AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15– Gas turbine engine

Category  A  B1  B2  B3 05- Combustion section

Level  1  2  3

Module 15-05
Gas Turbine Engine

Combustion Section

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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15– Gas turbine engine
Category  A  B1  B2  B3 05- Combustion section
Level  1  2  3

Table of contents

CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES AND PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION ...................................................................................................................................... 3

1. CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES: ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
1.1. Location:............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
1.2. Function: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.3. Description: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.4. Axial chambers: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
1.4.1. Separate chamber: ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.4.2. Annulus:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.4.3. Cannular combustion chamber .................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
1.5. Advantages, disadvantages and effectivity....................................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.6. Stresses and materials: .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.7. Evolution: .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
1.8. Return flow combustion chamber: .................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
2. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF A CHAMBER: ................................................................................................................................................................. 9
2.1. Injection: .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
2.2. Study of the gas vein: ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
2.3. Theory of combustion: .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
2.3.1. Proportioning: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
2.3.2. Richness: .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 13
2.4. Limitations: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
2.5. Emissions: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15

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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15– Gas turbine engine
Category  A  B1  B2  B3 05- Combustion section
Level  1  2  3
CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES AND PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

1. CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES:
1.1. Location:
The combustion chamber is an engine element which connects the compressor outlet to the turbine inlet. It is located between stations 2 and 3 in a
single flow turbojet, as shown below:

1.2. Function:
The function of the combustion chamber is to increase the temperature of the gas stream which passes through it, in order to increase its heating
power. For that purpose, it mixes compressed and heated air coming from the compressor with fuel pulverized by the burners. This mixture has a
chemical potential energy.

The combustion, initiated by a spark in the igniter, makes it possible to transform this chemical energy into calorific energy.
This calorific energy, by thermal expansion, leads to an increase in the gas volume at constant pressure. This phenomenon is called isobaric
transformation.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15– Gas turbine engine
Category  A  B1  B2  B3 05- Combustion section
Level  1  2  3
Increase in volume at constant pressure = ISOBARIC Transformation
This is made possible because the chamber inlet and outlet sections are different. Then, the gases are tremendously accelerated and are ejected
towards the turbine.
Calorific energy is thus transformed into kinetic energy.

1.3. Description:
Although there are various types of combustion chambers, they are always composed of the same elements (which have identical functions).

Description of a combustion chamber

They are: (see figure)
a burner which supplies with fuel,
a swirler which diffuses air and mixes it with fuel,
a flame tube which ducts the flame for it not to be in direct contact with the housing,
an igniter which starts combustion (they are two in all in the engine),
an external housing which is the external casing of the chamber,

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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15– Gas turbine engine
Category  A  B1  B2  B3 05- Combustion section
Level  1  2  3
an internal housing which avoids the propagation of heat in the core of the engine.

1.4. Axial chambers:

Axial chambers are characterized by a tubular architecture which lets the gas stream circulate parallel to the longitudinal axis of the engine.
They are generally in the prolongation of an axial compressor.
From old-fashioned to brand new jet engines, three types of axial chambers can be distinguished between:
separate chambers also called can or cellular type chamber,
cannular combustion chamber,
annulus (annuli).

1.4.1. Separate chamber:

A separate chamber is characterized mainly by a set of independent chambers placed around the longitudinal axis of the engine.
Each chamber comprises:
a burner,
a swirler,
a flame tube,
an outer jacket,
crossover tubes.

Igniters start combustion which propagates into the other elements throughout crossover tubes.
The drainage system makes it possible to recover excess fuel during starting and flame-out.

1.4.2. Annulus:
Annuli are of particular constitution and represent the most successful evolution of combustion.
They are characterized by two housings: an internal one and another one external, the shape of which are concentric cylindrical.
These housings constitute the structural parts of the engine which connect the compressor casing to the turbine casing.
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Category  A  B1  B2  B3 05- Combustion section
Level  1  2  3
The flame tube, contrary to that of the separate chamber, is single and surrounds completely the longitudinal axis of the engine. This has the
advantage of offering a maximum volume to combustion.
Burners are laid out regularly on all the perimeter of the flame tube inlet. Because of their mutual proximity, they shape the flame into a circle of fire
The return flow combustion chamber is made almost the same way and is composed of the same type of elements.

1.4.3. Cannular combustion chamber

The design of this combustion chamber is based on a compromise between separate chamber and annulus.
The secondary (cooling) air flow circulates between two housings, of which one is internal and the other one external, as in the annulus.
A crossover system, similar to that of separate chambers, connects flame tubes together making it possible to propagate combustion during starting.

1.5. Advantages, disadvantages and effectivity

The following table shows the main advantages and disadvantages of the chambers that we studied as well as a short list of their applications.

TYPE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES EFFECTIVITY

SEPARATE  chambers are interchangeable  loss of efficiency by friction Rolls Royce DART
CHAMBER (significant surfaces of friction), Turbopropeller
 significant weight (as the chambers
 accessibility is easy
have no structural design, they
require junction pieces between the
compressor and the turbine)
 overall dimension is significant
(associated with a centrifugal
compressor, it increases the main
frame of the engine).
CANNULAR  cooling is improved,  loss of efficiency by friction Pratt & Whitney JT8D
COMBUSTION turbojet
 engine rigidity is increased  significant weight.
CHAMBER
(thanks to internal and external Rolls Royce TYNE
housings), Turbopropeller
 reconditioning is easier
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15– Gas turbine engine
Category  A  B1  B2  B3 05- Combustion section
Level  1  2  3
(possibility to change a flame
tube and only one).
ANNULUS  efficiency is improved (because  arduous control of combustion, CFMI CFM56
of the optimum volume of
 cooling is necessary (because of Rolls Royce TRENT
combustion, of reduced frictions
the increase in operating strong thrust turbojets
and of the increase in
temperature)
temperature), General Electric CF6
 engine rigidity increased, Pratt & Whitney PW4000
 weight is reduced.
RETURN FLOW  compactness (reduced engine  limited power. Turbomeca ARRIUS
COMBUSTION longitudinal volume) turbo-motor
CHAMBER
Pratt & Whitney PW 100
JT15D low thrust turbojet

1.6. Stresses and materials:

The choice of materials necessary to manufacture the various elements of the combustion chamber is made mainly depending on the stresses which
they are likely to undergo.
These stresses, which shorten their lifespan, are:
 mechanical (pressure, vibration, erosion),
 thermal (dilation),
 chemical (oxidation).
It should be noted that the combination of the last two stresses (high temperatures and oxidizing elements) led to the appearance of a phenomenon,
particularly dangerous as it is not easily detectable, called hot corrosion. To increase the resistance against hot corrosion, there are various methods of
which we will quote the most common ones.
One of these methods consists of exploiting the composition of alloys, in particular by adding chromium in order to obtain a protection barrier of
chromium oxide: these alloys are called “refractory”.
Another method consists of protecting exposed elements with a coating of thermal protection. This shield can be obtained by application of liquid
chemicals, plasma projection of ceramic powder or heat treatment of aluminium deposit (alumination).
Let us see what the elements of a modern combustion chamber are made of. Housings have a structural function and can work up to 500°C.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15– Gas turbine engine
Category  A  B1  B2  B3 05- Combustion section
Level  1  2  3
They are generally built out of special steels containing nickel, chromium or titanium.
The flame tube must tolerate extreme temperatures and their sharp variations. It requires the use of complex refractory alloys containing nickel,
chromium, cobalt, titanium, tungsten or molybdenum.
The burners, placed upstream of combustion, especially undergo the radiations of combustion. They are generally moulded out of heat-resisting steel
with cobalt, chromium or titanium.
1.7. Evolution:
Studies in thermodynamics showed that combustion in a conventional chamber is inevitably accompanied by emissions of polluting substances.

Double annular combustor

Standards of pollution becoming increasingly severe, manufacturers centered their research on the reduction of these rejections.
With this intention, they have been studying and testing since the 80’s new concepts of combustion chambers.
Let us quote for example: double annular combustor,
 catalytic combustion,
 super/sub-stoechiometric combustion,
 variable section injection.
Only the concept of double annular combustor is sufficiently advanced to be applied to series engines: CFM 56-5B/DAC, General Electric GE90.
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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15– Gas turbine engine
Category  A  B1  B2  B3 05- Combustion section
Level  1  2  3
The system includes a double row of burners: a pilot row and a main one.
According to the required thrust, only the pilot row or both rows are fed.
Their staged functioning, makes it possible to reduce by 40% the rate of pollution fixed by standards.

In addition to respect of pollution standards, manufacturers, in their new developments, have also sometimes to reconcile opposite requirements such
as:
 high temperature operation on which depends efficiency,
 lifespan of the hot parts,
 reduced weight and volume.

1.8. Return flow combustion chamber:

A return flow combustion chamber is nothing else but a bent shaped annulus.
Its double elbow makes it possible to reverse the gas stream flow during combustion, then to straighten it in order to eject it towards the turbine.
This configuration, generally associated with a centrifugal compressor, makes it possible to reduce considerably the length of the engine while
increasing only slightly its diameter.
On the other hand, the more tortuous advance of the stream reduces the engine efficiency. Therefore, these chambers are preferably used for low
power engines.

2. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF A CHAMBER:

The air leaving the compressor penetrates in the combustion chamber at a pressure, a temperature and a speed adapted to ensure the unfolding of
combustion. Inside the chamber, the air flow separates into two flows. One of these flows, called primary flow, representing approximately 25% of the
total, penetrates inside the flame tube after having passed through the swirler.
A disturbed flow is thus obtained, which mixes in a homogeneous way with the finely pulverized fuel.
During starting, the igniter produces an electric arc which sets the mixture ablaze. The flame reaches a temperature of about 2000°C and allows the
spontaneous combustion of the mixture thereafter.
At the same time, the remaining air flow, called secondary flow, encloses the flame tube in order to cool it.
It penetrates then gradually through dilution ports and mixes with the primary flow, of which it lowers the temperature, in order to maintain the flame
on the level of the burner.
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Category  A  B1  B2  B3 05- Combustion section
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The flow temperature in the chamber outlet decreases to reach around 1200°C, which is the maximum bearable temperature of the materials
constituting current turbines.

2.1. Injection:
Combustion requires the fuel injection in a fog of fine droplets. To obtain this vaporization, it is necessary to inject the fuel under very high pressure by
a gauged port of small diameter, whatever is the rating.
The pressurization is obtained by a mechanical pump driven by the engine and which thus depends upon its rating.
To cover a very broad range of flow, varying from engine idling (minimum) to takeoff rating (maximum), it is necessary to make evolve the flow in a
ratio from 1 to 30.
Now the flow depends on the burner section and on the square root of injection pressure.
This will thus lead us to a variation of pressure from 1 to 900 given a constant section.
This exponential increase represents a technical stress that manufacturers were able to circumvent by developing variable section burners.

Types of injectors

Duplex spray nozzles became essential as modern engines efficiency increased, include:

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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15– Gas turbine engine
Category  A  B1  B2  B3 05- Combustion section
Level  1  2  3
 a permanent circuit which called pilot, of small section. It ensures spraying from the very first low ratings for litle supply pressure.
 a main circuit of large section which is added to the first and is fed via a setting valve when supply pressure increases with engine rating.

2.2. Study of the gas vein:

The combustion chamber has an evolutionary section which makes it possible to adapt and to control its main operation parameters which are:

Gas pressure P
Temperature T
Speed V

Total evolution through the combustion chamber:

INTAKE COMBUSTION AREA OUTPUT

(Divergent section) (Constant section) (Convergent section)
P increases P constant P decreases
T increases T increases T increases
V decreases V constant V increases

2.3. Theory of combustion:

2.3.1. Proportioning:
Combustion is an oxidation; it is a chemical conversion obtained by decomposition of fuel in contact with the oxygen contained in the air (the
combustive).

Note:
Oxygen (O2), present in the air, represents 25% of air mass.

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Category  A  B1  B2  B3 05- Combustion section
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So that this reaction is complete, i.e. the quantity of oxygen is sufficient to burn a defined quantity of fuel, one determines a relationship between fuel
mass and air mass.
This ratio is called theoretical proportioning or stoechiometric ratio.
It is 1 per 15 for a complete combustion on the level of the flame.

 Here is the calculation of this theoretical proportioning:

The fuel is assimilated to heptane of formula C7H16 and oxygen with O2 formula.
Combustion is carried out according to the following chemical reaction. The fuel plus oxygen give us carbon dioxide and water.
C7 H16 + x O2  y CO2 + z H2O
By balancing the reaction, we obtain the complete equation:
C7 H16 + 11 O2  7 CO2 + 8 H2O
Atomic masses of the elements being:

Oxygen 16
Hydrogen 1
Carbon 12

One can now calculate the mass of fuel and oxygen which makes it possible to obtain a total reaction.
Mass of heptane: C7 H16  (7 x 12) + (16 x 1) = 100 g
Mass of oxygen needed to burn 100 g of heptane: 11 O2  1116 x 2 = 352 g
For 100 grams of fuel one thus needs 352 grams of oxygen. The air being composed of 23.5 % of oxygen, one needs:
352 / 23.5 X 100 = 1500 g of air.
1500 grams of air to burn 100 grams of fuel.
The mass ratio, called theoretical proportioning, is thus 1 per 15:
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Category  A  B1  B2  B3 05- Combustion section
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Mass of fuel 100 1

= =
Mass of air 1500 15

Note:
Considering the entirety of the chamber (primary and secondary flow, we obtain a proportioning known as total which is about 1/60.

2.3.2. Richness:
Theoretical proportioning allows a complete combustion of the mixture air-fuel.
In reality, in particular during changes of ratings it is not always possible to maintain this mixture at its optimum value of 1 per 15.

The richness (r) is thus defined as the relationship between the real proportioning of the mixture and theoretical proportioning.

Richness (r) = Real proportioning

Theoretical proportioning

If real proportioning is higher than theoretical proportioning, the mixture is known as rich: r > 1

Consequences: pollution by rejections of un-burnt fuel, increase in temperature, risks of low pressure extinction.
Combustion can only occur under certain conditions.
The combustion chamber is studied to satisfy these operating conditions which depend on the following parameters:
 pressure of the mixture during combustion,
 richness,
 and air flow rate.

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Category  A  B1  B2  B3 05- Combustion section
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The first two parameters, pressure and proportioning, define a possible field of combustion.
Combustion is not possible except above a minimal pressure with a given range of richness.

Note:
Pressure (proportional to gas temperature) corresponds here to the pressure in compressor outlet.

The range of richness is noted to reduce when pressure decreases; this implies getting more accuracy in proportioning. There is a minimal pressure
for which proportioning must correspond very exactly to theoretical proportioning. If not, extinction occurs.
The air flow rate in the given range of richness also represents a restrictive field of combustion.
If real proportioning is lower than theoretical proportioning, the mixture is known as poor: r< 1

Consequences: strong risk of extinction whatever pressure might be, slow starting.
A permanent drift of the richness indicates a dysfunction of the fuel/air mixing system and requires maintenance.

2.4. Limitations:
Whatever this proportioning, the rate of flow should not be lower than the minimal speed of operation, nor exceed the flame propagation velocity
otherwise it would involve the blowing of the flame and thus the extinction.

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Limitations

A permanent drift of the richness indicates a dysfunction of the fuel/air mixing system and requires maintenance.

2.5. Emissions:
The chemical reaction of combustion involves the recombination of certain chemical elements in other substances which are rejected into the
atmosphere by the turbojet.
Let us quote the main elements rejected by a turbojet:
 water vapor,
 unburnt residues, due to an insufficient mixing at low ratings,
 sulphuretted elements,
 carbon monoxide (CO): toxic substance which appears at low pressure,
 carbon dioxide (CO2),
 nitrogen (N),

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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 15– Gas turbine engine
Category  A  B1  B2  B3 05- Combustion section
Level  1  2  3
 nitrigen oxyde (NO)
 nitrogen dioxide (NO2): toxic substance which is formed at high temperature.

Emission levels

These rejections can constitute a pollution which the manufacturers try to reduce.
It is noted that the carbon monoxide and unburnt residues content decreases when the engine rating increases. On the other hand the production of
nitrogen oxides increases with the rise in the temperature due to the increase in rating.
At the level of the current developments, manufacturers are not able to reduce the emissions of pollutants completely. They are induced to choose a
compromise of operation for the realization of the combustion chambers.

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