DEVELOPMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION

OF 3D BRAIDED STRUCTURES AND THEIR

COMPOSITES

A dissertation submitted in the partial fulfilment of requirement for the award of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
in
TEXTILE ENGINEERING

by

Zunjarrao B. Kamble
2014TTE2509

Under the guidance of

Dr. Amit Rawal and Prof. B.K. Behera

DEPARTMENT OF TEXTILE TECHNOLOGY

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DELHI
May, 2016
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “Development and characterization of 3D

braided structures and their composites”, being submitted by Zunjarrao B. Kamble,
Entry No. 2014TTE2509, to the Department of Textile Technology, Indian Institute of
Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award
of the degree of Master of Technology in Textile Engineering, is a bona fide record of
research work carried out by him under our guidance and supervision.

To the best of my knowledge, this work have not been submitted in part or full to other
University or Institute for the award of any degree or diploma.

Dr. Amit Rawal Prof. B.K. Behera

Department of Textile Technology, Department of Textile Technology,
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi Indian Institute of Technology Delhi

Date:
Place:
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I sincerely would like to thanks to my supervisers Dr. Amit Rawal and Prof. B.K. Behera,
Department of Textile Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, for their
supervision, encouragement, guidance, meticulous attention and constructive criticism. This
has helped me a lot during the execution of my project. I will always be indebted to them for
their invaluable suggestions and untiring attention, which they bestowed on me right from the
inception till the successful completion of this endeavor.
I would like to thanks to Sagar enterprises for helping me in fabrication of 3D braiding
machine, without which this project might not be completed.
I also, would like to thanks to yarn manufacturing lab staff for helping me during conduct of
experiments. I would like to express my gratitude to Ajay Yadav, Keshav Choudhary, Neeraj
Meena and Ghanshyam Neje sir for their assistance during conduct of experiments.

Date:
Place: Zunjarrao B. Kamble
Department of Textile Technology,
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
 ABSTRACT

Braided structures are produced by intertwining three or more yarns at defined angle. In case
of braided structures yarns can be laid down at different angles to derive both axial as well as
bias properties. Braided structures are classified based on their architecture as biaxial and
triaxial. The present research is focused to develop and characterize 3D braided structures
and their composites and compare it with 2D counterpart. Also, to study effect of braiding
angle, and fibre volume fraction on the tensile properties of 2D and 3D the braided fabrics
and their composites. 2D biaxial braided fabric of sixteen E-glass tows were fabricated on the
cylindrical mandrel of one inch diameter with 2/2 regular braid pattern with four different
braid angles 400 ,500, 600 and 650 and with four different tow linear densities of 600 tex, 1200
tex, 2400 tex and 4800 tex. Resin used was epoxy LY556 and flat composite panels have
been prepared out of above produced braided fabrics using compression moulding technique.
2D biaxial braided structures were modelled to predict weight per unit area and fibre volume
fraction assuming elliptical tow cross section of glass tows by extending the work done by
previous researchers. The model provides a close approximation of experimental values.
Similarly, geometrical modelling of 3D braided structures was done to predict relationship
between surface and interior braiding angle, crimp in the braider yarn, length of yarn in unit
cell and fibre volume fraction. The results indicate that, present model provides a close
approximation of experimental values and maximum error being 5.21%. 2D braided fabrics
were tested for tension, it has been found that, breaking force decreases with increasing
braiding angle and the load extension graph obtained is in agreement with previous studies.
Similarly, 3D braided structures were subjected to tension, it has been found that, breaking
force decreases with increasing braiding angle. Composite samples of 2D braid were tested
for tensile loading in longitudinal as well as in transverse direction. It has been found that,
breaking force and strain increases with decreasing braiding angle, and also it has been found
that, for same braiding angle, with increase in fibre volume fraction in the composite results
in increase in breaking force. Similarly, in case of 3D braided composites, breaking load and
modulus decreases with increase in surface braiding angle. The analytical model presented
for predicting modulus of 3D braided composite exhibit a close approximation of
experimental values and maximum error being 7.31%.
 CONTENTS

Acknowledgement
Abstract
List of figures iv
List of tables vii
List of symbols viii

Chapter 1 Introduction and Objective 1

1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Objective 6
1.2.1 Principal objective 6
1.2.2 Sub – objectives 6
Chapter 2 Literature review 7
2.1 Introduction to braiding process 9
2.1.1 Biaxial braided structures 9
2.1.2 Triaxial braided structures 9
2.2 3D braided structures 10
2.2.1 Two step 3D braided structures 10
2.2.2 Four step 3D braided structures 10
2.3 Tensile properties of 2D braids and their composites 12
2.3.1 Tensile properties of 2D braids 12
2.3.2 Tensile properties of 2D braided composites 12
2.3.2.1 Effect of braiding angle 12
2.3.2.2 Effect of fibre volume fraction 14
2.4 Tensile properties of 3D braided fabrics and their composites 14
2.5 Modelling approaches for 2D and 3D braided fabrics and their composites 16
2.5.1 2D braids and their composites 16
2.5.2 3D braids and their composites 18

Chapter 3 Materials and Methods 23

3.1 Materials 25
3.1.1 Yarn 25

i
 3.1.2 Resin 25
3.2 Methods 26
3.2.1 Geometrical modeling to construct 2D and 3D braided structures 26
3.2.2 Design and fabrication of take-up mechanism of braiding machine 26
3.2.3 Design and fabrication of a 3D braiding kit 29
3.2.4 Study of the effect braided fabric parameters on the tensile properties of
braided fabrics and their composites 31
3.2.5 Preparation of composite materials 31
3.2.6 Characterization and comparison of mechanical properties of 2D and 3D
braided fabrics and their composites 31
3.2.7 Mathematical modeling to predict tensile properties of 3D braided
structures and their composites 32
3.2.8 Comparison of experimental results with mathematical model results 32

Chapter 4 Results and Discussion 33

4.1 Geometrical modeling to construct 2D braided structures 35
4.1.1 Weight per unit area of biaxial braided fabric 35
4.1.2 Weight per unit area of triaxial braided fabric 38
4.1.3 Fibre volume fraction of biaxial braided fabric 39
4.1.4 Relationship between fibre volume fraction and fabric grams per square
meter 41
4.1.7 Effect of braiding angle on braided fabric thickness 42
4.1.8 Effect of braiding angle on Crimp in braider yarns 43

4.2 Characterization of tensile properties of 2D and 3D braided fabrics and their

composites 44
4.2.1 Effect of braiding angle on longitudinal and transverse tensile properties
of braided fabrics 44
4.2.2 Load-Extension behaviour of 2D biaxial braided fabrics 46
4.2.3 Load-strain behaviour of 3D braided structure 47
4.2.4 Load-Strain behaviour of 2D biaxial braided composites 48
4.2.5 Effect of braiding angle on tensile strength of 2D biaxial braided
composites 50
4.2.5.1 Longitudinal tensile loading 50
4.2.5.2 Transverse tensile loading 51
ii
 4.2.6 Effect of surface braiding angle on tensile strength of 3D braided
composites 52
4.2.7 Effect of fibre volume fraction of fabric on tensile strength of 2D biaxial
braided composites 53
4.3 Geometrical modelling of four step 3D braided structure 54
4.3.1 Width and thickness of 3D braided structure 56
4.3.2 Crimp of braider yarn in four step 3D braided structures 59
4.3.3 Mass per unit length of 3D braided structure 59
4.3.4 Fibre volume fraction of four step 3D braided structure 59

a) Area method for calculation of fibre volume fraction 59

b) Linear density method for calculation of fibre volume fraction 61
4.4 Effect of braiding parameters on geometrical properties of 3D braided structure 61
4.4.1 Theoretical approach 61
4.4.2 Experimental approach 64
4.5 Stress-strain characteristics of four step 3D braided structures 65
4.6 Mechanics of four-step 3D braided composites in tension 69
Chapter 5 Conclusions 75
Chapter 6 Future scope 79
References 83

iii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter No. Figure No. Name of the figure Page No.

2 2.1 Biaxial braided fabric 9

2.2 Triaxial braided fabric 10

2.3 Two-step braiding 10

2.4 (a)Four step 3D braiding preform fabrication principle (b) 11

line diagram of 3D braiding machine
2.5 (a) The tensile nominal stress–strain behaviour of a dry 13
braid and of an epoxy-matrix braid,(b) The nominal
stress–strain behaviour of glass fibre-epoxy braids
2.6 Topological relationship of the main yarns in unit cell 19

2.7 Interior yarns structure of 3D full 5-directional unit cell 20

2.8 Microstructural model of 3D full 5-directional unit cell 20

2.9 Yarn’s cross sections of 3D full 5-directional unit cell 21

2.10 Contacting condition among braiding yarns and axial 21

yarns
2.11 Contacting condition among braiding yarns 21

3 3.1 a) Take up mechanism of rope braiding machine, (b) 27

Modified take up mechanism for producing wider width
braided fabric, (C) Braiding point on cylindrical mandrel
3.2 Biaxial braided fabric samples after cutting along the axis 28

3.3 Line diagram of 3D braiding machine 29

3.4 Image of 3D braiding machine 30

3.5 (a) four step 3D braided fabric (b) surface structure of 30

four step 3D braided fabric
4 4.1 Repeat unit cell of regular biaxial braided fabric 35

4.2 Plot of braiding angle (degrees) Vs Braided Fabric Grams 38

per Sq. meter
4.3 Elliptical tow cross section 39

v
4.4 Plot of braiding angle (degrees) Vs fibre volume fraction 41
of biaxial braided fabric
4.5 Plot of braiding angle (degrees) Vs braided fabric 43
thickness (mm)
4.6 Plot of braiding angle (degrees) Vs crimp (%) in braided 44
yarn
4.7 Plot of braiding angle (degrees) Vs breaking force in 45
longitudinal direction (N)
4.8 Plot of braiding angle (degrees) Vs breaking force in 46
transverse direction (N)
4.9 Load-extension behaviour of 2D biaxial braided fabrics 46

4.9 Load-extension behaviour of 2D biaxial braided fabrics 47

4.10 Load-strain behaviour of 3D braided structure showing 48

four regions in load-strain curve
4.11 Load-extension behaviour of 2D biaxial braided 49
composites
4.12 Image of 2D braided composites tested for tensile loading 49

4.13 Effect of braiding angle on longitudinal breaking load of 50

2D biaxial braided composites

4.14 Fibre matrix interface area for two different tow linear 51
densities with same braid angle α. (a) higher tow linear
density (b) lower tow linear density
4.15 Effect of braiding angle on transverse breaking load of 2D 52
biaxial braided composites
4.16 Load strain curve for 3D braided composites 53

4.17 Effect of fibre volume fraction on breaking load of 2D 54

biaxial braided composites
4.18 Yarn path in 3D braided fabric showing four groups of 55
yarns and four parts of yarn gropus
4.19 Path of diagonally moving yarn part (iv) through structure 56
also showing projection of surface yarn part HG

vi
4.20 Path of yarn part (ii) moving through the structure 57

4.21 Path of diagonally moving yarn part (i) at corner region 58

4.22 Path of yarn part (iii) moving through the structure 58

4.23 Elliptical tow cross section 60

4.24 Effect of surface braiding angle (β) on interior braiding 62

angle (γ)
4.25 Effect of surface braiding angle (β) on length of braider 63
yarn in unit cell (l) at constant value of unit cell height (h)
4.26 Effect of surface braiding angle (β) on braid thckness 63

4.27 Effect of surface braiding angle (β) on crimp in braider 64

strand
4.28 Effect of interior braiding angle (γ) on fibre volume 64
fraction (φbst ) at constant value of unit cell height (h) and
width/thickness (a)
4.29 Deformation of unit cell and yarn reorientation under 66
uniaxial tensile loading condition
4.30 Path of yarn AB in half repeat unit (of length (mh/2)) of 70
3D braided structure
4.31 Surface geometry of 3D braided structure 71

vii
 LIST OF TABLES
Chapter No. Table No. Name of the Table Page No.

3 3.1 Physical properties of E-glass multifilament yarn 25

3.2 Properties of E-glass and Epoxy resin 25

3.3 Measured braiding angles of fabrics samples 28

produced
4 4.1 Theoretical grams per square meter of braided 37
fabric (GSMb) samples
4.2 Experimental grams per square meter of braided 37
fabric (GSMb) samples
4.3 Error % in theoretical and experimental grams per 37
square meter of braided fabric
4.4 Theoretical fibre volume fraction of braided fabric 40
samples
4.5 Experimenta fibre volume fraction of braided 40
fabric samples
4.6 Error % in theoretical and experimental fibre 40
volume fraction of braided fabric samples
4.7 Measured values of thickness of braided fabrics 42

4.8 Measured braider strand crimp (%) in braided 43

fabric structures
4.9 Tensile properties of 600 tex E-glass biaxial 45
braided fabrics
4.10 Experimentally measured values of breaking load, 48

strain and modulus of 3D braid

4.11 Measured values of longitudinal breaking load (N) 50
for 2D composites
4.12 Measured values of transverse breaking load (N) of 51
braided composites (600 Tex)
4.13 Experimentally measured values of breaking load 53

ix
 and elongation of 3D braided composites
4.14 Measured values of fibre volume fraction of 2D 53
braided composites
4.15 Measured values of breaking load (N) of 2D 54
braided composites
4.16 Model computed and Experimentally measured 65

parameters of 3D braided structure

4.17 Experimentally measured and model predicted 73

values of modulus of 3D braided composites

x
 LIST OF SYMBOLS
Notations Meaning
w Width of unit cell
h Height of unit cell
D Braid diameter
N Number of carriers
Nu Number of unit cells
lb Side length of repeat unit
ϕbs Packing fraction of braider strand
La Total length of axial yarn in one square meter
Wa Total weight of axial yarn in one square meter
Ab Cross sectional area of braider strand
tu Thickness of biaxial braided repeat unit
ttb Thickness of triaxial braided repeat unit
GSMb Grams per square meter of braided fabric
GSMtb Grams per square meter of triaxial braided fabric
ϕb Fibre volume fraction of biaxial braided structure
ϕtb Fibre volume fraction of triaxial braided structure
Mu Mass of yarn in unit cell
Tb Linear density of braider strand
Ta Linear density of axial strand
Cb Braider strand crimp
Ca Axial strand crimp
m Number of carriers in row/column
a Width/thickness of 3D braid
C Crimp in braider yarn of 3D braid
h’ Minor axis of ellipse
l’ Major axis of ellipse
f Density of fibre material

φbst Fibre volume fraction of 3D braid

γ Interior braiding angle
β Surface braiding angle

xi
 Angle between yarn axis and its projection on
surface of 3D braid

xii
 Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION & OBJECTIVE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
There are four basic fabric structures woven, knitted, braided and nonwovens. Woven fabric
structures are produced by interlacing two sets of yarns perpendicular to each other. The
majority of woven products are created with one of three basic weaves: plain weave, satin
weave, or twill. In case of triaxially woven structures the two sets of yarns are interlaced at
sixty degrees angle. Knitted structures are made by inter-looping one or more yarns. Knitted
structure shows considerable extension in all directions. Nonwoven fabrics are
broadly defined as sheet or web structures bonded together by entangling fiber or filaments
mechanically, thermally, or chemically.
Braiding process uses similar interlacing as that of woven fabric with only one set of
threads. Braided structures are produced by intertwining three or more yarns at defined angle.
Braided structures are classified based on their architecture as biaxial and triaxial. Biaxial and
triaxial braided structures are the 2D braided structures. 2D braided fabric is the widely used
material in industrial textiles, especially in the composite industry. Three-dimensional (3D)
braiding is a preform technique used in the multidirectional near-net shape manufacturing of
high damage-tolerant structural composites. 3D braided structures are manufactured using
two step and four step braiding process. 3D braided fabrics have multiple layers and no
delamination due to intertwine-type out-of-plane interlacement.
Application of braiding technology to composites was first investigated by the researchers at
McDonnell Douglas Aircraft Company during the late 70s. Braided structures, used as
composite preforms, have a number of advantages over other competing processes such as
filament winding and weaving. Braided structures are impact resistant. Yarns in braid are
intertwined at bias angle therefore they provide very efficient reinforcement for parts that are
subjected to torsional loads such as drive shafts manufactured from braided composites.
Braided composites greatly improve interlaminar shear properties. Braided composites have
superior toughness and fatigue strength in comparison to filament wound composites.
Braided composites have better fatigue life. Braiding process has low manufacturing cost.
Braided composites exhibited better fatigue strength in comparison to compression-molded
unidirectional prepreg laminates for jet engine stator vanes. 2D biaxial and triaxial braided
fabrics have good balance in off-axis directions. 2D braiding is an automated preform process
and can be integrated with pultrusion to produce a variety of pultruded structural parts. 2D
biaxial and triaxial braided preforms have limited thickness and sizes, and low out-of-plane
properties.

3
Advantages of 3D braided composites over 2D laminates are 3D braiding has the ability to
produce complex near-net-shape preforms, 3D braiding processes can be automatically
controlled, which increases production and preform quality, 3D braided composites with a
complex shape can be inexpensive and simple to manufacture, 3D braided composites have
higher delamination resistance and impact damage tolerance, 3D braided composites have
greatly superior crashworthiness properties.
There are various methods that can be used to manufacture braided composites. VARTM is a
comparatively new process and is proven to be cost-effective compared to RTM. During
VARTM, dry fabric is placed into a tool and vacuum bagged in conjunction with the resin
distribution line, the vacuum distribution line, and the distribution media. A low-viscosity
resin is drawn into the fabric through a vacuum. Resin distribution media ensures resin
infiltration in the through-the-thickness direction. The key to successful resin infiltration of
the fabric is the design and placement of the resin distribution media, which allows complete,
wet-out of the fabric and eliminates voids and dry spots. Properly designed and properly
placed resin distribution media eliminate race tracking and resin leakage around the fabric.
Applications of braided composites include structural columns, rods, shafts, pressure vessels,
and plates. Braided structure could be used for tensile load carrying applications. The sports
equipment industry highly utilizes the benefits offered by braided composite materials.
Kevlar/graphite braided hybrid preforms impregnated with Epon 828 epoxy resin and D-230
curing agent are reported for use in bicycle Frame. Braid reinforced laminated wood baseball
bats have been reported. Braided composites have also been suggested for use with structural
reinforced concrete components since flexural strength and ductility of reinforced concrete
members can be improved with braided composite jackets. Tri-axially braided composites
increased the energy absorbing performance of the braided composites therefore it is used in
industrial applications such as car bumpers. Braid reinforced composite materials have been
extensively studied for biomedical applications.
Many studies had reported the various modelling techniques for braided composites. In one
of the study, tri-axial braided composite is considered as consisting of three layers. The first
two layers represent braided tows and the third layer is the axial tow. Then, using rule of
mixtures, mechanical properties of each layer are calculated. Laminate theory is the simplest
approach which ignores the out of plane undulations of braided yarns and treats each set of
yarns as unidirectional ply in a (+θ/-θ) symmetric laminate. Stress averaging approach is
based on an iso-strain assumption within RUC. Each yarn segment is discretized into yarn
slices first, and then the average stresses in the RUC were found by first transforming yarn
4
slice stress to the global RUC coordinate and then computing the volume average of the
stress in all the yarn slices. Finite element approach was developed by several researchers.
This approach analysed a detailed unit cell of the composite material. The parameters which
effect on tensile, bending, compression properties of braided composites are braid angle,
braid pattern and tow size and material, fibre volume fraction, cover factor.

Research gap in the area of braided composites

 Modelling of tri-axial braided composites for stiffness prediction had been reported
by many researchers, but very less work had been reported related to the geometry
and mechanics of layered biaxial braided composites.
 Very few studies pertaining to effect of braiding parameters such as braid angle, tow
linear density on bending properties of biaxial braided composites had been reported.
 Very little work had been reported about effect of braid angle, fibre volume fraction
and axial yarn content on mechanical properties of 3D braided composites.

In the light of above discussion, the present research will focus on,
 Study of effect of braiding angle and fibre volume fraction on the tensile properties of
2D biaxial braided fabrics and four step 3D braided fabrics as well as their
composites.
 Geometrical modelling of 2D biaxial braided and four step 3D braided fabric.
 Mathematical modelling of four step 3D braided fabric and its composite to predict its
tensile properties.
 Design and development of four step 3D braiding kit.

5
1.2 OBJECTIVE

1.2.1 Principal objective

To develop 3D braided structures and their composites and compare their properties with 2D
braided counterpart.

1.2.2 Sub-objectives
 To develop a geometrical model to construct 2D and 3D braided structures of desired
fibre volume fraction and areal density.
 To design and fabricate a take-up mechanism of braiding machine to produce
comparatively wider width braided fabric on cylindrical mandrel to enable production of
flat composite panel.
 To design and fabricate a suitable 3D braiding kit to produce square cross sectional 3D
braided structure.
 To prepare suitable composite materials out of above braided structures.
 To study the effect braid angle and fibre volume fraction on the mechanical properties of
2D and 3D braided fabrics and their composites.
 To characterise and compare their tensile properties.
 To develop mathematical model to predict tensile properties of 3D braided structure and
their composites.
 Comparison of experimental results with mathematical model results.

6
 Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO BRAIDING PROCESS
Braiding is generally used for producing narrow rope-like materials by interlacing diagonally
three or more strands of filaments or yarns. Braided structures are produced by intertwining
three or more sets of yarns at defined angle such that each strand passes over and under
another set of strand in such a manner that, neighbouring threads do not make complete turns
about each other. 2D braided structures consists of diamond (1/1), regular (2/2) and Hercules
(3/3) braid patterns, which are produced by traditional braid techniques like maypole braiding
or circular braiding. Braided structures can be classified based on braiding pattern as diamond
(1/1), regular (2/2) and Hercules (3/3), based on structure they are classified as biaxial and
triaxial braids and based on the dimension they are classified as 2D braids and 3D braids
(Brunschweiller, 1953).

2.1.1 Biaxial braided structures

The biaxial braid is characterized by two bias yarns, which are intertwined at an arbitrary
braiding angles (+bias angle and –bias angle) as shown in figure 2.1 (Birkefeld et al, 2009;
Kadir Bilisik, 2008).

Figure 2.1 Biaxial braided fabric (Birkefeld et al, 2009).

2.1.2 Triaxial braided structures

The triaxial braid is characterized by two bias yarns and one axial yarn or zero degree yarn.
The axial yarns are positioned in parallel to the mandrel axis, as shown in figure 2.2
(Birkefeld et al, 2009; Kadir Bilisik, 2008).

9
 Figure 2.2 Triaxial braided fabric (Birkefeld et al, 2009).

2.2 3D BRAIDED STRUCTURES

2.2.1 Two-step 3D braided structures
3D braided structures are manufactured using two step and four step braiding process. In the
two-step braiding process, axial yarns are arranged in a matrix array based on the sectional
geometry of the braided structure. The braider yarns move along alternating diagonals of the
axial array and interlock the axial yarns and hold them in the desired shape, as shown in
figure 2.3 (Joon-Hyung Byun & Tsu-Wei Choub, 1996).

Figure 2.3. Two step braiding (Potluri et al, 2003).

2.2.2 Four step 3D braided structures

In four step braiding, in order to make a 3D braided preform in a 1×1 braid pattern, the
braider carrier are arranged in a matrix of rows and columns, as presented in Figure 2.4. The
first step is sequential and the reversal movement of the braider yarn carriers in column
direction. The second step is sequential and the reversal movement of braider yarn carriers in
row direction. The third and fourth step are repetitions of first and second step. Axial yarns

10
can be inserted in four step 3D braided structure by placing it between the braider yarn
carriers (Joon-Hyung Byun & Tsu-Wei Choub, 1996; Bilisik, 2008).

(a)

(b)

Figure 2.4. (a) Four step 3D braiding preform fabrication principle (b) line diagram of 3D
braiding machine (Sun & Sun, 2004).

11
2.3 TENSILE PROPERTIES OF 2D BRAIDS AND THEIR COMPOSITES
2.3.1 Tensile properties of 2D braids
The first approach to tensile properties of 2D braided structure was presented by
Brunschweiller (1953). Subsequently, various researchers presented effect of braiding
parameters on tensile properties of biaxial and triaxial braided structures. Phoenix (1978),
presented an analytical model to predict mechanical properties of tubular braid with elastic
core. The model shows good approximation with experimental results. He found that, with
increases in braiding angle, normalized braid modulus and normalized braid stress decreases.
Most of the research on tensile properties of braid is done with braid in rope form. The
information about tensile properties of braided structures in flat form is not available, as
braided structure, now a day used for composite application in flat form. Many researchers
have studied effect of braiding parameters on mechanical properties of 2D biaxial and triaxial
braided flat composites but very little data is available for tensile properties of flat braided
fabrics.

2.3.2 Tensile properties of 2D braided composites

2.3.2.1 Effect of braiding angle
Tensile tests are reported by Harte et al (2000), for single-layer ±θ tubular braids constructed
from E-glass fibres with an epoxy matrix. In their study, they measured tensile behaviour of
the regular braids for two different matrices: no matrix (a ‘dry braid’) and the epoxy matrix.
The dry braid carries negligible axial stress (less than 0.1 Mpa) at axial strains less than the
lock-up strain, as shown in figure 2.5a, the fibres scissor over each other resisted only by
friction. In contrast, the glass fibre-epoxy braid strain hardens rapidly to peak strength of
about 100 Mpa at a failure strain of 0.15; the reduced failure strain reflects the fact that the
epoxy matrix prevents the fibres from becoming close-packed. The effect of the initial helix
angle θ0 on the tensile response is shown in figure 2.5b, for the epoxy-matrix braid.

12
Figure 2.5: (a) The tensile nominal stress–strain behaviour of a dry braid and of an epoxy-
matrix braid, for a helix angle θ0 = 400; (b) The nominal stress–strain behaviour of glass fibre-
epoxy braids, with initial helix angles θ0 = 230, 400, 450 and 550 (Harte et al, 2000).

Tensile properties of braided composite are sensitive to braid angle. When the braid angle
increased from 250 to 450, the percentage drop in the UTS, modulus, and Poisson’s ratio was
75%, 70%, and 96%, respectively. Braid angle does not have significant effect on failure
mechanism under fatigue loading and showed that, failure of braided composites is sudden
and catastrophic unlike woven composites and angle-ply laminates Tate et al (2006).
Subsequently, Dauda et al (2009), in their study reports that, composites with braided
preforms show non-linear stress-strain relation and as braid angle increases, the degree of
non-linearity increases. It was also shown that the tensile moduli and tensile strengths of the
composites are greater than the corresponding flexural moduli and flexural strength of the
composites. But it was shown that the flexural tangent moduli of the braided composites are
greater than the corresponding flexural secant moduli and are approximately equal to the
corresponding tensile moduli. Byun (2000) reported that, the longitudinal Young’s modulus
varied significantly by the axial yarn and the transverse Young’s modulus was greatly
influenced by braider-yarn angles higher than 450, but varied insignificantly according to the
axial yarn content. The effects of the braider-yarn angle on the in-plane shear modulus and
the Poisson’s ratio were more significant than the axial-yarn content.

13
2.3.2.2 Effect of fibre volume fraction
As fibre volume fraction is the function of braiding angle (Joon-Hyung Byun, 2000),
therefore effect of fibre volume fraction on mechanical properties of braided composites was
not studied yet thoroughly. In the present research, effect of fibre volume fraction on tensile
properties of 2D biaxial braided composites was studied.

2.4 TENSILE PROPERTIES OF 3D BRAIDED FABRICS AND THEIR

COMPOSITES
Bohong Gu (2004), presented an analytical model to predict the uniaxial tensile strength and
uniaxial tensile curve within the whole tensile strain range for four step 3D braid. He
obtained equations of spatial configuration of trace yarn in each yarn group from the
coordinates of center point of the trace yarn cross-section in preform. Based on the
mathematical description of trace yarn and microstructure of preforms he established uniaxial
tensile strain relations between 3-dimensional braided preform and braiding yarn at small and
large strain and the whole uniaxial tensile curve of 3-dimensional braided preform was
obtained.
The study conducted on Finite element (FE) analysis of 3D braided composites based on
three unit-cells models i.e. interior, surface and corner region unit cells reveals that, these
three regions have distinctive properties and the surface and corner unit-cells are stiffer than
the interior region. Hence, the surface and corner regions should be considered in order to
predict the elastic properties more precisely (Chao Zhang & Xiwu Xu, 2013).
Baozhong Sun et al (2012), reports the three-point bending fatigue behavior of 3-D
carbon/epoxy braided composite in experimental and finite element analyses approaches.
They observed that, the material deflection increases sharply at the initial stage during the
fatigue loading. As the development of cyclic loading progressed, the deflection at mid-stage
increased slowly and at the final stage, the deformation reached the highest value. In another
study by Baozhong Sun et al (2005), influence of the strain rate on the uniaxial tensile
behavior of 4-step 3D braided E-Glass/epoxy composites at quasi-static (0.001/s) and high
strain rates (up to 2800/s) was studied. From the stress–strain curves of the composites at
various strain rates, it is shown that the 3D braided composite is a kind of the rate-sensitive
material. The uniaxial tensile stiffness and failure stress increase with the increase of the
strain rate, while the failure strain decreases. They also found from fractograph of 3D braided

14
composites that, at high strain rates 3D braided composites fail in a more brittle mode in
tension.
Guodong Fang et al (2011), in his study reported compressive mechanical properties of three
dimensional (3D) braided composites which is of key concern for design in actual
engineering application. They found that the compressive mechanical behavior of the braided
composites with lower braid angle is sensitive to the fiber initial imperfection of braid yarn.
The strength of the braided composites with different braid angle is controlled by the
different microscopic failure modes, which can be reproduced and recognized at length by
numerical method.
New analytical model for calculation of stiffness of three-dimensional four-directional
braided composites was presented by Mahmood M. Shokrieh, Mohammad S. Mazloomi
(2012). They presented a Multi-Unit Cell Model in which four kinds of unit cells, namely
interior, interior surface, exterior surface and corner unit cells have been introduced as
representative cells. The results of their study show that, with increasing braiding angle
longitudinal modulus decreases and transverse modulus increases.
Lili Jiang et al (2013), presented an analytical model to predict mechanical properties of 3D
braided composites using a helix geometry model. They also determined effective elastic
constants and the failure strength of 3D braided composites under uniaxial load through the
stiffness volume average method and Tsai-Wu polynomial failure criterion. Comparisons
between the theoretical and experimental results are conducted. The theoretical results show
that the braid angle has significant influences on the mechanical properties of 3D braided
composites.
Zixing Lu et al (2013), studied effect of interfacial properties on the uniaxial tensile
behaviour
of three-dimensional braided composites. The found approximately linear stress-strain curve
for 3D four directional braided composites made from carbon T700 fibre and epoxy resin.
They also, found that, effect of interfacial elastic modulus on the tensile modulus and failure
strain of 3D four directional braided composites are prominent, while the strength of 3D four
directional braided composites is not very sensitive to interfacial elastic modulus.

15
2.5 Modeling approaches for 2D and 3D braided fabrics and their composites

2.5.1 2D braids and their composites

Yong yan and suong van hoa (2002), analyzed 2D triaxial braided fabrics and composites.
They had considered lenticular cross section of yarn and predicted fibre volume fraction (Vf)
and axial yarn content, as follow.
 N 
k  N*Ab'    *A a 
2
Vf    (2.1)
πD  2*t b  ta 

where, k can be chosen in the range of 0.6–0.75, N is number of carriers, Aa is cross sectional
area of axial yarn, D is the diameter of the braid, ta and tb are thickness of axial and braided
yarn, Ab’ is given as,
Ab
Ab'  Where, Ab is braider yarn cross sectional area 𝜃 is braid angle.
cos

Axial yarn content is given as,

N
( )Aa
2
Axial yarn content = N × 100% (2.2)
(N∗Ab′ +( )∗Aa)
2

They also predicted the mechanical behavior of the 2D tri-axial braided composite assuming
matrix material is isotropic, Straight impregnated yarn is transversely isotropic material and
global strain tensor is the same in any position of the braided composite. The stress–strain
relations of impregnated straight yarn are as follow,
{Ɛ’} = [Sy]{σ’} (2.3)
{σ’} = [Cy]{Ɛ’} (2.4)

Where, subscript y denotes straight impregnated yarn, [Cy], [Sy] are the stiffness and
compliance matrix of impregnated straight yarn respectively.
[Cy] = [Sy]-1 (2.5)

16
 (2.6)

Where,

1 1 1   
S11  , S 22  , S55  , S12  12  21 , S 23  23
E11 E22 G12 E1 E2 E2

The final equation for effective stiffness of braided composite as follow,

(2.7)
Where, χ is axial yarn content, γ is crimp angle, [Cm] denotes compliance matrix for matrix
material.
Potluri et al (2003), developed VRML (Virtual Reality Modelling Language) based
visualization tool to simulate braid structure on any predefined mandrel geometry and using
predefined yarn cross section. They modelled the braid geometry to predict cover factor and
fibre volume fraction.
2
  Wy N c  
Cover factor  1  1     (2.8)
  4 R cos   
N c (1  C )T
Fibre volume fraction  106 (2.9)
2 R  tc cos 
Where, Wy is yarn width, Nc is number of carriers, R is braid radius, α is braiding angle, C is
braider strand crimp, tc is braid thickness, ρ is fibre density.
Mahmood M. Shokrieh, Mohammad S. Mazloomi (2010), presented an analytical model for
calculation of stiffness of 2D triaxial braided composite. They considered, triaxial braided
composite consists of three layers. The first two layers represent braided tow and third layer
represents axial tow. Using rule of mixtures, mechanical properties of each layer are
calculated. Braided tow undulations are calculated using analytical relations. They used

17
volume averaging method to find total stiffness of braided composite. Each layer of
composite is considered to be made of transversely isotropic material and stiffness matrix is
defined as follow,

(2.10)

The stiffness matrix of unit cell is given by following equation,

[C RUC ]  h  [CGlobal ]  h  [CGlobal ]  h0 [CGlobal ]0 (2.11)

Where, h is the thickness ratio and it is defined as thickness of each layer divided by
thickness of whole composite. The results obtained by this model are in better agreement
with experimental results.
Rawal et al (2012) studied tensile mechanics of 2/2 biaxial braided sutures of polypropylene
monofilaments and developed an analytical model to predict stress-strain relationship, as
shown below,

 b  v f  f cos2  f (2.12)

Where,  b and  f are braid and constituent filament stresses respectively, v f is fibre volume

fraction of braid.

2.5.2 3D braids and their composites

Braid pattern and number of layers in 3D axial braided unit cell structures was studied by,
Kadir Bilisik (2008), and found that, when the number of layers increased 3D axial braided
unit cell thickness also increased. Braid pattern slightly affected the braided yarn angle. It
was also observed that, the number of layers considerably affected the yarn length in the unit
cell structure. In jamming conditions, minimum jamming decreased the width of the unit cell
structure but maximum jamming increased its width. In addition, minimum jamming
decreased the surface angle of the unit cell structure, conversely; however, the maximum
jamming increased the surface angle. Also, it was found that jamming conditions influence
the density of the unit cell but did not affect the yarn length in the unit cell structures.

18
K. Xu & X.W. Xu (2008), presented finite element analysis of mechanical properties of four
step 3D braided composites. RVE based approach was used, as 3D braided microstructure is
complicated. Figure 2.6 shows, topological relationship of the main yarns in unit cell. The
relationship between angles γ & α is given as follows,
tan   2 tan  (2.12)
Where, γ is the interior angle between the axis braiding yarn and the z axis and α is called the
braiding angle.

Figure 2.6. Topological relationship of the main yarns in unit cell (K. Xu & X.W. Xu, 2008).
Width and pitch length of unit cell are given as follows,
Wx  Wy  (2  r ) 2b (2.13)

4(2  r )b
h (2.14)
tan 
The equation of fibre volume fraction is given as follows,
Vy
Vf  (2.15)
Vu
Zhang Fan et al (2010), presented geometrical model of four step five directional 3D braided
composites. Figure 2.7 shows, interior yarns structure of 3D full 5-directional unit cell. In the
present model, eight sections along the section length are made in order to make it easy to
understand as shown in figure 2.8. according to contacting relationship between yarns,
following relationship is deduced,

19
 2 2A
tan   (2.16)
h
Where, γ is the interior braiding angle and h is the height of the unit cell.

Figure 2.7. Interior yarns structure of 3D full 5-directional unit cell (Zhang Fan et al, 2010).

Figure 2.8. Microstructural model of 3D full 5-directional unit cell (Zhang Fan et al, 2010).

20
 Figure 2.9. Yarn’s cross sections of 3D full 5-directional unit cell (Zhang Fan et al, 2010).

Figure 2.10. Contacting condition among braiding yarns and axial yarns (Zhang Fan et al,
2010).

By the contacting relationship between the axial yarns and the braiding yarns, the following
equation is obtained,

a  2(2c sin  e) (2.17)
2
By the contacting condition among the braiding yarns, the distance between the center lines
of the braiding yarns can be written as follows,
 d 
L  2(c cos  ) sin (2.18)
2 2 2

Figure 2.11. Contacting condition among braiding yarns (Zhang Fan et al, 2010).

21
Finally, the equation of fibre volume fraction is given as follows,
df df 1
8 N1 ( ) 2  4 N 2 ( )2
2 2 cos 
Vf  2
(2.19)
4a

Where, N1 and N2 are number of axial and braider yarns, a is the half-length of the unit cell’s
undersides, γ is the interior braiding angle.
Very few studies reports about geometrical modelling of 3D braid with even number of
carriers in rows and columns of 3D braiding machine and with equal number of carriers in
rows and columns of 3D braiding machine.

22
 Chapter 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 MATERIALS
3.1.1 Yarn
Reinforcements used for composite making in this study were E-glass fibres supplied by
Owens-Corning Fibreglass Corporation in +θ and –θ directions of 2D as well as 3D braid. As
glass fibre has good mechanical properties and lower cost, so it is the material of choice.
Table 3.1 and 3.2 shows the properties of constituent materials used.

3.1.2 Resin
The resin used was Epoxy LY556 and HY 917 hardener.

Table 3.1 Physical properties of E-glass multifilament yarn.

Constituent Linear density Individual filament Density

material (tex) diameter (microns) (Kg/m3)
E-glass 600 3
multifilament yarn 1200 17 2540
(φb =0.7854) 2400 17
4800 24
Epoxy 1160

Table 3.2 Properties of E-glass and Epoxy resin.

Glass Epoxy Glass

Property
fibre resin tow
E11(GPa) 96.53 4 76.42
E22(GPa) 96.53 4 20.18
E33(GPa) 96.53 4 20.18
ν12 0.23 0.35 0.2654
ν23 0.23 0.35 0.3352
ν13 0.23 0.35 0.2654
G12(GPa) 39.23 - 7.4
G23(GPa) 39.23 - 4.03
G13(GPa) 39.23 - 7.4

25
3.2 METHODS
3.2.1 Geometrical modeling to construct 2D and 3D braided structures
To construct 2D and 3D braided structures of desired fibre volume fraction and areal density,
so as to study the effect of fibre volume fraction on the mechanical properties of braided
structures, 2D biaxial braided structure was modeled for prediction of weight per unit area
and fibre volume fraction by extending the work done by Brunschweiller (1953) and Potluri
et al (2003). Along with biaxial braided structure, the models are also formulated for triaxial
braided fabrics. These models are discussed in results and discussion chapter. Geometrical
modeling of 3D braided structure has also been done to determine relationship between
surface braiding angle and interior braiding angle, crimp in 3D braided structure, mass per
unit length of braid and fibre volume fraction.

3.2.2 Design and fabrication of take-up mechanism of braiding machine

On the present Herzog circular rope braiding machine (Model no. NG1/16-120), wider width
braided fabric cannot be produced. Therefore to produce comparatively wider width braided
fabric on cylindrical mandrel to enable production of flat composite panel, take up
mechanism was designed to enable take up of cylindrical mandrel, as shown in figure 3.1.
The take up mechanism consists of metal ring stand through which cylindrical mandrel is
taken up and take up rollers. This metal ring helps to keep the braiding point at same position
which ultimately helps to minimize the variations in braiding angle. Braided fabric was
produced using sixteen carriers on cylindrical mandrel of 1 inch diameter. Then the fabric
was cut along the axis to make it flat so as to enable production flat composite panels.
2D braided fabric samples of sixteen E-glass tows were fabricated on the cylindrical mandrel
of one inch diameter with 2/2 regular braid pattern with four different braid angles 400 ,500,
600 and 650 and with tow linear density of 600 tex, 1200 tex, 2400 tex and 4800 tex. Table
3.3 shows the braided fabrics samples produced with different tow linear densities and
braiding angles. The braided fabric on the mandrel is cut along the axis to make it flat. Braid
angles were measured using Nikon microscope. The variation in braiding angles was
primarily due to variation in braid angle during production of braided structures and variation
caused during axial cutting of the braided fabric. Braided fabric of 2400 tex and 4800 tex
with 65 degrees were not produced due to jamming of the structure.

26
 (a) (b)

(c)
Figure 3.1 (a) Take up mechanism of rope braiding machine, (b) Modified take up
mechanism for producing wider width braided fabric and (c) Braiding point on cylindrical
mandrel.

27
 Table 3.3 Measured braiding angles of braided fabric samples produced.
Linear density (Tex) Measured braiding angle (degrees)
600 40±3
50±2
60±2.4
65±1.5
1200 40±3
50±2.5
60±2
65±1.5
2400 40±3
50±1.9
60±2
4800 40±1.5
50±2
60±1.3

4800 Tex, α= 600 4800 Tex, α= 500 4800 Tex, α= 400

Figure 3.2. Biaxial braided fabric samples after cutting along the axis.

28
3.2.3 Design and fabrication of a 3D braiding kit
Four step 3D braiding kit is designed and will be fabricated in consultation with braiding
machine manufacturer to produce 1×1 braid pattern, square cross sectional 3D braid. The
machine has 4 rows and 4 columns of carriers. The total numbers of carriers are 24. Line
diagram of 3D braiding machine and actual fabricated machine is shown in figure 3.3 and 3.4
respectively.
Four step 3D braided structures were fabricated with 1/1 braiding pattern with four rows and
columns of carrier with total number of carriers being twenty four. E glass multifilament tow
of 2400 tex was used. Samples were fabricated with two different surface braiding angles viz.
14.880 and 110. The heights of unit cell were kept at 6.36 mm and 8.94 mm respectively. 3D
braided structure is shown in figure 3.5.
Description of four step 3D braiding machine
The carriers are arranged in rows and columns, and they are separated by carrier separators.
The carriers are fitted on carrier base plate. The carriers are moved by moving the carrier
base plate. carrier base plate gets drive from pushing lever which is activated by cam. This
arrangement is present for both rows as well as column. Timing of the cams is maintained
such that, alternately rows and columns of carriers are moved.

Figure 3.3. Line diagram of 3D braiding machine.

29
 Figure 3.4. Image of 3D braiding machine.

(a) (b)
Figure 3.5. (a) Four step 3D braided fabric, (b) Surface structure of four step 3D braided
fabric.

30
3.2.4 Study of the effect braided fabric parameters on the tensile properties of braided fabrics
and their composites
Braid angle is very important parameter as it influence on geometrical and mechanical
properties of braided fabric. The other parameters which have effect on mechanical properties
are braid pattern and tow size and material. In the present study effect of braiding angle and
fibre volume fraction on mechanical properties of braided fabrics and their composites was
studied. Similarly, the effect braiding angle on tensile properties of 3D braid and its
composites was studied.

3.2.5 Preparation of composite materials

Compression molding technique was used for preparation of flat composite panel from 2D
braided fabric. The specimens are processed at 1200C curing temperature for 15 minutes.
Vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding (VARTM) process was proposed to be used to
produce 3D braided composites but as machine was not available with us, therefore we have
used hand layup technique; care has been taken to insure proper resin penetration inside the
structure.
To study effect of braiding angle on tensile properties of 2D biaxial braided composites,
samples are produced with approximately 0.5 fibre volume fraction. To study effect of fibre
volume fraction on tensile properties of 2D biaxial braided composites, samples were
produced by keeping constant braid angle with four different linear density and same resin
quantity. In case of 3D braid, composites are produced with fibre volume fraction of 0.45.
The fibre volume fraction was measured by weighting method.

3.2.6 Characterization and comparison of mechanical properties of 2D and 3D braided fabrics

and their composites
The above prepared 2D and 3D braided fabrics and their composite samples were tested for
tensile and bending tests. Five samples for each 2D braided composite were tested for
mechanical properties. 2D braided fabric was tested for tensile strength at 10 mm gauge
length and the cross head speed was chosen such that, sample will break within 20±2
seconds. Tensile testing of composite samples was done using ASTM D3039/D3039M
standard; sample dimension was 150 mm ×20mm at 2 mm/min cross head speed. 3D braids
were tested for tensile loading at 150 mm gauge length and its composites were tested for
tensile strength and modulus at 100 mm gauge length.

31
3.2.7 Mathematical modeling to predict tensile properties of 3D braided structures and their
composites
A mathematical model has been formulated to predict stress strain relation of 3D braided
structure based on geometrical deformations taking place in 3D braid. Analytical
characterization of 3D braided composites has been done based on unit cell approach as
presented by many researchers. In this model, path of yarns was considered to be straight to
simplify the model.

3.2.8 Comparison of experimental results with mathematical model results

Experimental results of geometrical as well as mechanical properties of braided fabrics will
be compared with mathematical model results to validate the models.

32
 Chapter 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the present study, geometrical model to predict weight per unit area, fibre volume fraction
of 2D braided fabric was done. Effect of braiding angle on tensile properties of 2D and 3D
braided fabric as well as composite was studied. Geometric model for 3D braid was also
done to predict, fibre volume fraction, thickness and crimp in braider yarn. Strain-strain
analysis of 3D braided structure was done, based on geometrical deformations taking place
when axial load is applied. Also, analytical characterization of 3D braided composite was
done to predict its stiffness.

4.2 GEOMETRICAL MODELING OF 2D BRAIDED STRUCTURES

4.1.1 Weight per unit area of biaxial braided fabric
Weight per unit area is an important parameter of braided fabric, from the point of view of
production of fabric of desired mass density. Weight per unit area of braided fabric depends
upon braiding angle and yarn linear density. In this research work, geometric model of 2D
regular (2/2) braided fabric weight per unit area have been developed to predict weight per
unit area by extending work done by Brunschweiller (1953) and Potluri et al (2003). Figure
4.1 shows, repeat unit of regular biaxial braided fabric.

Figure 4.1. Repeat unit of regular biaxial braided fabric (Potluri et al (2003)).

From figure 4.1, width (w), height (h) and side length (lb) of repeat unit cell of biaxial braided
fabric is given as (Potluri et al (2003)),

2 D
w (4.1)
N

35
 D
lb  (4.2)
Nsin  

2 D
h (4.3)
Ntan  
Where, 𝛼 is the braiding angle, D is braid diameter, N is number of carriers.
Length of yarn in unit cell of braided fabric (mm) = 4 lb (1+Cb) (4.4)

Linear density (Tex (T)) =T *10-6 kg/m (4.5)

Mass of yarn in unit cell (Mu) of biaxial braided fabric is given as follows (Potluri et al
(2003)),

M u  4lb 1  Cb  Tb *106 (4.6)

Number of unit cells (Nu) per square meter of braided fabric can be given as follows,
106
Nu  (4.7)
2 wh
Where, 2wh is the area of unit cell.

Grams per square meter of braided fabric (GSMb) are number of repeat units per square meter
multiplied by mass of yarn in repeat unit.
4 l 1  Cb  Tb
GSM b  (4.8)
wh

Where, Tb is the linear density of braided strand and Cb is braider strand crimp.
The final equation of grams per square meter of braided fabric is obtained by combining
equation (4.1), (4.2) and (4.3) and equation (4.8),

Tb N 1  Cb 
GSM b  (4.9)
 Dcos  α 

36
 Table 4.1 Theoretical grams per square meter of braided fabric (GSMb) samples.

GSMb

Braiding angle (degrees) 600 tex 1200 tex 2400 tex 4800 tex

40 158.52 319.54 639.38 1277.26

50 189.04 381.65 763.48 1526.11

60 245.99 491.63 982.81 1963.6

65 291.05 581.43 - -

Table 4.2 Experimental grams per square meter of braided fabric (GSMb) samples.

GSMb

Braiding angle (degrees) 600 tex 1200 tex 2400 tex 4800 tex

40 165 332 612 1233

50 201 372 804 1495

60 288 456 952 1921

65 316 532 - -

Table 4.3 Error % in theoretical and experimental grams per square meter of braided fabric.

% Error

Braiding angle (degrees) 600 tex 1200 tex 2400 tex 4800 tex

40
-4.09 -3.90 4.28 3.47
50
-6.33 2.53 -5.31 2.04
60
-6.92 7.25 3.14 2.17
65
-8.15 8.50 - -

37
 2250 Theoretical
....... Experimental
2000
1750
1500 600 Tex
1250
GSM

1200 Tex
1000
2400 Tex
750
500 4800 Tex
250
0
30 40 50 60 70
Braid angle (degrees)

Figure 4.2 Plot of braiding angle (degrees) Vs Braided Fabric Grams per Sq. meter

It has been found that, as braiding angle increases, fabric weight per unit area also increases.
This is due to the fact that, increase in braiding angle causes decrease in inter yarn spacing
(lb/2), which results in accumulation of more yarn mass in given area. It can also be seen
from figure 4.2 that, for same braiding angle, as tow linear density increases weight per unit
area also increases and which is self-explanatory.

4.1.2 Weight per unit area of triaxial braided fabric

In case of triaxial braided fabrics, along with braider yarns axial yarns are inserted along the
mandrel axis. The total length of axial yarn in one square meter (La) of braided fabric is given
as follows,
N a 1  Ca 106
La  (4.10)
2 D

Total weight of axial yarn in one square meter (Wa) is obtained by combining equation (4.5)
and (4.10),
Ta N a 1  Ca 
Wa  (4.11)
2 D
Where, Ta is the linear density of axial strand, Na is number of axial strands and Ca is axial
strand crimp.
38
The expression of grams per square meter of triaxial braided fabric (GSMtb) can be obtained
by combining equations (4.9) and (4.11),

1  Tb N b (1  Cb ) Ta N a (1  Ca ) 
GSM tb  
 D   (4.12)
cos  2 

4.1.3 Fibre volume fraction of biaxial braided fabric

Fibre volume fraction of regular biaxial braided fabric by considering elliptical tow cross
section (as shown in figure 4.3) has been modelled by extending the work done by Potluri et
al (2003); Yong Yan and Suong Van Hoa (2002); Harshvardhan (2014).
Cross sectional area of braider strand (Ab) = (π/4)h’l’ (4.13)
Where, h’ is minor axis of ellipse and l’ is major axis of ellipse.

Total volume of unit cell = 2whtb (4.14)

Where, tb is the thickness of biaxial braided fabric unit cell.

Figure 4.3. Elliptical cross section of tow.

The expression of fibre volume fraction of biaxial regular braid with elliptical tow cross
section is obtained by combining equations (4.13) and (4.14),

4lb Abbs
b  (4.15)
2 whtb
Where, ϕbs is the packing fraction of braider strand, here it is taken as 0.7854 (for hexagonal
packing array).
The final expression of fibre volume fraction of biaxial braided fabric is given by combining
equations (4.1), (4.2) and (4.3),
Nh ' l 'bs (1  Cb )
b  (4.16)
4 Dtb cos 
Where, Cb is the crimp in the braider strand.

39
 Table 4.4 Theoretical fibre volume fraction of braided fabric samples.
Fibre volume fraction

Braiding angle (degrees) 600 tex 1200 tex 2400 tex 4800 tex

40 0.1700 0.2099 0.2250 0.2751

50 0.1679 0.2267 0.2700 0.3000

60 0.1984 0.2494 0.2764 0.3400

65 0.2098 0.2700

Table 4.5 Experimental fibre volume fraction of braided fabric samples.

Fibre volume fraction

Braiding angle (degrees) 600 tex 1200 tex 2400 tex 4800 tex

40 0.1800 0.2250 0.2227 0.2571

50 0.1900 0.2285 0.2728 0.2806

60 0.2100 0.2400 0.2940 0.2954

65 0.2200 0.2476 - -

Table 4.6 Error % in experimental and theoretical fibre volume fraction of braided fabric
samples.
% Error

Braiding angle (degrees) 600 tex 1200 tex 2400 tex 4800 tex

40 -5.88 -7.20 1.04 6.54

50 -13.14 -0.78 -1.05 6.47

60 -5.82 3.76 -6.37 13.13

65 -4.86 8.31 - -

40
 0.40
Theoretical 600 tex
0.35
Theoretical 1200 tex
Fibre volume fraction

0.30

0.25 Theoretical 2400 tex

0.20 Theoretical 4800 tex

0.15 Experimental 600 Tex

0.10 Experimental 1200 Tex

0.05 Experimental 2400 Tex
0.00
Experimental 4800 Tex
30 40 50 60 70
Braiding angle (degrees)

Figure 4.4 Plot of braiding angle (degrees) Vs fibre volume fraction of biaxial braided fabric.

It has been found that, fibre volume fraction of braided fabric increases with increase in
braiding angle. This is attributed to the fact that, increase in braiding angle causes decrease in
inter yarn spacing (lb/2), which results in accumulation of more yarn volume in given volume.
Also, with increase in braiding angle, crimp in the braider yarn increases. It can also be seen
from figure 4.4 that, for same braiding angle, as tow linear density increases fibre volume
fraction also increases and which is self-explanatory.

4.1.5 Relationship between fibre volume fraction and fabric grams per square meter
The fibre volume fraction and grams per square meter of biaxial braided fabric can be related
by combining equations (4.9) and (4.16),

  h ' l 'bs 
b  GSM b   (4.18)
 4T t
b b 
Equation 4.18 shows that, as weight per unit area increases fibre volume fraction also
increases, which is explained above.
Similarly, the fibre volume fraction and grams per square meter of triaxial braided fabric can
be related by combining equations (4.12) and (4.16),

41
   h ' l 'bs [(1  Cb )  (1  Ca ) cos  ] 
tb  GSM tb   (4.19)
 2ttb [2Tb (1  Cb )  Ta (1  Ca ) cos  ] 
Where, ϕbs is packing fraction of braider strand which is taken as same for axial strand.

4.1.6 Effect of braiding angle on braided fabric thickness

Composite thickness is depends upon fabric thickness, therefore fabric thickness is important.
Thickness of 2D braided fabric samples was measured using ASTM D1777 – 96 standards;
the results obtained are shown in table 4.7. It has been found that, braiding angle is a function
of braided fabric thickness.
tu  f ( ) (4.20)
Braiding angle was plotted against fabric thickness, as shown in figure 4.5. It has been found
that, increase in braiding angle causes decrease in yarn spacing (lb/2) and results in increase
in crimp height. Therefore with increase in braiding angle braided fabric thickness also
increases. It has also been found that, for same value of braiding angle, with increase in tow
linear density braided fabric thickness increases, which is self-explanatory.

Table 4.7 Measured values of thickness of braided fabrics.

Braiding angle Thickness (mm)

(degrees) 600 tex 1200 tex 2400 tex 4800 tex

40 0.37 0.58 1.082 1.77

50 0.432 0.64 1.114 1.97

60 0.47 0.748 1.35 2.25

65 0.526 0.846 - -

42
 2.5
Braided fabric thickness (mm)
2 4800 Tex

1.5 1200Tex

2400Tex
1
600Tex
0.5

0
30 40 50 60 70
Braiding angle (degrees)

Figure 4.5 Plot of braiding angle (degrees) Vs braided fabric thickness (mm).

4.1.7 Effect of braiding angle on Crimp in braider yarns

Measurement of crimp is important since composite mechanical properties are influenced by
crimp in the braider strands. Crimp of braider strands for all samples was measured using
ASTM D3883-04 standards, the results obtained are shown in table 4.8. It has been found
that, braider strand crimp increases with increase in braiding angle. This is due to the fact
that, increase in braiding angle causes decrease in inter-yarn spacing which results in increase
in crimp height. Figure 4.6 shows plot of braiding angle against crimp %.

Table 4.8 Measured braider strand crimp (%) in braided fabric structures.

Parameters Crimp %
Braiding angle
600 tex 1200 tex 2400 tex 4800 tex
(degrees)
40 0.94 1.74 1.79 1.67
50 1 1.96 1.98 1.92
60 1.5 2.15 2.11 2
65 2.22 2.25 - -

43
 2.5

2
600 Tex
Crimp %

1.5 1200 Tex

2400 Tex
1 4800 Tex

0.5

0
30 40 50 60 70
Braiding angle (degrees)
Figure 4.6 Plot of braiding angle (degrees) Vs crimp (%) in braided yarn.

4.2 Characterization of tensile properties of 2D and 3D braided fabrics and their

composites
4.2.1 Effect of braiding angle on longitudinal and transverse tensile properties of braided
fabrics
Braided fabric produced using 600 Tex E-glass tows with four different braiding angles viz.
400 , 500, 600, 650 were tested for determining breaking force. The results obtained are shown
in table 4.9. Because of limited testing facility available, all the samples were not tested for
tensile strength. The braiding angle was plotted against longitudinal breaking strength and
transverse braking strength as shown in figure 4.7 and 4.8 respectively. It has been found
that, tensile properties are sensitive to braid angle.
longitudinal breaking strength decreases with increase in braiding angle and transverse
braking strength increases with increase in braiding angle, This is due the fact that, as
braiding angle increases, orientation of filaments along longitudinal direction reduces and
therefore load experienced by fibre reduces with increase in braiding angle. Transverse
breaking strength increases with increases in braiding angle. This is due to the fact that, as
braiding angle increases orientation of filaments along transverse direction increases and
therefore load experienced by fibre increases.

44
 Table 4.9 Tensile properties of 600 tex E-glass biaxial braided fabrics.

Linear density Braiding angle Direction of Breaking force Breaking

(Tex) (degrees) loading (N) elongation (mm)

600 40 L 550 1.92

T 404 3.84

50 L 429 3.54

T 384.4 3.14

60 L 152 2.98

T 1069 3.43

65 L - -

T 1303 2.25

600

500
Breaking force (N)

400

300

200

100

0
30 40 50 60 70
Braiding angle (degrees)

Figure 4.7 Plot of braiding angle (degrees) Vs breaking force in longitudinal direction (N).

45
 1400
Breaking force (N) 1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
30 40 50 60 70
Braiding angle (degrees)

Figure 4.8 Plot of braiding angle (degrees) Vs breaking force in transverse direction (N).

4.2.2 Load-Extension behaviour of 2D biaxial braided fabrics

The typical load-Extension behaviour of 2D biaxial braided fabrics with different braiding
angle is shown in figure 4.9. It can be seen from figure 4.9 that, there are four parts in load-
extension curve of 2D braid, as explained by Brunschweiller (1954). In first part no load is
exhibited, in second part braid undergoes in geometric transitions and then straight part in
which constituent yarn bears the load and last part is braid rupture. The results obtained are in
agreement with published data.

550 a 500
4
b
500 450 4
450 400
400 350
Load (N)

350 300
Load (N)

300
250 3
250 3
200
200
150
150
100 100
50 2 50 2
1 1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Extension (%) Extension (%)

Figure 4.9. Load-extension behaviour of 2D biaxial braided fabrics (figure (a) and (b) are
load-extension behaviour of biaxial braided fabrics with braid angle 400, 500)

46
 120 c 80 4
d
4 70
100
60
80
50

Load (N)
Load (N)

40 3
60
3
30
40
20
20 10
1 2
12
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10
Extension (%) Extension (%)

Figure 4.9. Load-extension behaviour of 2D biaxial braided fabrics (figure (c) and (d) are
load-extension behaviour of biaxial braided fabrics with braid angle 600 and 650
respectively).

4.2.3 Load-strain behaviour of 3D braided structure

Load strain behaviour of 3D braided structure for two different surface braiding angles is
shown in figure 4.10. It can be seen that, similar to 2D braid, the load strain curve can be
divided into four regions. In first region, no load is experienced by braid, in second region,
braid undergoes geometric transitions, in third regions, constituent yarn bears the load and in
last region is braid ruptures. Table 4.10 shows, experimentally measured values of breaking
load, strain and modulus of 3D braid.

Table 4.10. Experimentally measured values of breaking load, strain and modulus of 3D
braid.

Surface braiding angle (β0) Breaking load (N) Breaking strain (%) Modulus (Gpa)
11 11500 18.4 5.92
14.88 10900 15.4 2.76

47
 0.25

0.2

surface braid
0.15
Stress (GPa)

angle 11 degrees

0.1
surface braid
angle 14.88
0.05 degrees

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Strain (%)

Figure 4.10. Stress-strain behaviour of 3D braided structure showing four regions in load-
strain curve.

It has been found that, breaking load of 3D braid is function of surface braiding angle. As

surface braiding angle increases, the breaking load and modulus decreases. This is due to the

fact that, with increase in surface braiding angle, interior braiding angle increases. Thereby,

its contribution in load bearing decreases and hence breaking load and modulus decreases.

4.2.3 Load-Strain behaviour of 2D biaxial braided composites

The typical load-strain behaviour of 2D biaxial braided composites is shown in figure 4.11. It
was found that, load-strain behaviour is approximately linear. The results obtained are in
agreement with previous studies conducted by various researchers. It has been found that, 2D
biaxial braided composites is mainly due to failure in fibre matrix interface region failure, ie.
fibre matrix interface play a major role in load bearing for 2D biaxial braided composites.
Also, it has been observed that, fibre breakage at failure region during tensile testing is very
low. The role of fibre in direct load bearing is very low as compared to woven composites,
because the fibres in the specimen between jaws are not gripped in jaw during tensile testing.
2D braided composites after tensile test are shown in figure 4.12.

48
 500
450
40 Deg braiding
400
angle
350
Load [N]

50 Deg Braiding
300
anlge
250
60 Deg
200 braidiing angle
150
65 Deg braiding
100 angle
50
0
0 1 2 3
Strain [%]

Figure 4.11 Load-extension behaviour of 2D biaxial braided composites.

Figure 4.12 Images of 2D braided composites tested for tensile loading.

4.2.4 Effect of braiding angle on tensile strength of 2D biaxial braided composites

4.2.4.1 Longitudinal tensile loading
For all combinations of braid angle and tow linear density, It has been found that, the
longitudinal tensile strength of biaxial braided composites decreases with increase in braiding
angle. This is attributed to the fact that, with increase in braiding angle, filaments orientation

49
in loading direction decreases, so the load experienced by the composite in longitudinal
direction reduces, as shown in figure 4.13. Also, it has been found that, for same braiding
angle, with increase in tow linear density breaking load of composite increases. This is
attributed to the fact that, with increase in tow linear density the effect of fibre-matrix
interfaces increases due to more number of fibre-matrix contacts. Also, fibre-matrix interface
area increases with increase in tows linear density shown in figure 4.14. figure 4.14 also
shows the load transfer from one tow to other in biaxial braided composite in tension. Table
4.11shows, measured values of longitudinal breaking load (N) for 2D composites.

Table 4.11 Measured values of longitudinal breaking load (N) for 2D composites.
Braiding angle 600 tex 1200 tex 2400 tex 4800 tex
40 417 563 1065 2360
50 325.5 539 711 1510
60 273 471.5 685 1180
65 259.2 405.66 - -

2500

600 Tex
2000
Breaking force (N)

1200 Tex

1500 2400 Tex

4800 Tex
1000

500

0
30 40 50 60 70 80
Braid angle (Degrees)

Figure 4.13 Effect of braiding angle on longitudinal breaking load of 2D biaxial braided
composites.

50
 (a) (b)
Figure 4.14 Fibre matrix interface area for two different tow linear densities with same braid
angle α. (a) higher tow linear density (b) lower tow linear density. (Here, hollow arrows
indicate yarn tow as well as path of load transfer from one tow to another in tensile loading
and solid arrow indicates direction of applied force.)

4.2.4.1 Transverse tensile loading

It has been found that, transverse tensile strength of biaxial braided composites increases with
increase in braiding angle. This is attributed to the fact that, with increase in braiding angle
filaments orientation in transverse loading direction increases, so the load experienced by the
composites in transverse loading direction increases, as shown in figure 4.15. Table 4.12
shows, measured values of transverse breaking load (N) of braided composites.

Table 4.12 Measured values of transverse breaking load (N) of braided composites (600
tex).
Braiding angle (Degrees) Breaking load (N)

40 203.75

50 921

60 1201.25

65 2327.5

51
 2500

2000
Breaking load (N)
1500

1000

500

0
30 40 50 60 70
Braiding angle (Degrees)

Figure 4.15 Effect of braiding angle on transverse breaking load of 2D biaxial braided
composites (600 tex).

4.2.5 Effect of surface braiding angle on tensile strength of 3D braided composites

It has been found that, with increase in surface braiding angle the tensile strength of 3D
braided composite decreases as shown in table 4.13. This is attributed to the fact that, with
increase in surface braiding angle, interior braiding angle increases and the contribution of
yarn in loading direction decreases. Thus load experienced by composite decreases. Figure
4.16 shows load strain curve of 3D braided composites. It can be seen that, load strain
behaviour is linear.

Table 4.13 Experimentally measured values of breaking load and elongation of 3D braided

composites.

Surface braiding angle (β0) Breaking load (N) Elongation (mm)

14.88 21288 0.434
11 22288 0.344

52
 0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
surface braid angle
Stress (GPa)

0.3 14.88 degrees

0.25
0.2 surface braid angle
11 degrees
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Strain (%)

Figure 4.16. Load strain curve for 3D braided composites.

4.2.6 Effect of fibre volume fraction of fabric on tensile strength of 2D biaxial braided
composites
It has been found that, with increase in fibre volume fraction of fabric in composite, the
breaking load of composites increases, as shown in figure 4.17. This is due to the fact that,
with increase in fibre volume fraction of fabric in composite, the number of fibres to bear the
load increases and hence breaking load of composites increases. But, breaking load reduces at
higher braiding angle. The trend obtained is similar to effect of braiding angle. Table 4.14
and 4.15 shows, measured values of fibre volume fraction and breaking load (N) of 2D
braided composites.
Table 4.14 Measured values of fibre volume fraction of 2D braided composites.

Tex 40 0 50 0 60 0 65 0

4800 0.50 0.49 0.48 -

2400 0.34 0.29 0.33 -

1200 0.18 0.18 0.19 0.48

600 0.10 0.11 0.13 0.34

53
 Table 4.15 Measured values of breaking load (N) of 2D braided composites.

Tex 40 0 50 0 60 0 65 0

4800 2360 1510 1270 -

2400 1440 1195 1180 -

1200 840.5 534.5 434 420

600 560 508 284.6 226

2500

2000
Breaking load (N)

1500
40 degrees
50 degrees
1000
60 degrees
65 degrees
500

0
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
Fibre volume fraction

Figure 4.17 Effect of fibre volume fraction on breaking load of 2D biaxial braided
composites.

4.3 Geometrical modeling of four step 3D braided structure

Geometrical modelling of four step 3D braided structure was done to predict its width and
thickness, crimp in yarn, mass per unit length and fibre volume fraction.

Assumptions

The present model was devoloped for a special case of four step 3D braided structure. Hence
to simplify the structure some assumptions were made.

54
 1) 3D braided structure consist of multifilament tow with elliptical tow cross section.
2) The number of carriers in rows and columns will be equal and even number of
carriers are placed in rows and columns of 3D braiding machine.

It has been found that, in four step 3D braided structure there are four groups of yarns, two
groups are moving in clockwise and other two are in anticlockwise direction as shown in
figure 4.18. Group of yarns G-I and G-III are moving in clockwise direction, whereas G-II
and G-IV are moving in anticlockwise direction. Group of yarns G-I and G-IV are moving
diagonally in the structure with exactly opposite direction with same trend. Group of yarns G-
I and G-III will be two steps ahead of G-II and G-IV or vise-versa and this condition holds
for any structure of this type. Similarly, Group of yarns G-II and G-III are moving from one
surface to other surface in exactly opposite direction to each other. P-i & P-iv are the
symmetrical parts of yarn groups G-I and G-IV, whereas P-ii & P-iii are the symmetrical
parts of yarn groups G-II and G-III. All yarns in 3D braided structure are rotating around the
braid axis and making equal angle with braid axis, therefore crimp value for all the yarns in
repeat unit will be equal. Thus, length of all yarns in repeat unit will be equal. In this case,
equal number of carriers are present in row and column, therefore total number of carriers
will be equal to m(m+2). The total number of steps required for carrier to complete one
repeat is equal to (4m + 8). In case of carriers which are moving diagonally opposite, m steps
are required for carrier to take turn at corner and 2m steps are required to move from one
diagonal to other. Similar is the case for carreirs which are moving from one side wall of 3D
braid to other adjacent.

Figure 4.18. Yarn path in 3D braided fabric showing four groups of yarns and four parts of
yarn gropus.

55
4.3.1 Width and thickness of 3D braided structure

Figure 4.19 shows path AC of diagonally moving yarn part (iv) through the structure and
projection of surface yarn part HG.

Figure 4.19 Path of diagonally moving yarn part (iv) in repeat unit of four step 3D braided
strucutre also showing projection of surface yarn part HG.

From figure 4.19, width and thickness (a) of 3D braided structure is given as follows,

a  mh tan  (4.21)

p1
tan   (4.22)
(m  2)h

a
p1  2(m  1)( ) (4.23)
m

2(m  1)( a )
tan   m (4.24)
(m  2)h

56
Using equation (4.21) and (4.24), interior braiding angle (  ) and surface braiding angle (  )
can be related as follows,

2(m  1)
tan   tan  (4.25)
(m  2)

length of yarn part AC can be given as follows,

2h
l1  (4.26)
cos 

Therefore, length of yarn part (iv) in unit cell is given as follows,

h
 (4.27)
cos 

From figure 4.20, the length of yarn part (ii) in unit cell, can be given as follows,

h
l2 
cos  (4.28)

Figure 4.20 Path of yarn part (ii) moving through the structure.

Figure 4.21 shows path of diagonally moving yarn part (i) at corner region. Therefore, length
of yarn in unit cell can be given as,

h
l3 
cos  (4.29)

57
Figure 4.22 shows path of yarn part (iii) moving from one surface to other surface through
structure. Therefore, length of yarn part (iii) is given as,

2h
l4 
cos  1(4.30)

Therefore, the length of yarn part (iii) in unit cell, can be given as follows,

h
 (4.31)
cos 

Figure 4.21. Path of diagonally moving yarn part (i) at corner region.

Figure 4.22 Path of yarn part (iii) moving through the structure.

From equation (4.27), (4.28), (4.29) & (4.31) length of four groups of yarns in the unit cell is
equal. Therefore, the total length of four groups of yarns in the unit cell is given as follows,

58
 hm(m  2)(1  C )

cos  (4.32)

Where, C is the crimp in the braider yarn in 3D braided structure.

4.3.2 Crimp of braider yarn in four step 3D braided structures

It has been found that length of all four groups of yarns in four step 3D braided structure is
equal, so the crimp in all the yarns is equal. The height of unit cell is h and from equation
(4.26), (4.28),(4.29) and (4.30), the length of yarn in unit cell is as follows,

h

cos  (4.33)

Therefore, crimp in the braider yarn is given as,

(1  cos  )
C
cos  (4.34)

4.3.3 Mass per unit length of 3D braided structure

Determination of mass per unit length is important for predicting fibre volume fraction for
processing of composites.

From equation (4.32) and (4.34), mass per unit length is given as follows,

hm(m  2)
 T 106 (4.35)
cos 2 

Where, T is linear density of tow in Tex (g/km) ( 𝑇 × 10−6 kg/m).

4.3.4 Fibre volume fraction of four step 3D braided structure

a) Area method for calculation of fibre volume fraction

fibre volume fraction is determind by dividing fibre volume (Vf ) by total volume (VTotal),
and is given as follows,
59
 Vf
bst  (4.36)
VTotal

From equation (4.32) and (4.34), the total length of yarn in unit cell is given as,

hm(m  2)
 (4.37)
cos 2 

Thickness of the tow is calculated by knowing strand linear density and assumed packing
factor (Dash et al, 2012) as follows,

Tb
h'  2 (4.38)
 f ARbs

Figure 4.23. Elliptical cross section of tow.

From figure 4.23,

Cross sectional area of braiding yarn (Ab) = (π/4)h’l’ (4.39)

Volume of braider yarns in 3D braided structure is given as follows,

hm(m  2) 
 ( h ' l ')bs (4.40)
cos 2  4

Where, ϕbs is the packing fraction of braider strand.

Total volume of the unit cell = a 2 h (4.41)

Therefore fibre volume fraction of 3D braided structure is given as follows,

 m(m  2)h ' l 'bs

bst 
4a 2 cos 2  (4.42)

60
 b) Linear density method for calculation of fibre volume fraction

From equation (4.37), the total length of yarn in unit cell is given as,

hm(m  2)
 (4.43)
cos 2 

Linear density =Tex (g/km) = T  106 kg/m.

Mass of yarn in unit cell is given as follows,

hm(m  2)
 T 106 (4.44)
cos 2 

Volume of the fibres within the unit cell,

hm(m  2)
 T 106
 f cos 
2
(4.45)

Where,  f is the density of the fibre ( kg / m3 ).

Total volume of the unit cell = a2 h (4.46)

Therefore, the fibre volume fraction of 3D braided structure ( bst ) is given as follows,

m(m  2)T 106

bst  (4.47)
a 2  f cos 2 

4.4 Effect of braiding parameters on geometrical properties of 3D braided structure

4.4.1 Theoretical approach

It is very important to determine effect of various braiding parameters on geometrical

properties of 3D braid from point of view of braid construction for specific application(s).
Four step 3D braided structures were fabricated with 1/1 braiding pattern with two different
surface braiding angle values using twenty four carriers machine with 2400 tex glass
multifilament tows. Surface braiding angle (β) , unit cell height (h) were measured using low
magnification microscope. Interior braiding angle was measured by making braided

61
composite and then cutting it along the axis of tow. Width/thickness (a), fibre volume
fraction (φbst) and crimp were measured using ASTM D 1777-96 (2015), ASTM D 3776M-
09a, ASTM D 3883-04 (2012) respectively.

As shown in figure 4.24, with increase in surface braiding angle, the interior braiding angle
increases non-linearly for constant value of unit cell height. Figure 4.26 shows that, with
increase in surface braiding angle, the width of 3D braid also increases non-linearly, this is
due to the fact that, as surface braiding angle increases interior braiding angle also increases,
and thus width/thickness of 3D braid also increases. Same justification is valid for increase in
length of yarn in unit cell with increase in surface braiding angle, as shown in figure 4.25. It
can be observed that, length of yarn in unit cell increases non-linearly with surface braiding
angle. As shown in figure 4.27, as surface braiding angle increses, crimp in the braider strand
also increases. This increase in crimp is due to increase in length of yarn in unit cell.

Fibre volume fraction of 3D braid increases non-linearly with increase in interior braiding
angle as shown in figure 4.28. This is due to the fact that, with increase in surface braiding
angle, interior braiding angle increases, unit cell width/thickness increases and length of yarn
in unit cell increases. Thus, fibre volume in unit cell increases, therefore fibre volume
fraction increases with increase in interior braiding angle.

100
90
Interior braiding angle (γ0)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80
surface braiding angle (β0)

Calculated from Measured from

model sample

62
 β = 14.88, h=6.36

γ 29.4 30.2

a 6.76 7.11

Figure 4.24 Effect of surface braiding angle (β) on interior braiding angle (γ).
Length of braider yarn in unit cell (l)

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
surface braiding angle (β0)

Figure 4.25 Effect of surface braiding angle (β) on length of braider yarn in unit cell (l) at
constant value of unit cell height (h).

63
 Length of braider yarn in unit cell (l) 8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
surface braiding angle (β0)

Figure 4.26 Effect of surface braiding angle (β) on braid thickness.

1
0.9
0.8
Crimp in braider strand

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
surface braiding angle (β0)

Figure 4.27 Effect of surface braiding angle (β) on crimp in braider strand.

64
 1.2
Fibre volume fraction (φbst)
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Interior braiding angle (β0)

Figure 4.28 Effect of interior braiding angle (γ) on fibre volume fraction (φbst ) at constant
value of unit cell height (h) and width/thickness (a).

4.4.2 Experimental approach

The model developed was validated by comparing experimental results with model results.
The results indicate that, present model provides a close approximation of experimental
values and maximum error being 5.21%. The error of measurement between experimental
and predicted values is may be due to geometrical variations due to variations in strand
tension during braiding and take up. Table 4.16 shows model computed and Experimentally
measured parameters of 3D braided fabrics.

Table 4.16. Model computed and Experimentally measured parameters of 3D braided

structure.

Theoretical Experimental % error

β = 14.880, h = 6.36mm

Interior braiding angle (γ) 29.41 30.23 -2.71

Width/Thickness (a) 6.76 6.92 2.31

Crimp % (C) 14.77 15.3 -3.46
Fibre volume fraction 0.6557 0.6239 5.09
(φbst)

65
 β = 110, h = 8.94mm

Interior braiding angle (γ) 22.41 21.3 5.21

Width/Thickness (a) 6.95 6.7 3.73

Crimp % (C) 8.17 7.84 4.21
Fibre volume fraction 0.5493 0.5422 1.31
(φbst)

4.5 Stress-strain characteristics of four step 3D braided structure

Stress-strain characteristics of 3D braided fabrics were modelled by considering the

deformations in the yarn taking place on application of axial load.

Assumptions

The present model was devoloped for a special case of four step 3D braided structure. Hence
to simplify the structure some assumptions were made.

1) 3D braided strucutre is consist of multifilament tows with only braider yarns.

2) The number of carriers in rows and columns will be equal and even number of
carriers are placed in rows and columns of 3D braiding machine.

Consider an unstrained tow at initial interior braiding angle  0 , in four step 3D braid of

thickness and width a0 . Let, l0 be the initial length of tow in unit cell of initial height h0 and

length of projection of tow p0 . Changing the dimensions to l , h and p respectively after

application of uniaxial load, as shown in figure 4.29. Axial strain(  z ) in the 3D braided
structure is given as,

h  h0
z  (4.48)
h0

h0 and h are the heights of unit cell before and after the applicaion of uniaxial tensile load.

66
Figure 4.29 Deformation of unit cell and yarn reorientation under uniaxial tensile loading
condition.

The strain in the braider yarn (εby) is given as,

l  l0
 by  (4.49)
l0

Where, l0 and l are the length of tow before and after application of uniaxial tensile load.

Lateral contraction in the 3D braided structure (εx) is given as,

(a  a0 )
x  (4.50)
a0

Using equation (4.23), the above equation can be written as,

h tan 
x  1 (4.51)
h0 tan  0

The lateral contraction can also be expressed in terms of change in diagonal dimensions of
3D braided structure and is given as follows,

67
 ( p  p0 )
x  ' (4.52)
p0

From figure 4.29,

p  h tan  and p0  h0 tan  0 (4.53)

Using equation (4.53), equation (4.52) can be written as,

h tan 
x  1 (4.54)
h0 tan  0
'

From equation (4.51) and (4.54),

x  x ' (4.55)

Poisson ratio of the 3D braided structure ( bst ) is given as,

(a  a0 ) a0
 bst 
(h  h0 ) / h0 (4.56)

Where, a0 and a are the width of unit cell before and after application of uniaxial tensile load.

From figure 4.29,

h0
l0  (4.57)
cos  0

1
l  [(h0 (1   z ))2  ( p0 (1   x ))2 ] 2
(4.58)

Equation (4.58) can also be written as,

1
l  (h 2  p 2 ) 2
(4.59)

By combining equations (4.48) - (4.58), the relationship between braided yarn strain and 3D
braided fabric strain can be written as,

68
 1
 by  [(1   z )2 cos2  0  (1   x )2 sin 2  0 ] 2  1 (4.60)

Change in braiding angle with change in braid as well as braider yarn strain can be obtained
by dividing equation (4.48) by (4.49),

cos  0 (1   z )
  cos1[ ]
(1   by ) (4.61)

Change in dimensions of 3D braided structure due to application of tensile load can be ralated
with its initial dimensions by using equation (4.48) and (4.56), and it can written as follows,

a  a0 (1  bst  z ) (4.62)

Change in linear density of braider yarn can also be given as follows,

T0
T (4.63)
(1   by )

Where, T0 and T are strand linear density before and after application of tensile load
(Saraswat, 2014).

In case of four step 3D braided structure, the yarns are laid in four different planes at interior
braiding angle (γ0) to the axis of 3D braided structure. The stress on the 3D braided structure
is governed by contribution of stress experienced by fibre strand aligned at an angle and total
number of fibre strands. This concept is analogous to mechanics of continuous filament yarn,
known as ‘fibre obliquity’ effect. The axial stress experienced by braid, is given by following
equation (Hearle et al, 1969; Rawal et al, 2012),

 b   by cos2  (4.66)

Where,  b and
 by are 3D braid and braider yarn stresses respectively.

As braid is not 100% covered by constituent multifilament strands, therefore fibre volume
fraction should be considered in equation (4.66) (Rawal et al, 2012),

 b  bst by cos2  (4.67)

69
Using equation (4.47), the equation above can be written as follows,

m(m  2)T 106

b   by
a2  f
(4.68)

Where, m is number of carriers in row, T is linear density of braider yarn, a is thickness/width

of 3D braid, γ is interior braiding angle and ρf is density of fibre.

For filament yarn in tension, following constitutive model holds (Rawal, 2012),

 by  f ( by ) (4.69)

Where,  by  by are filament yarn stress and strain respectively.

and

4.6 Mechanics of four-step 3D braided composites in tension

To predict stiffness of four step three dimensional braided composite, methodology presented
by Byun (2000) was used. As yarns in unit cell of four step 3D braided composite are at an
angle to the braid axis, therefore method of transforming stress/strain from one coordinate
system to another is needed. Effective elastic constants can be obtained by assuming uniform
stress state or uniform strain state in the unit cell (Byun, 2000). In case of four step 3D
braided structure there are four groups of yarns in four different planes. Out of that, two
groups are moving in clockwise and other two are in anticlockwise direction as explained
above in figure 4.19. The key assumptions for this model are as follows,

Assumptions
1. The number of carriers in row and column will be equal and even number of carriers
are placed in rows and columns of 3D braiding machine.
2. Yarn path in unit cell is straight, ie.no undulations in braider yarn in unit cell.

Figure 4.30, shows position of braider yarn, AB in repeat unit of four step 3D braided
structure. AC is the projection of braider yarn on the surface. β is the surface braiding angle
as explained in section 4.3. As we had observed that, yarn path in the unit cell of 3D braid is
straight.

70
From figure 4.31,

tan   2 tan  (4.70)

From figure 4.30, AC i.e. L can be given as follows,

mh
L (4.71)
2 cos 

Also,  can be given as follows,

a(m  1)
  tan 1 ( ) (4.72)
mL

Figure 4.30 Path of yarn AB in half repeat unit (of length (mh/2)) of 3D braided structure.

Figure 4.31 Surface geometry of 3D braided structure.

71
Coordinate transformation -
In present study, no crimp in braider yarn in the thickness direction was considered. This is
because; it has been found experimentally that, all the yarns in unit cell are almost straight.
The basic assumption is that, yarns are considered as unidirectional composite rods after resin
impregnation. The local coordinate system of yarn is indicated as 1-2-3 as shown in figure
4.30, where axis 1 coincides with braider-yarn direction. In the global coordinate system, X-
axis is in the braid length direction and Y and Z-axis are in the thickness direction of the
composite. The yarns are considered as transversely isotropic material whose compliance
matrix in the 1-2-3 coordinate system is expressed as follows (Byun, 2000).

 1/ E11  21 / E22  21 / E22 0 0 0 

 
  12 / E11 1/ E22  32 / E22 0 0 0 
  / E  23 / E22 1/ E22 0 0 0 
 S    120 11 0 0 1/ G23 0 0 


 0 0 0 0 1/ G12 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 1/ G12 
(4.70)

The direction cosines between the x-y-z coordinate system and the 1-2-3 coordinate system, is
given by following transformation matrix,

 m2 0 n2 0 2mn 0
 
 0 1 0 0 0 0
 n2 0 m2 0 2mn 0
T   
b

 0 0 0 m 0 n
 mn 0 mn 0 m  n 2
2
0
 
 0 0 0 n 0 m  (4.71)

Where, m  cos  and n  sin  .

Thus, the compliance matrix of the unidirectional composite rod, referring to the 1-2-3
coordinate system, is transformed to [S’], referring to the x-y-z coordinate system as follows
(Byun, 2000),

72
  S '   T b   S  T b 
t

(4.72)

t
Where, T  is a transpose matrix of T  .
b b

Now, The direction cosines between the X-Y-Z coordinate system and the x-y-z coordinate
system, is given by following transformation matrix (Byun, 2000),

 p2 q2 0 0 0 2 pq 
 2 
 q p2 0 0 0 2 pq 
 n2 0 1 0 0 0 
T b    
 0 0 0 p q 0 
 0 0 0 q p 0 
 
  pq pq 0 0 0 p 2  q 2  (4.73)

Where, p =cosθ and q=sinθ.

In order to transform the quantities into the X-Y-Z coordinate system of interest, following
transformation rule is used,
t
 S ''   T b   S '  T b  (4.74)

Engineering constants of the 3D braided composite can be given as follows,

1 1
E xx 
1 E yy  E 
S ''11 , S ''22 , zz S ''33 ,

1 1
G yz  G  Gxy 
1
S ''44 , xz S ''55 S ''66
,

S ''12 S ''13 S ''23

 xy   '' ,  zx   '' ,  yz   ''
S 11 S 33 S 22

73
Table 4.17. Experimentally measured and model predicted values of modulus of 3D braided

composites.

Experimental Predicted % Error

Surface braiding angle (β0) Modulus (E11) (Gpa) Modulus (E11) (Gpa)
14.88 24.2 26.11 -7.31
11 33.95 33.78 0.50

The model presented here, shows close approximation of experimental values with maximum
error being -7.31%. The error is mainly due to defects in composite during manufacturing,
presence of voids, improper resin penetration inside the structure etc.

74
 Chapter 5

CONCLUSIONS
The main aim of the present study was development and characterization of 3D braided

structures and their composites and compares it with 2D counterpart. In present study 3D

braided structures and their composites are developed and they are characterized for tensile

response and comparison of which was done with 2D braided structures and their composites.

It has been observed throughout the study that, braid angle is very critical parameter and it

has influence on all geometrical as well as mechanical properties.

The key findings of the present research work are as follows,

1. Fibre volume fraction, weight per unit area of 2D biaxial braided fabric increases with

increase in braiding angle as well as with increase in linear density of tow at constant

value of number of braider strands and braid diameter. Thickness of 2D biaxial braid

and crimp in braider yarn increases with increase in braiding angle.

2. For both, biaxial braided fabric as well as braided composites longitudinal breaking

force decreases with increase in braiding angle, and transverse breaking force

increases with increase in braiding angle.

3. Breaking load of biaxial braided composites increases with increase in fibre volume

fraction.

4. Breaking load and modulus of 3D braided composites decreases with increase in

surface braiding angle. Similar trend was observed for 2D biaxial braided composites.

5. Load-strain curve of 2D biaxial braided composites is approximately linear, but Load-

strain curve of 3D braided composites is linear.

6. The geometrical model presented in this study shows good agreement with

experimental values with maximum error being 9.7%.

7. It has also been found that, with increase in surface braiding angle, interior braiding

angle, length of yarn in unit cell, braid thickness, crimp in braider yarn and fibre

volume fraction increases.

77
8. In case of 3D braided structures, with increase in surface braiding angle, the breaking

load and modulus reduces. Similar trend was observed in case of 2D biaxial braided

composites.

9. The model presented to predict tensile modulus of 3D braided composites shows good

agreement with experimental values with maximum error being 7.31%.

78
 Chapter 6

FUTURE SCOPE
1. 3D braided fabric samples with axial yarns may be developed and characterized.
2. A driving mechanism can be introduced for automatic production of 3D braided
structures in 3D braiding kit.
3. Provision for accommodating more number of yarn carriers can be made to produce
complex profiled structures.
4. Drive to carriers can be programmed to facilitate formation of complex braided
structures.
5. Inlay threads can be incorporated to produce speciality braided structures.

81
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