Module 16-07 Piston Engine: Supercharging and Turbocharging

AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 16– Piston engine
Category  A  B1  B2  B3 07- Supercharging and turbocharging

Level  1  2  3
Module 16-07
Piston Engine
Supercharging and Turbocharging
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Table of contents
I. PRINCIPLES AND PURPOSE OF SUPERCHARGING AND ITS EFFECTS ON ENGINE PARAMETERS .................................................................. 3
1. STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (RECALL): ............................................................................................................................................................................ 3
1.1. Parameters: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2. Standards values at sea level: ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.3. Standards values at altitude level: ................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
2. SUPERCHARGING PURPOSE: ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.1. Supercharger principles: ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2. Supercharger operation: .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 10
2.3. Supercharger altitude engine: ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
2.4. Supercharger types: .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
2.5. Blow-through carburetion: ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
2.6. Turn back: .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
2.7. Ignition systems with a supercharger: ......................................................................................................................................................................... 19
2.8. Internal and external superchargers:........................................................................................................................................................................... 20
3. TURBO (SUPER) CHARGING PURPOSE: .................................................................................................................................................................... 21
3.1. Turbocharger principle:................................................................................................................................................................................................ 21
3.2. Turbocharger overboosting: ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 22
3.3. Turbocharger limitations: ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 22
3.4. High altitude performance: .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
II. CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF SUPERCHARGING/TURBOCHARGING SYSTEMS ................................................................................. 23
1. SUPERCHARGING CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION: .......................................................................................................................................... 23
1.1. Supercharger components: ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
1.2. Supercharger operation: .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
2. TURBOCHARGING CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION: .......................................................................................................................................... 24
2.1. Turbocharger components: ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
2.2. Turbocharger operation: .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 28
III. SYSTEM TERMINOLOGY .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 29
IV. CONTROL AND PROTECTION SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................................................................... 30
1. SUPERCHARGER INDUCTION SYSTEM CONTROL AND TROUBLESHOTTING: ................................................................................................... 30
2. TURBOCHARGER CONTROLLERS AND SYSTEM DESCRIPTION: .......................................................................................................................... 31
2.1. Variable absolute pressure controller (VAPC): ........................................................................................................................................................... 33
2.2. Sloped controller:......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
2.3. Absolute pressure controller: ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
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I. PRINCIPLES AND PURPOSE OF SUPERCHARGING AND ITS EFFECTS ON ENGINE PARAMETERS
1. STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (RECALL):

The atmosphere is the natural elements in which the aircraft operates. From the surface of the ground towards higher altitudes, the atmosphere is
composed of several layers.
The characteristics of the atmosphere, basically, influence the behavior of the aircraft. The pressure, the density as well as the temperature decrease
with altitude.
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1.1. Parameters:
3
 Density () in kilograms per cubic meter (Kg/m )
 Pressure (P) in Pascals (Pa)
 Temperature (T) in Kelvins (K)
1.2. Standards values at sea level:

The aerodynamic behavior of the aircraft depends on the state of the air, which varies according to the altitude.
Moreover, at a given altitude, the state of the air varies according to the place and climate conditions.
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The average values retained by the I.C.A.O (International Civil Aviation Organization) for the standard atmosphere at sea level are:
 0 = 1,2256 Kg/m3
 P0 = 101325 Pa
 T0 = 288,15 K
1.3. Standards values at altitude level:
ALTITUDE DENSITY PRESSURE TEMPERATURE

3
Z in km  in kg / m P in pascals
T in Kelvin T in ° Celsius
0 1.2256 101325 288.15 15

1 1.1109 89876 281.65 8.5
5 0.7354 54008 255.65 - 17.5
10 0.4118 26420 223.15 - 50
11 0.3638 22604 216.65 - 56.5
15 0.1932 12038 216.65 - 56.5
20 0.0873 05465 216.65 - 56.5
25 0.0397 02401 216.65 - 56.5
Let us observe the 3 principal parameters which define the state of the air at rest.
Density tells us how much of a substance occupies a given volume.
M (kg)
ρ (kg.m3 ) =
V (m3 )
Density of air is the ratio of a mass of air to its volume.
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Consider a mass of air in a cylinder closed by a piston. By applying a force to this same piston we generate a decrease in volume and the density of
air increase.
We previously saw that the weight of the atmosphere which superimposes a volume of air exerts a force on the latter. Let us consider a tiny cube
inside a volume of air.
It is noted that on the face of this cube, the surrounding air exerts a force F towards the cube and perpendicular to this face. The origin of this force
is thus the weight of the air located at the top of the cube. Thus, the face of surface S is subjected to a pressure F/S.
This value of pressure is identical on all the faces and does not change. It is therefore an intrinsic value at the center of this cube.
The value attached to this point is the static pressure (Ps): it is Σ of the forces that the surrounding air exerts at a point
F (N)
P (Pa) =
S (m2 )
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Atmospheric pressure
Torricelli experiment shows that, at sea level, the atmospheric pressure H is:
ρghS
P0 = 1 atm. = F = = ρgh
S S
13.6 × (103 kg/m3 ) × (9.81N/kg) × (0.76m) × S
S
P0 = 1.014 × 105 Pa = 1.014 bar
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2. SUPERCHARGING PURPOSE:
The main purpose of supercharging an aircraft engine is to increase the manifold pressure above the pressure of the atmosphere in order to provide
high power output for takeoff and to sustain the maximum power at high altitudes.
Increased manifold pressure increases the power output in two ways:
 It increases the weight of the fuel-air mixture (charge) delivered to the cylinders of the engine.
At a constant temperature the weight of the fuel-air mixture that can be contained in a given volume of space is dependent on the pressure
of the mixture.
If the pressure on any given volume of gas is increased, the weight of that gas is increased because the density is increased.
 It increases the compression pressure.
The compression ratio for any given engine is constant; hence the greater the pressure of the fuel-air mixture at the beginning of the
compression stroke, the greater will be the compression pressure, the latter being the pressure of the mixture at the end of the
compression stroke.
Higher compression pressure causes a higher mean effective pressure and consequently a higher engine output.
2.1. Supercharger principles:

Both supercharger and turbocharger systems increase the engine’s horsepower. They both compress the intake air to increase its density. The key
difference lies in the power supply.
A supercharger relies on an engine-driven air pump or compressor, while a turbocharger gets its power from the exhaust stream that runs through a
turbine, which in turn spins the compressor. Aircraft with these systems have a manifold pressure gauge, which displays additional pressure within
the engine’s intake manifold.
On a standard day at sea level with the engine shut down, the manifold pressure gauge will indicate the ambient absolute air pressure of 29.92 "Hg.
Because atmospheric pressure decreases approximately 1" Hg per 1 000 feet of altitude increase, the manifold pressure gauge will indicate
approximately 24.92 " Hg at an airport that is 5 000 feet above sea level with standard day conditions.
As a normally aspirated aircraft climbs, it eventually reaches an altitude where the MAP (Manifold Air Pressure) is insufficient for a normal climb. That
altitude limit is the aircraft’s service ceiling, and it is directly affected by the engine’s ability to produce power.
If the induction air entering the engine is pressurized, or boosted, by either a supercharger or a turbocharger, the aircraft’s service ceiling can be
increased.
With these systems, an aircraft can fly at higher altitudes with the advantage of higher true airspeeds and the increased ability to circumnavigate
adverse weather.
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Typical supercharger
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2.2. Supercharger operation:
A supercharger is an engine-driven air pump or compressor that provides compressed air to the engine to provide additional pressure to the
induction air so the engine can produce additional power.
It increases manifold pressure and forces the fuel/air mixture into the cylinders.
The higher the manifold pressure, the more dense the fuel/air mixture, and the more power an engine can produce.
With a normally aspirated engine, it is not possible to have manifold pressure higher than the existing atmospheric pressure. A supercharger is
capable of boosting manifold pressure above 30 "Hg.
Superchargers are especially valuable at high altitudes (such as 18,000 feet) where the air density is 50 percent that of sea level. The use of a
supercharger in many cases will supply air to the engine at the same density it did at sea level.
With a normally aspirated engine, it is not possible to have manifold pressure higher than the existing atmospheric pressure.
A supercharger is capable of boosting manifold pressure above 30" Hg.
2.3. Supercharger altitude engine:

Under normal operations, takeoff is made with the supercharger in the low blower position. In the low blower position. In this mode, the engine
performs as a ground-boosted engine, and the power output decreases as the aircraft gains altitude.
However, once the aircraft reaches a specified altitude, a power reduction is made, and the supercharger control is switched to the high blower
position.
The throttle is then reset to the desired manifold pressure.
An engine equipped with this type of supercharger is called an altitude engine.
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Power output of normally aspirated engine compared to a single-stage, two-speed supercharged

engine
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2.4. Supercharger types:
Superchargers fall largely into three design categories:
 roots,
 centrifugal, and
 screw.
The most traditional being the Roots.
As noted, the key to making good power in an internal combustion engine is to increase the amount of air and fuel stuffed into each cylinder before
every power stroke.
This improves the combustion that produces the heat that is transferred into energy, translating to greater force on the piston and the connecting rod
so that crankshaft turns with added power.
This is basically the same reason larger-displacement engines make more power and torque than smaller ones; there is a larger supply of air and
fuel within the cylinders.
 Roots-type:
A Roots-style (Francis Marion Roots) blower is probably the most commonly noticed supercharger at cruise-ins. On some
applications these stick out of the hood with one or two carburettors attached.
These units act as an air pump so that the compression of the inlet charge (boost) takes place inside of the manifold and cylinders,
external from the blower. Because every full rotation of the Roots compressor element generates a specific amount of air pumped
from the inlet side to the exhaust outlet (directly into the intake manifold), the Roots style is considered a positive-displacement
blower.
Inside the case of a Roots blower are intermeshing, rotating rotors. A crankshaft-mounted pulley spins a drive pulley through a belt
(typically cogged on larger blowers to eliminate slippage).
The drive pulley, mounted on the front of the supercharger, is connected to internal gears that turn the rotors. The spinning of the
rotors compresses air and fuel supplied from either the carburettor(s) or a fuel-injection system mounted above the blower case. This
air/fuel mixture is pumped between the supercharger case and rotors.
Traditional Roots-style superchargers generally produce on-the-spot boost pressure down low in the rpm band and maintain it as
engine speeds increase. However, efficiency generally tapers off at higher rpm due to heat build-up inside the case and leakage past
the rotor seals. The added temperature may make the engine more prone to detonation.
Two ways to counteract this problem are to run a slightly larger blower, which helps move more air, and under-driving the blower
slightly to reduce boost.
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Eaton M62 Roots-type supercharger
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A roots-type blower with two-lobed rotors
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 Twin-screw-type:
The outward appearance of a twin-screw supercharger appears very similar to a traditional Roots-style unit, but there are a few
distinct differences. A twin-screw's air compression takes place inside the supercharger, making it an internal-compression unit.
Second, a screw-type blower uses rotors with tighter clearances that interleave to pull in and compress the air as it passes through.
Third, the incoming air enters the twin-screw supercharger through the rear or top rear.
The shorter airflow path of a twin-screw minimizes the high turbulence, friction, heat (reduced often by 50 percent), and pumping
losses commonly found with the traditional Roots designs.
Like all superchargers, the twin-screw is belt driven. Because of the closer tolerance design, a twin-screw supercharger is often more
expensive than a standard Roots type.
Twin-screw-type supercharger principle
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Ford Mustang twin-screw-type supercharger
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 Centrifugal-type supercharger:
Centrifugal superchargers are installed along the front of the engine in line with other driven accessories (e.g., alternators and A/C
compressors). A step-up drive inside the blower increases the speed of the internal impeller.
Depending on the size and design, centrifugal blowers are capable of large power increases, while their compactness allows them to
fit a variety of engines.
Centrifugal-type supercharger principle
While the non-centrifugal blower typically builds boost early and maintains it as rpm increases, a centrifugal blower typically builds
boost exponentially. This means that as the blower's rotational rpm increases, the boost increases at a quicker rate.
Key advantages of the boost increasing at higher engine speed are that there are fewer traction and detonation problems.
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Selecting the right centrifugal supercharger requires a little research since matching the system correctly to the engine's performance
level is key.
Paxton centrifugal-type supercharger

Centrifugal superchargers develop added power from maximum shaft speed, the overall compressor housing size, and impeller trim
configuration.
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This influences the amount and rpm level that maximum boost occurs at on various engines. Centrifugal supercharger manufacturers
can provide excellent help in selecting the proper system for your vehicle's performance requirements.
2.5. Blow-through carburetion:

On a blow-through supercharger system, the carburettor can either reside in a pressurized box or utilize a special carburettor hat. Under boost the
false atmosphere (pressure being blown into the carb) requires revamping many of the original carburettor designs to properly supply fuel.
A blow-through carburettor generally features sealed caps on the metering blocks, the main well, and the idle well. These carburettors typically
feature only annular boosters so that as the signal gets stronger more fuel flows into the engine.
As boost is increased by each psi, fuel pressure must too be increased at the same rate. To do this, a special regulator is referenced to boost
pressure and raise or lower the regulated fuel pressure, depending on demand.
2.6. Turn back:

Reverse-rotation superchargers are generally used in applications where there are fitment issues or on engines designed to spin opposite of most
other engines.
Fitment issues arise when the area behind the belt driveline is impacted. Examples are 32-valve cylinder heads and exhaust manifolds. In this case
the supercharger is mounted in front of the belt line. Consequently, the supercharger must now be rotated in a reverse motion, in which case
manufacturers design the inner components of the blower as a mirror image of a standard unit.
2.7. Ignition systems with a supercharger:

On any blown engine, high-performance ignitions are required primarily to provide adequate spark at higher-than-normal engine pressures and
speeds.
Additionally, it is often a good idea to run spark plugs that are one to two ranges colder than normal. Rule of thumb: the more boost, the colder the
plug required.
One of the most important concerns with any supercharger installation is detonation control. This is because under acceleration, detonation can
damage the piston ring lands (or other worse yet, damage rod bearings, destroy pistons, or blow head gaskets). A handy device to counteract most
detonation problems is an ignition system with a boost-retard control.
Ignition timing is especially critical with a supercharger to not only keep detonation at bay, but also provide good power. For most applications, the
distributor should have a centrifugal advance mechanism set up so that the entire advance is in by 2,500 rpm. Typically, 34 degrees should be a safe
level of ignition lead to provide close to optimum performance.
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2.8. Internal and external superchargers:
Most superchargers used on conventional airplanes are alike in that an impeller or "blower" (rotating at high speed) is used to compress either the air
before it is mixed with the fuel in the carburettor or the fuel-air mixture which leaves the carburettor.
It is therefore possible to classify superchargers according to their location in the induction system of the airplane as either an internal-compression
type or an external-compression type.
 Internal-compression type:
When the supercharger is located between the carburettor and the cylinder-intake parts, it is an internal-compression type.
Internal compression refers to the compression of air within the supercharger itself, which, already at or close to boost level, can be
delivered smoothly to the engine with little or no back flow.
This is more effective than back flow compression and allows higher efficiency to be achieved. Internal compression devices usually
use a fixed internal compression ratio. When the boost pressure is equal to the compression pressure of the supercharger, the back
flow is zero.
If the boost pressure exceeds that compression pressure, back flow can still occur as in a roots blower. Internal compression blowers
must be matched to the expected boost pressure in order to achieve the higher efficiency they are capable of, otherwise they will
suffer the same problems and low efficiency of the roots blowers.
In the internal-compression type, air enters the carburettor at atmospheric pressure and is mixed in the carburettor with the fuel.
The fuel-air mixture leaves the carburettor at near-atmospheric pressure, is compressed in the supercharger to a pressure greater
than atmospheric, and then enters the engine cylinders.
The power required to drive the supercharger impeller is transmitted from the engine crankshaft by means of a gear train.
Because of the high gear ratio, the impeller rotates much faster than the crankshaft. If the gear ratio is adjustable for two different
speeds, the supercharger is described as a two-speed supercharger.
In general, the internal-type supercharger may be used with an engine which is not expected to operate at very high altitudes or, in
any event, where it is not necessary for air to be delivered under pressure to the carburettor intake.
 External-compression type:
An external-compression type supercharger delivers compressed air to the carburettor intake.
External-compression refers to pumps that transfer air at ambient pressure into the engine.
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If the engine is running under boost conditions, the pressure in the intake manifold is higher than that coming from the supercharger.
That causes a backflow from the engine into the supercharger until the two reach equilibrium. It is the backflow that actually
compresses the incoming gas. This is a highly inefficient process, and the main factor in the lack of efficiency of Roots superchargers
when used at high boost levels.
The lower the boost level the smaller is this loss, and Roots blowers are very efficient at moving air at low pressure differentials,
which is what they were first invented for (hence the original term "blower").
In the external-compression type, the air is compressed in the supercharger and then delivered through an air cooler to the
carburettor where it is mixed with the fuel.
Since the power required to drive the ordinary type of external supercharger is obtained from the action of the engine exhaust gases
against a bucket wheel or turbine, the external type is also called a turbo super-charger or turbocharger depending on whether it
supercharges the air or merely maintains sea-level pressure.
The speed of the impeller depends only on the quantity and pressure of the exhaust gases directed against the bucket wheel; hence
the turbo supercharger is also a multi-speed supercharger.
The volume of exhaust directed through the turbine is determined by the position of the waste gate. The waste gate is operated by
means of a control in the cockpit.
3. TURBO (SUPER) CHARGING PURPOSE:
3.1. Turbocharger principle:

The most efficient method of increasing horsepower in an engine is by use of a turbo supercharger or turbocharger. Installed on an engine, this
booster uses the engine’s exhaust gases to drive an air compressor to increase the pressure of the air going into the engine through the carburettor
or fuel injection system to boost power at higher altitude.
The major disadvantage of the gear-driven supercharger - use of a large amount of the engine’s power output for the amount of power increase
produced - is avoided with a turbocharger, because turbochargers are powered by an engine’s exhaust gases.
This means a turbocharger recovers energy from hot exhaust gases that would otherwise be lost.
A second advantage of turbochargers over superchargers is the ability to maintain control over an engine’s rated sea-level horsepower from sea
level up to the engine’s critical altitude.
Critical altitude is the maximum altitude at which a turbocharged engine can produce its rated horsepower. Above the critical altitude, power output
begins to decrease like it does for a normally aspirated engine.
Turbochargers increase the pressure of the engine’s induction air, which allows the engine to develop sea level or greater horsepower at higher
altitudes.
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3.2. Turbocharger overboosting:

Other turbocharging system designs use a separate manual control to position the waste gate. With manual control, the manifold pressure gauge
must be closely monitored to determine when the desired MAP has been achieved. Manual systems are often found on aircraft that have been
modified with aftermarket turbocharging systems.
These systems require special operating considerations.
For example, if the waste gate is left closed after descending from a high altitude, it is possible to produce a manifold pressure that exceeds the
engine’s limitations. This condition, called an overboost, may produce severe detonation because of the leaning effect resulting from increased air
density during descent.
Although an automatic waste gate system is less likely to experience an overboost condition, it can still occur.
If takeoff power is applied while the engine oil temperature is below its normal operating range, the cold oil may not flow out of the waste gate
actuator quickly enough to prevent an overboost. To help prevent overboosting, advance the throttle cautiously to prevent exceeding the maximum
manifold pressure limits.
3.3. Turbocharger limitations:

A pilot flying an aircraft with a turbocharger should be aware of system limitations.
For example, a turbocharger turbine and impeller can operate at rotational speeds in excess of 80 000 RPM while at extremely high temperatures.
To achieve high rotational speed, the bearings within the system must be constantly supplied with engine oil to reduce the frictional forces and high
temperature.
To obtain adequate lubrication, the oil temperature should be in the normal operating range before high throttle settings are applied. In addition, allow
the turbocharger to cool and the turbine to slow down before shutting the engine down. Otherwise, the oil remaining in the bearing housing will boil,
causing hard carbon deposits to form on the bearings and shaft. These deposits rapidly deteriorate the turbocharger’s efficiency and service life.
3.4. High altitude performance:

As an aircraft equipped with a turbocharging system climbs, the waste gate is gradually closed to maintain the maximum allowable manifold
pressure.
At some point, the waste gate will be fully closed and further increases in altitude will cause the manifold pressure to decrease. This is the critical
altitude, which is established by the aircraft or engine manufacturer.
When evaluating the performance of the turbocharging system, be aware that if the manifold pressure begins decreasing before the specified critical
altitude, the engine and turbocharging system should be inspected by a qualified aviation maintenance technician to verify the system’s proper
operation.
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II. CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF SUPERCHARGING/TURBOCHARGING SYSTEMS
1. SUPERCHARGING CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION:

1.1. Supercharger components:
The components in a supercharged induction system are similar to those in a normally aspirated system, with the addition of a supercharger
between the fuel metering device and intake manifold.
A supercharger is driven by the engine through a gear train at one speed, two speeds, or variable speeds.
In addition, superchargers can have one or more stages. Each stage also provides an increase in pressure and superchargers may be classified as
single stage, two stage, or multistage, depending on the number of times compression occurs.
1.2. Supercharger operation:

An early version of a single-stage, single-speed supercharger may be referred to as a sea-level supercharger. An engine equipped with this type of
supercharger is called a sea-level engine.
With this type of supercharger, a single gear-driven impeller is used to increase the power produced by an engine at all altitudes. The drawback with
this type of supercharger is a decrease in engine power output with an increase in altitude.
Single-stage, single-speed superchargers are found on many high-powered radial engines and use an air intake that faces forward so the induction
system can take full advantage of the ram air.
Intake air passes through ducts to a carburettor, where fuel is metered in proportion to the airflow. The fuel/air charge is then ducted to the
supercharger, or blower impeller, which accelerates the fuel/air mixture outward.
Once accelerated, the fuel/air mixture passes through a diffuser, where air velocity is traded for pressure energy. After compression, the resulting
high pressure fuel/air mixture is directed to the cylinders.
Some of the large radial engines developed during World War II have a single-stage, two-speed supercharger. With this type of supercharger, a
single impeller may be operated at two speeds.
The low impeller speed is often referred to as the low blower setting, while the high impeller speed is called the high blower setting.
On engines equipped with a two-speed supercharger, a lever or switch in the flight deck activates an oil-operated clutch that switches from one
speed to the other.
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Supercharger components
2. TURBOCHARGING CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION:
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Turbocharger systems
 Turbocharger:
The turbocharger incorporates a turbine, which is driven by exhaust gases, and a compressor that pressurizes the incoming air.
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 Throttle body:
The throttle regulates airflow to the engine.
 Intake manifold:
The pressurized air from the turbocharger is supplied to the cylinders.
 Waste gate:
This controls the amount of exhaust through the turbine. Waste gate position is actuated by engine oil pressure.
 Air intake:
Air intake is ducted to the turbocharger where it is compressed.
 Exhaust manifold:
Exhaust gas is ducted through the exhaust manifold and is used to turn the turbine which drives the compressor.
2.1. Turbocharger components:

A turbocharger is comprised of two main elements:
 a compressor and
 a turbine.
The compressor section houses an impeller that turns at a high rate of speed. As induction air is drawn across the impeller blades, the impeller
accelerates the air, allowing a large volume of air to be drawn into the compressor housing. The impeller’s action subsequently produces high-
pressure, high-density air, which is delivered to the engine.
To turn the impeller, the engine’s exhaust gases are used to drive a turbine wheel that is mounted on the opposite end of the impeller’s drive shaft.
By directing different amounts of exhaust gases to flow over the turbine, more energy can be extracted, causing the impeller to deliver more
compressed air to the engine.
The waste gate, essentially an adjustable butterfly valve installed in the exhaust system, is used to vary the mass of exhaust gas flowing into the
turbine.
When closed, most of the exhaust gases from the engine are forced to flow through the turbine. When open, the exhaust gases are allowed to
bypass the turbine by flowing directly out through the engine’s exhaust pipe.
Since the temperature of a gas rises when it is compressed, turbocharging causes the temperature of the induction air to increase.
To reduce this temperature and lower the risk of detonation, many turbocharged engines use an intercooler. This small heat exchanger uses outside
air to cool the hot compressed air before it enters the fuel metering device.
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Turbocharger main parts

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2.2. Turbocharger operation:

On most modern turbocharged engines, the position of the waste gate is governed by a pressure-sensing control mechanism coupled to an actuator.
Engine oil directed into or away from this actuator moves the waste gate position.
On these systems, the actuator is automatically positioned to produce the desired MAP simply by changing the position of the throttle control
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III. SYSTEM TERMINOLOGY
 Gearcase:
Std = Standard Gearcase, HD = Heavy Duty Gearcase. Heavy Duty gearcases include high-speed bearings.
 Max speed:
Maximum recommended impeller speed (RPM - Rotations Per Minute). Recommendations are based on supercharger efficiency and
gearcase configuration (Std/HD).
 Max boost:
Highest boost pressure attainable at maximum recommended impeller speed (PSIG - Pounds Per Square Inch, Gauge Pressure).
 Max flow:
Airflow at maximum recommended speed (CFM - Cubic Feet Per Minute).
 Max power:
Estimated horsepower production for appropriate engine. Due to our rating system, horsepower figures are a relative guide and not an
absolute maximum. Horsepower data resulted from engine tests and/or was extrapolated from compressor map data.
 Peak efficiency:
Highest isentropic compressor efficiency attained per SAE.
 Inlet OD:
Outside Diameter of air inlet opening, for hose or sleeve connection
 Outlet OD:
Outside diameter of air discharge opening, for hose or sleeve connection
 Inducer diameter:
Inside diameter of air inlet opening
 Outlet ID:
Inside diameter of air discharge opening
16 - 07- 29
Level  1  2  3
IV. CONTROL AND PROTECTION SYSTEMS
1. SUPERCHARGER INDUCTION SYSTEM CONTROL AND TROUBLESHOTTING:

Next table provides a general guide to the most common induction system troubles.
PROBABLE CAUSE ISOLATION PROCEDURE CORRECTION
1. ENGINE FAILS TO START

Induction system obstructed Inspect air scoop and air ducts Remove obstructions
Air leaks Inspect carburettor mounting and intake pipes Tighten carburettor and repair/replace intake pipe
2. ENGINE RUNS ROUGH
Loose air ducts Inspect air ducts Tighten air ducts
Leaking intake pipes Inspect intake pipe packing nuts Tighten nuts
Engine valves sticking Remove rocker arm cover, check valve action Lubricate and free sticking valves
Bent or worn valve push rods Inspect push rods Replace worn or damaged push rods
3. LOW POWER
Restricted intake duct Examine intake duct Remove restrictions
Broken door in carburettor air valve Inspect air valve Replace air valve
Dirty air filter Inspect air filter Clear air filter
4. ENGINE IDLES IMPROPERLY
Shrunken intake packing Inspect packing for proper fit Replace packing
Hole in intake pipe Inspect intake pipe Replace defective intake pipes
Loose carburettor mounting Inspect mount bolts Tighten mount bolts
16 - 07- 30
Level  1  2  3
Since aircraft operate at altitudes where the air pressure is lower, it is useful to provide a system for compressing the fuel/air mixture. Some systems
are used to normalize the air pressure entering the engine. These systems are used to regain the air pressure lost by the increase in altitude. This
type of system is not a ground boost system and it is not used to ever boost the manifold pressure above 30 inches of mercury.
A true surpercharged engine, called ground boosted engines, can boost the manifold pressure above 30 inches of mercury. In other words, a true
supercharger boosts the manifold pressure above ambient pressure.
Since many engines installed in light aircraft do not use any type of compressor or supercharging device, induction systems for reciprocating engines
can be broadly classified as supercharged or non-supercharged.
Supercharging systems used in reciprocating engine induction systems are normally classified as either internally driven or externally driven (turbo-
supercharged). Internally driven superchargers compress the fuel/air mixture after it leaves the carburettor, while externally driven superchargers
(turbochargers) compress the air before it is mixed with the metered fuel from the carburettor.
2. TURBOCHARGER CONTROLLERS AND SYSTEM DESCRIPTION:

Some systems use special lines and fittings that are connected to the upper-deck pressure for air reference to the fuel injection system and in some
cases for pressurizing the magnetos.
Basic system operation is similar to other systems with the main differences being in the controllers. The controller monitors deck pressure by
sensing the output of the compressor.
The controller controls the oil flow through the wastegate actuator, which opens or closes the exhaust bypass valve. When deck pressure is
insufficient, the controller restricts oil flow thereby increasing oil pressure at the wastegate actuator.
This pressure acts on the piston to close off the wastegate valve, forcing more exhaust gas pulses to turn the turbine faster and cause an increase in
compressor output. When deck pressure is too great, the opposite occurs.
The exhaust wastegate fully opens and bypasses some of the exhaust gases to decrease exhaust flow across the turbine.
An aftercooler is installed in the induction air path between the compressor stage and the air throttle inlet
Most turbo-super-chargers are capable of compressing the induction air to the point at which it can raise the air temperature by a factor of five.
This means that full power takeoff on a 100 °F day could produce induction air temperatures exiting the compressor at up to 500 °F. This would
exceed the allowable throttle air inlet temperature on all reciprocating engine models. Typically, the maximum air throttle inlet temperature ranges
from a low 230 °F to a high of 300 °F. Exceeding these maximums can place the combustion chambers closer to detonation.
The function of the aftercooler is to cool the compressed air, which decreases the likelihood of detonation and increases the charge air density, which
improves the turbocharger performance for that engine design.
16 - 07- 31
Level  1  2  3
An aftercooler installation
16 - 07- 32
Level  1  2  3
On engine start, the controller senses insufficient compressor discharge pressure (deck pressure) and restricts the flow of oil from the wastegate
actuator to the engine.
This causes the wastegate butterfly valve to close.
As the throttle is advanced, exhaust gas flows across the turbine increases, thereby increasing turbine/compressor shaft speed and compressor
discharge pressure.
The controller senses the difference between upper deck and manifold pressure.
If either deck pressure or throttle differential pressure rises, the controller poppet valve opens, relieving oil pressure to the wastegate actuator.
This decreases turbocharger compressor discharge pressure (deck pressure).
2.1. Variable absolute pressure controller (VAPC):

The VAPC contains an oil control valve similar to the other controllers that were discussed. The oil restrictor is actuated by an aneroid bellows that is
referenced to upper deck pressure.
See next figure.
A cam connected to the throttle mechanism applies pressure to the restrictor valve and aneroid. As the throttle is opened to greater values, the cam
applies a greater pressure to the aneroid.
This increases the amount of upper deck pressure necessary to compress the aneroid and thereby open the oil restrictor valve.
This means that the scheduled absolute value of upper deck pressure that is required to overcome the aneroid is variable by throttle position. As the
throttle is opened wide, the manifold pressure and upper deck pressure requirements greatly increase.
2.2. Sloped controller:

The sloped controller is designed to maintain the rated compressor discharge pressure at wide-open throttle and to reduce this pressure at part
throttle settings.
A diaphragm, coupled with a spring-supported bellows for absolute pressure reference, is exposed to deck pressure and intake manifold pressure
through ports located before and after the throttle, respectively.
This arrangement constantly monitors deck pressure and the pressure differential between the deck and manifold pressure due to a partially closed
throttle. If either deck pressure or throttle differential pressure rises, the controller poppet opens and decreases turbocharger discharge (deck)
pressure.
The sloped controller is more sensitive to the throttle differential pressure than to deck pressure, thereby accomplishing deck pressure reduction as
the throttle is closed.
16 - 07- 33
Level  1  2  3
A diagram of a variable absolute pressure controller (VAPC)
16 - 07- 34
Level  1  2  3
A diagram of a sloped controller used to maintain the rated

Compressor discharge pressure at wide-open throttle
16 - 07- 35
Level  1  2  3
2.3. Absolute pressure controller:
One device used to control the speed and output of the super-turbocharger, but controls the system only at maximum output, is the absolute
pressure controller. The absolute pressure controller contains an aneroid bellows that is referenced to upper deck pressure. It operates the
wastegate, which diverts, more or less, exhaust gas over the turbine.
As an absolute pressure setting is reached, it bypasses oil, and relieves the pressure on the waste gate actuator.
This allows the absolute pressure controller to control the maximum turbocharger compressor discharge pressure. The turbocharger is completely
automatic, requiring no pilot action up to the critical altitude.
16 - 07- 36

Module 16-07 Piston Engine: Supercharging and Turbocharging

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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 16– Piston engine

Category  A  B1  B2  B3 07- Supercharging and turbocharging

Supercharging and Turbocharging

I. PRINCIPLES AND PURPOSE OF SUPERCHARGING AND ITS EFFECTS ON ENGINE PARAMETERS

1. STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (RECALL):

1.2. Standards values at sea level:

ALTITUDE DENSITY PRESSURE TEMPERATURE

0 1.2256 101325 288.15 15

2.1. Supercharger principles:

2.3. Supercharger altitude engine:

Power output of normally aspirated engine compared to a single-stage, two-speed supercharged

Eaton M62 Roots-type supercharger

A roots-type blower with two-lobed rotors

Twin-screw-type supercharger principle

Ford Mustang twin-screw-type supercharger

Centrifugal-type supercharger principle

Paxton centrifugal-type supercharger

2.5. Blow-through carburetion:

2.6. Turn back:

2.7. Ignition systems with a supercharger:

3. TURBO (SUPER) CHARGING PURPOSE:

3.1. Turbocharger principle:

3.2. Turbocharger overboosting:

3.3. Turbocharger limitations:

3.4. High altitude performance:

II. CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF SUPERCHARGING/TURBOCHARGING SYSTEMS

1. SUPERCHARGING CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION:

1.2. Supercharger operation:

2. TURBOCHARGING CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION:

2.1. Turbocharger components:

Turbocharger main parts

2.2. Turbocharger operation:

III. SYSTEM TERMINOLOGY

IV. CONTROL AND PROTECTION SYSTEMS

1. SUPERCHARGER INDUCTION SYSTEM CONTROL AND TROUBLESHOTTING:

PROBABLE CAUSE ISOLATION PROCEDURE CORRECTION

1. ENGINE FAILS TO START

2. TURBOCHARGER CONTROLLERS AND SYSTEM DESCRIPTION:

2.1. Variable absolute pressure controller (VAPC):

2.2. Sloped controller:

A diagram of a variable absolute pressure controller (VAPC)

A diagram of a sloped controller used to maintain the rated

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