Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e14

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Journal of Cleaner Production

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Mechanical characterization of waste-rubber-modified recycled-

aggregate concrete
Li-Juan Li a, *, Gui-Rong Tu a, Cheng Lan b, Feng Liu a
a
Guangdong University of Technology, School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, China
b
Guangzhou Designing Institute, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A waste-rubber-modified recycled-aggregate concrete (RMRAC) intended for road construction was
Received 16 June 2015 produced by adding granulated waste rubber to recycled-aggregate concrete (RAC). The impact me-
Received in revised form chanical properties of the RMRAC were studied using a variable cross-section 74-mm-diameter split-
1 March 2016
Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB). The dynamic mechanical properties and the toughness of the RMRAC
Accepted 1 March 2016
Available online xxx
were studied at four strain rates, corresponding to four different input pressures, and were compared to
those observed in the static condition. The effects of the rubber particle size, rubber content, and strain
rate on the dynamic compressive strength and toughness of the RMRAC were analysed. Test results show
Keywords:
Waste rubber
that the RMRAC exhibits an enhanced strain rate effect and has good impact resistance relative to RAC.
Recycled aggregate © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Paving materials
Split-Hopkinson pressure bar experiment
Mechanical properties

1. Introduction concrete (Hern
andez-Olivares et al., 2002). Some studies have

Concrete is among the most widely used construction materials
in civil engineering. The performance of a concrete building or
structure depends on the performance of the concrete used for
construction. It is inherently brittle and, in higher-strength con-
crete, the brittleness is increased. Cracks may occur in concrete
under loading, particularly in applications such as airport runways
and roads; the cyclic loading from the take-offs and landings of
aeroplanes and passing vehicles causes cracks to form gradually in
the pavement. The presence of cracks causes severe degradation of
the operational performance and service life of the concrete
pavement.
Meanwhile, the growing prevalence of automotive trans-
portation has created increasing amounts of waste rubber as a by-
product, posing a great burden to the environment. Incorporating
rubber into concrete can reduce environmental pollution and
conserve resources (Blessen and Ramesh, 2015). Research has
shown that rubberized concrete, produced by incorporating gran-
ulated rubber into a concrete mix, can display reduced brittleness
and enhanced ductility and toughness relative to conventional
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lilj@gdut.edu.cn (L.-J. Li).
investigated the addition of rubber to increase the dynamic load
resistance of concrete used for pavement (Batayneh et al., 2008; Li
et al., 2004; Shu and Huang, 2014; Siddique and Naik, 2004).
Rubberized concrete has excellent ductility, crack resistance,
impermeability, frost resistance, fatigue resistance, impact resis-
tance, and shock absorption properties, and it provides superior
sound insulation and noise reduction as well as excellent wear
resistance (Eldin and Senouci, 1993; Khaloo et al., 2008; Liu et al.,
2013; Richardson et al., 2015; Son et al., 2011; Topçu, 1995;
Toutanji, 1996; Wang et al., 2011). Experimental studies have
shown that the compressive, bending, and splitting tensile
strengths of rubberized concrete mixtures are lower than those of
ordinary concrete. The strength and elastic modulus of rubberized
concrete are decreased as the rubber content is increased (Iqbal,
2016). However, the greater friction between the rubber particles
and concrete causes increased energy absorption because of the
elasticity of the rubber, thereby significantly enhancing the
damping capacity of concrete (Gabr and Cameron, 2012; Ganjian
et al., 2009; Liu and Pan, 2011; Liu et al., 2012; Reda et al., 2008;
Zheng et al., 2008). Therefore, rubberized concrete should also
exhibit better performance under seismic loads than conventional
concrete.
With recent rapid increases in urban construction and increases
in the demolition of ageing buildings, the management of waste

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0959-6526/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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2 L.-J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e14

Table 1
Technical standards of rubber powders used.

Mesh number Size (mm) Cumulative passed (%) Ash content (%) Acetone extract (%) Tensile strength (MPa) Elongation at break (%)

5 4.04
90 8 8
15
500

20 0.86
90 8 8
15
500
60 0.22
90 8 8
15
500

2400 70
4.04 mm 4.04 mm
0.864 mm 0.864 mm
2300 0.221 mm 60 0.221 mm

MPa
Density (kg/m )

2200 50
3

Compressive strength
2100 40

2000 30

1900
20
0 10 20 30 40 50
0 10 20 30 40 50
Rubber contents (%)
Rubber contents (%)
Fig. 1. Specimen density vs. rubber contents.
Fig. 3. Compressive strength vs. rubber contents.

concrete has become an important environmental problem. Recy-
cling waste concrete as either concrete blocks (Teng et al., 2015) or
coarse aggregate has received increased attention in recent years
(Shi et al., 2016). Extensive research has been conducted on the
mechanical properties of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC),
including studies on recycled concrete members and structures.
The combination of recycled concrete materials with polymeric
materials, such as fibre sheets or rubber, in structures has been
proposed by multiple researchers (Guo et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2015).
In structures such as fortifications, highways, airport runways, and
nuclear power plants, the dynamic mechanical properties of RAC
significantly affect service life and safety (Epps, 1994; Li et al., 2014;
Meddah et al., 2014).
To promote economic development and improvement in quality
of life, many roadways requiring significant amounts of concrete
must be constructed, especially in developing countries. The
application of recycled aggregates and scrap rubber to road con-
crete could reuse these materials effectively in a manner benefit-
ting both economic development and environmental protection.
In this study, a Split-Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) device (Liu
et al., 2012) is utilized to investigate the impact behaviour and
compressive performance of rubber-modified recycled-aggregate
concrete (RMRAC). Coarse aggregate from recycled concrete is used
to prepare the concrete mix; granulated waste rubber is added to

5.4 10% Rubber content

20% Rubber content
60 30% Rubber content
10% Rubber content 5.1 40% Rubber content
20% Rubber content
30% Rubber content
Flexural strength (MPa)

4.8
Compressive strength (MPa)

50 40% Rubber content

4.5
40
4.2

30 3.9

3.6
20
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Rubber particle sizes (mm) Rubber particle sizes (mm)
Fig. 2. Compressive strength vs. rubber particle sizes. Fig. 4. Flexural strength vs. rubber particle sizes.

Please cite this article in press as: Li, L.-J., et al., Mechanical characterization of waste-rubber-modified recycled-aggregate concrete, Journal of
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 L.-J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e14 3

5.4 429.6 kg/m3, 414.8 kg/m3, respectively (produced by the Yuntong

4.04 mm
Environmental Protection Technology Corporation Limited). Details
0.864 mm
on the composition and properties of the rubber are shown in
5.1 0.221 mm Table 1.
Water reducer: polycarboxylic high-performance water reducer.
Flexural strength (MPa)

4.8 Water: tap water.

4.5 2.2. Mix proportions and specimen preparation

4.2 This concrete mixture was based on the specifications for mix
proportion designs of ordinary concrete (JGJ55-2011, 2011). In the
RMRAC mixes, the cement, coarse aggregate, and water reducer
3.9
were present in quantities equal to those in the RAC concrete; the
granulated rubber particles were used only to replace equal vol-
3.6 umes of sand. The volume fractions of rubber particles substituted
for sand tested in this study were 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%.
0 10 20 30 40 Considering the three particle sizes used, 13 formulations of RMRAC
Rubber contents (%) were tested altogether.
Four sets of ∅70  35 mm cylindrical specimens were prepared
Fig. 5. Flexural strength vs. rubber contents. for the SHPB strain rate tests. Five cylindrical specimens were used
for each strain rate test. In total, 260 (13  4  5) tests were
completed using cylindrical specimens. For each level of rubber
improve the mechanical properties for pavement applications. The content, three cubic specimens (one of each particle size) of
impact resistance properties of RMRAC materials are studied and 150  150  150 mm were prepared for static compressive strength
the potential improvement in pavement service life is evaluated. tests. In total, 39 (13  3) compressive strength tests were
completed using the cubic specimens. For each level of rubber
content, three prismatic specimens of 100  100  400 mm were
2. Material and methods prepared for bending tests. In total, 39 (13  3) bending tests were
completed using the prismatic specimens.
2.1. Materials

The following raw materials were used in making the concrete.
Cement: P.O.42.5R plain Portland cement with a density of
3150 kg/m3, sulphur trioxide content of 3.18%, magnesium oxide
content of 1.42%, dipotassium oxide content of 0.59%, disodium
oxide content of 0.46%, loss on ignition of 2.46%, and cement fine-
ness modulus of 2.7.
Fine aggregate: river sand with continuous gradation and par-
ticle size <5 mm, apparent density of 2580 kg/m3, and fineness
modulus of 2.60.
Coarse aggregate: recycled aggregate of a continuous gradation
with a particle size of 5e10 mm (produced by the Shenzhen LVFAR
Green Technology Corporation).
Granulated rubber: rubber granules in sizes of 4.04 mm,
0.864 mm, and 0.221 mm with apparent densities of 474.1 kg/m3,
2.3. Specimen preparation and curing
The quantities of raw materials were measured according to the
mix proportion. The dry materials were mixed for 1 min to obtain a
homogenous mixture. The water and the water reducer were then
added to the mixture. The mixing process continued for approxi-
mately 2 min until a homogeneous mixture was obtained. The
mixture was poured into previously prepared steel moulds. Sub-
sequently, the moulds containing the mixed RMRAC were vibrated
twice for 5 s each on a vibration table. The specimens were cured
for 1 d under standard curing conditions (temperature ¼ 20 ± 2  C,
relative humidity >95%) before being removed from the moulds.
The specimens were then cured for 28 d under standard curing
conditions, after which the tests were conducted.

Fig. 6. Brittleness coefficients k vs. rubber contents and rubber particle sizes.

Please cite this article in press as: Li, L.-J., et al., Mechanical characterization of waste-rubber-modified recycled-aggregate concrete, Journal of
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4 L.-J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e14

100 3. Static test results and analysis

0.3MPa
0.4MPa 3.1. Density
80 0.5MPa
0.6MPa After the curing process described in Section 2.3, the reference
RAC and RMRAC specimens were weighed; the calculated density
60
Stress (MPa)

variations of the specimens are shown in Fig. 1. The specimen

density is decreased as the rubber content is increased, because the
40 density of the rubber is lower than that of the sand. In addition,
smaller rubber particles also decrease the density. Therefore, the
specimen density is decreased with decreased rubber particle sizes.
20

3.2. Static strength

0
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 Untreated rubber is a macromolecular organic material with an
Strain inert surface that forms relatively poor interfacial bonds between
rubber particles and cement mortar. After the curing of the con-
Fig. 7. Stressestrain curves of the RAC under different input pressures. crete, extensive microscopic cracks are located near the rubber
particles. The strength of the interfacial transition zones between
the aggregate and the cement matrix decreases, and thus the
strength of the concrete decreases (Reda Taha et al., 2008) when
sand is replaced with rubber in the concrete mix. Research has
shown that processing the surface of the rubber particles can

100
0.3MPa 80
0.3MPa
0.4MPa
0.4MPa
80 0.5MPa 0.5MPa
0.6MPa 60 0.6MPa

60
Stress (MPa)

Stress (MPa)

40
40

20
20

0
0 0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030
Strain
Strain

(a) RMRAC-4.04-10% (b) RMRAC-4.04-20%

80 60
0.3MPa 0.3MPa
0.4MPa 0.4MPa
50 0.5MPa
0.5MPa
60 0.6MPa 0.6MPa
40
Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)

40 30

20
20
10

0 0
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030
Strain
Strain

(c) RMRAC-4.04-30% (d) RMRAC-4.04-40%

Fig. 8. Stressestrain curves of RMRAC with 4.04-mm rubber particles.

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Fig. 9. Stressestrain curves of RMRAC with 0.864-mm rubber particles.

effectively improve the properties of concrete modified with the
rubber, thus reducing losses in the compressive strength (Dong
et al., 2013; Huang et al., 2013; Onuaguluchi, 2015). In addition,
rubber is an elastic material with strength far lower than that of
cement. Introducing rubber thus creates a concrete with some
reduced mechanical properties.
In the present study, the tests were halted when the load
reached 80% of the peak load (designed peak load), and then the
failure modes of the specimens were observed. For the RAC speci-
mens, failure occurred rapidly without warning. The cracks in the
RAC specimens were relatively wide and even throughout with
severe damage to the bulk. A sharp cracking sound was heard at
failure. With the RMRAC specimens, cracking sounds were heard at
failure either faintly or not at all. A small number of fine cracks
appeared on the surfaces of the RMRAC specimens. In addition, the
failure was more prolonged. The RMRAC specimens with higher
rubber contents tended to fail at lower rates because of the elas-
ticity of the rubber. These specimens also exhibited good ductility.
3.2.1. Compressive strength
3.2.1.1. Relationship between rubber particle size and compressive
strength. Fig. 2 clearly shows that adding rubber decreases the
strength of the concrete relative to that of the reference RAC. In
addition, the strength of the concrete is decreased with decreases
in particle size. At 10% rubber content, the compressive strengths of
RMRAC-4.04-10%, RMRAC-0.864-10%, and RMRAC-0.221-10% are
47.6 MPa, 43.8 MPa, and 37.4 MPa, respectively; for 40% rubber
content, the compressive strengths of RMRAC-4.04-40%, RMRAC-
0.864-40%, and RMRAC-0.221-40% are 30.5 MPa, 27.5 MPa, and
25.5 MPa, respectively. Smaller particles of rubber provide larger
interfacial area and thereby a weaker bonding point, which
consequently decreases the compressive strength.
3.2.1.2. Relationship between rubber content and compressive
strength. Fig. 3 shows the relationship between the compressive
strength of the RMRAC and the rubber content. The compressive
strength of the RMRAC is decreased with increased rubber content;
the compressive strengths of the RMRAC with rubber contents of
10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% and a particle size of 4.04 mm are 47.6 MPa,
43.2 MPa, 40.2 MPa, and 30.5 MPa, respectively. The reason for this
decrease is the same as that described in Section 3.2.1.1: weaker
interfacial bonding between the rubber and concrete results in
softer rubber.
3.2.2. Flexural strength
3.2.2.1. Effect of rubber particle size on flexural strength. Fig. 4
shows that, for a given rubber content, the flexural strength of
the RMRAC increases slightly with increases in particle size.

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Fig. 10. Stressestrain curves of RMRAC with 0.221-mm rubber particles.
3.2.2.2. Effect of rubber content on bending strength. Fig. 5 shows
that, for a given particle size, the flexural strength of the concrete is
decreased as the rubber content is increased. This is because the
elastic modulus of the rubber is far lower than that of the concrete.
Thus, when the specimen is deformed by an external load, the
tensile or compressive force exerted on the rubber particles is far
lower than that on the aggregate, creating stress concentrations
that reduce the flexural strength (Gabr et al., 2013). For a rubber
particle size of 0.221 mm, the flexural strength of the RMRAC with
rubber contents of 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% is decreased by 12.8%,
21.2%, 26.6%, and 34.6% relative to that of the RAC, respectively.
3.2.3. Brittleness coefficients
The brittleness coefficient (k) of concrete reflects the crack
resistance, or toughness, of the material, and is defined as the ratio
of the compressive strength to the flexural strength. Smaller values
of k indicate that the material is less brittle and more ductile. Fig. 6
shows the relationship between the brittleness coefficients of the
RMRAC and the rubber particle size, in addition to the rubber
content.
Fig. 6 shows that, as the rubber content is increased, the flexural
strength of the RMRAC is decreased to a lesser extent and at a
slower rate than the compressive strength of the RAC; the brittle-
ness coefficients of the RMRAC are decreased gradually with
increasing rubber content. Overall, k decreases to a lesser extent for
increased rubber contents and decreased particle sizes. The value of
k for the RAC is 11.38, greater than the values for any of the RMRAC
Please cite this article in press as: Li, L.-J., et al., Mechanical characterization of waste-rubber-modified recycled-aggregate concrete, Journal of
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mixes. The RMRAC mix with 10% rubber content and a particle size
of 4.04 mm has the highest value of k at 9.60 and is thus the closest
in behaviour to the RAC. However, the 15.6% difference in the values
indicates that the incorporation of rubber significantly affects the
flexural strength of the RMRAC. The value of k for the RMRAC with
40% rubber content and a particle size of 0.221 mm is the smallest
at k ¼ 6.93, 39.1% lower than that for the RAC. Therefore, the brit-
tleness of the RMRAC is significantly decreased. The incorporation
of granulated rubber satisfactorily reduces the brittleness of the
concrete and improves the toughness to varying degrees, providing
the RMRAC with good crack resistance.
3.3. Dynamic test results and analysis
A 10-mm-diameter copper plate of 1 mm thickness was used as
the pulse shaper in the SHPB test. The voltageetime histories for
inputs with different pressures of 0.3 MPa, 0.4 MPa, 0.5 MPa, and
0.6 MPa were then obtained. The strain rates, peak stresses, dy-
namic increase factors (DIFs), peak strains, toughness indexes, and
failure modes of the RAC and RMRAC specimens were obtained
from the SHPB tests at four different impact velocities, corre-
sponding to the four different input pressures.
Fig. 7 shows the stressestrain curves of the RAC at four strain
rates, corresponding to the four input pressures, obtained from the
SHPB testing. Figs. 8e10 show the stressestrain curves of the
RMRAC specimens with three particle sizes of 4.04 mm, 0.864 mm,
and 0.221 mm, respectively, for 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% rubber
 L.-J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e14 7

Fig. 11. Dynamic compressive strength vs. rubber particle sizes at constant volume fractions.

contents. The stressestrain curves show that the concrete speci-
mens initially experience elastic deformation. When the stress
surpasses the peak stress value, the strain increases dramatically
and the stress decreases rapidly until failure.
Figs. 8e10 show that, for the same input pressure, the peak
stress of the RAC is significantly higher than that of the RMRAC,
indicating that the RMRAC has better impact energy consumption
properties and thereby reduces the peak stress. The rubber in the
concrete and the friction between rubber and concrete absorbs and
consumes more energy than the aggregate in the RAC can; thus, the
peak stress of the RMRAC is decreased with increased rubber
contents. For constant rubber contents, smaller particle sizes
correlate to smaller peak stresses. Smaller rubber particles have a
greater friction area formed against the concrete, which consumes
more energy.
3.4. Effect of rubber particle size on the dynamic mechanical
properties of the RMRAC
3.4.1. Effect of rubber particle size on the dynamic compressive
strength of the RMRAC
Fig. 11 shows the relationship between the dynamic compres-
sive strength of the RMRAC and the rubber particle size. For a given
rubber content and input pressure, the dynamic compressive
strength of the RMRAC is increased with increasing particle size.
The RMRAC with 4.04-mm particles and that with 0.221-mm par-
ticles have the highest and lowest dynamic compressive strengths,
respectively.
3.4.2. Effect of rubber particle size on the toughness of the RMRAC
Fig. 12 shows the relationship between the toughness index and
the rubber particle size for the four levels of rubber content. These
results show that the incorporation of rubber granules increased
the toughness index of the RMRAC; the toughness indices of all
RMRAC mixes were higher than that of RAC. However, the tough-
ness index is decreased slightly for increased rubber particle size.
The RMRAC with particle sizes of 0.221 mm and 4.04 mm have the
highest and lowest toughness, respectively. However, the rubber
particle size only slightly affects the toughness of the RMRAC. For a
fixed particle size and rubber content, the toughness index de-
creases as the strain rate (input pressure) is increased. Furthermore,
the stressestrain curves of the RMRAC show that, as the strain rate
(input pressure) is increased, the slopes become relatively steeper,
the elastic modulus is increased accordingly, and the strain is
decreased, which reduces the toughness.
As an elastomer, rubber has excellent inherent deformation
properties. When incorporated into concrete, rubber particles fill
the gaps in the concrete, reducing the void space to a certain

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Fig. 12. Toughness index vs. rubber particle sizes at constant volume fractions.
degree. In addition, the rubber particles act as structural defor-
mation centres. When the concrete is subjected to a load, the
rubber absorbs the strain energy, prevents or reduces the formation
and development of cracks, and increases the toughness of the
concrete, which improves the impact resistance properties of the
concrete.
3.5. Effect of rubber content on the dynamic performance of the
RMRAC
3.5.1. Effect of rubber content on the dynamic compressive strength
of the RMRAC
Fig. 13 shows that, for a given rubber particle size and strain rate
(input pressure), the dynamic compressive strength of the RMRAC
is gradually decreased with increasing rubber contents. Because of
the inherent elasticity and relatively low strength of the rubber
particles and the weakening of bonds in the concrete by the
incorporated rubber, the number of weak points in the RMRAC
specimens is increased. Therefore, the dynamic compressive
strengths of all RMRAC specimens are lower than that of the RAC.
3.5.2. Effect of rubber content on the toughness of the RMRAC
Fig. 14 shows the relationship between the toughness index of
the RMRAC and rubber content for the three rubber particle sizes.
For a given particle size, the toughness index is increased with
increased rubber content. The rubber in the RMRAC increases the
Please cite this article in press as: Li, L.-J., et al., Mechanical characterization of waste-rubber-modified recycled-aggregate concrete, Journal of
Cleaner Production (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.03.003
energy absorption capacity by permitting higher strain energies;
thus, the toughness and the impact resistance properties of RMRAC
are improved. However, for a given rubber content, the toughness
index of the RMRAC is decreased with an increase in strain rate or
input pressure.
The rubber content noticeably affects the toughness index of the
RMRAC specimens. Fig. 14 shows that the toughness index is
increased nearly linearly with increases in the rubber content.
Regression was used to fit linear equations to the relationships
between the rubber contents and the toughness index (I5) for the
input pressure of 0.3 MPa Equations (1)e(3), plotted in Fig. 15,
display the obtained linear functions:
I5 ¼ 5:154 þ 1:098R1 (1)
I5 ¼ 5:310 þ 0:676R2 (2)
I5 ¼ 5:323 þ 0:779R3 (3)
where R1, R2, and R3 represent the rubber content (%) of 4.04 mm,
0.964 mm, and 0.221 mm particle sizes, respectively. Fig. 15 shows
that the toughness index of the RMRAC is increased significantly
with increases in the rubber content.
 L.-J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e14
Fig. 13. Dynamic compressive strength vs. rubber contents.
3.6. Effect of strain rate on the dynamic compressive strength of the
RMRAC
Fig. 16 shows the relationships between the dynamic
compressive strengths of the RMRAC specimens and the strain rate
(input pressure) for various rubber contents at a given particle size.
For a given rubber particle size and content, the dynamic
compressive strength of the RMRAC is gradually increased with the
strain rate, indicating the enhanced strain rate effect of the RMRAC.
Cracks are generated in the specimens under dynamic loading and
continue to develop until failure. However, a threshold energy
value is required to generate cracks. As the strain rate is increased,
more energy is required for the specimen to fail. However, the
duration of the dynamic impact is insufficient for the specimen to
absorb the required energy for failure. The absorbed energy can be
increased only by increasing the peak stress; hence, the dynamic
compressive strength of the RMRAC is increased with increasing
strain rate.
The DIF can be calculated from the strain rate using an equation
recommended by the Comite
Euro-International du Be
ton (Euro-
International Concrete Committee (CEB)) (Hentz et al., 2004). The
DIF values, or DIFs (CEB), were calculated from the test data using
this equation and listed in Table 2, as well as the DIFs obtained from
the tests. Significant differences appear between the values of the
DIFs obtained from testing and the DIF (CEB) values, indicating that
the equation recommended by the CEB is unsuitable for the
RMRAC. Therefore, it is necessary to modify the CEB equation to
obtain one more suitable for the RMRAC.
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9
The modified relationship between the DIF and the strain rate is
as follows:
sd
¼ 0:8339ð_εd Þ0:3139 g ε_ d > 30s1 (4)
ss
where logg ¼ 6:156a  0:492, a ¼ ð5 þ 3f cu =4Þ1 , and fcu repre-
sents the static compressive strength of the cubic RMRAC specimen
in MPa. The correlation coefficient is 0.8316 and the standard de-
viation is 0.0218. Compared to the equation for ordinary concrete
recommended by the CEB, the modified equation produces lower
values, which reflects the slight increase in the strength of the
RMRAC under dynamic loading relative to that of ordinary concrete.
3.7. Failure modes
Figs. 17e20 show the failure modes of specimens under different
strain rates. As the strain rate progresses from relatively low to
high, the RAC specimens exhibit different failure modes: cracks at
the outer surface, breakup at the outer surface, breakup throughout
the cross-section, and total failure by crushing. The RMRAC speci-
mens perform better than the RAC specimens. The results indicate
that, at the strain rate corresponding to a striker input pressure of
0.3 MPa, cracks form in the RAC specimens, micro-cracks in the 10%
rubber RMRAC specimens, and almost no cracks in the 40% rubber
RMRAC specimens. At the strain rate corresponding to a striker
input pressure of 0.6 MPa, the RAC specimens experience complete
failure, as do the 10% rubber RMRAC specimens. Meanwhile, the
10 L.-J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e14

Fig. 14. Toughness index vs. rubber contents for constant particle sizes.

RMRAC specimens with 40% rubber content remain intact at the decrease in the density, compressive strength, and flexural
cores of the specimens. The results show that concretes with higher strength of the RAC became more apparent as the rubber
rubber contents have better deformation capacities and energy content increased and as the rubber particle size decreased.
absorption abilities than those with lower rubber contents. However, the incorporation of granulated rubber also
Specimen failures generally occur at the interfaces between increased the ductility of the RAC.
rubber granules and cement matrices, because the presence of the (2) The RMRAC exhibited a noticeable strain rate effect. For a
rubber reduces the internal bonding performance of the concrete, given rubber particle size, the dynamic compressive strength
with failures occurring at these weak points. The failure modes of
the specimens show that the incorporation of rubber granules
either delays the failure of the concrete specimens or reduces the
degree of failure; higher rubber contents correlated to lower de-
grees of failure. In addition, the specimens retain greater integrity
as the rubber particle size is increased, indicating that the strength
of the concrete is increased with the particle size.

4. Conclusions

The use of scrap rubber particles to replace sand, and the use
of recycled concrete as aggregate, show promising results in
producing a new type of concrete (RMRAC) for use as a paving
material. In the present study, the static and dynamic mechanical
properties of RMRAC were investigated under different replace-
ment ratios and particle sizes of scrap rubber, as well as different
strain rates. The results allow the following conclusions to be
drawn:

(1) The use of scrap rubber decreased the density, compressive

strength, and flexural strength of the RAC. In addition, the Fig. 15. Linear fitting curves relating toughness indices to rubber contents at 0.3 MPa.

Please cite this article in press as: Li, L.-J., et al., Mechanical characterization of waste-rubber-modified recycled-aggregate concrete, Journal of
Cleaner Production (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.03.003
 L.-J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e14 11

Fig. 16. Dynamic compressive strength vs. strain rate.

Table 2
DIFs (CEB) calculated and DIFs from SHPB tests for RAC and RMRAC.

Specimen RAC RMRAC

4.04 mm 0.864 mm 0.221 mm

10% 20% 30% 40% 10% 20% 30% 40% 10% 20% 30% 40%

DIF 0.3 MPa 1.14 1.18 1.19 1.19 1.24 1.19 1.19 1.21 1.23 1.22 1.20 1.23 1.22
0.4 MPa 1.21 1.29 1.29 1.33 1.31 1.35 1.32 1.36 1.34 1.31 1.30 1.36 1.33
0.5 MPa 1.37 1.41 1.46 1.47 1.46 1.54 1.47 1.52 1.51 1.46 1.47 1.49 1.48
0.6 MPa 1.49 1.57 1.55 1.57 1.62 1.59 1.65 1.63 1.68 1.56 1.61 1.61 1.64
DIF (CEB)a 0.3 MPa 1.35 1.46 1.51 1.51 1.69 1.49 1.58 1.64 1.81 1.55 1.66 1.80 1.84
0.4 MPa 1.48 1.59 1.63 1.67 1.84 1.66 1.76 1.80 1.94 1.71 1.84 1.99 2.04
0.5 MPa 1.60 1.70 1.78 1.81 2.02 1.78 1.87 1.95 2.08 1.85 1.97 2.13 2.16
0.6 MPa 1.72 1.83 1.87 1.94 2.11 1.86 1.98 2.05 2.24 1.94 2.10 2.25 2.33
a
Euro-International du Be
Note: CEB ¼ Comite
ton.

of the RMRAC decreased as the rubber content increased,
whereas the DIF increased with the rubber content. For a
given rubber content, the dynamic compressive strength of
the RMRAC decreased with decreases in rubber particle size.
In addition, the DIF was decreased with the decreasing of
particle size.
(3) The toughness of the RMRAC was higher than that of RAC.
The incorporation of granulated rubber substantially
improved the toughness of the RAC. The rubber content
significantly affected the toughness index, which increased
notably with increased rubber contents in the RMRAC
specimens. However, the toughness index was only slightly
increased with decreases in rubber particle size.
(4) It is recommended that the rubber replacement ratio of the
sand volume is below 10% using particles exceeding
0.864 mm in diameter when used in pavement. The RMRAC
is both environmentally friendly and conservative of re-
sources, which may assist in solving waste disposal prob-
lems. However, many issues require further research before
RMRAC can be used in large scales.

Please cite this article in press as: Li, L.-J., et al., Mechanical characterization of waste-rubber-modified recycled-aggregate concrete, Journal of
Cleaner Production (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.03.003
12 L.-J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e14

Fig. 17. Failure modes of RAC under different input pressures.

Fig. 18. Failure modes of RMRAC with 4.04-mm rubber particles under different input pressures.

Please cite this article in press as: Li, L.-J., et al., Mechanical characterization of waste-rubber-modified recycled-aggregate concrete, Journal of
Cleaner Production (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.03.003
 L.-J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e14 13

Fig. 19. Failure modes of RMRAC with 0.864-mm rubber particles under different input pressures.

Fig. 20. Failure modes of RMRAC with 0.221-mm rubber particles under different input pressures.

Please cite this article in press as: Li, L.-J., et al., Mechanical characterization of waste-rubber-modified recycled-aggregate concrete, Journal of
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14 L.-J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2016) 1e14
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Project No. 51278132, 11472084) and the
Foundation of Guangdong Provincial Transportation Department
(Project No. 2012-02-008). The assistance of these foundations is
greatly appreciated.
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