sample is taken out of the original sample tube. One half of the new
cylinder is then removed, and the sample is halved with the aid of a knife
or a thin steel wire, leaving an undisturbed longitudinal cross section of
the soil. Figure 6 gives some examples of cross sections obtained in this
manner, together with the vertical and horizontal conductivity obtained
with the apparatus described in this paper.
Summary
In order to get full benefit from geological borings an apparatus for
taking undisturbed samples in all soil types was developed [7]. As a
logical consequence an apparatus for measuring the vertical as well as
horizontal hydraulic conductivity of such samples was made, the descrip-
tion ofCopyright
which isby given
ASTMinInt'l
this(allpaper.
rights In the compact
reserved); Sun Jan measuring tank2015
11 13:16:39 EST it is
possible to measure simultaneously 50 samples, each either with the

falling head or with the constant head method. The procedure and the
formulas to be used are given, with some results which are compared
with the results of other methods of obtaining hydrological constants,
References
[7] K. E. Wit, "An Apparatus for Coring Undisturbed Samples in Deep Bore
Holes," Soil Science, Vol 94, No. 2, 1962.
[2] N. D. Stearns, "Laboratory Tests on Physical Properties of Water Bearing
Materials," Paper 596, U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply, 1928.
[3] L. K. Wenzel, "Methods for Determining Permeability of Water Bearing Ma-
terials," Paper 889, U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply, 1942.
[4] A. E. Scheidegger, "The Physics of Flow Through Porous Media," Union Press,
Toronto, Canada, 1957.
[5] O. E. Meinzer and V. C. Fishel, "Tests of Permeability with Low Hydraulic
Gradients," Transactions, Am. Geophysical Union, Vol 15, 1934.
[6] N. A. de Ridder and K. E. Wit, "A Comparative Study on the Hydraulic Con-
ductivity of Unconsolidated Sediments," Journal of Hydrology, Vol 3, 1965.
S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst of Tech Chennai) pursuant to Lice
STP417-EB/Aug. 1967
O. C. Baptist1
Permeability and Capillarity in Petroleum

Reservoir Engineering
REFERENCE: O. C. Baptist, "Permeability and Capillarity in Petroleum

Reservoir Engineering," Permeability and Capillarity of Soils, ASTM STP
417, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., 1967, p. 84.
ABSTRACT: The common methods for determining permeability and
capillarity are outlined, and the uses of these results in petroleum en-
gineering are summarized. Most of the changes noted when the single-
phase permeability of a specimen is determined with gas and with water
are attributable to such factors as gas slippage, interactions between the
media and the fluid, bacterial growths, and incomplete saturations. Mul-
tiphase permeability, used in most reservior calculations, is best deter-
mined by the unsteady-state displacement method. Analyses of data ob-
tained from well tests are based either on the assumption of steady-state
flow of incompressible fluids or the unsteady-state flow of slightly com-
pressible fluids. Analyses of pressure buildup curves using the concept
of unsteady-state flow are proving very useful in determining a variety
of reservoir conditions such as permeability, well damage, reservoir vol-
ume, distance to faults, static reservoir pressure, and interference between
wells. Capillary pressure relations, used to predict connate water satura-
tion in the reservoir, are best determined by displacement of fluids through
a semipermeable barrier. The centrifuge method gives good results in
homogeneous specimens, while the mercury injection method is useful
for specimens not containing swelling clay minerals.
KEY WORDS: permeability, capillarity, soil (material), petroleum geol-
ogy, reservoir engineering, well testing, connate water, mercury injection,
centrifuge
This paper is a brief review of permeability and capillarity as de-

termined and used by petroleum reservoir engineers and others concerned
with the behavior of hydrocarbons and associated water in subsurface
formations. The science of petroleum reservoir engineering has emerged
as a well-defined and highly technical branch of engineering only within
the last 20 years. The foundation of the science was elaborated for the
first time by Muskat in 1937 in his book, The Flow of Homogeneous
Fluids Through Porous Media. The hundreds of technical articles and
Petroleum research engineer, Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the In-

terior, Copyright by ASTM Int'l
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Research reserved);
Wyo.Sun Jan 11 13:16:39 EST 2015
BAPTIST ON PETROLEUM RESERVOIR ENGINEERING 85
several books that have been published on permeability and capillarity

since that time attest to the importance of these subjects. The importance
of permeability and capillarity to petroleum reservoir engineering may
be best illustrated by summarizing some of the calculations made during
the productive life of an oil or gas field.
One of the first problems that arises after oil is discovered by a single
well is to determine the areal extent of the deposit. The minimum distance
to the boundaries of the deposit may be determined from pressure-
buildup tests in which permeability is an important parameter. The
quantities of oil in place and recoverable oil must be calculated as soon
as the boundaries of the field are established. The quantity of oil in a rock
that was previously saturated with water depends upon the capillarity of
the system—interfacial tensions between immiscible fluids, pore size,
pore-size distribution, preferential wettability of rock surfaces, and the
height of the oil column above the oil-water contact. The volumes of oil
and water that flow to the well during oil production are calculated by
the fractional-flow equation which relates the relative permeability and
viscosity of each fluid to the rate of flow of that fluid. The rate of upward
movement of bottom or edge water and the downward movement of a
gas cap are governed by permeability. Gas or water is often injected into
reservoirs to increase oil recovery; the rate of fluid injection and the
efficiency with which one fluid displaces another are functions of the
permeability and capillarity of the system.
In summary, almost every calculation made by petroleum reservoir
engineers has as its basis some aspect of permeability or capillarity.
Methods of determination and equations for use are discussed in the
following sections.
Single-Phase Permeability
In 1856 Darcy described a series of experiments on the downward flow
of water through filter sands [I].2 He found that the rate of flow is related
to other factors as given in the equation:
1
where v is the volume of water crossing a unit area in unit time, cm3/sec/
cm2; H! and H
manometers terminated above and below the sand, cm; L is the thickness
of the sand, cm; and K is a factor of proportionality. It follows that K
has the dimensions of length per unit time, which is the macroscopic or
apparent velocity.
The experiments of Darcy were reviewed and extended in the 1920's
2
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when the science of petroleum reservoir engineering was in its infancy.

It was established by theory and experiment that Darcy's relation could
be extended by the addition of a viscosity term. Wyckoff et al then pro-
posed, in 1933, the unit of permeability that is almost universally ac-
cepted by the petroleum production industry today [2]. They noted that
in view of Darcy's fundamental work in establishing the laws of flow for
porous media, it seemed appropriate to name the unit of permeability the
"darcy." The fluid flow equation, taking into account viscosity is:
where vs is the apparent velocity, cm/sec, and is equal to q/A, where

q is the volumetric flow rate, cm3/sec, and A is the cross-sectional area
of the media, cm2; /x is fluid viscosity, cp; and dp/ds is the component
of pressure gradient taken in the direction of v, atmos/cm. The pro-
portionality constant, ks is the permeability of the media expressed in
darcy units.
Integration of Eq 2 for a linear system gives:
11
(}
where k, q, n, and A are the same as defined in Eq 2; L is the length in the

direction of flow, cm; and/? t and/? 0 are inlet and outlet pressures, atmos
(absolute). This equation also gives gas permeability if the volume of
gas is measured at mean pressure. [See Eq 5 also.]
The permeability of most petroleum reservoir rocks is within the range
of 0.005 to 5.0 darcys. If the unit of permeability had been defined in
terms of consistent units in the cgs system, the numerical values of per-
meability of most reservoir rocks would be very small. Rather than
append a negative exponent to most values, the inconsistent set of units
was adopted. The subunit of permeability, the millidarcy (md), one
thousandth of a darcy, is widely used so that permeability of most
reservoir rocks is expressed in numbers larger than unity.
The dimension of permeability, as defined above, is U. The only length
of physical significance associated with the structure of a porous medium
is its grain, or pore diameter. It is thus implied that permeability is
proportional to the square of pore diameter.
Many attempts have been made to express permeability in terms of
other physically measurable properties of the porous medium, and
considerable thought and research effort have been given by numerous
investigators to the search for such a relationship [3]. None of these
relationships has proved applicable to all types of porous media, and
most of them necessitate measurements which are more difficult than
the direct
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gives a macroscopic dynamical characterization of the nature of the

porous medium, it must be determined dynamically, that is, by a flow
experiment. Porosity is a static property of a porous medium and has no
explicit relation to the dynamical property of permeability. Thus, a
material of high porosity may have a very low permeability because of
the lack of interconnection of pores, and a porous medium composed of
uniform spherical grains will possess permeabilities varying as the square
of grain diameter though the porosity is constant. In spite of these
limitations, a correlation between porosity and permeability is useful in
reservoir calculations, but such a correlation must be developed for each
formation by testing many samples.
The linear flow of fluids as described by Eq 3 seldom occurs in pe-
troleum reservoirs where large areas are drained by a single well. Inte-
gration of Eq 2 for a radial system gives:
1u
The units of k, q, and n are the same as in Eq 2. The logarithm to base e

is In; re and rw are the radial distances to the external boundary of the
system and the well radius, cm; h is the thickness of the permeable bed,
cm; and p e and pw are the pressure at the external boundary of the sys-
tem and the well pressure, atmos.
Laboratory Determination
Many petroleum reservoir rocks are consolidated sandstones or lime-
stones. Cores taken of these formations during drilling of wells are pre-
served for testing in the laboratory. Plug specimens are cut from the
cores with a diamond drill and trimmed to a standard length with a dia-
mond saw. Flow through the specimen during the permeability test is
usually in the direction of flow, parallel to bedding planes in the reservoir.
If vertical permeability is desired, cubical specimens are prepared which
can be used to test both horizontal and vertical permeability.
The procedures for testing specimens of reservoir rocks have been
examined in detail by committees of the American Petroleum Institute,
and their recommendations provide a basis for standardizing laboratory
tests [4,5]. Recommended practices are given for the determination of
gas permeability, but water permeability and relative permeability (to be
discussed later in this report) are not covered.
Briefly, the procedure for calculating the gas permeability of specimens
during routine core analyses is as follows: The dimensions of the speci-
men are obtained by calipering. The clean, dry specimen is placed in an
appropriate holder, dry gas is passed through the specimen, and the rate
of flow is determined from a suitable measuring device. The differential
pressure
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flow. The inlet pressure, outlet pressure, rate of gas flow, and temperature
are recorded. The dry-gas permeability may be calculated from the
following formula:
where:
kg = gas permeability millidarcys, md;
qg = rate of gas flow at outlet pressure, cm3/sec;
Hg = viscosity of gas at mean pressure and temperature, cp;
L = length of the sample, cm;
A = cross-sectional area perpendicular to direction of flow, cm2;
Pi = inlet pressure, atmos (absolute); and
p0 = outlet pressure, atmos (absolute).
The described method gives permeability sufficiently accurate for most
engineering applications. Because layered sediments are neither homo-
geneous nor isotropic, permeability varies considerably throughout the
reservoir, and, therefore, it is more desirable to test many samples with
an acceptable degree of accuracy rather than a few samples to a high
order of accuracy.
If a higher order of accuracy of permeability measurement is desired,
a somewhat longer procedure must be used to correct for the gas-slippage
phenomena, which is sometimes called the Klinkenberg effect after the
investigator who first reported it [6]. Klinkenberg noted that the funda-
mental assumption that permeability is independent of the fluid used in
its determination is not always true. In general, it was found that with
highly permeable media, the differences between liquid and air permea-
bilities were small, whereas these differences were considered for media
of low permeability.
The erroneously high gas permeability observed when low-permeability
specimens are tested at low mean pressures is related to the gas-slippage
phenomena. When gas is flowing at low mean pressure along a solid
surface, the layer of gas next to the solid moves with respect to the sur-
face, whereas a liquid under the same conditions is adsorbed by the solid
and is motionless. As mean gas pressure increases, gas slippage decreases,
and at infinite mean pressure (extrapolated), gas theoretically behaves
the same as liquid, and permeability to the two fluids is the same.
General practice in our laboratory is to determine apparent gas
permeability at three or more mean pressures which are as widely differ-
ent as the limitations of the apparatus and necessity for staying within
the region of laminar flow allow. Apparent gas permeability is plotted
as the ordinate against the reciprocal of the mean pressure. The line
through these points is extrapolated to its intercept with the ordinate
which Copyright
gives indicated gas
by ASTM Int'l (all permeability atJaninfinite
rights reserved); Sun mean
11 13:16:39 pressure. At this
EST 2015
point, gas permeability is equivalent to that of an inert liquid. A diagram

of the apparatus used in our laboratory to determine apparent gas perme-
ability over considerable range of mean pressures is shown in Fig. 1.
The generalization that the permeability of a porous medium is inde-
pendent of the nature of the flowing fluid contains several inherent as-
sumptions. One of these is that the flowing fluid does not react with
components of the porous medium. This assumption often fails when
porous sediments are saturated with water. The reduction of permeability
caused by the introduction of foreign waters into subsurface formations
is of special interest to the petroleum industry, where large quantities of
FIG. 1—Diagram of "Klinkenberg" gas permeameter.
water are injected for the recovery of additional oil and for waste-water
disposal.
Studies have shown that the reduction of permeability to water, as
compared to gas, is related to the following properties of the rock and
water: type of clay mineral, amount of clay-size material, type of ex-
changeable ions held by the clays, ions in the water, total salinity of the
water, and absolute permeability [7,8]. Effective water permeability
generally decreases with an increase in the amount of expandable clay
minerals (for example, montmorillonite) and the total amount of fine-
grained material. It increases with increasing absolute permeability, water
salinity, and substitution on the clays of a divalent cation (for example,
calcium) for a monovalent cation (for example, sodium).
TheCopyright
effect of types Int'l
by ASTM of (all
clay minerals
rights reserved);and water
Sun Jan salinityEST
11 13:16:39 on2015
the water
permeability of two Wyoming reservoir sands3 is shown in Fig. 2. The

Tensleep sand is a hard, quartzitic sandstone of Pennsylvanian age, which
contains a small amount of a clay mineral, illite, that expands very little
in fresh water. The Second Frontier sand is a medium-hard sandstone
of Cretaceous age, which contains a clay mineral, montmorillonite, that
expands greatly in fresh water, thereby reducing the permeability. Care
must be taken when drilling oil wells in the Frontier sand not to expose
the formation to fresh water, lest the subsequent permeability to oil be
reduced.
FIG. 2—Average relation of air permeability to water and brine permeability

for a clean sandstone and one containing a swelling clay mineral.
The procedure for determination of permeability to water or other

liquid is basically simple, but a number of precautions must be observed
to obtain valid results. Two precautions that must be given special atten-
tion are the complete saturation of specimens and the addition of a bac-
tericide to the test water. The procedure that has been found necessary in
our laboratory to obtain 100 per cent water saturation in specimens
(especially those of low permeability) is as follows: the clean, dry speci-
mens are evacuated, pressurized with helium to about 50 psi, again
evacuated, submerged in deaerated water, pressurized with helium for a
3
"Sands" as used
Copyright in this
by ASTM Int'lreport includes
(all rights sandstones
reserved); Sun Janas11well as unconsolidated
13:16:39 EST 2015
sands. Downloaded/printed by
short time, and soaked for several hours to allow hydration of interstitial
clay minerals. A satisfactory bactericide is mercuric chloride in a concen-
tration of about 25 ppm. Other bactericides are also effective, but care
should be taken to use one which does not affect clay minerals or other
components of the material being tested.
Multiphase Permeability
The permeability of a porous medium to a fluid with which the medium
is inert is called the absolute permeability. The symbol for absolute
permeability, k, does not indicate the fluid used in the determination
FIG. 3—Relation of oil and water relative permeability to saturations.
but a dry gas, such as air, nitrogen, or helium, is commonly used be-
cause of its convenience and because it does not react with the core
material. The permeability to a fluid at less than 100 per cent saturation
of that fluid is the effective permeability, and the ratio of effective to
absolute permeability is the relative permeability.
Effective and relative permeabilities are used in calculations because
petroleum reservoirs are always saturated with some combination of
oil, gas, and water. For brevity and simplicity, only oil and water per-
meabilities are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Figure 3 is an example of curves showing relative permeabilities for oil
and water as functions of their saturations (oil saturation is 100 minus
the water saturation). These curves were determined for a specimen of an
oil producing
Copyright sandstone of(all
by ASTM Int'l Pennsylvanian
rights reserved); age
Sun in
Jan Kentucky. The2015
11 13:16:39 EST opera-
tors ofDownloaded/printed
this field were concerned
by because the rate of water injection into
wells for secondary recovery of oil was less than they expected. Let us
examine these curves as an example of the changing relative or effective
permeabilities as an oil sand is invaded by water. We assume that any
gas in the reservoir is in solution in the oil and, therefore, is not a mobile
fluid.
The absolute permeability of the specimen used to derive Fig. 3,
determined with gas, is 54 md. This is the same as for oil, giving a rela-
tive permeability to oil, kro of 1.0 at an oil saturation, S0, of 100 per
cent. The permeability to water at a water saturation, Sw , of 100 per cent
is 44.8 md, giving a relative permeability to water, krw , of 0.83. As is
usually the case with sandstone specimens, the kTW at an Sw of 100 per
cent is somewhat less than 1, due to reactions between the water and
rock. The amount of permeability reduction indicated for this specimen
is not, however, considered to be significant.
The irreducible water saturation, Swi, of 15 per cent is considered to be
equivalent to the interstitial water saturation in a reservoir having the
characteristics of this core specimen. This is the highest water saturation
at which the water phase is immobile. At this saturation, the effective
permeability to oil is 37.3 md, giving a kro of 0.69. This is the estimated
permeability to the oil phase in the reservoir ahead of the waterflood.
As the water saturation increases above the Swi, the permeability to
water increases slowly, but that to oil decreases rapidly. When the satu-
ration in each fluid is the same (50 per cent), kro = 0.04 (2.2 md) and
rw = 0.08 (4.4 md). Thus, the total effective permeability at aaaaequalk
saturation is about 6.6 md, or only 12 per cent of the absolute permea-
bility of the specimen. This illustrates the magnitude of the reduction of
fluid flow caused by mutual interference of two immiscible liquids.
The permeability to oil approaches ze0 is 35 per cent (Sw = 65ro waahen S
per cent). This is the irreducible oil saturation and represents the volume
of oil that will remain unrecovered in the reservoir after prolonged
waterflooding. At these saturations, Firw is 0.17, indicating that theg. 3, ak
permeability to water is only 9.2 md. From this information it was ap-
parent to the operators of the field from which the sample was obtained
that their calculation for rate of water injection, based on absolute per-
meability, was much too high.
When water displaces oil in a rock in which water is the wetting phase,
the system is said to be on the imbibition cycle, and when water satura-
tion is decreasing, the system is on the drainage cycle. Relative permea-
bility to oil and to water does not depend solely upon their respective
saturations but is affected by the cycle in which the saturations were ob-
tained [20]. Because of this hysteresis in relative permeability curves
(which is also significant in capillary pressure curves) laboratory tests
should be designed to reproduce saturation changes that have occurred
in theCopyright
reservoirbyasASTM
closely
Int'l as
(allpracticable.
Although this discussion has been limited to two-phase systems, oil

reservoirs commonly contain three phases (oil, gas, and water) so that
the potential for three-phase flow is usually present. Because three-phase
flow is usually confined to a small part of the reservoir (such as near the
oil-water contact) these systems have not been studied extensively, and
reliable laboratory methods for their determination have not been de-
veloped. The relative permeability to the third phase is usually calcula-
ted from known relations to the other two phases [20].
Laboratory Methods
The two procedures commonly used to determine gas-oil and water-oil
relative permeabilities are the steady-state dynamic method and the un-
steady-state displacement method [9]. Other methods which give com-
parable results have been developed, but these are more difficult to use
and the determination is time consuming even with the most efficient
methods. The main features of the two methods are outlined below for
water-oil systems, but the general procedures are likewise applicable to
gas-oil systems.
In the steady-state dynamic method, water and oil are forced simul-
taneously through the specimen at a desired ratio until equilibrium con-
ditions of pressure gradient and saturations are attained. After recording
the data, the water-to-oil ratio is changed and the procedure repeated
until the desired range of saturations has been covered. The effective
permeability to each phase is calculated with Eq 3 using the rate of flow
and viscosity of each fluid.
The unsteady-state displacement method is begun by saturating the
clean specimen with water and then flowing oil through it until no more
water is displaced; this may require passing hundreds or even thousands
of pore volumes of oil through the specimen under a rather large pressure
differential. When the irreducible water saturation is achievwi =ed aaaaaaaa(S
15 per cent on Fig. 3), the specimen contains oil and water saturations
approximately equal to those in the reservoir. Water is then forced
through the specimen at either constant rate or constant pressure. The
effluent is collected in small increments and the water-to-oil ratio of each
increment determined. The calculation of individual effective permeabili-
ties from relative permeability ratios takes almost a day for each speci-
men if done on a mechanical desk calculator but is done quickly on
electronic computers, which probably makes the displacement method
the best available.
Field Methods for Determining Permeability and Other Factors

Field tests to determine engineering properties of reservoirs are being
used more each
Copyright year because
by ASTM of improved
Int'l (all rights methods
reserved); Sun and because
Jan 11 13:16:39 direct
EST 2015
tests are inherently more reliable than indirect estimations based on

laboratory tests.
Analyses of field tests (involving pressure buildup) in wells are based
on two concepts: the steady-state radial flow of incompressible fluids and
the unsteady-state radial flow of slightly compressible fluids. Most reser-
voir calculations made before 1950 were based on the former concept,
but since that time methods have been developed to apply the unsteady-
state concept to a wide variety of reservoir problems.
The main purpose of a steady-state well test is to determine the pres-
sure drop associated with a certain rate of production. Various methods
are used to determine the Productivity Index (PI) depending on whether
the well is flowing or pumping. (PI = bbl/day of oil produced/psi pres-
sure drop.) Usually a pressure recording instrument is lowered into the
well, the well is produced at a constant rate for a chosen time, and then
the well is shut in and the pressure instrument left in the well for several
days to record pressure as it builds up and approaches static reservoir
pressure. With these data, effective oil permeability is calculated using
Eq 4 which in oil field units is
(6)
where:
k0 = effective oil permeability, darcys;
q0 = rate of oil flow in the reservoir, bbl/day;
H0 = reservoir oil viscosity, cp;
re = radius of drainage, ft, usually one half the distance to the offset
well;
rw = well radius, ft;
h — effective thickness of the producing formation, ft;
pe — static reservoir pressure, psi; and
pw — stabilized well pressure while producing at rate q0, psi.
Development of equations for the unsteady-state flow of compressible
fluids begins with the general diffusivity equation. The flow of heat,
flow of electricity, and the flow of fluids in permeable rocks can be
described by the same mathematical forms. The general form of the
diffusivity equation
(7)
describes the pressure, p, at any radius, /-, in a radial system at a given

time, /, when a homogeneous fluid of slight but constant compressi-
bility, c, flows through a porous medium under unsteady-state conditions
[10]. ACopyright
number of solutions
by ASTM of reserved);
Int'l (all rights this basicSun equation areEST
Jan 11 13:16:39 possible
2015 depending
upon the boundary conditions assumed, but most of these solutions are
unwieldy for the field engineer because of the complicated mathematics
involved. Homer in 1951 proposed the "point source" solution of the
difTusivity equation which assumes: the external boundary is at infinity
and the pressure there is constant, and the internal boundary (that is,
the well radius) is vanishingly small and flow into it is constant [//].
Horner's solution and development of equations for several boundary
conditions has led to the application of his methods to many petroleum
reservoir problems, such as, effective oil permeability, reduction of
permeability near the well (well damage), static reservoir pressure, dis-
tance to the boundaries of the reservoir, interference between wells, and
well pressures and pressure distribution throughout the reservoir during
fluid production or injection.
The following equation results from the point source solution of the
difTusivity equation in radial form for an infinite reservoir:
(8)
where:
rit = reservoir pressure at radial distance from well and specifiedp
time, psi;
pe = pressure at external boundary of system, usually is static
reservoir pressure, psi;
q = rate of fluid flow in reservoir, bbl/day (volume of fluids
measured at surface conditions must be corrected to
reservoir conditions);
n = fluid viscosity, cp;
k = effective fluid permeability, darcy;
h = effective thickness of permeable stratum, ft;
<t> = hydrocarbon porosity, fraction;
c = fluid compressibility, psi^1;
r = radial distance from well at which pressure is calculated, ft;
t = time, days;
(—jc) = quantity within brackets of equation; and
Ei(—x) = exponential integral of quantity (—x), found in tables,
or when ( — x ) is less than 0.02, Ei(—x} = lnex + 0.577.
Equation 8 is convenient for determining pressure distribution around
wells during production and interference between wells, but is not a
convenient form for determining reservoir permeability.
Consider a well that is produced for a time and then shut in. Let
pr,t be the well pressure, pw . Then the pressure drawdown in the well
is e — pw , and this is equal to the remainder of the argument in Eqp
8. After the well is shut in for a sufficient time, the Ei function becomes
small,Copyright
and the bylogarithmic
ASTM approximation
Int'l (all of
rightsthis function
reserved); applies.
Sun Jan 11
S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst of Tech Chennai)
Downloaded/printed by FIG. 4—Unsteady-state pressure buildup test. Change of slope indicates a permeability barrier.
Thus, pressure buildup in a well is related logarithmically to time. This

leads to the equation
(9)
in which k, q, p., and h are the same units as in Eq 8, and ra is the slope
of the line resulting from a plot of buildup pw , on a linearressures, p
coordinate, against t/(T + t) on a logarithmic coordinate, where / is
shutin time, hr, and T is producing time, hr [10].
The usual procedure is to produce a well at a constant rate until pro-
duction becomes stabilized and then shut in the well and record well
pressure as a function of time. Extrapolation of the semilogarithmic plot
ofw against t/(T + t) to infinite shutin time gives reservoir pressure at p
the external boundary which is usually the same as the static reservoir
TABLE 1—Effective oil permeability calculated by three methods, SS-1 Sand,

Elk Hills field, Calif.
Well No. k0 , Laboratory k0 , PI Data, md k0 , Buildup
Data, md Data, md
77-8G 945 1250 995

88-8G 821 621 667
26-9G 1470 2311 1836
28-9G 524 884 664
37-9G 1560 1206 627
46-9G 1155 1848 1652
66-9G 560 1218 549
36-10G 1085 2000 1694
46-10G 945 812 518
pressure. An abrupt change in the slope of the buildup curve indicates a

boundary of the reservoir which may be a fault barrier, permeability
pinchout, or edgewater. An example of a pressure buildup curve indicat-
ing a fault barrier is shown in Fig. 4 [12]. Calculations using the change
of slope at the time ratio of 0.18 indicated a permeability barrier 83 ft
from the well. Subsequent geological data not only confirmed the presence
of a fault, but also showed that the calculated distance was about right.
When an oil well is first drilled through a producing formation and be-
fore it is completed with casing, it is customary to run a drill stem test
(DST) which is a temporary well completion. Oil is allowed to flow into
the tubing on which the DST tool is run for a few minutes, and then the
tool is closed and the pressure buildup recorded. Permeability is de-
termined from the pressure buildup curve by using Eq 9 [13].
It is interesting to compare differences in effective oil permeability as
determined using different methods. The effective oil permeability of
the SS-1 sand in the Elk Hills field, Calif., was recently determined using
three methods
Copyright bypreviously
ASTM Int'l (alldescribed herein:
rights reserved); Sun Jan laboratory
11 13:16:39 ESTdynamic
2015 displace-
ment tests on several cores from each well, data from PI tests using Eq 6,
and analyses of pressure buildup tests using Eq 9. The results, in milli-
darcys, are shown in Table 1. The agreement among the results obtained
from the three methods is considered to be good, even though the varia-
tion is considerable. Because of the several inaccuracies inherent in the
evaluation of many variables entering into these determinations, the re-
sults are considered to indicate only an order of magnitude, not an abso-
lute value [14].
The assumptions and limitations inherent in each method of permea-
bility determination should be remembered when considering the applica-
bility of methods to situations. For example, core analyses are made on a
few specimens of reservoir rock, and it is assumed that the results of
tests on such a small sampling are representative of the permeability of
an entire reservoir.
Use of Eq 6 assumes, among other factors, the steady-state flow of
an incompressible fluid in a finite reservoir. The resulting permeability is
an average value which includes the zone of altered permeability sur-
rounding the well bore and the unaltered reservoir out to the radius of
drainage.
Use of Eq 9 assumes the unsteady-state flow of a compressible fluid
in an infinite reservoir. When production is first started from a shutin
well, the flow at early times comes from the zone of altered permeability
surrounding the well, while flow at later times comes from the unaltered
reservoir farther from the well. The different permeability of these two
zones affects the rate of pressure buildup so that the permeability of the
unaltered zone may be determined [22,23]. Permeability derived from the
short pressure buildup obtained during a drill stem test may be strongly
affected by the altered zone.
Capillarity in Petroleum Reservoirs

The value of an oil or gas field depends largely upon the hydrocarbon
content of the reservoir. Determination of the volume of oil and gas in
place requires knowledge of the total reservoir volume, the porosity, and
the water saturation of the hydrocarbon-bearing rock. The total reservoir
volume can be determined from geologic cross sections of the formation,
and porosity can be obtained from direct measurements of core speci-
mens. Determination of the reservoir water saturation (connate water) is
more difficult. It usually must be determined by an indirect method,
since normal coring with water-base muds flushes the core with water
filtrate from the drilling mud. A direct determination, made on cores cut
with an oil-base drilling mud, is probably the most accurate method for
determining connate water [75]. However, oil-base mud is used only
for special circumstances, so cores that have been flushed only with oil
are usually
Copyright not available.
BPAT1ST ON PETROIHJM RESERVOIR ENGINEERING 99
Several experimental methods can be used to provide an accurate de-

termination of the relation between capillary pressure and water satura-
tion [15]. It is important to note that a valid application of the measured
relations to a particular reservoir requires not only a precise method of
physical measurement, but also a specimen having the same preferential
FIG. 5—Exploded, cross-sectioned view of 19-specimen capillary pressure cell.
wettability as the reservoir rock. Since the capillary pressure is deter-

mined in part by wettability, there is a question as to the method of
preparing specimens for laboratory testing. Research using various
experimental methods has shown that capillary pressure data determined
on carefully preserved cores may differ substantially from data deter-
mined on core specimens that are first thoroughly cleaned with organic
solvents [16].
In summary, the ASTM
Copyright by distribution of fluids
Int'l (all rights within hydrocarbon
reserved); Sun Jan 11reservoirs is
13:16:39 EST
2015
1 00 PERMEABILITY AND CAPILLARITY OF SOILS
determined by the capillary characteristics of the entire system. Labora-

tory tests, to be meaningful, must closely reproduce this system.
Several laboratory methods are available to determine the capillary
character of reservoir rocks, but only three of these are now widely used
in reservoir engineering.
The most reliable method of measuring the relationship between water
saturation and capillary pressure is the displacement process through a
semipermeable barrier, sometimes called the restored-state method [27].
This method is useful both for heterogeneous and homogeneous cores and
provides a direct measure of capillary pressure. The chief disadvantage
is the relatively long time required to develop a complete capillary
pressure curve; with low permeability specimens several months may be
required. However, only the irreducible water saturation, not the com-
plete curve, is required for most specimens.
The essential requirement of this method is a permeable material of
uniform pore-size distribution, containing pores of such size that the
displaced fluid (water) may pass through, but the displacing fluid (gas)
will not penetrate the pores at the highest desired displacement pressure.
Porcelain plates have proved the most satisfactory of several materials
tested in our laboratory. The chief advantages of these are their long
life and the ability to remain impermeable to the displacing fluid for long
periods. If even small volumes of gas must be added to cells to maintain
pressure because of a leaking semipermeable barrier, the specimens will
be dehydrated and erroneously low water saturations obtained.
Porcelain plates having a gas breakthrough pressure of about 70 psi
when water saturated are commonly used in our 19-specimen cells, Fig.
5. Other plates having a breakthrough pressure of about 100 psi are used
for a few specimens of low permeability, but these are not usually used
because of the longer time required to reach equilibrium. The typical
procedure for determining water saturation at a certain capillary pressure
is as follows: the clean, weighed, water-saturated specimens are placed on
the water saturated plate, the cell pressurized with gas to the desired
pressure, the inlet valve closed, the pressure line disconnected, the cell
stored away from the work area, and the drip-tip inspected periodically;
when no more water is being displaced, the specimens are removed,
weighed, and returned to the cell for the next step at higher pressure.
Another technique for measuring capillary pressures is the mercury
injection method. The prepared specimen is placed in a cell, evacuated,
and covered with mercury. Pressure is increased by increments and the
total mercury injected at each pressure observed. This step-by-step in-
crease of mercury saturation is continued until a large increase in pressure
causes small increase in mercury saturation—usually 1000 psi is sufficient
for most producing formations. The capillary pressure curve obtained
from Copyright
the mercury-vacuum system
by ASTM Int'l (all rightscan be converted
reserved); Sun Jan 11to13:16:39
the corresponding
EST 2015
oil-water or gas-oil systems using proper ratios of interf acial tensions and
contact angles [77].
The connate water saturation of reservoirs indicated by the mercury
injection method agrees with that obtained from other methods for rocks
that do not contain constituents that react with water. If the rock contains
swelling clay minerals, the connate water saturation indicated by the
mercury injection method will be too low [18]. The main advantage of
the mercury injection method is the short time required.
FIG. 6—Capillary pressure curves showing change of irreducible water satura-

tion with permeability.
Still another technique of measuring the relationship between capillary

pressure and saturation is the centrifuge method. In a test where water is
displaced by gas, the water-saturated specimen is placed in a special
holder in the water-cooled centrifuge. A window in the lower part of the
holder and a stroboscope permit the volume of water displaced from the
specimen to be read during centrifuging. The stroboscopic light is ad-
justable to read volumes displaced from any one of four specimens tested
simultaneously. The indicated connate water saturation of reservoir rocks
obtained by the centrifuge method agrees well with that obtained from
other methods [75]. The advantages of the method are the short time
neededCopyright
for each
by test
ASTM andInt'lthe(alluse of reserved);
rights water forSuntheJansaturant. TheESTdisad-
11 13:16:39 2015
vantage is that the distribution of water in the specimen, especially for

heterogeneous specimens, may differ from that existing in the reservoir.
The curve showing decreasing water saturation with increasing
capillary pressure represents decreasing water saturation above the oil-
water contact in the reservoir. The capillary pressure at any height above
the plane of zero capillary pressure may be calculated from
(10)
where c is capillary pressure, psi; h is height above the plane of zerop

capillary pressw and p0 are densities of water and oil ature, ft; and p
reservoir conditions, lb/ft3.
A typical set of curves showing water saturation as a function of
height above zero capillary pressure is shown on Fig. 6 [79]. Also shown
are equivalent capillary pressures for the laboratory air-water system
and the reservoir oil-water system. Note that the curves approach an
"irreducible water saturation" at high capillary pressures. This water
saturation is usually taken as the connate water saturation of the reser-
voir. The decrease of irreducible water saturation with increasing perme-
ability, usually a semilogarithmic relation, is most useful for estimating
connate water in wells where core analyses give varying permeabilities.
Further discussion of all aspects of permeability and capillarity as
used by petroleum reservoir engineers, as well as numerous references
to the voluminous literature, may be found in Volume II of Petroleum
Production Handbook [20].
References
[1] M. K. Hubbert, "Darcy's Law and the Field Equations of the Flow of Under-
ground Fluids," Transactions, Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, Vol
207, 1956, p. 222.
[2] R. D. Wyckoff, H. G. Botset, M. Muskat, and D. W. Reed, "The Measure-
ment of the Permeability of Porous Media for Homogeneous Fluids," Review
of Scientific Instruments, Vol 4, 1933, p. 394; also Am. Association Petroleum
Geologists Bulletin, Vol 18, February, 1934, p. 161.
[3] S. J. Pirson, Oil Reservior Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York,
1958.
[4] Recommended Practice for Core-Analysis Procedure, API RP 40, Am. Petro-
leum Inst., Division of Production, Dallas, Tex., 1960.
[5] Recommended Practice for Determining Permeability of Porous Media, API
RP 27, Am. Petroleum Inst., Division of Production, Dallas, Tex., 1952.
[6] L. J. Klinkenberg, "The Permeability of Porous Media to Liquids and Gases,"
Drilling and Production Practice, Am. Petroleum Inst., 1941, p. 200.
[7] O. C. Baptist and S. A. Sweeney, "Effect of Clays on the Permeability of
Reservoir Sands to Various Saline Waters, Wyoming," Report of Investigations
5180, Bureau of Mines, 1955.
[8] E. J. White, O. C. Baptist, and C. S. Land, "Formation Damage Estimated
from Water Sensitivity Tests, Patrick Draw Area, Wyoming," Report of In-
vestigations 6520, Bureau of Mines, 1964.
[9] A.Copyright
G. Loomis and Int'l
by ASTM D. C. (all Crowell, "Relative
rights reserved); Permeability
Sun Jan 11 13:16:39Studies:
EST 2015Gas-Oil
and Water-Oil Systems,"
Downloaded/printed by Bulletin 599, Bureau of Mines, 1962.
[10] B. C. Craft and M. F. Hawkins, Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engineering,

Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1959, pp. 311, 321.
[11] D. R. Horner, "Pressure Build-up in Wells," Proceedings, Third World
Petroleum Congress, Section II, 1951, p. 503.
[72] S. C. Pitzer, "Use of Transient Pressure Tests," Paper No. 906-9-K, Am.
Petroleum Inst., Division of Production, Dallas, Tex., 1964.
[13] C. B. Amman, "Case Histories of Analyses of Characteristics of Reservoir
Rock from Drill-Stem Tests," Journal of Petroleum Technology, Vol 12, No.
5, May, 1960, p. 27.
[14] O. C. Baptist and C. R. Smith, "Effect of Gas Saturation on the Pressure
Gradient in the Oil Zone," Paper No, SPE 1318, Society of Petroleum Engrs.,
Dallas, Tex., 1965.
[75] W. H. Caraway and G. L. Gates, "Methods for Determining Water Contents
of Oil-Bearing Formations," Report of Investigations 5451, Bureau of Mines,
1959.
[16] J. G. Richardson, F. M. Perkins, Jr., and J. S. Osoba, "Differences in Behavior
of Fresh and Aged East Texas Woodbine Cores," Transactions, Society of
Petroleum Engineers of AIME, Vol 204, 1955, p. 86.
[17] W. R. Purcell, "Capillary Pressures—Their Measurement Using Mercury and
the Calculation of Permeability Therefrom," Transactions, Society of Petro-
leum Engineers of AIME, Vol 186, 1949, p. 39.
[18] O. C, Baptist and E. J. White, "Clay Content and Capillary Behavior of
Wyoming Reservoir Sands," Transactions, Society of Petroleum Engineers
of AIME, Vol 210, 1957, p. 414.
[19] H. T. Wright, Jr., and L. D. Wooddy, Jr., "Formation Evaluation of the
Borregas and Seeligson Field, Brooks and Jim Wells County, Texas," Sym-
posium on Formation Evaluation, Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME,
Dallas, Tex., October, 1955.
[20] T. C. Frick (editor), Petroleum Production Handbook, Vol II, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York, 1962.
[21] W. A. Bruce and H. J. Welge, "The Restored-State Method for Determination
of Oil in Place and Connate Water," Drilling and Production Practice, Am.
Petroleum Inst., 1947, p. 166.
[22] W. Hurst, O. K. Haynie, and R. N. Walker, "New Concept Extends Pressure
Buildup Analysis," Petroleum Management, Vol 34, No. 9, 1962, pp. 65-72.
[23] C. C. Miller, A. B. Dyes, and C. A. Hutchinson, Jr., 'The Estimation of
Permeability and Reservoir Pressure From Bottom-Hole Pressure Build-up
Characteristics," Transactions, Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, Vol
189, 1950, pp. 91-104.
DISCUSSION
A. T. Corey1 (written discussion)—The author has described ways in

which the functional relationships among permeability (to oil, brine, and
gas), the volume fractions of these fluids, and the pressure differences
across fluid interfaces (capillary pressure) are important in petroleum
reservoir engineering. There is a great deal of literature written on these
subjects by investigators employed by the petroleum industry. This litera-
ture could be of great value to investigators in other fields, for example,
soil mechanics, soil physics, irrigation, drainage, and groundwater engi-
neering.
Unfortunately, literature of the petroleum industry has been ignored
(with rare exceptions) by people working in other fields. This is un-
doubtedly a result of the language barrier. Because of the differences in
terminology, people working in other fields often do not even recognize
that literature of the petroleum industry is concerned with problems of
interest to them. When they at least recognize this fact, they are some-
times discouraged from making use of the literature by the difficulty of
interpretation.
I am not sure that the paper under discussion will help much in this
respect since it has been written completely in the terminology of the pe-
troleum industry. Most soil physicists, for example, are not likely to
recognize that the concept of an "irreducible water saturation Sw" has
any relation to the concept of "field capacity" with which they are fa-
miliar. Many of them, in fact, are likely to be confused by the term "sat-
uration," it being a contradiction in their language to use this term in ref-
erence to any water content less than complete saturation.
The same comment applies to the paper appearing in this volume by
Laliberte and Corey.2 The latter authors have employed the term "re-
sidual saturation Sr" for a quantity somewhat similar to Swi or field
capacity. Petroleum engineers are aware, of course, that the word irre-
ducible, when used in this connection, does not have the same implica-
tions as its nontechnical usage. One can, for example, easily remove
virtually all of the so-called irreducible water from a porous rock simply
by flowing dry gas through the sample. The concept is necessarily rather
poorly defined since the value obtained for the residual saturation varies
somewhat with the experimental conditions under which it is determined,
the same being true for the quantity called field capacity.
1
Professor of agricultural engineering, Agricultural Engineering Dept., Colorado
State University,
Copyright byFort
ASTMCollins, Colo.
2
See p. 56.
DISCUSSION ON PETROLEUM RESERVOIR ENGINEERING 1 05
Similar comments could be made concerning many other quantities

and concepts discussed briefly by Mr. Baptist. The question arises as to
the best way to remove the language barrier among the several disciplines
interested in flow in porous media. Conferences and committees on
standardization of terminology have been tried without success. One
wonders whether or not standardization is really desirable even if at-
tainable. Interdisciplinary meetings help somewhat, but there is a tend-
ency for individuals simply to ignore (or at least forget) papers they did
not understand thoroughly when presented.
My own idea is that we should try to organize some summer institutes
on flow in porous media in which investigators from several disciplines
could take courses from one another. Perhaps, in this way a group of
individuals sufficiently conversant in the various languages could be
trained to help spread the knowledge presently available in the literature.
O. C. Baptist (author)—I share with Dr. Corey his concern over the
lack of communication between the several disciplines involved with
fluid flow and capillarity in porous media. The language barrier, which
leads to needless duplication of research effort, is unfortunately widening
instead of narrowing. This is partly due to space limitations in technical
journals which force authors to eliminate the explanation of all terms,
symbols, and units which are familiar to regular readers.
The problem would be lessened considerably if other educators were
to follow the example set by Dr. Corey in preparing students to be con-
versant with more than one discipline. His class lectures cover the latest
developments in all disciplines, not just one narrow field as is customary
in too many other universities.
His suggestion that persons interested in this subject meet more often
is a good one. The ASTM symposia are a good beginning, but similar
meetings should be held each year to permit the development of personal
friendships which lead to the true understanding of interrelated technical
problems.
STP417-EB/Aug. 1967
/. K. Mitchell1 and J. S. Y
Abnormalities in Hydraulic Flow Through

Fine-Grained Soils
REFERENCE: J. K. Mitchell and J. S. Younger, ''Abnormalities in Hy-

draulic Flow Through Fine-Grained Soils," Permeability and Capillarity
of Soils, ASTM STP 417, Am. Soc, Testing Mats., 1967, p. 106.
ABSTRACT: Evidence for deviations from Darcy's law during hydraulic
flow through fine-grained soils is reviewed. Abnormal water properties,
electrokinetic coupling, fabric changes under the action of seepage forces,
and experimental errors are considered as possible causes for the observed
behavior. Data are presented to suggest deviations from Darcy's law in
saturated kaolinite and in saturated, compacted silty clay. No evidence
for a threshold gradient was found for these materials. The behavior of
the compacted specimens was such as to indicate that particle migrations
are more likely causes for non-Darcy flow than are abnormal water prop-
erties. Support for this conclusion was provided by the results of tests
wherein pore pressure distributions along the length of specimens were
determined during flow. In this way it was possible to determine the vari-
ations in hydraulic gradient with time at different points in the sample.
The effects of non-Darcy flow behavior in soil mechanics problems are
discussed. If high gradient tests are used in the laboratory, the results may
bear little relationship to the behavior in the field where gradients seldom
exceed unity. Data are presented illustrating the variation of excess pore
pressure with time at several points throughout the height of a consolidat-
ing clay specimen. The results indicate, contrary to other evidence in the
literature, that there could have not been a threshold gradient for flow.
Because of the considerable experimental uncertainty associated with per-
meability measurements on fine-grained soils, laboratory test results must
be interpreted with caution.
KEY WORDS: permeability, capillarity, soil (material), Darcy's law, hy-
draulic gradient, seepage, kaolinite, silt (material), clay, pore pressure,
consolidation
The hydraulic permeability of a soil is of importance in engineering

problems of seepage, settlement, stability, and drainage. Analytical treat-
1
Associate" professor of civil engineering and associate research engineer, Insti-
tute of Transportation and Traffic Engineering, University of California, Berkeley,
Calif. Personal member ASTM.
2
Assistant lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Strathclyde,
Glasgow,Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Sun Jan 11 13:16:39 EST 2015
Scotland.

MITCHELL AND YOUNGER ON ABNORMALITIES IN HYDRAULIC FLOW 107
ment of these problems requires a relationship between hydraulic flow

rate and hydraulic gradient. From the results of tests on a saturated
siliceous sand from the river Saone, Darcy [I]3 established that
v = ki (1)
where
v = flow discharge velocity,
i = hydraulic gradient, and
k = a constant of proportionality, commonly termed the permea-
bility coefficient.
A number of investigations subsequent to the classic experiments of
Darcy have given results in substantial accord with Eq 1, and this rela-
tionship has become known as Darcy's law. The mathematical simplicity
FIG. 1—Non-Darcy flow behavior under conditions of no threshold gradient.
of Darcy's law makes it very useful in connection with the analytical

treatment of steady and transient flow problems in soils. The results
of several recent investigations have suggested, however, that the simple
relationship expressed by Eq 1 may not always be valid in soils containing
clay, particularly under conditions of low hydraulic gradient.
It is the purpose of this paper:
1. To review evidence for non-Darcy flow and other flow abnor-
malities in fine-grained soils.
2. To present the results of some recent permeability tests on fine-
grained soils using low hydraulic gradients.
3. To present data on hydraulic gradient variations within a soil
and changes that develop with flow.
4. To examine the practical significance of the observed effects.
3
paper.
Review of Previous Work
Evidence for Non-Darcy Flow

As early as 1898 King [2] cited a number of instances in which hy-
draulic flow velocity through a soil increased more than proportionally
with hydraulic gradient. Derjaguin and Krylov [3] reported the absence
of water flow at finite hydraulic gradients in ceramic filters whose maxi-
mum average pore diameter was 0.1 //,. Oakes [4] found no detectable
FIG. 2—Non-Darcy behavior as found by Hansbo (1960).
flow when a 6 per cent suspension of Wyoming bentonite about 30 cm

in length was subjected to a water head of 50 cm.
von Engelhardt and Tunn [5] measured flow rates through clay-bear-
ing sandstones and found that flow rate increased more rapidly with
hydraulic gradient than predicted by Eq 1, as shown schematically in
Fig. 1. A similar observation was made by Lutz and Kemper [6] for
water flow in pure and natural clays. Deviations from Darcy's law were
apparent up to gradients of about 170 in von Engelhardt and Tunn's
tests and up to gradients of about 900 in Lutz and Kemper's tests on
sodium saturated clays.
vonCopyright
Englehardt and Tunn
by ASTM Int'l (allinterpreted the Sun
rights reserved); observed
Jan 11 behavior as re-
13:16:39 EST 2015
sultingDownloaded/printed
from the waterbybehaving as a non-Newtonian liquid whose vis-
MITCHELL AND YOUNGER ON ABNORMALITIES IN HYDRAULIC FLOW 1 09
FIG. 3—Evidence for the existence of a threshold gradient as reported by

Miller and Low (1963).
cosity depends on the shearing force; hence, on the gradient. Kemper [7]
postulated that such effects result from electrokinetic coupling or electro-
osmotic counterflow; where in adsorbed cations in the electrical double
layer surrounding the clay particles exert a resistance to flow that de-
creases as hydraulic gradient increases.
Martin [8] has stated that this type of behavior could have just as
easily resulted from particle movements leading to reversible void plug-
ging and unplugging. Low [9] argues that electrokinetic and particle
migration effects cannot reasonably explain the data, but that the exist-
Copyright
ence of by ASTM Int'l adsorbed
a quasi-crystalline (all rights reserved); Sun Jan 11
water structure 13:16:39 EST 2015
can.
Hansbo [10] investigated the possibility of non-Darcy behavior in

connection with the consolidation process and the performance of sand
drains. Permeability tests at low hydraulic gradients (for laboratory
tests) were carried out on several specimens of undisturbed, highly plastic,
sensitive clay. The general nature of Hansbo's results are as illustrated
by Fig. 2. It may be seen that slight deviations from Darcy's law occurred
for hydraulic gradients less than about five.
No threshold gradient was observed in any of the tests; in fact, Hansbo
reports that the water was never at a standstill, even when the gradient
was set at zero. It was observed also that many times the flow rate was
irregular under a constant value of hydraulic gradient, increasing with
time in some cases and decreasing with time in others. Hansbo favors
the concept of void plugging and unplugging and particle migrations dur-
ing flow as the probable cause of this behavior.
As a result of these tests Hansbo [10] proposed the relationships
v = Xi" for 0 < i < ii (2)
and
v - k (i — Q for i > it. (3)
where A represents the permeability and the exponent n depends on clay
type, void ratio, and temperature. Hansbo applied Eq 2 to the problem
of radial flow during consolidation using sand drains. Predicted values of
settlement agreed more closely with actual consolidation in the field at
a site in Sweden than when the usual consolidation relationship based on
Eq 1 was used.
Miller and Low [11] performed experiments for the purpose of estab-
lishing whether or not a threshold gradient for flow actually exists. Speci-
mens of carefully prepared sodium and lithium bentonite were tested at
concentrations of about 50 and 30 per cent by weight and at several
controlled temperatures. The results of the tests on the sodium clay are
shown in Fig. 3. No flow could be detected below a gradient of about 70
in the case of the denser clay specimen; whereas, flow could not be de-
tected at gradients less than about 10 for the less dense specimen. The
results on the lithium clay showed a threshold gradient of about 60 for
the dense specimen, but no threshold gradient for the less dense specimen.
Some uncertainty existed in these experiments since the measuring sys-
tem indicated a continuous water flow under zero hydraulic gradient for
all tests except those on the concentrated sodium bentonite paste.
Miller and Low concluded that the water in these clays, when sub-
jected to gradients less than the threshold value, could be classed as solid.
The activation energy for viscous flow of water in the clays decreased
with increasing hydraulic gradient from 4580 cal/mole at a gradient of
700 toCopyright
3720 cal/mole
by ASTMatInt'l
a gradient
(all rights of 2800. These
reserved); Sun Janresults wereEST
11 13:16:39 taken
2015as
further evidence that the water in clays can develop a quasi-crystalline

structure. Since once initiated, flow did not cease immediately when the
gradient was again reduced below the original threshold value, it was
postulated that formation of this structure was time dependent.
Swartzendruber [12-14] reviewed the evidence for non-Darcy be-
havior and considered the mathematical representation of the flow rate
versus gradient relationship for both saturated and partially saturated
soils. He proposed the equation
(4)
where B, J, and c are parameters that must be determined experimen-
tally. Swartzendruber shows that this equation fits some existing data
well.
While most of the English-language references to non-Darcy behavior
have until recently been largely speculative in nature, Russian investi-
gators have evidently accepted and used the concept of a threshold
gradient for a number of years. Threshold gradients and their effects on
consolidation of clays are considered in detail by Florin [75] and Roza
and Kotov [16]. Data are presented to show that water flow and consoli-
dation may cease when excess pore pressure gradients fall beneath a
critical value. Roza and Kotov [76] list values for initial gradient as high
as 20 for some soils.
Thus considerable evidence is available to suggest deviations from
Darcy's law. Irregular flow rates under a constant gradient and other
time-dependent phenomena may exist. Both the concepts of a quasi-
crystalline water structure possessing a yield strength and non-Newtonian
flow properties and that of particle migrations during flow with the conse-
quent unblocking and blocking of flow passages have received support as
possible causes.
Experimental Considerations
The reliable determination of the hydraulic permeability of fine-grained
soils represents a formidable experimental problem. The lower the perme-
ability the more difficult the problem becomes, and the slightest leakage
past a valve or through the apparatus material, the slightest flaw in seal-
ing the specimen into the test chamber, or a small error in the measuring
system can completely invalidate the results. Undetected leakage may
easily account for an apparent permeability of 1 X 10~8 cm/sec.
Olsen [17] has provided evidence that a common method for detecting
flow rates at low gradients, observation of the movement of an air bubble
in a glass capillary tube, may indicate deviations from Darcy's law when
none exist at all. If the inside of the capillary tube is contaminated with
grease films or other impurities, then the radii of curvature at the op-
positeCopyright
ends of by
theASTM
air bubble
Int'l (allwill notreserved);
rights be equal,Sunsince the13:16:39
Jan 11 contactEST
angle
2015
between water and glass will not be 0 deg as usually assumed. The menis-
cus curvature will be different at each end of the bubble, depending on
whether the meniscus is advancing onto a dry surface or receding from
a wet surface, so there will be an undetected pressure drop across the
bubble, and therefore across the specimen, as given by
(5)
where a is the surface tension of the air-water interface; r is the capillary

tube radius; Qa the contact angle of the advancing meniscus; and d b ,
the contact angle of the receding meniscus. The true gradient will be
that indicated by the difference in water levels on each side of the speci-
men less APB . This condition will invariably develop since it is extremely
difficult to prevent the contamination of the capillary tube.
Olsen showed how this effect could account for an apparent threshold
gradient for flow in kaolinite by using an electrical pressure transducer to
measure the true pressure drop. For capillary tube diameters of the order
of 1.0 mm and sample thicknesses of one to two centimeters, contamina-
tion could result in apparent non-Darcy flows and threshold gradients
of as much as one to two. Because of this effect Olsen argued that much
of the present data concerning non-Darcy flow may be invalid. He noted,
however, that the results obtained by Miller and Low [11] and von
Engelhardt and Tunn [5] cannot be explained in this way. Olsen favors
the concept of particle migration as opposed to the development of a
viscous or crystalline water structure as the cause of the behavior. His
observation that deviations from Darcy's law increase with increasing
porosity and decreasing clay content are used to support this point of
view.
Local consolidation and swelling of the specimen, even when confined,
during a test may influence the observed behavior. Since the application
of a hydraulic gradient results in different pore pressures, and therefore
changed effective stresses, at different points along the length of the speci-
men, nonuniform void ratios may develop within the specimen. The im-
portance of this effect may vary with the magnitude of the hydraulic
gradient.
Differences in the type and concentrations of electrolyte between the
soil water and the permeating water can cause flocculation-deflocculation
phenomena within the specimen. The effect of this may be to cause time-
dependent changes in flow rate and apparent non-Darcy flow behavior.
The growth of bacteria within specimens has been found to influence
flow behavior (Gupta and Swartzendruber [18]). Some investigators have
attempted to avoid this problem by treating the soil water and permeant
with formaldahyde or other antibacterial agent.
As Copyright
a consequence
by ASTMofInt'l
the(allmany
rights factors
reserved);that may11 influence
Sun Jan measured
13:16:39 EST 2015
Downloaded/printed by FIG. 4—Discharge velocity versus gradient relationship for kaolinite.
flow rates through materials having very low permeabilities, it may be

argued that virtually all data obtained to illustrate the existence of non-
Darcy flow behavior may be explained as being a result of experimental
effects rather than material properties. The data presented in the follow-
ing sections are perhaps no less suspect than any other. Great care was
exercised, however, to avoid the effects of apparatus leakage, swelling or
consolidation of specimens and variations in electrolyte concentration.
Distilled, de-aired water was used for the preparation of all specimens
and as the permeant fluid.
Low Gradient Tests on Saturated Kaolinite

Permeability measurements at low hydraulic gradients were performed
on specimens of saturated kaolinite consolidated from a slurry, and tested
directly in 4i4-in. diameter by 1 ^-in. high consolidation rings. Specimen
thickness was maintained constant during the flow measurements by fix-
ing the position of the top porous stone with a clamp. Average flow
rates were determined by measurement of the rate of travel of an air
bubble in a glass capillary tube. Reservoir adjustments could be made to
give flow from the bottom to the top of the specimen ("normal flow") or
downwards from the top to the bottom ("reverse flow"). Water levels in
the reservoirs were determined using a cathetometer; the gradient deter-
mination could be made to an accuracy within 0.67 per cent at a gradient
of 10 and 6.7 per cent at a gradient of 1. Flow velocities could be deter-
mined to an accuracy of about 2 per cent. Time of flow for each deter-
mination ranged from a few seconds to a few hours depending on the flow
rate. Tests were carried out in a room maintained at a constant tempera-
ture of 68 F. All data were corrected for velocity head losses (determined
experimentally).
Figure 4 is a plot of discharge velocity versus hydraulic gradient for a
specimen consolidated under a pressure of 1 kg/cm2 (void ratio of 1.44)
and is typical of the results obtained. Flow measurements were made over
a period of 23 days. No regular sequence of hydraulic gradient or flow
directions was used except that a gradient of 21.2 was used for the initial
determination and, with one or two exceptions, the first determination on
each day of testing was made at a gradient of five or more. In this way a
substantial flow rate could be established initially, and any water or soil
structure built up during extended periods of no flow would be broken
down. The points shown in Fig. 4 are distinguished on the basis of flow
direction and whether the gradient was increased or decreased from the
previous run. Flow velocities were constant during any one determination
in the vast majority of tests. Erratic flow rates were only observed in 3
of the 50 determinations shown in Fig. 4.
The results define a straight line that does not pass through the origin
and suggest
Copyright the
by existence of a(allthreshold
ASTM Int'l gradient,Sunof Jan
rights reserved); the 11
order of 1.0,
13:16:39
2015 EST
Downloaded/printed by FIG. 5—Discharge velocity versus gradient relationship for kaolinite.
below which no flow is observed. It is possible that contamination of the

capillary tube could have been responsible for this behavior. The capillary
tube diameter was 0.64 mm, and therefore contamination could cause
apparent threshold gradient values of the order of magnitude observed.
It should be noted, however, that a positive flow rate could be detected
in all but one of the 50 determinations used to give the data plotted in
Fig. 4. The results in Fig. 4 have been replotted in Fig. 5 with discharge
FIG. 6—Discharge velocity and permeability as a function of hydraulic gradi-

ent-compacted silty clay.
velocity shown to be a logarithmic scale so that very low velocities may

be included. The Darcy line from Fig. 4 has also been redrawn in Fig.
5. The discharge velocities corresponding to gradients less than unity
plot in a consistent fashion and demonstrate than an absolute gradient
below which there is no flow does not appear to exist. Thus, if the ob-
served behavior was caused by capillary tube contamination, then the
magniture of APB , Eq 5, must have been function of applied pressure
difference.
The results of subsequent tests by Gray [19] on saturated kaolinite,
FIG. 7—Schematic drawing of permeability test apparatus.
illite, and kaolinite-silt mixtures all showed a strictly linear relationship

between discharge velocity and gradient that passed through the origin.
These findings, coupled with those of Olsen [17], would all tend to sup-
port undetected experimental error as the cause of the apparent devia-
tions shown in Figs. 4 and 5.
Possible reasons for this behavior are: (1) a contaminated capillary
tube, (2) the initiation of flow at the low gradients represented the be-
ginning of the destruction of a quasi-crystalline water structure which
came apart irregularly, and (3) bacterial growth. Whatever the cause, the
results provide additional illustration of the great difficulties associated
with reliable determination of permeability values in clays.
FIG. 9^—Variation of permeability coefficient with hydraulic gradient for com-

pacted silfy clay.
Low Gradient Tests on Compacted Silty Clay

Hooper [20] observed, in connection with studies of the permeability
characteristics of compacted clays, that measured permeability values
were somewhat sensitive to the hydraulic gradients used for their deter-
minations. Figure 6 illustrates this behavior for a specimen of Vicksburg
silty clay compacted wet of optimum water content and saturated using
back pressure.
Copyright These
by ASTMtestsInt'l
were(allperformed using Sun
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Jan 11 13:16:39 to 2015
that described by Mitchell et al [21] and shown schematically in Fig. 7.
S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst of Tech Chennai) pursuant to License Ag
FIG. 9—Discharge velocity versus gradient relationship for compacted silty clay.
FIG. 10—Discharge velocity versus gradient relationship for compacted silty clay.
Downloaded/printed by 119
S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst of Tech Chennai) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions autho
S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst of Tech Chennai) FIG.pursuant
11—Typical discharge
to License curves.
Agreement. No further reproductions authorized.
In order to investigate further the possibility of non-Darcy behavior,

a specimen of silty clay was prepared by kneading compaction to a dry
density of 102.1 lb/ft3 at a water content of 13 per cent. Saturation was
completed using a back pressure of 150 psi, and flow rate measurements
were carried out using hydraulic gradients in the range of 0 to 16. Both
inflow and outflow could be measured and were indicated by the move-
FIG. 12—Discharge velocity as a function of gradient for successively decreas-

ing gradients.
ment of the water-carbon tetrachloride interface along the calibrated

tubing (see Fig. 7).
Figure 8 illustrates the relationship between coefficient of permeability
and hydraulic gradient for conditions of successively increasing gradients
and continuous flow over a 26-day period. It is clear from this figure that
flow is not in accord with Darcy's law, since, if it were, the measured
permeability should be independent of gradient.
Figure 9 shows the variation of average discharge velocity with hy-
draulic gradient for these same tests. Although this diagram gives a
strong indication of the existence of a threshold gradient, flow at very
low rates actually did occur throughout the gradient range of zero to
five as may be seen in Fig. 10, where discharge velocities are plotted to
logarithmic scale. Darcy lines corresponding to the observed flow at a
gradient of 16.13 are also shown in Figs. 9 and 10 for comparison pur-
poses.
These results could be interpreted in terms of particle migration and
pore blocking effects or in terms of abnormal water properties. Letter
symbols are noted beside each of the points on Figs. 9 and 10 to indicate
the uniformity of flow during each determination. The meaning of these
symbols is illustrated in Fig. 11 where typical curves of total discharge,
as indicated by water level displacement, as a function of time are shown.
Figure 12 shows the relationship between discharge velocity and
gradient for the same specimen for conditions of successively decreasing
gradient from 16.13 to 0. Two points are indicated in some cases for a
given gradient; they represent values of discharge velocity before and
after rest periods as indicated on the figure. The data indicate greater
flow rates, at gradients above three, for conditions of successively de-
creasing gradient than were observed in the tests with increasing gradient.
The data also show that rest periods between successive determinations
at the same gradient may result in changes in flow rate. Both increases
and decreases were observed. Whether this reflects experimental error or
actual changes in the structure of the sample cannot be ascertained with
certainty. The behavior is suggestive of particle rearrangement effects,
however.
Movement of Fine Particles During Hydraulic Flow in Compacted

Clays
In order to investigate further the possibility that some of the irregular
flow effects were caused by movements of particles, a special permeameter
was developed that made possible the measurement of pore water pres-
sures at several points along the length of a specimen during permeation.
A cylindrical, lucite sample container 12 in. long, 1.4 in. inside diameter,
and Yz in. wall thickness was designed to accommodate six porous probes
along its length. Porous stainless steel tips l/z in. long and %6 in. in outside
diameter were inserted into the specimen and attached to a manifold sys-
tem leading to an electrical pressure transducer. It was therefore possible to
measure the water pressure at each end and at distances of 1, 3, 5, 7,
9, and 11 in. along the length of the specimen.
Specimens of silty clay were compacted directly in the mold using
kneading compaction. Dummy pore pressure probes were used during
compaction and then replaced by the real ones prior to starting the test.
After assembly into the permeability test apparatus the specimens were
saturated using a back pressure of 5.5 kg/cm2. Flow under a preselected
hydraulic gradient was initiated and continued for one to three hours.
A comparison ofASTM
Copyright by pore pressure distributions
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11 13:16:39 ESTat2015
the
FIG. 13—Compaction conditions and permeability values for specimens of silty

clay used in the migration of fines study.
beginning and at the end of the run provided a measure of change in

sample structure that developed during flow. Several runs were carried
out on each specimen. Figure 13 shows the compaction conditions and
range in permeability values for the different specimens used in this
study. The extremes in behavior were observed for Specimens 1 and 5;
consequently, only
Copyright by theInt'l
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(all rights tests
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Jan 11 discussed.
EST 2015
FIG. 14—Pore pressure distribution along specimen of compacted silty clay during permeation (Specimen 1),
Figure 14 shows the variation in pore pressure along the specimen at

different stages in the test for Specimen 1, which was compacted at the
lowest water content and density. The results for Run 1 on this specimen
show that during flow, which was vertically upwards through the speci-
men, the gradient decreased in the bottom portion of the specimen while
it increased towards the top. This is illustrated further by Fig. 15 where
the percentage head loss as a function of distance above the bottom of
the specimen is shown. At the end of the flow period a greater portion
of the head is dissipated in the upper portion of the specimen than at the
start of the flow period.
Such a result would be expected if during flow fine particles were dis-
lodged under the action of the seepage forces and then deposited down-
FIG. 15—Head loss along specimen of compacted silty clay during permeation
(Specimen 1).
stream so as to clog or restrict flow passages. It was noted that the dis-
charge rate as a function of time was irregular for the initial run which
would tend to support the concept of particle movements during flow.
On the other hand, the fact that application of the gradient caused an
increase in pore pressure at the inlet end and a pore pressure decrease
at the outlet end could have led to a densification of the specimen at the
outflow end and an expansion at the inflow end. This would result in a
pore pressure distribution as shown and the final water content distribu-
tion as shown in Fig. 14.
The result for Run 3 on Specimen 1, also shown in Figs. 14 and 15,
show little change in the distribution of gradients within the specimen
during flow. These results indicate that no significant change in the struc-
ture of the specimen took place during this run even though the hydraulic
gradient was four
Copyright timesInt'las(all
by ASTM great
rightsasreserved);
it was during
Sun Jan the first run.
11 13:16:39 ESTThus
2015 it
FIG. 16—Pore pressure distribution along specimen of compacted silty clay during permeation (Specimen 5}.
would appear that the adjustments in structure that developed during

Run 1 and Run 2, which was for flow in the reverse direction, led to the
formation of a stable structure. This suggests also that the initial changes
in pore pressure distribution during flow more likely resulted from parti-
cle migrations than from void ratio changes. Otherwise it would be antici-
pated that the much higher gradient in Run 3 should cause further void
ratio changes.
These test results provide evidence that during the initial run particles
migrated in the direction of flow but that ultimately a stable structure
was formed. The permeability was found to decrease from 3.72 X 10~5
cm/sec at the start of Run 1 to 3.23 X 10~6 cm/sec during Run 3,
which is indicative of pore clogging by particles.
The possibility that particle migrations might lead to the unclogging
of pores and an increase in permeability should not be overlooked, how-
ever, since such a situation could result in the development of large flow
channels and piping. No appreciable trends in this direction were ob-
served in this study, but porous stones at the ends of the specimens pre-
vented complete washing out of particles.
The results of similar tests carried out on Specimen 5, which was com-
pacted to a dry density more than 6 lb/ft3 greater than Specimen 1 and
at a slighly higher water content (Fig. 13), are shown in Fig. 16. It may
be seen that no significant changes in pore pressure distribution devel-
oped during any of the runs. Furthermore, only minor changes in the
coefficient of permeability were noted from run to run, and the discharge
curves were virtually straight lines. Thus it seems unlikely that either
significant migrations of particles or void ratio changes took place in this
specimen.
It appears, therefore, that particle migrations in some specimens of
compacted clay may take place under the action of hydraulic gradients.
In the present study definite indications of migration effects were ob-
served on the less dense Specimens 1 and 3, Fig. 13; whereas, only minor
effects were observed in Specimens 4 and 5 which were more dense. It
would be expected that the denser the specimen the more difficult it would
be to dislodge particles during flow.
The results of these tests gave no indication of reversible clay fabric
changes accompanying reversal in the direction of flow. Only irreversible
behavior was associated with the changes in gradient distribution ob-
served. Olsen [77] and Martin [8] cite instances where reversible fabric
changes appeared to best account for the observed behavior.
Approximate estimates of the magnitude of force tending to dislodge
particles during flow of water through a clay were made. Recent estimates
of average interparticle bond strengths [22] give values some five orders
of magnitude greater than the maximum calculated value of shear force
due toCopyright
seepage.byItASTM
seemsInt'llikely, therefore,
(all rights reserved);that
Sun only
Jan 11particles
13:16:39 not
EST directly
2015
participating in the load carrying framework in a soil mass are susceptible

to movement during normal seepage under moderate values of hydraulic
gradient.
Practical Significance of Flow Abnormalities in Soil Mechanics

If deviations from Darcy's law exist during flow at low gradients in
fine-grained soils and particle migrations take place under the action of
moderate hydraulic gradients, there will be a number of practical impli-
cations in soil mechanics.
In the field the hydraulic gradient during seepage is unlikely ever
to exceed unity. Threshold gradient effects and nonlinear relationships
between flow velocity and gradient are most pronounced at the lowest
gradients. Laboratory tests on fine-grained soils are conventionally car-
ried out at high values of hydraulic gradient, with values of 100 or more
not at all unusual. For most soils deviations from true Darcy behavior
are relatively minor when tests are carried out at such high gradients.
Thus values determined in the laboratory may bear no relationship to
those pertaining in the field.
Furthermore the results of laboratory tests may be further influenced
by particle migration effects during flow at high gradients. Time effects
associated with particle movements as well as with the possible forma-
tion of abnormal water structure also complicate the determination of
meaningful values of permeability. It thus appears that when quantitative
estimates of seepage through clay soils are to be made an attempt should
be made to duplicate field gradients in the laboratory, in spite of the
increased testing time required. Deviations from Darcy's law, however,
are such that the use of permeability data obtained at high gradients
should in most instances lead to an overestimate of seepage losses. On
the other hand, drainage rates will also be overestimated, which could
lead to unsafe predictions.
Influence of Non-Darcy Flow on Consolidation

In the absence of a threshold gradient, but with nonproportionality
between flow velocity and gradient of the type found by Hansbo [10],
Fig. 2, and also for the compacted clay, Fig. 9, the rate of consolidation
should be less than that predicted by conventional Terzaghi theory.
Limited evidence of this effect has been observed when pore pressure
measurements have been made in consolidation tests [10,23,24]. In
addition, if a relationship similar to Eq 2 is used, it follows that the rate
of consolidation will be dependent on the stress increment, because for a
given thickness of clay the gradients during consolidation will depend
on the magnitude of stress increment.
If a true threshold gradient exists, the amount of consolidation will be
FIG. 17—Consolidation with threshold gradient.
FIG. 18—Possible final pore pressure distributions at the end of consolidation

if a threshold gradient exists.
decreased, since consolidation would cease when the excess pore pres-
sure in a clay layer has decreased so as to give the threshold gradient
throughout. This is illustrated by Fig. 17. In the absence of a threshold
gradient there would be a dissipation of hydrostatic excess pressure
represented by area ABCD. With a threshold gradient, i0, drainage
would continue only until
(6)
where ur represents the residual excess pressure at any depth, z, and the
total consolidation is represented by area ABED.
Florin [75] has analyzed the condition of one dimensional consolida-

tion with water flow controlled by
v = k (i - Q •(3)
as has also Girault [24].
At infinite time the degree of consolidation will not be one as in the
Terzaghi theory. The pore pressure distribution at infinite time could
FIG. 19—Pore water pressures in a fine-grained soil as a function of depth and

time.
be either of two types as shown in Fig. 18. The final degree of con-
solidatiof , at any depth will ben, U
.(7)
wherf is the excess pore pressure at infinite time at that depth ande u
u0 is the initial hydrostatic excess pressure.
The final degree of consolidation for the entire layer will be given
by the ratio of area ABCE to area ABDE for Case 1, Fig. 18; that is,
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Sun Jan 11 13:16:39 EST 2015 (8)
For Case 2 there will be a layer that never consolidates at all and the
final degree of consolidation is given by area ACE divided by area
ABDE
(9)
The rate of consolidation corresponding to different conditions of layer

thickness and threshold gradient has been worked out by Florin [15].
In the event that an absolute threshold gradient did not exist but that
flow continued at a very slow rate below an apparent threshold gradient,
for example, as was observed in the tests on kaolinite and compacted
silty clay, then consolidation would continue beyond the limits indicated
by Eqs 8 and 9, but at a greatly reduced rate.
Some evidence that consolidation may actually cease while a gradient
of excess pressure still exists across a specimen has been cited by Florin
[75] and Roza and Kotov [16]. Figure 19, from the latter authors, shows
the pore water pressure distribution as a function of time for a clay speci-
men during consolidation. Consolidation ceased after a period of 20 hr,
and no further dissipation of pore pressure was observed. Their data
showed that the magnitude of the residual excess pore pressure depended
on both soil type and the magnitude of the load increment. It is conceiva-
ble also that the "quasi-preconsolidation" pressure observed by Leonards
and Ramiah [25] might be due in part to the development of a threshold
gradient while specimens remained at rest for extended periods.
Hillebrandt4 determined pore pressure dissipation rates at several
depths within a consolidating specimen of kaolinite in an effort to detect
non-Darcy effects on the consolidation process. The same kaolinite was
used as for the permeability tests to obtain the data shown in Fig. 4. At
the start of the tests a kaolinite paste was carefully placed in a cylindrical
mold 9l/2 in. high by 6% in. in diameter. Five porous tip sensing elements
were inserted through the side of the mold at different heights above the
base. These tips were mounted at the end of a short length of flexible
plastic tubing so that they could move with the consolidating clay and not
act as local restraints. The tubes were connected to a pressure manifold
system which in turn was connected to a null indicating pore pressure
measuring device. One dimensional consolidation was permitted with
single drainage at the top. Provision was made for measurement of pore
pressure at the base of the specimen.
If a true threshold gradient existed in the kaolinite then it should have
been detectable in either of two ways. First, if a significant consolidation
pressure was applied, compression should have ceased prior to dissipa-
tion of all hydrostatic excess pressure, giving a condition similar to that
4
Unpublished research report, Department of Civil Engineering, University of
California, Berkeley,
Copyright Calif.
S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst of Tech Chennai) pursuant to License Agreement. No fur
FIG. 20—Pore Pressure versus time relationships for consolidating kaolinite—

large pressure increment.
found by Roza and Kotov [76] shown in Fig. 19. Second, if a very small
pressure increment was applied, then there should have been essentially
no consolidation or dissipation of pore pressure.
It was found that no matter what the magnitude of the pressure incre-
ment applied, essentially full pore pressure response was immediately
observed throughout
Copyright the(allspecimen
by ASTM Int'l followed
rights reserved); Sun Jan 11by complete
13:16:39 EST 2015dissipation. In
almost all instances no residual excess pore water pressure whatsoever
FIG. 21—Pore pressure versus time relationships for consolidating kaolinite—

small pressure increment.
could be detected. In 7 out of 45 pore pressure dissipation curves deter-

mined, very small residual pore pressures were observed. These were of
the order of 0.005 kg/cm2, which is about the same as the sensitivity and
accuracy of the measuring system. These values, therefore, are considered
of limited significance. This result was consistent with that shown in Fig.
4 which showed
Copyright by the absence
ASTM Int'l (allofrights
a true threshold
reserved); gradient
Sun Jan for this
11 13:16:39 kaolinite.
EST 2015
If aDownloaded/printed
deviation from by Darcy's law of the type shown in Fig. 1 existed for
this material, then the rate of consolidation should have lagged that pre-
dicted by the Terzaghi theory. For each consolidation pressure increment
the thickness change versus time data were fitted to the Terzaghi theory
at a degree of consolidation of 50 per cent using the logarithm of time
fitting method, Taylor [23]. It was then possible to calculate the values
of pore pressure versus time at the various depths and compare them
with the measured values.
The agreement varied from almost complete for the large pressure
increment from 2 to 4 kg/cm2 as shown in Fig. 20, to poor, with the
actual dissipation rate lagging the theoretical quite significantly for the
small pressure increment from 0.24 to 0.49 kg/cm2, as shown in Fig. 21.
Application of the square root of time fitting method resulted in poorer
agreement between theoretical and experimental curves.
The greatest time lags were observed for the period from about 85 to
100 per cent consolidation. The ratio of the time to reach 100 per cent
consolidation to the time to reach 85 per cent consolidation was from
10 to 15. According to the Terzaghi theory this ratio is about three.
Hydraulic gradients within the specimen for a degree of consolidation
of 85 per cent or greater were unity or less, that is, in the range where
non-Darcy flow is most likely.
Thus it is possible that non-Darcy flow conditions of the type shown
in Fig. 1 did exist, resulting in consolidation characteristics of the type
observed by Hansbo [10]. The results of these consolidation tests on
kaolinite are consistent with the permeability behavior shown in Fig. 5
but do not support the existence of a true threshold gradient. It is also
possible that the differences between the theoretical and experimental
curves may be attributed to other factors, such as the assumptions made
by the Terzaghi theory concerning the constancy of certain soil properties
during consolidation.
Harden and Berry [26] used finite difference methods to solve the one-
dimensional consolidation problem in which the permeability at any
instant varied according to
(10)
wherf is the final permeability value, and b and n are constants.e k

Their test data for two remolded clays were fitted best for the case
where the constant n equalled 0.5.
The relevance of the laboratory consolidation test to field settlement
problems should be considered when non-Darcy behavior exists. The
gradients existing at any time and at any depth in a consolidating clay
layer may be estimated. According to the Terzaghi theory,
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Sun Jan 11 13:16:39 EST 2015 (ID
The solution of this equation is
(12)
where:
M = Yz TT (2m + 1).
FIG. 22—Hydraulic gradients during consolidation according to Terzaghi theory.
The hydraulic gradient becomes, therefore,
(13)
If the parameter p is defined as
(14)
then Eq 15 becomes
(15)
The relationship between p and z/H has been evaluated for different
valuesCopyright
of time factorInt'lT(alland
by ASTM rightsisreserved);
shownSun inJanFig. 22. The
11 13:16:39 EST real
2015 gradient for
any layer thickness or intensity of loading can be obtained by using the

actual values of u0 and H and the appropriate value of p from Fig. 22
in Eq 15.
The most significant conclusion to be drawn from Fig. 22 is that for
low valu0/ywH such as would exist in the field, for example, ifes of u
0 = 0.5 kg/cm2 and H = 5 meters, then u0/ywff = 1, and the fieldu
gradients are low throughout most of the layer thickness during the
entire consolidation process. In fact, for this example the gradient never
exceeds 1.5 over more than 75 per cent of the layer thickness. Thus if
the clay exhibits non-Darcy behavior the actual gradients are well within
the range where the effects may be most severe.5
On the other hand for a laboratory specimen having a thickness of
1 cm and a stress increase0, of 0.5 kg/cm2, u0/ywH becomes 500, and, u
gradients during consolidation are very large as may be seen in Fig. 22.
Thus the results of the test could reflect almost complete dissipation
of excess pore pressure and lead to prediction of settlement rates that
are not representative of field conditions. This same conclusion was
also reached by Florin [75] and Roza and Kotov [16].
There is available presently only limited evidence to support the
existence of non-Darcy behavior in the field. This may be due in part
to the fact that heretofore little effort has been made to detect such effects.
It may also be because non-Darcy effects don't really exist, but are in-
ferred from spurious effects during laboratory tests. Quantitative meas-
urements of seepage through fine-grained soils are seldom made after
construction for comparison with seepage rates calculated during the
design phase. Settlement observations are of limited value for the de-
tection of non-Darcy effects in consolidation because of the uncertainties
associated with settlement analysis, for example, calculation of stress
increases, determination of soil compression behavior, knowledge of the
soil profile, and drainage conditions. Field measurement of pore pressures
during consolidation would appear the only positive method for detection
of non-Darcy flow conditions. As noted previously Hansbo's [10] meas-
urements of field pore pressures gave reasonable agreement with a theory
based on Eq 2.
Measurements of pore pressures in a saturated alluvial soft clay and
laminated clayey sand silts beneath a loaded oil tank were made by
Gibson and Marsland [27]. The results indicated particularly for the soft
clay, that the curve of pore pressure versus time after loading tended to
level off at a positive value of excess pore pressure. Thus the measure-
ments suggest some possibility that a residual excess pressure may have
5
It should be noted that if non-Darcy behavior does exist then Fig. 22 cannot
properly describe the variations in gradient during consolidation, and solutions of
the type presented by Barden and Berry [26] would apply. The simpler Terzaghi
solution is used by
Copyright here for Int'l
ASTM simplicity
(all rightsasreserved);
it will illustrate
Sun Jan 11satisfactorily the significant
13:16:39 EST 2015
behavior.
existed. Data are not given for a sufficient time period nor is sufficient
information provided concerning predicted settlement rates to permit a
positive conclusion.
Conclusions
A considerable amount of evidence has been advanced to indicate
that deviations from Darcy's law exist in many fine-grained soils when
they are subjected to low hydraulic gradients. Deviations from a direct
proportionality between discharge velocity and hydraulic gradient may
take any of several forms. Much of this evidence may be questionable,
however, because of undetected experimental error.
The concept of a "quasi-crystalline" water structure has been proposed
by some to account for much of the non-Darcy behavior reported in the
literature for a variety of soil types. Recent results reported by Olsen
[17] and Gray [19] however, cast doubt on the existence of any devia-
tion from Darcy flow in saturated specimens of plastic clay.
Evidence is offered by Olsen [17] and by the results reported in this
paper that particle migrations, that is, an actual change in soil fabric dur-
ing flow can occur and lead to non-Darcy effects. Tests on compacted
silty clay have shown the effect to be very sensitive to initial com-
pacted density and water content, with the most significant changes de-
veloping in soils at the lowest water contents and densities.
The results of laboratory consolidation tests on kaolinite gave no evi-
dence of the existence of a threshold gradient for flow. In these tests
pore water pressures were measured as a function of time at several
points along the depth of the sample. These results were at variance
with similar data reported by Roza and Kotov (16), but consistent with
the results of direct permeability measurements on the same soil.
Since deviations from Darcy's law are most severe at low gradients
and gradients in the field seldom are much greater than unity, whereas
the gradients used in laboratory permeability tests and developed during
consolidation tests are usually very large (one hundred or more), the
applicability of laboratory test results for analysis of field behavior is
subject to scrutiny. Estimates of seepage rates and consolidation rates
may be considerably greater than actually developed in the field if true
non-Darcy flow exists.
Not much direct field evidence is available to support these conclu-
sions, although limited indirect evidence has been found. This lack of
evidence is due in large measure to the facts that detailed quantitative
measurements of seepage quantities are seldom made in fine-grained
soils, and only a limited number of well documented settlement studies
including pore pressure dissipation data are available. It is hoped that
further relevant data may be forthcoming.
TheCopyright
results by
of ASTM
laboratory
Int'l (allpermeability
rights reserved);tests on 11
Sun Jan fine-grained
13:16:39 ESTsoils
2015must
be interpreted with caution, since experimental uncertainties associated

with such measurements may be of a magnitude equal to the values meas-
ured.
Acknowledgments
The research described in this paper was supported by the Institute
of Transportation and Traffic Engineering, University of California. The
low gradient direct permeability tests on kaolinite were performed by
B. Cabasson and the special consolidation tests on kaolinite by D. Hille-
brant, both former graduate students in soil mechanics. C. K. Chan,
Associate Research Engineer, ITTE, provided valuable assistance in the
design of apparatus. G. Dierking prepared the figures. The authors
wish to express their appreciation for this assistance.
References
[1] H. Darcy, "Les fontaines publiques de la ville de Dijon," Dalmont, Paris,
1856.
[2] F. H. King, "Principles and Conditions of the Movement of Ground Water,"
19th Annual Report, U.S. Geological Survey, Part 2, 1898, pp. 59-294.
[3] B. V. Derjaguin and N. A. Krylov, "Anomalies Observed in the Flow of
Liquids Through Hard Fine-Porous Filters," Proceedings, Conference on Vis-
cosity of Liquids and Colloid Solutions, Vol 2, 1944, pp. 52-53, USSR
Academy Science Press, Moscow.
[4] D. T. Oakes, "Solids Concentration on Effects in Bentonite Drilling Fluids,"
Clays and Clay Minerals, Pergamon Press, New York, Vol 8, 1960, pp.
252-273.
[5] W. von Engelhardt and W. L. M. Tunn, 'The Flow of Fluids Through Sand-
stones," translated by P. A. Witherspoon from Heidelberger Beitraege Zur
Mineralogie und Petrographie, Vol 2, pp. 12-25 (Illinois State Geologic Sur-
vey, Circular 194, 1955).
[6] J. F. Lutz and W. D. Kemper, "Intrinsic Permeability of Clay as Affected by
Clay-Water Interaction," Soil Science, Vol 88, 1959, pp. 83-90.
[7] W. D. Kemper, "Water and Ion Movement in Thin Films as Influenced by the
Electrostatic Charge and Diffusion Layer of Cations Associated with Clay
Mineral Surfaces," Proceedings, Soil Science Society of Am., Vol 24, No. 1,
1960, pp. 10-16.
[8] R. T. Martin, "Adsorbed Water on Clay: A Review," Clays and Clay Miner-
als, Vol 9, Pergamon Press, New York, 1962.
[9] P. F. Low, "Physical Chemistry of Clay-Water Interaction," Advances in
Agronomy, Vol 13, 1961, pp. 269-327.
[10] S. Hansbo, "Consolidation of Clay with Special Reference to the Influence of
Vertical Sand Drains," Proceedings 18, Swedish Geotechnical Inst., Stock-
holm, 1960.
[11] R. J. Miller and P. F. Low, "Threshold Gradient for Water Flow in Clay
Systems," Proceedings, Soil Science Society of Am., Vol 27, No. 6, Novem-
ber-December, 1963, pp. 605-609.
[12] D. Swartzendruber, "Modification of Darcy's Law for the Flow of Water in
Soils," Soil Science, Vol 93, 1962a, pp. 22-29.
[13] D. Swartzendruber, "Non-Darcy Behavior and Flow Behavior in Liquid-
Saturated Porous Media," Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol 67, No. 13,
1962b, pp. 5205-5213.
[14] D. Swartzendruber, "Non-Darcy Behavior and Flow of Water in Unsaturated
Soils," by ASTMSoil
Proceedings,
Copyright Science
Int'l Society
(all rights of Am.,Sun
reserved); 1963,
Janpp.
11491-495.
13:16:39 EST 2015
[75] V. A. Florin, "Consolidation of Earth Media and Seepage under Conditions

of Variable Porosity and Consideration of the Influence of Bound Water,"
Izvestiya Academy of Sciences, USSR, Section of Technical Science, No. 11,
1951, pp. 1625-1649 (in Russian).
[16] S. A. Roza and A. I. Kotov, "Experimental Studies of the Creep of Soil Skele-
tons," Zapiski Leningradskogo ordenor Lerrina i Trudovovo Krasnovo Zna-
meni gornovo instituta um G. A. Plakhanova, Vol 34, No. 2, 1958, pp. 203-
213.
[17] H. W. Olsen, "Deviations from Darcy's Law in Saturated Clays," Proceedings,
Soil Science Society of Am., 1965, pp. 135-140.
[18] R. P. Gupta and D. Swartzendruber, "Flow-Associated Reduction in the Hy-
draulic Conductivity of Quartz Sand," Proceedings, Soil Science Society of
Am., 1962, pp. 6-10.
[19] D. H. Gray, "Coupled Flow Phenomena in Clay-Water Systems," Ph.D. thesis,
University of California, Berkeley, Calif., 1966.
[20] D. R. Hooper, "Some Fundamental Factors Affecting the Permeability of
Compacted Clay," M.S. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, Calif.,
June, 1960.
[21] J. K. Mitchell, D. R. Hooper, and R. G. Campanella, "Permeability of Com-
pacted Clay," Journal, Soil Mechanics and Foundations Div., ASCE, July,
1965, pp. 41-65.
[22] R. G. Campanella, "The Effect of Temperature and Stress on the Time-De-
formation Behaviour of Saturated Clay," Ph.D. thesis, University of Cali-
fornia, Berkeley, Calif., 1965.
[23] D. W. Taylor, "Research on the Consolidation of Clays," Serial 82, Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering, 1942.
[24] P. Girault, "A Study of the Consolidation of Mexico City Clay," Ph.D. thesis,
Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind., 1960.
[25] G. A. Leonards and B. K. Ramiah, "Time Effects in the Consolidation of
Clay," Soils, ASTM STP 254, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., 1959, p. 116.
[26] L. Barden and P. L. Berry, "Consolidation of Normally Consolidated Clay,"
Journal, Soil Mechanics and Foundations Div., ASCE, September, 1965, pp.
15-36.
[27] R. E. Gibson and A. Marsland, "Pore-Water Pressure Observations in a Satu-
rated Alluvial Deposit Beneath a Loaded Oil Tank," Proceedings, Conference
on Pore Pressure and Suction in Soils, Institute of Civil Engineering, Butter-
worth, London, 1960, pp. 112-118.
DISCUSSION
C. B. Crawford1 (written discussion)—The authors are to be com-

mended for a useful review of the literature and for a valuable contribu-
tion to the understanding of some of the vagaries of hydraulic flow
through fine-grained soils. Although most of the paper is concerned with
regular permeability tests, reference is made to pore pressure gradients
during consolidation. It is suggested that "the rate of consolidation will
be dependent on the stress increment, because for a given thickness of
clay the gradients during consolidation will depend on the magnitude
of stress increment," and also that "the rate of consolidation should be
less than that predicted by conventional Terzaghi theory."
The writer does not wish to take issue with these deductions but does
wish to suggest that another factor may have an even greater and op-
posite effect on the prediction of consolidation rate. This is the time-
dependent resistance to compression of the soil structure which must
vary greatly during the incremental loading of a soil specimen. If this is
ignored it will result in a computed permeability that is too low. The
actual rate of settlement in the field will therefore be greater than the
predicted rate. This is also a deduction based on a series of tests carried
out on a natural sensitive clay. Based on these tests the writer has sug-
gested that the compressibility characteristics of such clays should be
determined by slow, steady compression.2 Tests such as those carried
out by the authors will be very useful in assessing the probable rate of
consolidation settlement in the field.
Irwin RemsonB (written discussion)—The potential fields and struc-
ture of the water in very fine materials are different from those found in
materials for which Darcy's law is known to apply. Therefore, why
should we expect Darcy's law to hold for such very fine materials?
J. K. Mitchell and J. S. Younger (authors)—The authors agree with
Crawford that factors other than non-Darcy flow behavior may affect
the rate of settlement in the field. A slow, steady compression test of
the type he has suggested would serve not only to minimize the time-
dependent structural resistance differences between the laboratory speci-
1
Head, Soil Mechanics Section, Division of Building Research, National Re-
search Council, Ottawa, Ont, Canada.
2
C. B. Crawford, "Interpretation of the Consolidation Test," Journal of the Soil
Mechanics and Foundations Div., Proceedings, Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., Vol 90, No.
SM 5, September, 1964, pp. 87-102.
3
Professor, civil engineering and mechanics, Drexel Institute of Technology,
Philadelphia, Pa.
DISCUSSION ON ABNORMALITIES IN HYDRAULIC FLOW 141
men and the clay in situ, but also to keep the hydraulic gradients in the
laboratory specimen within more reasonable limits.
Remson suggests that Darcy's law should not be expected to apply in
very fine materials because the water structure may be different than in
coarser materials where Darcy's law is known to be obeyed. There is
much evidence that the properties and structure of adsorbed water in
clays may be different than those of normal water. Thus it is perhaps
fortuitous that Darcy's law is obeyed as well as it is. On the other hand
there does not appear to be any incontrovertible evidence that the water
in clays is non-Newtonian in behavior.
STP417-EB/Aug. 1967
W. E. Schmid1
Field Determination of Permeability by the

Infiltration Test
REFERENCE: W. E. Schmid, "Field Determination of Permeability by

the Infiltration Tests," Permeability and Capillarity of Soils, ASTM STP
417, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., 1967, p. 142.
ABSTRACT: The measurement of permeability by infiltration tests is
discussed and formulas for infiltration wells terminating below and
above the ground water table are derived. The validity of the formulae
and the assumptions used are checked by model tank experiments and per-
meameter tests. For infiltration above the ground water table no com-
parable formula exists, but the values found by the proposed formula are
about one order of magnitude smaller than those found by infiltration
into the ground water. This may be caused by difference in the effective
porosity that occurred due to trapped air. Nevertheless, the value ob-
tained by the new formula may be considered as a lower bound value of
the permeability.
KEY WORDS: permeability, soil (material), infiltration test, field test,
water tables, Kirkham formula, Hvorslev formula, capillarity
The determination of the permeability of a soil stratum by a field test

is almost always preferable. There are several factors which may ad-
versely affect laboratory measurements of permeability and make the
results less reliable that are either absent or less likely to introduce errors
in a field test.
One of the more important factors determining the permeability of
a soil of a given grain size distribution is the porosity and structural
arrangement of the granular skeleton. In a laboratory test sample both
these properties are likely to be disturbed while it is being sampled,
transported to the laboratory, and put into the permeameter.
Also, a laboratory test usually determines the permeability of a small
sample which may or may not be representative for the entire soil
stratum in question. In a field test the "zone of influence," that is, the
region in the soil which has any influence upon the test results, is signifi-
cantly larger, thus the results are more indicative of the overall in situ
1
Associate professor of civil engineering, School of Engineering and Applied
Copyright
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ASTM.
142
SCHMID ON FIELD DETERMINATION BY INFILTRATION TEST 143
behavior, and local permeability fluctuations are more readily averaged

out.
On the other hand, it is usually more difficult to ascertain the exact
geometry and other test parameters in the field so that, on net balance,
each case has to be judged on its individual conditions and merits
whether a field or laboratory test is preferable. Under most normal cir-
cumstances this writer would favor a field test.
Field Permeability Tests

Since permeability measures the capability of a soil for water trans-
port, a field test for this property requires the movement of water. This
can be done either by withdrawing water from a saturated soil stratum
(pumping test) while observing the drawdown, or the rise of water table
in the bore or auger hole as a function of time. It can also be done by
discharging water into a soil stratum (infiltration test, or pump-in test).
The pumping test requires the existence of a well-defined ground water
table and measures the permeability below that level. It is usually
carried out under steady-state conditions. This means that a well is
pumped at a constant rate until all transient phenomena have disappeared,
that is, until the drawdown is no longer increasing.
Discharges from the well in a pumping test are usually fairly high as
are the flow rates in the vicinity of the well. Hence, the pumping test
may require an especially constructed well with screening and gravel
packing as well as observation wells. It is thus suitable mainly in strata
having a high permeability.
The infiltration test, on the other hand, is suitable below as well as
above the ground water table—although the latter condition requires
additional assumptions—and also works reasonably well in soils with
a low permeability. It can be evaluated for steady state as well as for
transient conditions and thus has a wider range of applicability.
It is the purpose of this paper to describe the more important methods
of permeability determination by infiltration test procedures and to re-
port on experimental research attempting to verify some of the equations
derived here or reported in the literature.
Infiltration Tests
Infiltration tests can be carried out either by maintaining a constant
water level in a bore or auger hole and measuring the rate of flow re-
quired to maintain that level (constant head test) or by observing the
sinking of the water level in a bore hole as a function of time (falling
head test). The evaluation of these tests varies according to the boundary
conditions, for example, if the hole is cased or uncased and if the hole
extends into the ground water table or terminates above it. The cases
more frequently encountered
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Cased Hole Below the Ground Water Table
Constant Head Test

Let us assume a cased hole of radius r0 to extend a distance Z below
the ground water table and the water level inside the casing to be main-
tained a distance h0 above the ground water table (Fig. la). If we assume
the bottom of the hole to be a point source from which there is spherical
flow in all directions we may equate the measured flow Q to maintain
the head h0 with the discharge through a spherical surface of radius r.
FIG. 1—(a) Cased well below G.W.T. constant head tests, (b) Cased well below
G.W.T. falling head test.
Using Darcy's law we obtain:
(la)
or
(lb)
which when integrated yields
(2)
Introducing the boundary conditions
we obtain:
.(3)
Thus, we see that the constant head test requires one additional observa-
tion well a distance r from the infiltration well to find the head h at that
distance under steady-state conditions.
Falling Head Test
Returning to Fig. \b we see that the infiltration test could also be
conducted by observing the water level in a well as it falls with time.
Then the discharge AQ, taking place during the time interval At as the
water level falls through the distance Ah, is:
(4)
where / is the hydraulic gradient. Letting At become infinitesimal, inte-

grating Eq 4 and introducing the initial conditions, that is, at t = ti,
h = hi, etc., we obtain:
(5)
thus giving the permeability as:
(6)
where T represents the time interval during which the water level in the
bore hole drops from the height hi to hi.
Uncased Hole Below the Ground Water Table

If the casing of the well of Fig. 1 is withdrawn a distance 2b < Z,
we have a well whose casing extends into the ground water table yet has
an uncased section of length 2b at the lower end. Thus, water can infil-
trate into the soil not only through the bottom of the hole but also
through the cylindrical surface 4r0irb. The head at any point of this sur-
face is constant (Fig. 2), thus making the side of the uncased part of the
hole an equipotential surface. The flow lines, therefore, are normal to
this surface, and the permeability again can be computed by equating
the infiltration discharge with the discharge through a given area of flow.
Constant Head Test
If, as before, the water level is kept constant by feeding into the infil-
tration well at constant rate of flow, we get:
(7)
which after integration yields:
(8)
The constant of integration is again evaluated by introducing the bound-

ary condition for r = r0 ; h = h0, thus giving the permeability as:
(9)
Again, the constant head test requires that the head h at a distance r
from the infiltration well is also observed. Thus, as before, an observa-
FIG. 2—(a) Partially cased well below G.W.T. constant head test (b) Partially
cased well falling head test.
tion well in addition to the infiltration well is necessary. It should be

noted here that the constant head formulas were developed assuming
steady-state conditions. Hence, the measurements in the observation
wells have to be made after all transient phenomena have vanished and
the head has been established there at a constant level also.
Falling Head Test

If the sinking of the water level is observed in a partially cased hole
extending into the ground water table, we may equate flows again and
obtain:
(10)
whichDownloaded/printed
for b = 0 reduces by to Eq 6:
The common feature of the methods described so far was the penetra-
tion of the test wells into a ground water table and the application of a
hydraulic head in the test hole larger than that existing in the surround-
ing soil. The reverse—namely, establishing a hydraulic gradient toward
the well—results in a pumping test as mentioned previously. The pump-
ing test can again be carried out under constant head or rising head con-
ditions.
Various investigators have developed different formulas to translate
the observed rise of water in an auger hole into the permeability of the
surrounding soil [I].2 Among the more widely used methods are those
developed by Kirkham and van Bavel [2], and Luthin and Kirkham [3].
It is interesting to note that the piezometer method proposed by Kirkham
[4] leads to the equation:
(11)
which Kirkham originally derived for the infiltration test.

In Eq 11, A is a linear dimension depending on the geometry of the
cavity and the penetration. Kirkham determined this length A by an
electrical analog and found it to vary from 20 r0 to 6.5 r0 for a 4-in.-long
cavity. If one takes A = 4irr0 = 12.56 r0, Eqs 11 and 6 are identical.
Hvorslev [5] proposes a set of empirical formulas very similar to those
derived above. For the cased hole below the ground water table he gives
for constant head:
and
for a falling head test. Since 2-ir/ll = 0.57 the latter formula gives a
permeability more than twice that given by Eq 6. For a partially cased
well the corresponding formulas recommended by Hvorslev for constant
and falling head, respectively, are:
and
2 Copyright by ASTM
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appended to this
paper. Downloaded/printed by
Permeability Test Above the Ground Water Table

A number of methods exist to measure the permeability of a soil
above the ground water table. This can only be done, however, by an
infiltration test.
Zangar [6] proposes a "pumping-in" test in which a constant discharge
of water is fed into a 6-in. diameter or larger auger hole with a gravel
pack at the bottom. The water level in the casing will rise until the head
is sufficient to transport the flow introduced. The permeability in the
unsaturated zone, k±, and in the saturated zone, &u , is then computed
from two formulas:
and
The derivation of these formulas is given by Glover in the same U.S.

Bureau of Reclamation Engineering Monograph and is based on the
solution of the Laplace equation for a point source. The conductivity
values Cu and Cs are functions of the well geometry and are given by
graphs.
Another method is the ring infiltrometer test [7, 8]. Here two or more
concentric pipes are pressed or driven into the soil for the purpose of
maintaining a small head of water on a given surface area. The external
rings are used primarily to confine the flow underneath the central pipe
to a one-dimensional flow on which all measurements are made.
Model tests by Aronovici have shown that the wetting front usually
is a spheroidal shape that approaches a purely spherical shape with in-
creasing time and increasing distance x of the wetting front from the
infiltration well. Using this observation, it is possible to derive an ap-
proximate analytical expression for the permeability of a soil from an
infiltration test above the ground water table.
There are, however, several factors that are decidedly different from
the permeability measurements in saturated soils which must be men-
tioned here. First, the permeability of a soil is directly and linearly
proportional to the pore space filled with water or the so-called "effective
porosity" [9, 10]. Upon initial wetting not all of the available pore space
will immediately be filled with water. Depending on the gradation, the
grain size of the finest soil particles, and the structure of the soil, the
degree of saturation Sr after wetting may be as low as 75 per cent or up
to 95 per cent. A good average value being Sr = 0.85. For this reason,
the permeability measured in an infiltration test will always be lower or,
at best, equal to the permeability of the fully saturated soil and only con-
S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst of Tech Chennai) pursuant to Li
stitutes a lower bound value. The second factor to be considered is the

fact that part of the water that appears as flow is not transmitted but
actually stored in the empty pore space, and allowance has to be made
for this storage. If Si is the initial degree of saturation and Sw is that
after wetting, then the total volume of water stored in a unit volume
of soil is:
(12)
where n is the porosity.
If, for a one-dimensional problem, the position of the wetting front
is given by x, the rate of progress of the front is:
(13)
where Q and A are the flow discharge and flow area, respectively. Then
the filtration velocity is:
(14)
where /, as before, is the hydraulic gradient.
Cased Hole Above the Ground Water Table

Let us assume that infiltration takes place from a cased hole whose
bottom is a large distance above the ground water table. We also assume
that the wetting front has the shape of a spherical surface defined by the
distance jc measured from the intersection of the bore hole axis and the
plane through the bottom of the casing (see Fig. 3). We observe that the
rate of progress of the wetting front is determined by the flow rate Q
and the storage capacity of the soil per unit volume.
The volume of the wetted soil mass with the wetting front at x will be:
Vw = (47T/3) Jc3. The volume increment if the front advanced from x to
x + A* will be:
(15)
where higher order terms have been neglected. The water storage in this
volume then will be:
(16)
Since this volume must correspond to the volume leaving the well, we
may write, letting Ax —» dx,
(17)
The solution of this differential equation is:
(18)
Since we are interested in the rate of change of h, we may differentiate

Eq 18 with respect to t and, introducing Eq 14, we get:
(19)
Integration of Eq 19 yields:
(20)
This equation still contains the variable x which would have to be found
FIG. 3—Cased well above ground water table falling head test.
by an observation well. However, Eq 18 already gives a relationship

between x and h:
(21)
(22)
Thus, Copyright
Eq 20 can by be written
ASTM as:rights reserved); Sun Jan 11 13:16:39 EST 2015
Int'l (all
(23)
Equation 23 now permits the direct evaluation of the permeability from

the observation in one infiltration well.
Experimental Investigations
To check the validity of the assumptions used in the derivation of the
various equations, and to compare results from other formulas, a series
of infiltration experiments were performed in a model tank.
The tank was 72 in. high, 46 in. wide, and 6 in. deep and was filled
to a depth of 44 in. with Standard Ottawa Sand passing U.S. Standard
Sieve No. 30 and being retained on No. 40. To permit observation of
water levels and flow patterns the front panel of the tank was trans-
parent and made of Vz-in. thick Plexiglas. A half section Plexiglas tube
of 2-in. diameter was glued to the inside of the panel serving as the
infiltration well. The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 4. Details
of the experimental procedures and techniques are given by Sides [11].
Both constant head and falling head tests were run for the various
cases, and the procedures were similar for all tests. In the falling head
tests a 16-mm movie camera was used for recording all measurements
since a test lasted only a few seconds. Thus, simultaneous records of
head drop and advance of the wetting front were obtained most con-
veniently. For the tests below the ground water table the flow pattern
was observed by alternately introducing clear and dyed water into the
well. A photograph of a typical flow pattern near the end of such a test
is shown in Fig. 5.
Discussion of Test Results

Table 1 shows the results of the constant head tests for an infiltration
well below the ground water table, both for a cased and a partially cased
well.
Tables 2 and 3 give the corresponding data for the falling head tests.
These data were used to compute permeabilities according to the formu-
las proposed by Hvorslev, Kirkham, and those developed previously.
The tables show also a comparison between these values.
In general, the agreement between the permeabilities computed after
Kirkham and those computed by the Eqs 6 and 10 is excellent. The for-
mulas of Hvorslev invariably gave values about double those obtained by
Kirkham's or the author's formulas. Thus, there seems to be a systematic
difference of 100 per cent between them.
To check the
Copyright by consistency
ASTM Int'l (all of thereserved);
rights data theSun results were EST
Jan 11 13:16:39 plotted
2015 on dia-
grams of Q versus H0 — H± for the constant head tests (Fig. 6) and of T

versus In hi/h2 for the falling head tests (Figs. 7 and 8).
The graphs show a reasonable consistency of the data for all tests.
However, a comparison of the results between various types of tests
shows a rather discouraging discrepancy. To have an independent con-
trol we performed not only the infiltration tests described but also, in-
FIG. 4—Experimental setup.
dependently, permeability tests on the same sand in a laboratory perme-

ameter (constant and falling head). Moreover, to eliminate differences
due to variation in void ratio of the sand, we also calculated the perme-
ability from observing the rise of the ground water table in the tank due
to a constant pressure applied through the filter at the bottom of the
tank (see Fig. 4). Thus, in effect we performed a falling head test on the
entire Copyright
sand sample in the Int'l
by ASTM tank.(all rights reserved); Sun Jan 11 13:16:39 EST 2015
TheDownloaded/printed
range of permeability
by values obtained by each of these tests
FIG. 5—Flow rings for the cased hole below the G.W.T.
TABLE I—Constant head tests.
Test No. Elaspsed time, sec Ho, cm H1, cm H0-H1 cm Q, cm/sec k, cm /sec schmid K,cm /sec Hvorslev
Cased Well Below the Ground Water Table
1. 140 28.0 21.6 6.4 22.32 0.1068 0.2858

2. .99 31.9 23.4 8.5 25.25 0.0911 0.2438
3 .106 32.1 24.9 7.2 23.59 0.1007 0.2695
4 89 30.8 25.1 5.7 21.07 0.1156 0.3095
Partially Cased Well Below the Ground Water Table
5 28 87.25 40.6 46.65 150.7 0.0395 0.0701
is shown in Fig. 9. While the range of values obtained by each test

method is perhaps acceptable, there is a discouraging scatter of the per-
meability
Copyrightvalues
by ASTM Int'l (allfrom oneSun Jantest
rights reserved); method
11 13:16:39 EST 2015 to another, giving a spread of
almostDownloaded/printed
two orders by of magnitude. However, if we ignore for one moment
the results obtained by Eq 23 we can observe that a reasonable grouping

of the permeability values around 0.1 cm/sec does exist, and the varia-
tions in k can perhaps be explained by variations in the effective porosity
due to entrapment of air. Since no provisions did exist to evacuate the
tank before admitting the water to form a ground water table, a certain
amount of the scatter must be charged to different effective porosities.
TABLE 2—Falling head tests.

k, cm/sec
Test No. fc.on fe.cm fc/fc r.sec fc±K *£«££ Schmid
Cased Well Below the Ground Water Table

1 51.5 23 2.239 0.833 0.730 0.400 0.365
2 50.5 18 2.806 1.111 0.702 0.384 0.351
3 51.0 8 6.375 2.167 0.646 0.354 0.323
4 50 5 14 3 607 1 389 0 69 0 38 0 34
5 52 0 12 4 33 1 778 0 62 0 342 0 312
Partially Cased Well Below the Ground Water Table

1 39.0 12 3.25 1.5 0.1798 0.0870 0.0742
2 39.5 13 3.039 1.389 0.1829 0.0885 0.0755
3 40.0 13 3.077 1.278 0.2011 0.0973 0.0830
4 40.0 9 4.444 2.22 0.1536 0.0743 0.0634
5 40.5 10 4.05 1.889 0.1694 0.0819 0.0699
6 41 0 10 4.10 2.111 0 1592 0 0740 0 0631
7 40 0 11 3.636 1.778 0.1660 0.0803 0 0685
TABLE 3—Falling head tests.
Test No. h\ , cm hi , cm hi-

cm
hi, hi/hi In hi/hi kw",
t\ , sec ti , sec k0 , cm/sec cm/sec
Cased Hole Above the Ground Water Table
1 56.5 10 46.5 5.65 1.7317 56.72 58.11 0.025

2 100 71.5 28.5 1.399 0.3360 9 75 0.000853 0.0182
3 98 65 33 1.508 0.4106 90 180 0.000472 0.0102
4 65 53 12 1 226 0 2037 180 225 0 000332 0.0071
5 65 49 5 15.5 1.313 0.2723 180 240 0 000359 0.0080
NOTE: In Test No. 1 the liquid was water. In Tests 2 to 5 the liquid was glycerin.
Since the permeability is extremely sensitive to variations in effective

porosity [10], much or perhaps most of the discrepancy might be charged
to this cause by the entrapment of air bubbles. This also seems to be
supported by the fact that the results obtained from Eq 23 have the
widest scatter and yield the lowest values for k. It would be in the in-
filtration test above the ground water table where the entrapment of air
bubbles should and does show the greatest effect.
Nevertheless,
Copyright bywhether all (all
ASTM Int'l therights
observed discrepancies
reserved); can be EST
Sun Jan 11 13:16:39 charged
2015
to effective porosity variations
Downloaded/printed by is still open to question.
FIG. 6—Constant head tests. Cased hole below the G.W.T. Q versus H0 — H!
FIG. 7—Falling head tests. Time versus hj/h-j.
FIG. 8—Falling head tests. Cased hole above the G.W.T. Time versus In \/b2
h— H vors lev's equation

K= Kirk ham's equation
5- Schmid'i equation
FIG. 9—Comparisons of results for various permeability equations.
Perhaps we should point out that in the derivation of Eq 23 we as-

sumed that no significant suction head exists in the soil. If the formula
is applied for a partially saturated, fine grained soil which exhibits
an appreciable suction head, this would have to be considered.
Equation 23 is a new formula, and no comparison for a similar con-
dition is possible. However, comparison of its results with those ob-
tained Copyright
from infiltration tests
by ASTM Int'l belowreserved);
(all rights the ground
Sun Jan water tableESTshows
11 13:16:39 2015 that
they are about one order of magnitude lower. Much of this is certainly
due to entrapped air in the soil voids. This is unavoidable for a practical
case application. Perhaps one can at least say that the method of deter-
mining the permeability by Eq 23 will give a lower bound value for the
permeability.
The assumption that the flow pattern is radial in all directions clearly
has been substantiated (see Fig. 5). This was true also for the cased well
above the ground water table at least during an initial time interval.
After that time the flow was essentially vertical [11].
Conclusions
The following conclusions were drawn from these observations:
1. Soil permeability values may be obtained in situ by an infiltration
test which, in some instances perhaps, is more convenient than a pump-
ing test.
2. For infiltration tests below the ground water table there is very
good agreement between the formulas proposed by the author and those
by Kirkham and Hvorslev except that the Hvorslev formulas regularly
give about double the permeability values.
3. A large variation of permeability was obtained between different
tests—sometimes as large as one order of magnitude or more. This, the
author believes, may not only be true for such model tests as were car-
ried out in this research program, but may actually also happen in the
field and should be recognized in practical applications. A good part of
it is probably due to variations in effective porosity.
4. Infiltration from a well into the soil occurs along radial flow lines
resulting in a spherical advance of any flow or wetting front. This is
always so below the ground water table. Above the ground water table
vertical flow due to gravity begins to predominate after some initial time
interval.
References
[7] J. N. Luthin: Drainage of Agricultural Lands, Am. Society Agron., Madison,
Wis., 1957.
[2] D. Kirkham and C. H. M. van Bavel: ^TJieory of Seepage into Auger Holes,"
Proceedings, Soil Science Society Am., Vol 13, 1949, pp. 75-82.
[3] J. N. Luthin and D. Kirkham: "A Piezometer Method for Measuring J'ermea-
bility of Soil in Situ below a Water Table," Soil Science, Vol 68, 1949, pp.
349-358.
[4] D. Kirkham: "Proposed Method for Field Measurement of Permeability of
Soil below the Ground Water Table," Proceedings, Soil Science Society Am.,
VoLU-, 1946, pp. 58-68.
[5] M. T. Hvorslev: "Time Lag and Soil Permeability in Ground Water iQbserva-
tions," Bulletin No. 36, Waterways Experiment Station, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineering, Vicksburg, Miss., 1951.
[6] C. N. Zangar: "Theory and Problems of Water Percolation," Engineering
Monographs—No. 8, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation,
Denver, Colo.,
Copyright 1953. Int'l (all rights reserved); Sun Jan 11 13:16:39 EST 2015
by ASTM
[7] A. I. Johnson: "A Field Method for Measurement of Infiltration," Paper 1544-
F, Geological Survey Water Supply, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963.
[8] V. S. Aronovici: "Model Study of Ring Infiltrometer Performance under Low
Initial Soil Moisture," Proceedings, Soil Science Society Am., Vol 19, 1955,
pp. 1-6.
[9] J. R. Phillip: "The Theory of Infiltration, Part 5: The Influence of the Initial
Moisture Content," Soil Science, Vol 84, 1957, pp. 329-339.
[10] W. E. Schmid: "The Permeability of Soils and the Concept of a Stationary
Boundary Layer," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., 1957, pp. 1195-1218.
[11] J. P. Sides: "In Situ Determination of Soil Permeability," M.Sc. thesis, School
of Engineering and Applied Science, Princeton University, August, 1966, 74
pp.
DISCUSSION
R. R. Fox1 (written discussion)—The attention given to the field deter-

mination of permeability characteristics of soils is well deserved. Much
more research is needed before engineers can have confidence that the
percolation test accurately indicates the permeability of soils.
The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) presents a percolation test
procedure in the publication "Minimum Property Standards for One- and
Two-Family Dwellings." This FHA test procedure has been widely used
on a variety of soils in different geological, pedological, and climatological
environments. However, a lack of consistent or predictable results in many
geographic areas is of serious concern. An example of the problem asso-
ciated with permeability determination is present in the potential in-
adequate design of individual sewage treatment systems utilizing seepage
fields. P. H. McGauhey in his sanitary engineering research at the Univer-
sity of California (Berkeley) has observed free-draining granular materials
that become clogged under action simulating flow into seepage fields. FHA
has encouraged and supported research which attempts to resolve this
dependence on a test procedure that does not always yield accurate results
—for both short-term and long-time conditions.
Much of the progress in field determination of permeability will be
related to the recognition of the value of soil surveys, such as those
prepared in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. An
example of the use of pedological information is presented in FHA Bulle-
1
Professor, George Washington University, and consultant, Building Research
Advisory Board, by
Copyright National Academy
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(all rights Sciences, Sun
Washington, D. C.EST 2015
Jan 11 13:16:39
DISCUSSION ON FIELD DETERMINATION BY INFILTRATION TEST 159
tin No. 723, "Evaluation of Soils and Use of Soil Surveys for Engineering
Purposes in Urban Development." With the procedures described in this
FHA bulletin the Virginia Engineering Experiment Station developed
engineering soil maps for FHA which are useful in the determination of
the seepage characteristics of soils.
In summary, one must not expect a simple percolation test procedure
that will yield consistent accurate predictions of the permeability char-
acteristics of soils. Use of percolation tests in conjunction with soil sur-
veys should yield reasonably good results.
W. E. Schmid (author)—The comments by Professor Fox are well
taken indeed. All too often percolation tests are performed by following
standard procedures which are appropriate perhaps in the majority of
places but are not indiscriminately suitable for all locations. Also, there is
indeed a lack of consistency and predictability of percolation test results in
many geographic areas—most often in areas where the infiltration rates
are moderately low. These are usually then also locations where the
suitability of the soil for seepage fields is in question.
Our results above also show the large variation of measured permea-
bility values depending on the test principle chosen. This occurred even
under relatively well controlled laboratory conditions.
The author believes that a good part of the scattering of results is
caused "by the nature of the beast," that is to say, permeability is indeed
a property that may vary widely from point to point in a soil formation,
or within a soil profile, and it may vary even at the same point from
season to season.
Perhaps one may find some slight comfort from the fact that because of
the incomplete saturation, as was shown above, the percolation test always
furnishes only a lower bound of the true, saturated permeability coefficient.
Thus, the infiltration test has some built-in safety factor.
We also agree that agricultural and pedological soil surveys and maps
could well serve as indicators of problem areas. In conclusion, we believe,
as does Professor Fox, that there remain numerous reasons for serious
concern and the field for important research on this problem beckons
wide, deep, and fertile.
STP417-EB/Aug. 1967
E. L. Matyas1
Air and Water Permeability of

Compacted Soils
REFERENCE: E. L. Matyas, "Air and Water Permeability of Compacted

Soils," Permeability and Capillarity of Soils, ASTM STP 417, Am. Soc.
Testing Mats., 1967, p. 160.
ABSTRACT: Specimens of a glacial till and a silty clay, compacted at
molding water contents corresponding to optimum water content or
greater, have been tested in triaxial apparatus. The migration of water,
due to capillary forces acting between partially saturated samples placed
at different molding water contents and densities, has been investigated
experimentally, and typical results are reported. Experimental studies
of air permeability in partially saturated soils and water permeability
in both partially saturated and saturated soils are described. The air
permeability is shown to range over five log cycles as the degree of satura-
tion is increased and becomes negligible as the suction, na — /uw , ap-
proaches zero. The validity of Darcy's law is confirmed by performing
water permeability tests at different back pressures. If the soil is com-
pletely saturated, there is no evidence of a "threshold gradient" or a
nonlinear relationship between velocity and hydraulic gradient as re-
ported by some investigators. Coefficients of permeability as determined
by direct measurement are compared with values calculated from triaxial
consolidation test data, and the lack of agreement is discussed briefly on
a theoretical basis.
KEY WORDS: permeability, capillarity, soil (material), glacial till, silt
(material), clay, triaxial test, air permeability, water permeability, satura-
tion, Darcy's law, hydraulic gradient, consolidation, embankments,
seepage
Compacted soils are used primarily for the construction of earth em-
bankments or for earth fills in general. These soils are partially saturated
during the construction stage; subsequently, the degree of saturation is
increased either by infiltration or by the addition of superimposed loads,
and the soil properties may change considerably. The movement of water
within a soil mass may be considered in three parts: (a) a movement asso-
ciated with a capillary potential (suction) due to a nonhomogeneous earth
mass, that is, different portions will have varying water contents and
densities, (b) an infiltration of free water due to the inherent suction
1 Copyright by ASTMUniversity
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Waterloo,Sun Jan 11 13:16:39
Waterloo, ESTCanada.
Ontario, 2015
160of Tech Chennai) pursuant to License Agreement. No furthe

MATYAS ON AIR AND WATER PERMEABILITY 161
characteristics of partially saturated soils, and (c) steady seepage due to

impounding. The rate of movement of either air or water through soils
depends on the degree of saturation, and these factors are considered
both theoretically and experimentally in this paper. Experiments have been
made on compacted specimens of a glacial till and a silty clay.
Capillary Flow of Water
Terzaghi [I]2 illustrated the principles of capillary flow with a simpl
model consisting of a column of dry sand with its lower end immersed in
water. For simplicity, Terzaghi assumed that the water level in the
column of sand at any time represented the boundary between a zone of
complete capillary saturation and a zone in which the specimen was com-
pletely dry. For this assumption, the rate of capillary rise is governed by
Darcy's law,
(1)
where:
If at a given time t the water level in the sand stands at an elevation z

above the free water surface outside the sand column, Terzaghi derived
the expression:
(2)
where:
n = porosity,
hc = height of capillary rise, (ua — Uu,}/^w , and
the gradient is given by (hc — z)/z.
Taylor [2] has shown that as long as z is less than about 20 per cent
of hc, saturation is relatively high, and hc and k are essentially constant.
In earth fills it is likely that there will be variations in both the place-
ment water content and the density. The inherent suction in various zones
of a soil mass will differ, and consequently the capillary potential will
try to reach an equilibrium value. Equilibrium can only be achieved if
the pore water moves from points of high potential to points of low
potential. The soil mass may be considered as a closed system in which
the movement of water is also associated with the diffusion of air, that is,
when movement of water takes place, the water must displace and com-
press the air. Volume changes of the soil skeleton may also take place.
Clearly, Eqs 1 and 2 do not apply to these special conditions.
2
paper. Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Sun Jan 11 13:16:39 EST 2015
Permeability
In the classical theory governing the consolidation of saturated soils,
it is assumed that Darcy's law for the flow of fluids through porous media
is strictly obeyed [7] where Darcy's law is given by Eq 1.
Theoretical and actual rates of consolidation are not always in agree-
ment, and arguments for this anomaly are given by Hansbo [3]. Hansbo
cited the work of several authors who suggested that deviations from
Darcy's law were possible, that is, Darcy's law may not be valid for low
porosities or low hydraulic gradients. Hansbo gave experimental evidence
which showed that the flow of water through a normally consolidated
clay at small hydraulic gradients was described by the equation:
FIG. 1—Assumed plot of pore water flow in a normally consolidated fat clay
subjected to small hydraulic gradients (after Hansbo [3]).
(3)
where x is the permeability and n (^ 1) is an exponent; both vary with
void ratio and temperature and from one clay to another. Equation 3
is nonlinear and implies that Eq 1 is not valid. When the hydraulic
gradient exceeded a certain limit, h , Hansbo replaced Eq 3 with,
(4)
where:
Equation 4 is linear, and hence Darcy's law becomes valid beyond a

certain value of the hydraulic gradient. Equations 3 and 4 are illustrated
in Fig. 1.
Coefficient of Consolidation
TheCopyright
coefficient
by ASTM of consolidation cv maySun
Int'l (all rights reserved); be Jan
determined
11 13:16:39 from consolida-
EST 2015
tion tests performedby either in oedometer [1] or in triaxial apparatus [4].
Downloaded/printed
Only tests made in triaxial apparatus will be considered here. The coeffi-
cient of permeability k is directly related to the coefficient of consolida-
tion cv by the equation:
(5)
where:
c = the slope of the AV/V0 against o-3' curve at any point.
For an arbitrary pressure increment, Cc is obtained at the mean effec-
tive stress. The value of cv may be obtained either from pore pressure
dissipation curves or volume change curves [4], and it follows that k
FIG. 2—Comparison of theoretical and experimental dissipation curves.
may be obtained from these tests (indirect method) or by actual meas-

urement of the quantity of water passing through the specimen (direct
method).
Prior to the dissipation stage, the drainage valves of the triaxial cell
are closed and the cell pressure is increased by an increment Ao- 3 . For
completely saturated soils, the pore water pressure will change Au =
A<7 3 , that is, B = Au/Aas = 1, and the initial pore pressure will be con-
stant throughout the specimen. If drainage is now permitted from one
end, the theoretical time factors may be evaluated and plotted against
the percentage dissipation as shown in Fig. 2. Alternatively, other initial
conditions may be imposed on the specimen, that is, a constant hydraulic
head across the length of the specimen will induce a steady-state flow
condition and thus give an initial triangular distribution of excess hydro-
static pressure. If the excess head is isolated, the pore pressure will
degenerate to bythe
Copyright value
ASTM Int'limposed at the draining
(all rights reserved); Sun Jan 11end. Theoretical
13:16:39 EST 2015 time
factorsDownloaded/printed
for this condition
by are given in Fig. 2.
Terzaghi's theory of consolidation [7] is used in the derivation of these

time factors, and this theory includes the assumptions that: (a) both the
water and the solid constituents of the soil are perfectly incompressible;
(b) Darcy's law is valid and the coefficient of permeability is a constant;
(c) the relationship between a' and e is linear over a particular stress
range; and (d) strains are infinitesimal, and strain is a function of a'
alone. Terzaghi's theory yields the following equation governing the
excess pore-water pressure:
(6)
(7)
where:
u = excess pore pressure, and
x = space coordinate.
From the test results reported later in this paper, it is inferred that
Eq 7 is not strictly applicable as there are cases when: (a) the voids con-
tain a compressible pore fluid having properties corresponding to a two-
phase fluid consisting of water and air; (b) Darcy's law is valid, but the
permeability k varies with the void ratio, that is, k(e), (c) the compres-
sibility mv varies with effective stress (or equivalently with the void ratio
e]; and (d) the strains are large.
Gibson [5] incorporated these assumptions in a mathematical treat-
ment of the problem, and his governing equation is expressed as:
(8)
where:
a = space coordinate,
q = (ap + j8)2 (state equation),

p = pore fluid pressure (a1 = a — p),
e = e0 + av(<r0' — a'}, that is, the a' versus e relationship is linear,
e = void ratio,
<j' = normal effective stress, and
av = coefficient of compressibility.
For an incompressible pore fluid, with k and mv functions of effective
stressCopyright
(that is,by
ofASTM
void ratio)
Int'l (allGibson showedSun
rights reserved); that:
Jan 11 13:16:39 EST 2015
-(9)
where:
cg(e) = a constant as in the Terzaghi theory, and
(10)
where:
z = a new space coordinate.
The derivation and solution of Eqs 8, 9, and 10 are outside the scope
of this paper,3 but their implications will be discussed later.
Material Used
Selset Glacial Till

This till was dark gray in color and was obtained from a borrow pit at
the site of the Selset Dam in England. Details on the use of this material
in the dam itself have been reproted by Bishop et al [6], Bishop and
Vaughan [7], and Kennard [8]. In its original state, most of the till passed
TABLE 1—Summary of soil properties.

Atterberg Limits, % Clay
Fraction
G
0.002 mm,
WL tap IP %
Selset glacial till 35 17 18 20 2.71

Sasumua clay 93 67 26 51 2.90
a 3-in. sieve and was well graded. For purposes of the testing described
in this paper, only material passing a %-m. sieve was used. General soil
properties are given in Table 1, and the water content-density relationship
is shown in Fig. 3.
Sasumua Clay
This clay was red in color and was obtained from the site of the Sasumua
Dam in Kenya. All samples had been shipped and stored in sealed tins.
Dixon [9], Terzaghi [10], and Newill [11] have reported on the properties
of this soil and demonstrated that its unusual properties were due to the
3
A Copyright
paper dealing with these
by ASTM equations
Int'l (all is being prepared
rights reserved); by 13:16:39
Sun Jan 11 R. E. Gibson.
EST 2015
presence of the mineral, halloysite. The halloysite existed in a hydrated

condition and in the form of tubular crystals, which reverted to meta-
halloysite when dried; this resulted in a marked change of properties. In
order to preserve its original properties, all specimens were molded at
or near the natural water content. The reuse of material was also avoided.
Typical soil properties are given in Table 1, and the water content-density
relationship is shown in Fig. 3. It may be noted that the water content-
relationship was not based entirely on standard procedures since com-
plete air drying was not permitted.
FIG. 3—Water content-dry density relationships.
Test Procedure
Preparation of Specimens
Initially, specimens were compacted at various water contents in a
three-part split mold nominally 4 in. in diameter and 4.6 in. in length
(equivalent to a standard mold). The top was struck, and the mold was
carefully removed. Owing to the presence of gravel, the till specimens
were tested at this size. On the other hand, the silty clay specimens were
cut into three pie-shaped segments on a band saw and then carefully
trimmed to 1 Yz in. in diameter and 3 in. in length.
Capillary Tests
Two batches of soil were prepared at different water contents and com-
pacted separately in a split mold. Each specimen was trimmed to a length
of 3 in., and the two specimens were placed end-to-end giving an overall
size of 6 in. in length and 4 in. in diameter. The specimen was mounted
in a standard triaxial cell for 4-in.-diameter specimens, specially provided
with aCopyright
fine porous stone
by ASTM (allinrights
Int'l[4] the base pedestal
reserved); Sun Janand also in the
11 13:16:39 EST top
2015cap.
The specimen was sealed inside a jacket of nylon film and a rubber mem-
brane; the nylon film acted as a barrier to air and therefore permitted the
measurement of pore-air pressure. For convenience, the pore-air pressure
was measured only at the top of the specimen. The all-round pressure was
increased in stages, and, in each stage, pore-air and pore-water pressures
were recorded with time.
Permeability to Water
All permeability tests were made in triaxial apparatus shown schemati-
cally in Fig. 4. This apparatus facilitated initial saturation of the specimens
using a back pressure and was readily adaptable to carry out permeability
FIG. 4—Diagrammatic layout of apparatus used for the measurement of water

permeability and pore pressure dissipation.
tests at small or large hydraulic gradients. For small gradients a differential

manometer, shown in Fig. 4, was incorporated. One leg of the manometer
was suspended from a compensating spring to ensure a constant head
difference during the permeability run. Head differences were measured
to a hundredth of a centimeter with a cathetometer. This system was also
used for larger gradients, or alternatively the upstream and downstream
lines were connected directly to a self-compensating mercury control [4].
Flow took place through the specimen from the base to the top (no
filter drains were used), and the volume of water passing through the
specimen was measured with a paraffin-type volume gage [4]. Measure-
ments were made to approximately 0.1 cm3. Flow was permitted until a
straight-line relationship between time and the quantity of expelled water
was established.
Permeability to Air
The apparatus for measuring the permeability of specimens to air is
shown schematically in Fig. 5. Air from a pressure tank was regulated to
±0.1 psi with an air regulator which operated on a constant-leak principle.
Air was passed through the specimen from the base to the top; dry coarse
porous stones were used at each end of the specimen. The air passing
through the specimen was collected in a graduated buret having an air-
oil interface. In order to maintain the air at atmospheric pressure, the two
legs of the U-tube were adjusted continuously to keep the air-oil inter-
faces at the datum level (center of the specimen).
FIG. 5—Diagrammatic layout of apparatus used for the measurement of air

permeability.
Triaxial Consolidation
The apparatus for these experiments is shown in Fig. 4. For these tests,
the differential manometer was isolated from the mercury null indicator
by closing Valve A. Specimens were saturated using a back pressure, and
the back pressure line was isolated by closing Valve B. The cell pressure
was raised and the change in pore-water pressure, AM, in the specimen
was measured with the aid of the mercury null indicator. For the dissipa-
tion stage, Valve B was opened, and the change in pore pressure was
measured.
Test Results and Discussion

Capillary Flow
In order to saturate triaxial specimens prior to consolidation or shear
tests the back pressure technique [4] is used. For partially saturated
specimens in closed systems the back pressure required to saturate the
specimens may be calculated using the expression [12]:
(ID
where:Downloaded/printed by
Auv = pore-water pressure or the back pressure,

p0 = initial absolute pore-air pressure,
H = Henry's coefficient of solubility (equals 0.02 volumes of air
per unit volume of water), and
Sp = degree of saturation to be obtained upon an increase of the
pore-water pressure by Auv .
For specimens of Selset glacial till or Sasumua clay compacted wet of

optimum water content, the initial degree of saturation was in the order of
80 to 94 per cent as shown in Fig. 3. For this range of saturation, the use
of Eq 11 gives a range of required back pressures of about 45 to 150 psi.
In many laboratories the maximum range of cell pressures which may
be applied is about 150 psi, and therefore high back pressures restrict the
upper limit of the effective consolidation pressure. In order to increase
this upper limit, the specimens were permitted to imbibe water through
the base while drainage was permitted through the top lead. For con-
venience, a small head was provided at the base by connecting a buret to
it. The water level in the buret was kept a few inches above the top of the
specimen. This head was sufficient to cause water to flow through the
specimen and out the drainage lead, thus giving a visual check on the
completion of capillary saturation. On an 8-in.-high specimen of Selset
glacial till with an initial suction of about 30 psi, the water was observed
to reach the top of the specimen in about 3.5 days. This waiting period
is quite reasonable considering that the application of back pressure by
the conventional method of small increments of pressure would probably
take as long. If the small external head is included in Eq 2, it can be
shown that & ^ 2 x l O ~ 4 cm/sec. Calculations also indicated that the
degree of saturation had increased to about 97 per cent, and this only
required a back pressure of about 25 psi to ensure complete saturation.
A number of tests were made to observe the changes in pore-air and
pore-water pressures in specimens placed end-to-end. Only one experi-
ment will be cited here as it was typical of all the tests. One specimen of till
was compacted at a molding water content of 14.6 per cent, and another
specimen was prepared at a molding water content of 13.0 per cent. These
were mounted in a triaxial cell and sealed as described previously. The
wetter specimen was placed on top.
Initially, a cell pressure of 14.9 psi was applied, and readings of pore-
water pressure were taken periodically at the top and bottom of the
specimen. Pore-air pressures were recorded at the top only, and overall
volume change measurements were also made. After "equilibrium," the
cell pressure was increased in stages. The results of a few typical stages are
given in Fig. 6. It can be seen that the equilibrium water pressures for both
the top and the bottom specimens were almost unique and never differed
by more than about
Copyright 1.0Int'l
by ASTM psi.(all
The airreserved);
rights pressures Sunappeared to beEST
Jan 11 13:16:39 consistently
2015
higher throughout the whole range of cell pressures, although in many

other test; it was noted that the apparent difference in air and water
pressures could not be measured at high degrees of saturation. Hence, in
this test the apparent difference is considered to be the result of some ex-
perimental error. Figure 6 also shows that the time to equilibrium was
quite long in the first increment but relatively short at larger cell pressures.
After each increment of cell pressure, the pore pressures at each end
diverged initially and then converged to an almost unique value with time.
The initial divergence is attributed to the difference in the compressibili-
ties of the specimens. In the extreme (very high cell pressures), the speci-
FIG. 6—Pore pressure response in two specimens of Selset glacial till com-
pacted with different water contents and placed end to end.
mens would become saturated, and it is obvious that the pore pressure
response of the soil would be rapid. The above observations confirmed the
suggestion made by Bishop and Vaughan [7] that, in earth fill, local
differences of water content and density had a considerable effect in
determining the pore-pressure distributions in the early stages of construc-
tion and that any irregularities diminished as the height of the fill increased.
At the same time, the observations contradict the opinions expressed by
Akroyd [13].
Permeability to Air
A number of tests were conducted to determine the permeability of
compacted specimens to air. For illustration, only the results of two tests
on Sasumua clay will be reported. Equation 1 may be written as:
or
(12)
where:
Q = quantity of air at atmospheric pressure which passes through the
specimen in time /,
/ = gradient, and
A = cross-sectional area of the specimen.
Two specimens were compacted at an optimum water content of 60.5
per cent and tested for air permeability. The results are plotted in Fig. 7.
These show that the permeability to air ranged from about 10~3 to 10~8
cm/sec. From other tests on this material it was established that the
initial suction of these specimens was in the order of 16 psi. At this suc-
tion, the air voids were obviously interconnected since steady-state air flow
was practically instantaneous. As the cell pressure was increased the void
ratio decreased, and consequently the air permeability also decreased as
expected. However, the steady-state flow of air was maintained through-
out the entire range shown. This suggested that the air voids were still
interconnected. A point was eventually reached where the air permeability
was virtually nonexistent. At this point it was thought that the air voids
became isolated (occluded), and the flow of air could only take place by
diffusion. From parallel tests on similar specimens it was speculated that
the suction term, ua — uw , had decreased to zero. In other words, the air
permeability is essentially zero when there is no measurable difference
between the pore-air pressure and the pore-water pressure.
Permeability to Water
Permeability values were obtained by measuring the quantity of water
discharging through a specimen (direct method) and by determining the
cv value in triaxial consolidation tests (indirect method). The validity of
Darcy's law was investigated using direct methods. A specimen of Sasumua
clay was "saturated" with a back pressure of only 5 psi, although it was
calculated that this pressure was not of sufficient magnitude to ensure com-
plete saturation. The specimen was subjected to different hydraulic
gradients, and a plot of hydraulic gradient against discharge velocity is
given in Fig. 8. This plot indicated that the extension of a line passing
through the experimental points did not pass through the origin. This
implies that at lower gradients the velocity-gradient plot is nonlinear. This
observation is in agreement with Hansbo [3]. When the back pressure
was raised to 24 psi, and also to 70 psi, the velocity-gradient plots were
linear and all passed through the origin. Many other tests at high back
pressures alsobygave
Copyright ASTMsimilar data. reserved);
Int'l (all rights These observations indicated
Sun Jan 11 13:16:39 EST 2015that the
FIG. 7—Variation of air permeability with consolidation pressure.
nonlinear velocity-gradient plots may be attributed to the presence of air

in the voids. Hansbo did not run his tests at an elevated pore pressure,
and itCopyright
is possible that the
by ASTM Int'lpresence
(all rights of air affected
reserved); Sun Janhis
11 results.
13:16:39 It
ESTshould
2015 also
be noted that the soil used
Downloaded/printed by by Hansbo was a normally consolidated clay,
and he attributed his anomalies to the chemical interaction of the soil

grains and the pore water. Neither Hansbo nor the author saw evidence
of a "threshold gradient."
Several specimens of Sasumua clay were saturated with high back pres-
sures and consolidated in the triaxial cell in stages. At the end of each
stage, the permeability was determined directly and also by calculation
using cv values. The coefficient cv was calculated using methods estab-
FIG. 8—Effect of low back pressure on water permeability.
FIG. 9—Comparison of measured and calculated permeabilities.
lished by Bishop and Henkel [4], and from these the coefficient of permea-
bility was also determined using Eq 5. Typical test results are given in
Fig. 9 to show the comparison of k values determined by the various
methods. For this particular test the measured permeability values were
in reasonably good agreement at low effective stresses but diverged at high
effective stresses. In general, at high effective stresses, the measured k
values were intermediate between values obtained using the cv values.
DirectCopyright
methods indicated
by ASTM that
Int'l (all the
rights permeability
reserved); Sun Jan 11decreased
13:16:39 ESTwith
2015 a decrease
in voidDownloaded/printed
ratio; this wasbyconfirmed by permeability values based on volume
change measurements. On the other hand, k values determined from pore

pressure dissipation curves indicated the opposite effect, that is, k in-
creased at higher effective stresses. Obviously the rate of pore pressure
dissipation was affected in some way and the contributing factors were
discussed previously with Eq 8. If the degree of saturation is less than 100
per cent there will be a separate value of q for each value of the degree of
saturation, and the change in the degree of saturation will depend on the
magnitude of the increment in cell pressure. Preliminary calculations for a
few hypothetical cases demonstrated that the time factor T derived from
the solution of Eq 8 was somewhat larger than the time factor derived
from the solution of Eq 7. In other words, a compressible pore fluid has
the effect of slowing down the rate of dissipation of excess pore pressures.
This confirms the experimental observations made above. It may be noted
that Barden [14] has also derived a governing equation for the case of a
compressible pore fluid.
A preliminary investigation with approximate solutions indicated that
the inclusion of the second term in Eq 10 had an appreciable effect on the
rate of consolidation. This was particularly true when there was an initial
uniform pore pressure throughout the specimen and drainage took place
from one end. At small times, the permeability and the compressibility of
the soil at the draining end change very rapidly, and hence the rate of
consolidation is reduced. On the other hand, when the initial distribution
of excess pore pressure was triangular (zero at the draining end) only
minor changes in permeability and compressibility would occur near the
draining end, and hence there would be a negligible effect on the rate of
consolidation. These qualitative solutions are illustrated in Fig. 2 which
gives a comparison between experimental and measured time-dissipation
curves for an initial uniform distribution of pore pressure and an initial
triangular distribution of pore pressure. It is seen that the experimental
and theoretical plots show much closer agreement for an initial triangular
distribution of excess pore pressure.
Conclusions
The magnitude of the back pressure which is needed to saturate speci-
mens may be reduced by permitting the specimens to imbibe water by
capillary action. Local differences of water content and density in a soil
mass have a considerable effect in determining the pore-pressure distribu-
tion in the early stages of construction, and the effect of these irregularities
are minimized over a period of time and loading.
For specimens compacted at optimum water content it is apparent that
the air voids are interconnected. As the stresses on a specimen are in-
creased, the degree of saturation increases, and consequently the air
permeability decreases. However, up to a condition where the suction,
ua —Copyright
uw , decreases
by ASTMto zero
Int'l (all it is indicated
rights thatJan
reserved); Sun the11air voidsEST
13:16:39 remain
2015 inter-
connected, but the air permeability may decrease by as much as 105

times.
A linear relationship was found to exist between discharge velocity and
gradient, provided that specimens were completely saturated. This con-
firms that Darcy's law is valid even at low gradients. No evidence of a
threshold gradient was observed.
The effects of a compressible pore fluid and a varying permeability and
compressibility on the process of consolidation has been shown to be quite
significant; for large times all factors contribute to slow down the dissipa-
tion of pore pressures.
A cknowledgments
The subject matter of this paper is based on a research thesis [75]
prepared by the author under the supervision of A. W. Bishop, at the
Imperial College of Science and Technology, University of London. The
author gratefully acknowledges the contributions made by R. E. Gibson.
References
[7] Terzaghi, Theoretical Soil Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
1943.
[2] D. W. Taylor, Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1948.
[3] S. Hansbo, "Consolidation of Clay, with Special Reference to Influence of
Vertical Sand Drains," Proceedings, Swedish Geotechnical Inst., No. 18, 1960.
[4] A. W. Bishop and D. J. Henkel, The Measurement of Soil Properties in the
Triaxial Test, Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd., London, 2nd edition, 1962.
[5] R. E. Gibson, private communication to author; see Ref. [75].
[6] A. W. Bishop, M. F. Kennard, and A. D. M. Penman, "Pore-Pressure Ob-
servations at Selset Dam," Proceedings, Conference on Pore Pressure and
Suction in Soils, Butterworths, London, 1960, pp. 91-102.
[7] A. W. Bishop and P. R. Vaughan, "Selset Reservoir: Design and Performance
of the Embankment," Proceedings, Institute of Civil Engrs., Vol 21, 1962, pp.
305-346.
[8] J. Kennard and M. F. Kennard, "Selset Reservoir: Design and Construction,"
Proceedings, Institute of Civil Engrs., Vol 21, 1962, pp. 277-304.
[9] H. H. Dixon, "Moisture Control and Compaction Methods Used During
Construction of the Sasumua Dam, Kenya," Proceedings, Sixth Congress on
Large Dams, 1958.
[10] K. Terzaghi, "Design and Performance of the Sasumua Dam," Proceedings,
Institute of Civil Engrs., Vol 9, 1958, pp. 369-394.
[77] D. Newill, "A Laboratory Investigation of Two Red Clays from Kenya,"
Geotechnique, Vol 11, 1961, pp. 302-318.
[72] J. Lowe and T. C. Johnson, "Use of Back Pressure to Increase Degree of
Saturation of Triaxial Test Specimens," Proceedings, Am. Society Civil Engrs.,
Research Conference on Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils, 1960, pp. 819-836.
[13] T. N. W. Akroyd, Discussion, Proceedings, Institute of Civil Engrs., Vol 23,
1962, pp. 742-744.
[14] L. Barden, "Consolidation of Compacted and Unsaturated Clays," Geotech-
nique, Vol 15, 1965, pp. 267-286.
[75] E. L. Matyas, "Compressibility and Shear Strength of Compacted Soils,"
Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1963.
STP417-EB/Aug. 1967
A. I. Johnson1 and R. C. Richter*
Selected Bibliography on Permeability

and Capillarity Testing of Rock and Soil
Materials
REFERENCE: A. I. Johnson and R. C. Richter, "Selected Bibliography

on Permeability and Capillarity Testing of Rock and Soil Materials,"
Permeability and Capillarity of Soils, ASTM STP 417, Am. Soc. Testing
Mats., 1967, p. 176.
This bibliography was prepared as a result of a cooperative study by

the U.S. Geological Survey and the California Department of Water
Resources to facilitate additional study of the testing methods discussed
during the ASTM "Symposium on Permeability and Capillarity Testing
for Rocks and Soils." References selected were representative of a
number of disciplines—soil engineering, petroleum geology, hydrology,
and soil physics, for example.
For reader convenience, the references are listed alphabetically under
the heading of permeability or capillarity, indicating the main subject of
the reference. The bibliography should not be considered representative
of all material that has been written on either of these two subjects.
However, the authors have attempted to present a list sufficiently repre-
sentative so readers can pursue the subjects of permeability and capillarity
in greater detail.
Permeability
M. H. Abd-el-Aziz and S. A. Taylor, "Rate Equations," Part 1 of "Simultaneous
Flow of Water and Salt through Unsaturated Porous Media," Proceedings,
Soil Science Soc. America, Vol 29, 1965, pp. 141-143.
E. A. Abdun-Nur, "In Place Permeability Tests—Cherry Creek Dam Site," Con-
ference on Control of Underseepage, U.S. Corps Engrs. Waterways Expt.
Sta., Vicksburg, Miss., 1945, pp. 133-144.
T. P. Ahrens and A. C. Barlow, "Permeability Tests Using Drill Holes and Wells,"
Geology Report G-97, U.S. Bur. Reclamation, 1951, 45 pp.
1
Chief, Hydrologic Laboratory, Water Resources Division, U.S. Geological
Survey, Denver, Colo. Personal member ASTM.
2
Staff geologist,
Copyright by ASTMCalifornia Department
Int'l (all rights reserved);ofSun
Water
Jan 11Resources, Sacramento,
13:16:39 EST 2015 Calif.
176
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R. K. Estes and P. F. Fulton, "Gas Slippage and Permeability Measurements,"
Transactions, Am. Inst. Mining Metallurgical Engrs., Vol 207, 1956, pp. 338-
342.
J. B. Eustis, "Determination of Permeability of Pervious Alluvium by Thiem
Method at Wilson Point, La., and Commerce, Miss.," Conference on Control
of Underseepage, U.S. Corps Engrs. Waterways Expt. Sta., Vicksburg, Miss.,
1945, pp. 125-128.
D. D. Evans and Don Kirkham, "Measurement of the Air Permeability of Soil
in situ," Proceedings, Soil Science Soc. America, Vol 14, 1949, pp. 65-73.
G. M. Fair and L. P. Hatch, "Fundamental Factors Governing the Streamline Flow
of Water through Sand," Journal, Am. Water Works Assn., Vol 25, No. 11,
1933, pp. 1551-1565.
G. H. Fancher and J. A. Lewis, "A Note on the Flow of Fluids through Porous
Media," Science, Vol 75, 1932, p. 468.
G. H. Fancher and J. A. Lewis, "Flow of Simple Fluids through Porous Materials,"
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol 25, 1933, pp. 1139-1147.
Irving Fatt, "The Effect of Overburden Pressure on Relative Permeability," Trans-
Irving Fatt, "Capillary Pressure Characteristics, Part 1 of The Network Model of
Porous Media," Transactions, Am. Inst. Mining Metallurgical Engrs., Vol 207,
1956, pp. 144-159.
Irving Fatt, "Dynamic Properties of a Single Size Tube Network, Part 2 of The
Network Model of Porous Media," Transactions, Am. Inst. Mining Metal-
lurgical Engrs., Vol 207, 1956, pp. 160-163.
Irving Fatt, "Dynamic Properties of Networks with Tube Radius Distribution,
Part 3 of The Network Model of Porous Media," Transactions, Am. Inst.
Irving Fatt and D. H. Davis, "Reduction in Permeability with Overburden Pres-
sure," Transactions, Am. Inst. Mining Metallurgical Engrs., Vol 195, 1952,
p. 329.
Irving Fatt and Herman Dykstra, "Relative Permeability Studies," Transactions,
Hayden Ferguson and W. H. Gardner, "Diffusion Theory Applied to Water Flow
Data Obtained using Gamma Ray Absorption," Proceedings, Soil Science Soc.
America, Vol 27, 1963, pp. 243-246.
J. G. Ferris, "Ground-Water Hydraulics as a Geophysical Aid," Technical Bulle-
tin 11, Michigan Geol. Survey, 1948.
J. G. Ferris, "Ground Water," Chapter 6 of C. O. Wisler and E. F. Brater, Hy-
drology, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y., 1949, pp.
127-191.
J. G. Ferris, "A Quantitative Method
Downloaded/printed by for Determining Ground-Water Character-
istics for Drainage Design," Agricultural Engineering, Vol 31, 1950, pp.
285-291.
f. G. Ferris, "The Analysis of Pumping Test Data for the Leaky Artesian Aquifer,"
Unpublished report, U.S. Geological Survey, 1952.
f. G. Ferris, "Cyclic Water Level Fluctuations as a Basis for Determining Aquifer
Transmissibility," Water-Supply Paper 1536-1, U.S. Geological Survey, 1963,
pp. 305-318.
F. G. Ferris and D. B. Knowles, "The Slug Injection Test for Estimating the Co-
efficient of Transmissibility of an Aquifer," Water-Supply Paper 1536-1, U.S.
Geological Survey, 1963, pp. 299-304.
J. G. Ferris, D. B. Knowles, R. H. Brown, and R. W. Stallman, "Theory of Aquifer
Tests," Water-Supply Paper 1536-E, U.S. Geological Survey, 1962, pp. 69-
174.
C. R. Fettke, "Physical Characteristics of Bradford Sand, Bradford Field, Penn-
sylvania, and Relation to Production of Oil," Bulletin, Am. Assn. Petroleum
Geologists, Vol 18, No. 2, 1934, pp. 191-211.
C. R. Fettke and W. A. Copeland, "Permeability Studies of Pennsylvania Oil
Sands," Transactions, Am. Inst. Mining Metallurgical Engrs., Vol 92, 1931, pp.
329-339.
A. J. Feulner, "Cyclic-Fluctuation Methods for Determining Permeability as Ap-
plied to Valley-Train Deposits in the Mad River Valley in Champaign County,
Ohio," Ohio Journal of Science, Vol 61, No. 2, 1961, pp. 99-106.
Milton Fireman, "Permeability Measurements on Disturbed Soil Samples," Soil
Science, Vol 58, 1944, pp. 337-353.
Milton Fireman and G. B. Bodman, 'The Effect of Saline Irrigation Water upon
the Permeability and Base Status of Soils," Proceedings, Soil Science Soc.
America, Vol 4, 1939, pp. 71-77.
Milton Fireman and O. C. Magistad, "Permeability of Five Western Soils as Af-
fected by the Percentage of Sodium of the Irrigation-water, Transactions, Am.
Geophysical Union, Vol 26, 1945, pp. 91-94.
V. C. Fishel, "Further Tests of Permeability with Low Hydraulic Gradients,"
Transactions, Am. Geophysical Union, Vol 16, 1935, pp. 499-503.
J. Foley, "Computer Applications in Ground Water Hydrology," Proceedings, Am.
Soc. Civil Engrs., Vol 86, No. IR3, 1960, pp. 83-99.
P. Forchheimer, Hydraulik, 3rd Edition, Teubner, Leipzig and Berlin, 1930.
J. B. Franzini, "Porosity Factor for Case of Laminar Flow through Granular
Media," Transactions, Am. Geophysical Union, Vol 32, 1951, pp. 443—446.
J. B. Franzini, "Permeameter Wall Effect," Transactions, Am. Geophysical Union,
Vol 37, 1956, pp. 735-737.
J. B. Franzini and N. A. Hassan, "Hydraulics of Thin Film Flow," Proceedings,
Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., Vol 90, No. HY2, 1964, pp. 23-36.
H. J. Fraser, "Experimental Study of the Porosity and Permeability of Clastic
Sediments," Journal of Geology, Vol 43, No. 8, 1935, pp. 910-1010.
G. R. Free and V. J. Palmer, "Interrelationship of Infiltration, Air Movement, and
Pore Size in Graded Silica Sand," Proceedings, Soil Science Soc. America,
Vol 5, 1940, pp. 390-398.
R. K. Frevert and Don Kirkham, "A Field Method of Measuring the Permeabil-
ity of Soil Below a Water Table, Proceedings, Highway Research Board, Vol
28, 1949, pp. 433-443.
P. F. Fulton, "The Effect of Gas Slippage on Relative Permeability Measurements,"
Producers Monthly, Vol 15, No. 12, 1?51, 4 pp.
I. I. Gardescu, "Behavior of Gas Bubbles in Capillary Spaces," Transactions, Am.
Inst. Mining Metallurgical Engrs., Vol 86, 1930, pp. 351-370.
W. H. Gardner, "How Water Moves in the Soil," Crops & Soils, Vol 15, Nos. 1-2,
1962, 6 pp.
W. H. Gardner and J. C. Hsieh, "Water Velocity in Unsaturated Porous Ma-
terials," Proceedings, Soil Science Soc. America, Vol 20, 1956, pp. 157-
161.
Willard Gardner, "Permeability of Soil," Proceedings, Soil Science Soc. America,

Vol 6, 1941, pp. 126-128.
Willard Gardner, T. R. Collier, and Doris Farr, "Fundamental Principles Govern-
ing the Control of Ground-Water," Transactions, Am. Geophysical Union, Vol
15, 1934, pp. 563-567.
W. R. Gardner, "Calculation of Capillary Conductivity from Pressure Plate Out-
flow Data," Proceedings, Soil Science Soc. America, Vol 20, 1956, pp. 317-
320.
W. R. Gardner, "Some Steady-State Solutions of the Unsaturated Moisture Flow
Equation with Application to Evaporation from a Water Table," Soil Science,
Vol 85, 1958, pp. 228-232.
W. R. Gardner and M. S. Mayhugh, "Solutions and Tests of the Diffusion Equa-
tion for the Movement of Water in Soil," Proceedings, Soil Science Soc.
America, Vol 22, 1958, pp. 197-201.
W. R. Gardner and F. J. Miklich, "Unsaturated Conductivity and Diffusivity Meas-
urements by a Constant Flux Method," Soil Science, Vol 93, No. 4, 1962,
pp. 271-274.
J. I. Gates and W. T. Lietz, "Relative Permeabilities of California Cores by the
Capillary-Pressure Method," Drilling and Production Practice, Am. Petroleum
Inst., 1951, pp. 285-302.
W. B. Gealy, "Use of Mercury for Determination of Volume of Rock Specimens in
Russell Porosity Apparatus," Bulletin, Am. Assn. Petroleum Geologists, Vol
13, 1929, pp. 677-682.
T. M. Geffen and R. E. Gladfelter, "A Note on the X-Ray Absorption Method
of Determining Fluid Saturation in Cores," Transactions, Am. Inst. Mining
T. M. Geffen, W. W. Owens, D. R. Parrish, and R. A. Morse, "Experimental In-
vestigation of Factors Affecting Laboratory Relative Permeability Meas-
urements," Transactions, Am. Inst. Mining Metallurgical Engrs., Vol 192,
1951, pp. 99-110.
H. J. Gibbs, "Pore Pressure Control and Evaluation for Triaxial Compression,"
Laboratory Shear Strength Testing of Soils, ASTM STP 361, Am. Soc.
Testing Mats., 1963, pp. 212-225.
E. R. Gilliland, R. V. Lukes, and H. W. Scheeline, "Physical Properties of Hydro
carbons and their Mixtures," Transactions, Am. Inst. Mining Metallurgical
Engrs., Vol 132,1939, pp. 132-148.
C. V. Givan, "Flow of Water through Granular Materials—Initial Experiments
with Lead-Shot," Transactions, Am. Geophysical Union, Vol 15, 1934, pp.
572-579.
R. E. Glover, "Flow from a Testhole Located above Ground Water Level,"
Engineering Monograph 8, U.S. Bur. Reclamation, 1953, pp. 69-71.
R. E. Glover, "Mathematical Derivations as Pertain to Ground-Water Recharge,"
Annual Report on Research Progress and Accomplishments, Agr. Research
Service, 1960, Fresno, Calif.
H. Q. Colder and A. A. Gass, "Field Tests for Determining Permeability of Soil
Strata," with discussion by A. I. Johnson, Field Tests and Measurements for
Soils and Foundation Engineering, ASTM STP 322, Am. Soc. Testing Mats.,
1962, pp. 29-46.
W. E. Goode and J. E. Christiansen, "Obtaining Soil Cores for Permeability Tests,"
Agricultural Engineering, Vol 26, No. 4,1945, pp. 153-155.
S. W. Gouse, Jr., and G. A. Brown, "A Survey of the Velocity of Sound in Two-
Phase Mixtures," Publication 64-WA/FE-35, Am. Soc. Mechanical Engrs.,
1964,15 pp.
S. W. Gouse, Jr., and Cheng-Chieh Hwang, "Visual Study of Two-Phase One-
Component Flow in a Vertical Tube with Heat Transfer," Department of
Mechanical Engineering Report 8973-1, Massachusetts Inst. Technology, 1963,
34pp.
L. C. Graton and J. H. Fraser, "Systematic Packing of Spheres—With Particular
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Sun Jan 11 13:16:39 E
S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst of Tech Chennai) pursuan
Relation to Porosity and Permeability," Journal of Geology, Vol 43, 1935, pp.
785-909.
Leon Green, Jr., "Part 1, The Permeability of a Bed of Smooth Spherical Par-
ticles; Part 2, Non-Steady Flow of Gas through a Porous Wall," Unpub-
lished thesis for Ph.D. degree, California Inst. Technology, Pasadena, 1949,
83pp.
B. L. Grover, "Simplified Air Permeameters for Soil in Place," Proceedings, Soil
Science Soc. America, Vol 19, 1955, pp. 414-418.
R. P. Gupta and Dale Swartzendruber, "Flow-Associated Reduction in the Hy-
draulic Conductivity of Quartz Sand," Proceedings, Soil Science Soc. America,
Vol 26, 1962, pp. 6-10.
R. P. Gupta and Dale Swartzendruber, "Entrapped Air Content and Hydraulic
Conductivity of Quartz Sand during Prolonged Liquid Flow," Proceedings,
W. F. Guyton, "Application of Coefficients of Transmissibility and Storage to Re-
gional Problems in the Houston District, Texas," Transactions, Am. Geo-
physical Union, Part 3, 1941, pp. 756-770.
C. W. Hall, O. E. Meinzer, and M. L. Fuller, "Phenomena Due to Variations
in Atmospheric Pressure," Water-Supply Paper 256, U.S. Geological Survey,
1911, pp. 88-92.
W. A. Hall, "An Analytical Derivation of the Darcy Equation," Transactions, Am.
Geophysical Union, Vol 37, No. 2, 1956, pp. 185-188.
W. A. Hall, "Permeability and Infiltration Relationships in One Dimensional Infil-
tration in a Uniform Soil," Transactions, Am. Geophysical Union, Vol 37,
No. 5, 1956, pp. 602-604.
L. L. Handy, "Determination of Effective Capillary Pressures for Porous Media
from Imbibition Data," Transactions, Am. Inst. Mining Metallurgical Engrs.,
Vol 219, I960, pp. 75-80.
V. E. Hansen, "Unconfined Ground-Water Flow to Multiple Wells," Transactions,
Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., Vol 118, 1953, pp. 1098-1130.
M. S. Hantush, "Analysis of Data from Pumping Tests in Leaky Aquifers," Trans-
actions, Am. Geophysical Union, Vol 37, 1956, pp. 702-714.
M. S. Hantush, "Analysis of Data from Pumping Wells near a River," Journal of
Geophysical Research, Vol 64, 1959, pp. 1921-1932.
M. S. Hantush, "Nonsteady Flow to Flowing Wells in Leaky Aquifers," Journal of
Geophysical Research, Vol 64, 1959, pp. 1043-1052.
M. S. Hantush, "Modification of the Theory of Leaky Aquifers," Journal of Geo-
physical Research, Vol 65, 1960, pp. 3713-3725.
M. S. Hantush, "Aquifer Tests on Partially Penetrating Wells," Transactions, Am.
Soc. Civil Engrs., Vol 127, Part I, 1962, pp. 284-308.
M. S. Hantush, "Drawdown around a Partially Penetrating Well," Transactions,
Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., Vol 127, Part I, 1962, pp. 268-283.
M. S. Hantush, "Depletion of Storage, Leakage, and River Flow by Gravity Wells
in Sloping Sands," Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol 69, No. 12, 1964, pp.
2551-2560.
M. S. Hantush, "Drawdown around Wells of Variable Discharge," Journal of
Geophysical Research, Vol 69, No. 20, 1964, pp. 4221-4235.
M. S. Hantush and C. E. Jacob, "Plane Potential Flow of Ground Water with
Linear Leakage," Transactions, Am. Geophysical Union, Vol 35, 1954, pp.
917-936.
M. S. Hantush and C. E. Jacob, "Non-Steady Green's Functions for an Infinite
Strip of Leaky Aquifer," Transactions, Am. Geophysical Union, Vol 36, 1955,
pp. 101-112.
M. S. Hantush and C. E. Jacob, "Non-Steady Radial Flow in an Infinite Leaky
Aquifer," Transactions, Am. Geophysical Union, Vol 36, 1955, pp. 95-100.
M. S. Hantush and C. E. Jacob, "Steady Three-Dimensional Flow to a Well in a
Two-Layered Aquifer," Transactions, Am. Geophysical Union, Vol 36, 1955,
pp. 286-292.
M. S.Copyright
Hantush andby C.ASTM
E. Jacob, "Flow
Int'l (all to an Eccentric
rights WellSun
reserved); in aJan
Leaky
11 Circular
13:16:39 EST 2
Aquifer," Journal of Geophysical
Downloaded/printed by Research, Vol 65, 1960, pp. 3425-3431.
S R KUMAR KONATHALA (Indian Inst of Tech Chennai) pursuant to Li
D. R. F. Harleman, P. F. Mehlhorn, and R. R. Rumer, Jr., "Dispersion-Permea-

bility Correlation in Porous Media," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., Vol
89, No. HY2, 1963, pp. 67-85.
M. E. Harr, Groundwater and Seepage, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1962, pp.
141-264.
M. E. Harr and R. C. Deen, "Analysis of Seepage Problems," Proceedings, Am.
Soc. Civil Engrs., Vol 87, No. SMS, 1961, pp. 91-107.
L. P. Hatch, "Flow of Fluids through Granular Material—Filtration, Expansion,
and Hindered Settling," Transactions, Am. Geophysical Union, Vol 24, 1943,
pp. 536-547.
J. G. Heid, J. J. McMahon, R. F. Nielsen, and S. T. Yuster, "Study of the Per-
meability of Rocks to Homogeneous Fluids," Drilling and Production Practice,
Am. Petroleum Inst., 1951, pp. 230-246.
G. H. Hickox, "Flow through Granular Materials," Transactions, Am. Geophysi-
cal Union, Part 2, 1934, pp. 567-572.
R. V. Higgins and A. J. Leighton, "A Computer Method to Calculate Two-
Phase Flow in any Irregularly Bounded Porous Medium," Journal of Petro-
leum Technology, Vol 14, No. 6, 1962, pp. 679-683.
R. V. Higgins and A. J. Leighton, "Principles and Computer Techniques for Cal-
culating Performance of a Five-Spot Waterflood—Two-Phase Flow," Report
of Investigations 6305, U.S. Bur. Mines, 1963, 71 pp.
Kuo-Toh Ho and D. K. Todd, "Determination of Aquifer Permeability by Slug
Tests of Wells," Water Resources Center Contribution 93, University of Cali-
fornia, Berkeley, 1964, 41 pp.
S. B. Hooghoudt, "Bijdragen tot de kennis van eenige natuurkundige grootheden
van den grond, No. 4," Verslag Landouwk., Onderzoek., Vol 42, No. 13,
1936, pp. 449-541.
S. B. Hooghoudt, "Tile Drainage and Subirrigation," Soil Science, Vol 74, 1952,
pp. 35-48.
M. D. Hoover, L. I. Metz, and D. F. Olson, Jr., "Soil Sampling for Pore Space and
Percolation," Southeastern Forest Experiment Station Paper 42, U.S. Dept.
Agriculture, 1954, 28 pp.
W. L. Horner, "A Rapid Method for Determining Permeabilities of Consolidated
Rock," Petroleum Engineering, Vol 5, No. 8, 1934, pp. 25-27.
R. E. Horton, "An Approach toward a Physical Interpretation of Infiltration-Ca-
pacity," Proceedings, Soil Science Soc. America, Vol 5, 1940, pp. 399—417.
M. K. Hubbert, "The Theory of Ground-Water Motion," Journal of Geology,
Vol 48, No. 8, Pt. 1, 1940, pp. 785-944.
M. K. Hubbert, "Entrapment of Petroleum under Hydrodynamic Conditions,"
Bulletin, Am. Assn. Petroleum Geologists, Vol 37, No. 8, 1953, pp. 1954-2026.
M. K. Hubbert, "Darcy's Law and the Field Equations of the Flow of Underground
Fluids," Transactions, Am. Inst. Mining Metallurgical Engrs., Vol 207, 1956,
pp.222-239.
M. J. Hvorslev, "Subsurface Exploration and Sampling of Soils for Civil Engineer-
ing Purposes," Report on a Research Project of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, Vicksburg, Miss., U.S. Army Corps Engineers Waterways Expt. Sta.,
1949, 521 pp.
M. J. Hvorslev, "Time Lag and Soil Permeability in Ground-Water Observations,"
Waterways Experiment Station Bulletin 36, U.S. Corps Engrs., 1951, 50 pp.
J. Ineson, "Darcy's Law and the Evaluation of Permeability," Symposia Darcy,
Internal. Assn. Sci. Hydrology, 1956, pp. 165-172.
S. Irmay, "On the Hydraulic Conductivity of Unsaturated Soils," Transactions,
Am. Geophysical Union, Vol 35, No. 3, 1954, pp. 463-467.
O. W. Israelson, Irrigation Principles and Practices, 2nd Edition, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York., N. Y. 1932, pp. 189-211.
R. D. Jackson, "Porosity and Soil-Water Diffusivity Relations," Proceedings, Soil
Science Soc. America, Vol 27, 1963, pp. 123-126.
C. E. Jacob, "Fluctuations in Artesian Pressure Produced by Passing Railroad
Copyright
Trains as Shownby in
ASTM
a Well Int'l (all rights
on Long Island, reserved); Sun JanAm.
N.Y.," Transactions, 11 13:16:39
Geo- EST
physical Union, Vol 20, 1939,
Downloaded/printed bypp. 666-674.
C. E. Jacob, "On the Flow of Water in an Elastic Artesian Aquifer," Transactions,

Am. Geophysical Union, Vol 21, 1940, pp. 574-586.
C. E. Jacob, "Coefficients of Storage and Transmissibility Obtained from Pumping
Tests in the Houston District, Texas," Transactions, Am. Geophysical Union,
Part 3, 1941, pp. 744-756.
C. E. Jacob, "Notes on the Elasticity of the Lloyd Sand on Long Island, New
York," Transactions, Am. Geophysical Union, Part 3, 1941, pp. 783-787.
C. E. Jacob, "Correlation of Ground-Water Levels and Precipitation on Long Is-
land, New York," Transactions, Am. Geophysical Union, Part 2, 1944, pp.
564-573.
C. E. Jacob, "Notes on Determining Permeability by Pumping Tests under Water-
Table Conditions," Open-File Report, U.S. Geological Survey, 1944, 4 pp.
C. E. Jacob, "Effective Radius of Drawdown Test to Determine Artesian Well,"
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., Vol 72, 1946, pp. 629-646.
C. E. Jacob, "Radial Flow in a Leaky Artesian Aquifer," Transactions, Am. Geo-
physical Union, Vol 27, 1946, pp. 198-208.
C. E. Jacob, "Drawdown Test to Determine Effective Radius of Artesian Well,"
C. E. Jacob, "Flow of Ground Water," Chapter 5 of Hunter Rouse, ed., Engineer-
ing Hydraulics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y., 1950.
C. E. Jacob, V. C. Fishel, and M. K. Hubbert, "Report of the Committee on
Ground Water, 1944-45," Transactions, Am. Geophysical Union, Vol 27,
Part 2, 1945, pp. 245-273.
C. E. Jacob and S. W. Lohman, "Nonsteady Flow to a Well of Constant Drawdown
in an Extensive Aquifer," Transactions, Am. Geophysical Union, Vol 33, 1952,
pp. 559-569.
J. C. Jaeger, "The Analysis of Aquifer Test Data or Thermal Conductivity Meas-
urements which Use a Line Source," Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol
64, 1959, pp. 561-564.
C. T. Jenkins, "Graphical Multiple-Regression Analysis of Aquifer Tests," Pro-
fessional Paper 475-C, U.S. Geological Survey, 1963, pp. C198-C297.
A. I. Johnson, Discussion of W. O. Smith and R. W. Stallman, "Measurement of
Permeabilities in Ground-Water Investigations," Permeability of Soils, ASTM
STP 163, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., 1955, pp. 115-116.
A. I. Johnson, "Selected References on Permeability," Permeability of Soils, ASTM
A. I. Johnson, "A Field Method for Measurement of Infiltration," Water-Supply
Paper 1544-F, U.S. Geological Survey, 1963, 27 pp.
A. I. Johnson, "Application of Laboratory Permeability Data," Open-File Report,
U.S. Geological Survey, 1963, 32 pp.
A. I. Johnson and J. P. Gnaedinger, "Bibliography," Soil Exploration, ASTM
STP 351, 1964, pp. 142-144.
A. I. Johnson and Fred Kunkel, "Some Research Related to Ground-Water Re-
charge—A Progress Report from the U.S. Geological Survey," Proceedings,
Ground-Water Recharge and Ground-Water Basin Management Biennial
Conf., University of California, Berkeley, 1963, 17 pp.
A. I. Johnson and D. A. Morris, "Physical and Hydrologic Properties of Water-
Bearing Deposits from Core Holes in the Los Banos-Kettleman City Area,
California," Open-File Report, U.S. Geological Survey, 1962, 182 pp.
A. I. Johnson, R. P. Moston, and D. A. Morris, "Physical and Hydrologic Properties
of Water-Bearing Deposits in Subsiding Areas in Central California," Open-
File Report, U.S. Geological Survey, 1965, 107 pp.
Edward E. Johnson, Inc., "Factors Affecting Well Yield," Johnson National Drillers
Journal, Vol 27, No. 4, 1955, pp. 8-10.
Edward E. Johnson, Inc., "Choosing the Right Screen Length," Johnson National
Drillers Journal, Vol 28, No. 6, 1956, pp. 1-3, and 11.
Edward E. Johnson, Inc., "How to Use Sand Analysis Curves," Johnson National
Drillers Journal, Vol 28, No. 1, 1956, pp. 1-3, and 7.
Edward E. Johnson,
Copyright by Inc.,
ASTM "Pumping Tests
Int'l (all Canreserved);
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Jan Johnson Na- EST 201
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tional Drillers Journal, Volby28, No. 3, 1956, pp. 1-4; No. 4, 1956, pp. 1-4.
Downloaded/printed
Edward E. Johnson, Inc., "Testing Wells by Step-Drawdown Method," Johnson

National Drillers Journal, Vol 29, No. 4, 1957, pp. 1-4, and 7.
Edward E. Johnson, Inc., "Charting Performance of Water Wells," Johnson Na-
tional Drillers Journal, Vol 31, No. 3, 1959, pp. 1-4.
Edward E. Johnson, Inc., "Estimating Vertical Flow in Gravel Envelope," John-
son National Drillers Journal, Vol 31, No. 2, 1959, pp. 5 and 11.
Edward E. Johnson, Inc., "Factors Affecting Permeability," Johnson National Drill-
ers Journal, Vol 31, No. 1, 1959, pp. 1-3.
Edward E. Johnson, Inc., "Analyzing Water-Level Recovery Data," Johnson Na-
tional Drillers Journal, Vol 33, No. 3, 1961, pp. 8-11.
E. F. Johnson, D. P. Bossier, and V. O. Naumann, "Calculation of Relative Per-
meability from Displacement Experiments, Journal of Petroleum Technology,
Vol 11, No. 1, 1959, pp. 61-63.
Norris Johnston and C. M. Beeson, "Water Permeability of Reservoir Sands,"
Transactions, Am. Inst. Mining Metallurgical Engrs., Vol 160, 1945, pp.
43-55.
C. W. Jones, "The Permeability and Settlement of Laboratory Specimens of Sand
and Sand-Gravel Mixtures," with discussion by Don Kirkham, Permeability of
Soils, ASTM STP 163, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., 1955, pp. 68-79.
C. W. Jones, "Permeability Tests with the Permanent Water under Pressure,"
Earth Laboratory Report No. EM-559, U.S. Bur. Reclamation, Denver, Colo.,
1960, 10 pp.
P. J. Jones, "Porosity, Specific Permeability, and the Geometry of Spacing," Part 1
of "Development, Operation and Valuation of Oil and Gas Properties," Oil
and Gas Journal, Vol 41, Part 1, No. 3, 1942, pp. 45-47.
P. J. Jones, "Flow of Homogeneous Fluids through Linear Systems," Part 2 of
"Development, Operation, and Valuation of Oil and Gas Properties," Oil and
Gas Journal, Vol 41, Part 1, No. 4, 1942, pp. 53-54.
P. J. Jones, "Flow of Homogeneous Fluids through Radial Systems," Part 3 of "De-
velopment, Operation and Valuation of Oil and Gas Properties," Oil and Gas
Journal, Vol 41, Part 1, No. 5, 1942, pp. 35-37.
P. J. Jones, "Flow of Homogeneous Fluids: Water in Virgin Oil and Gas Pays,"
Part 4 of "Development, Operation and Valuation of Oil and Gas Properties,"
Oil and Gas Journal, Vol 41, Part 1, No. 6, 1942, pp. 35-36 and 42.
P. J. Jones, "Flow of Oil-Water Mixtures through Media of Uniform Permeabil-
ity," Part 5 of "Development, Operation and Valuation of Oil and Gas Prop-
erties," Oil and Gas Journal, Vol 41, Part 1, No. 7, 1942, pp. 197-198.
P. J. Jones, "Flow of Gas-Oil Mixtures through Media of Uniform Permeability,"
Part 6 of "Development, Operation and Valuation of Oil and Gas Properties,"
Oil and Gas Journal, Vol 41, Part 1, No. 8, 1942, pp. 34-35.
P. J. Jones, "Flow of Gas-Oil-Water Mixtures through Media of Uniform Perme-
ability," Part 7 of Development, Operation and Valuation of Oil and Gas
Properties," Oil and Gas Journal, Vol 41, Part 1, No. 9, 1942, pp. 25 and 39.
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reserved); pp.
Sun Jan209-215.
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ASTM SPECIAL TECHNICAL PUBLICATION NO. 417

List price $10.50; 30 per cent discount to members

The Society is not responsible, as a body,

The papers and discussions included in this Symposium on Permeabil-

Compaction of Soils, STP 377 (1965), $7.00

Instruments and Apparatus for Soil and Rock Me-

Vane Shear and Cone Penetration Resistance Testing

PERMEABILITY AND CAPILLARITY OF SOILS

in permeability and capillarity testing of soils and rocks, the reader is

Moisture Flow and Equilibria in

REFERENCE: B. G. Richards, "Moisture Flow and Equilibria in Un-

Most of the developing road systems in Australia traverse flat, semi-

Theory of Moisture Retention, Movement, and Equilibria

6 = volumetric water content,

However, in unsaturated soils, the pore pressures become negative, and

and at the present time the following assumptions must generally be

The parameter \jj has proved to be a useful variable, certainly more so

3. Most expansive soils have appreciable solute suctions and the

values, future volume changes with changes in total suction or moisture

Design of Road and Aerodrome Pavements

isolated from rapid changes and tends to a stable moisture distribution.

FIG. la—Relation between CBR and suction.

ally insignificant. However, it must be realized that consolidation is only

extremities. This is clearly seen in the doming or dishing of many flat

Prediction of Equilibrium Soil Suction Under Covered Areas

Shallow Water Tables

the possible effects of changes in solute suctions due to leaching, and so

Prediction of Regional Values

Prediction of Equilibria Suction Values from Deep Suction Profiles

FIG. 5—Determination of the equilibrium suction profile beneath a structure

TABLE 2—Relation between suction and humidity.

3.16 X 104 97.73

FIG. 6—Determination of the equilibrium suction profile beneath a structure

In most cases, the suctions at the depth of seasonal variation were in

FIG. 7—Determination of the equilibrium suction profile beneath a structure,

solutions of the diffusion equation, further verified these conclusions for

FIG. 8—Measured and predicted equilibrium matrix suction profiles, at the

FIG. 9—Moisture content-matrix suction relation for the Horsham, Victoria,

Care should be exercised in the use of this equation, and quantitative

Prediction of Heave or Settlement

Assuming the soil profile is homogeneous and characterized by Fig. 9,

In consolidation studies, the fractional height changes are assumed to

Proceedings, 1st Australian-New Zealand Conference Soil Mechanics Fdn

FROM DRIEST CONDITION TO EQUILIBRIUM PROFILE (FiG. 10)

0 to 10 90 000 90 000 1400 1400 11.5 15.7 1.08

FROM DRIEST TO WETTEST CONDITION, THAT is, SEASONAL MOVEMENT

0 to 1 90 000 90 000 800 800 11.5 16.7 1.15

Invin Remson1 (written discussion)—One of the points made in Dr.

Pumping Test Methods for Determining

REFERENCE: S. M. Lang, "Pumping Test Methods for Determining

In 1935, Theis [I]2 introduced the term "coefficient of transmissibility"

FIG. 1—Diagram for coefficients of permeability and transmissibility.

Standard Well Methods

FIG. .2^^-Section -showing -assttmed- -grottndwnter condition? for the develop-

and second observation wells in feet; Q is the rate of discharge of the

ogy in addition to the "coefficient of transmissibility." The concepts

and s is the drawdown, in feet, at any point of observation in the vicinity

If the discharge is held constant, the bracketed parts of Eqs 9 and 10

FIG. 4—Relation of W(u) and u to s and rVt.

By substituting assumed values for u in Eq 7 corresponding values of

where the terms are as previously defined.

Effects of Slow Drainage