BOUNDARY LAYER

 When a real fluid flows past a solid surface, the velocity of fluid at the solid surface must be
the same as that of the solid surface.
 If the region of solid is stationary, the velocity of the fluid at the surface must be zero as a
result, there is a velocity increase from zero velocity of fluid.
 This region in the vicinity of the solid surface is generally a narrow region where the velocity
gradients are large.
 The origin of large velocity gradients is the viscous action and the large shear stress in that
region.
 The narrow region, near the solid surface, over which velocity gradient and shear stresses are
large is known as boundary layer.

Formation of boundary layer

 The simplest case of boundary layer formation is when a free stream approaches parallel to a
shape edged thin, smooth flat plate the fluid with uniform free stream velocity U, restarted in
the vicinity of the solid surface and the boundary layer region being at the sharp edge at sub-
sequent points downstream, the loading edge the boundary layer region increases because the
retardation fluid is further retarded.
 This is also referred as the growth of boundary layer. Also the velocity gradient and shear
stresses are different at the different position.
 The velocity level off to the free stream uniform velocity and shear stresses should vanish at
the outer edge of the layer where the layer merges with the main stream.
 The limit is placed at a distance where the velocity and the distance where 99% velocity is
reached is called the boundary layer thickness.
 Laminar zone  The velocity profile is approx laminar

Fluid Mechanics
 Transition zone  Laminar layer become unstable and shape of profile start
Changing.
Turbulent zone  Where no velocity profile is form.

Boundary Layer thickness ()

It is defined as the distance from the boundary of solid body measured in the y-direction to the point
where the velocity of the fluid is approx equal to 0.99 times the stream velocity (V) of the fluid.

Displacement thickness (*)

It is the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of solid body, by which the boundary
should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in flow rate on account of boundary layer
formation.

Let   density

u  velocity of flow through strip at stationary plate

dy  thickness of strip at distance y

Assume the width to be unity

The mass flow per sec through the elementary strip =  .u.dy.1
The mass flow per sec through strip in absence of plate =  .u.dy.1

Total reduction of mass flow rate due to introduction of plate =   U  u  dy … (i)
0

Let the plate is displaced by distance  * and the velocity of flow for the distance  * is equal tro U
 Loss of mass of fluid per sec flowing through distance  *
= U  * … (ii)
From (i) and (ii) we get

U  * =   U  u  dy
0

Fluid Mechanics
 
 u
* =  1  U  dy
0

Momentum thickness ():

It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body, by which the
boundary should be displaced to compensation for the reduction in momentum of the flowing fluid
on account of boundary layer formation.

Let (Diag and notation be similar to displacement thickness)

Momentum / sec of this fluid inside boundary layer = m u

=  udy   u
= u 2dy
Momentum of this elementary strip in absence of b.l. =  UdyU

Total loss of momentum / sec =   u U  u  dy
0

Loss of momentum / sec of fluid flowing through distance  with velocity U = U 2

 U 2 =   u U  u  dy
0


u u
 =  U 1  U  dy
0

Energy thickness (e)

It is define as the distance measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body, by which the
boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in K.E. of flowing fluid on account of
boundary layer formation.

1
 K.E.in Boundary layer =   udy  u 2
2
1
 K .E.without B.L. =   udy U 2
2
1
Loss of K.R. through strip =  u U 2  u 2  dy
2

Fluid Mechanics
 
1
 2  u U  u 2  dy
2
Total energy loss = … (i)

0

1
Total energy loss by  e  =  U  e U 2 … (ii)
2
From (i) and (ii)

1 1
 U  e U 2 =  2  u U
2
 u 2  dy

2 0

 
u u2 
 e = U  1  2  dy
0  U 

Von – Karman Momentum Integral Equation

Von – Karman suggested a method based on momentum equation by the use of which the growth of
a boundary layer along a flat plate, the wall shear stress and drag force could be determined.

Mass rate of flow entering the control volume at upstream through AD


m1 =   .u.b.dy
0

 mass rate of flow leaves the C.V. through BC


m2 = m1   m1  dx
x

  
m2 =  .u.b.dy      ubdy   dx
0
x  0 
By continuity equation
Mass rate of flow entering DC  m3  m2  m1

  
=     ubdy   dx
x  0 

Momentum flux entering AD = m1.u

Fluid Mechanics
 
=    u.b.dy  u
0


 u
2
= b dy
0


  
Momentum flux leaving side bc =  u bdy 
2

   u bdy
x  0
2
 dx
0 
Momentum flux entering side DC = m3 . U

  
=     .u.bUdy
.  dx
x  0 
Now,
Rate of change of momentum of ABCD =
momentum flux  momentum flux  momentum flux 
   
 through BC   through AD   through DC 



    
=   .u 2
.b.dy    .u 2
.b.dy  dx 

0 x  0   



 
   d   
   .u 2 .b.dy      .u.U .b.dy  dx 

0  
  dx  0   

   2 
=
x  0

  .b  u  u.U dy  dx


For incompressible fluid, P is constant

  2 
Rate of change of momentum =  .b
x  0
 

  u  u.U dy  dx … (i)

Now,
Shear stress near the plate is given by
 du 
0 =   at y  0
 dy 
Now drag force over small distance d  opposite to the direction of flow

dFD = Shear stress × Area

=  0  dx  b … (ii)
Equating (i) and (ii)

  2 
 0  dx  b = 
 .b.   u  uU dy  dx
x  0 

Fluid Mechanics
   
0 =  
  uU  u dy 
x  0
2


  u  u  
0 U 2
x  0 U
=  1   dy 
 U  

Now,

u u
Momentum thickness  =  U 1  U  dy
0


 0 = U 2 
x
0 
 =  Von – Karman equation
U 2 x

 Drag force through length (L)

L L
FD =  d FD    0  b  dx
0 0

Local co-efficient of drag or co-efficient of skin friction

Shear stress
CD* =
dynamic pressure head
0
CD* =
1
U 2
2
Average Co-efficient of Drag
FD  drag force

FD
 Cd =
1
U 2 A
2
Boundary Condition

i) Condition 1
u  0 at y0

Fluid Mechanics
ii) Condition 2
u  U at y 
iii) Condition 3
du
 0 at y 
dx

Boundary layer separation

In a flowing fluid when solid body is immersed a thin layer of fluid known as boundary layer is
formed adjacent to the solid body. The force acting on the fluid in the boundary layer are
i) Viscous force
ii) Pressure force

As the fluid is deflected round the surface, it is accelerated over left hand section until the position
‘B’, where velocity just outside the boundary layer is maximum and the pressure at that section is
minimum, thus upto position ‘B’ gradient is negative and is called as favourable pressure gradient as
upto position ‘B’, the pressure force tends to reduce the effect of viscous force i.e. it counteracts to
some extend the “slowing down” effect of boundary on fluid, and so the rate at which the boundary
layer thickness is less than for a flate plate with zero pressure gradient.

The positive pressure gradient will reduce the momentum and thus flow close to the surface has
actually been reversed. The fluid no longer able to follow the contour of solid surface break away
from it and this phenomenon is known as boundary layer separation.

Effect of boundary separation

1) Large amount of energy is lost.
2) Bodies are subjected to lateral vibrations
3) Pressure drag is increased to a very great extent and hence additional resistance to flow or
movement of body is developed.

Fluid Mechanics
Control of Boundary layer separation
i) Streamline design of bodies i.e. by changing the radius of curvature of boundary point of
separation then shift downstream wake region get narrow and drag get reduced.
ii) Energizing the retarding fluid by flowing whereby an additional energy is imparted to the
slow moving fluid by injecting high velocity fluid at the boundary in directional of flow.
iii) By providing slot near the beading edge as shown.

iv) Removing the retarding fluid by suction whereby the fluid whose momentum has been
completely depleted by adverse pressure gradient is sucked away.

Condition for the Boundary separation

 du 
1)    ve (Attached flow)
 dy  y 0

 du 
2)   0 (on verge of separation)
 dy  y 0

 du 
3)    ve (detached flow)
 dy  y 0

Aerofoil Theory
An aerofoil is streamline body which may be either symmetrical or unsymmetrical as shown in
figure

Fluid Mechanics
Definition Related to Aerofoil Theory
i) Chord line: It is line joining the leading and trailing edge of the Aerofoil.
ii) Profile centerline: It is line joining the midpoint of the profile.
iii) Angle of attack: It a angle between the chord line and direction of the fluid stream.
iv) Camber: It is the curvature of aerofoil
v) Stall: An Aerofoil is said to be in stall condition when angle of attack of an aerofoil is greater
than the angle of attack at maximum lift.

Streamlined and Bluff Bodies

A body is said to be streamline if when placed in a flow, the surface of the body tend to
coincide with stream surface. The streamlined therefore conform with the boundaries of the body.
The boundary layer may commence at the leading edge on a streamline body.
Consequently there is none or little eddying zone and wake formation behind a streamlined
body. A body may be streamline at low velocity but may not be so at higher velocities. A body may
be streamlined when placed in a particular direction but may not be so when placed in another
direction. An example of streamline body is a thin aerofoil when subjected to a flow as shown in
figure.

A streamlined body experience drag mainly due to the skin-friction at its surface. Streamlined
bodies are employed to provide lift i.e. force normal to the direction of the free stream. Since the
drag on a streamline body is low, the lift / drag ratio is high. Flight birds is attributed to the produced
of high shift / drag ratio by virtue of wing attached to their bodies.

Fluid Mechanics
Bluff Body
A body is said to be bluff if it required the flow to turn suddenly subdivides it by separating at or
near the leading edge as shown.

A bluff body may inhibit the formation of a boundary layer the drag on a bluff body is mainly due to
the eddy formation and wake effect. Bluff bodies are used to promote turbulence and mixing of flow
with other substance and to acceleration diffusion in combustion chamber while a streamlined body
is characteristic by high skin – friction drag ratio.

Drag and Lift

 Whenever a fluid is flowing over stationery bodies or a body is moving over a relatively
stationary fluid or both the fluid and the body is in motion, a force is exerted by fluids on
body.
 The component of total force in the direction parallel to the direction of motion is called as
drag
1
FD = CD  U 2 . A
2
CD  Drag co-efficient

 The component of the total force in the direction perpendicular to the direction of motion
known lift

Fluid Mechanics
 1
FL = CL  U 2 A C L
2
CL = Drag coefficient

PROBLEMS
1) The velocity profile within a turbulent boundary layer is given as:
1
u y 7
=  
U  
Calculation the following (in terms of Ref. No.)
a) Displacement thickness at the trailing end of plate of length L.
b) Drag coefficient at the trailing end
c) Drag force over the entire plate.

2) A plate 3m  3m is held horizontally in water moving at 1.25 m/s parallel to the length. If the
flow in the boundary layer is laminar at the leading edge of the plate.
i) Find the thickness of boundary layer at this section.
ii) Find the frictional drag on the plate consider both its side.
Assume negligible thickness of the plate, take dynamic viscosity of water as 0.01 P and

assume that laminar boundary layer exists upto Reynold’s No. 5 105

3) A flat plate 1.5m 1.5m moves at a speed of 50 kmph in stationary air of density 1.15 kg / m3
coefficient of drag and lift are 0.15 and 0.75 respectively.
i) Lift force
ii) Drag force on plate
iii) Resultant force on plate
iv) Direction of resultant force
v) Power required to keep the plate in motion.

Fluid Mechanics