Good day everyone!

Maybe you're one of those people who are currently preparing for the Licensure Examination for
Teacher. I'm glad that you're here because this article is for you. I know that you're trying your best reviewing those past
lessons about your course so, I gathered some information about the Coverage of the LET.

Elementary Level
General Education - 40%
Professional Education - 60 %

Secondary Level
General Education - 20%
Professional Education - 40%
Area of Specialization - 40%
Taken from the upcoming program of LET scheduled on March 2018, here are the detailed areas to study. The list is
courtesy of PRC Board of Professional Teachers.

GENERAL EDUCATION (Elementary and Secondary)

1. ENGLISH

 Study and Thinking Skills

 Writing in the Discipline
 Speech and Oral Communication
 Philippine Literature
 Master Works of the World
2. FILIPINO

 Komunikasyon sa Akademikong Filipino

 Pagbasa at Pagsulat tungo sa Pananaliksik
 Masining na Pagpapahayag
3. MATHEMATICS

 Fundamentals of Math
 Plane Geometry
 Elementary Algebra
 Statistics and Probability
4. SCIENCE

 Biological Science - General Biology

 Physical Science - Earth Science
5. SOCIAL SCIENCES

 Philippine Government New Constitution with Human Rights

 Philippine History
 Basic Economics
 Taxation
 Agrarian Reform
 Society
 Culture with Family Planning
 Rizal and Other Heroes
 Philosophy of Man
 Arts
 General Psychology
 Information and Communication Technology

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION (Elementary and Secondary)

1. Teaching Profession, Social Dimensions of Education

2. Principles of Teaching, Educational Technology, Curriculum Development
3. Facilitating Learning, Child and Adolescent Development
 4. Assessment of Student Learning, Developmental Reading
5. Field Study, Practice Teaching

FIELDS OF SPECIALIZATION (Secondary)

1. ENGLISH

 Remedial Instruction in English

 English for Specific Purposes

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

 Introduction to Linguistics
 Structure of English
 Introduction of Stylistics
 Literary Criticism

LITERATURE

 Mythology and Folklore

 Afro-Asian Literature
 English and American Literature

METHODOLOGY

 The Teaching of Speaking

 Listening and Reading
 Teaching of Literature
 Preparation and Evaluation of Instructional Materials
 Language and Literature Assessment
 Language Research
 Campus Journalism
 Translation and Editing of Text
 Speech and Stage Arts
 Creative Writing

2. FILIPINO

MGA BATAYANG TEORETIKAL

 Introduksyon sa Pag-aaral ng Wika

 Panimulang Linggwistika

NILALAMAN

 Wika
 Panitikan
 Metodolohiya
 Pagtataya at Ebalwasyon
 Kagamitang Pangturo

3. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

 Biological Science I
 Biological Science II
 Inorganic Chemistry
  Cell Biology
 Ecology
 Organic Chemistry
 Microbiology
 Genetic and Evolution
 Biochemistry and Anatomy
 Physiology

4. PHYSICAL SCIENCES

INTRODUCTION

 Nature of Science
 Chemistry
 Atomic and Molecular
 Chemical Bonds
 Conservation of Matter and Stoichichiometry
 Gases, Liquids and Solids
 Acids and Bases
 Solutions
 Chemical Thermodynamics
 Chemical Kinetics and Equilibrium
 Organic and Biochemistry
 Nuclear Processes

PHYSICS

 Physical Quantities and Vectors

 Mechanics
 Electricity
 Magnetism and Electronics
 Thermodynamics
 Modern Physics
 Light and Geometries Optics
 Earth and Space
 Astronomy
 Environment

5. MATHEMATICS

 Arithmetic & Number Theory and Business Math

 Basic & Advanced Algebra
 Plane and Solid Geometry
 Trigonometry
 Probability and Statistics
 Analytical Geometry
 Calculus
 Modern Geometry
 Linear and Abstract Algebra
 History of Mathematics
 Problem Solving
 Mathematical Investigation
 Instrumentation and Assessment

6. SOCIAL STUDIES/SOCIAL SCIENCES

 Trends and Issues in Social Studies

  Research
 Geography
 Sociology and Anthropology
 Politics/Governance/Law-Related

HISTORY:

 World History and Civilization I

 World History and Civilization II
 Asian Studies

ECONOMICS

 Micro-Macro Economics
 Economic Planning and Strategies

METHODS

 Teaching Approaches in Secondary Social Studies

 Productions of Instructional Materials for Social Studies
 Building Bridges Across Social science Discipline ( MAKABAYAN as a core learning area in Basic Education)

ASSESSMENT

 Assessment and Evaluation in the Social Sciences/Social Studies

7. VALUES EDUCATION

FOUNDATION OF VALUES EDUCATION

 Philosophical and Ethical Foundations of VE

 Socio-Cultural, Anthropological & Legal Bases of VE
 Psychological Theories of Values Development

PERSONHOOD DEVELOPMENT

 Personhood Development
 Dynamics of Intra and Interpersonal Relations
 Psycho-Spiritual Development
 Management of Behavior Problems

TRANSFORMATIVE EDUCATION (SOURCES OF VALUES AND FACTORS IN VALUES ED)

 Family Life and Filipino Values System

 Education for Human Rights and Responsible Citizenship
 Foundations of Gender Studies
 Peace and Global Education
 Information Technology and Human Development
 Moral Issues and Concerns in Contemporary Living

WORK ETHICS AND COMMUNITY SERVICE

COMMITMENT TO SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND ACCOUNTABILITY

 Career Development and Work Values

 Values Education through Community Service
APPROACHES AND METHODOLOGIES

 Facilitation
 Theory and Practice
 Teaching Approaches and Strategies in Transformative Education
 Values Integration in the School Setting

RESEARCH AND EVALUATION

 Behavioral Statistics
 Development of VE Instruction Materials and Assessment Tools
 Research in VE

8. MAPEH

 Foundations of MAPEH
 Methods and Strategies of Teaching MAPEH
 Coaching and Officiating of Sports Events, Dance Competitions and Music Activities
 Organization and Management, Research, Special Education in MAPEH

PHYSICAL EDUCATION

 Anatomical, Mechanical and Physiological Bases of Movement

GYMNASTICS

 Philippine Folkdance
 Team SPORTS, Aquatics
 International Folk Dance and Other Dance Forms
 Athletics, Individual, Dual and Combative Sports

HEALTH EDUCATION

 Personal Community
 Environmental Health
 Safety Education and First Aid
 Health Practicum

MUSIC

 Philippine and Asian Music

 Solfeggio and Applied Piano
 Integrated Music Theory
 Music Literature
 Choral Works and Conducting and Randalia Playing Instrumentation
 ART EDUCATION

9. AGRICULTURE AND FISHERY ARTS

 Functional Application of Knowledge

 Breeds of Farm Animals and Fish
 Pests and Diseases Affecting Animals and Fish Propagation
 Marketing Strategies in the Industry/Entrepreneurship
 Proper Care and Management of Agricultural and Fishery Products
10. TECHNOLOGY AND LIVELIHOOD EDUCATION

 Basic Drafting
 Business Math
 Basic Electricity
 Basic Plumbing
 Cosmetology
 Foods
 Carpentry and Masonry
 Basic Electronics and Entrepreneurship

 "How to pass the Licensure Examination for Teachers?"

 This is a very common question to some people who are currently preparing for the upcoming Licensure
Examination for Teachers. Some of them asked their relatives or any other friends who are ahead of them, while
the others used the internet to search for the tips on how to pass the LET. I believe that you're one of them and
that's the reason why you're here in this article. That's good! because this article will really help you!

 Actually I only have 3 Basic Tips on How to Pass the Licensure Examination for Teachers and here are they:

 #1 Pray to God
 God is our Creator so this should be the first thing that you must do. Talk to God through a sincere prayer. Just one
simple prayer is enough as long as it comes from your heart. It doesn't have to be very long, all you have to do is
close your eyes and talk to Him as if He's in front of you. He will never give you the answer keys but He will
surely give you His guidance. Give thanks to God our Creator. Amen?

 #2 Believe in Yourself
 This is the second thing that you need to do. It's really simple right? You have to believe in yourself. God created
you and gave you talents and skills so you must believe that you can do it. Throw away those "What if..."
questions from your mind! Avoid being pessimist because it will never help you. Trust your self because God has
a plan for you. If you believe in yourself you'll eventually gain some sort of interest or energy to take up the next
step.

 #3 Review Review Review

 This is the last but the most important thing that you must do. Review those past lessons that you had taken from
your school/university. God will give you His guidance to pass the LET but He'll never give you the answer keys
so, do your part. If you really want to pass you have to review. There are lots of reviewers in this website and some
important points that will help you to pass the examination.

There are lots of Famous Filipino Writers in Philippines. All of them are great writers and they contributed a lot of
compositions and writings. Those writers used Pen Names/Pseudonyms and here are they:

List of the Famous Filipino Writers and their Pen Names or Pseudonyms

 Jose dela Cruz - Huseng Sisiw

 Marcelo H. Del Pilar - Plaridel, Dolores Manapat, Piping Dilat, Siling Labuyo, Kupang, Haitalaga,
Patos, Carmelo, D.A. Murgas, L.O. Crame D.M. Calero, Hilario, and M. Dati.
 Severino de las Alas - Di-kilala
 Epifanio delos Santos - G. Solon
 Valeriano Hernandez Peña - Ahas na Tulog, Anong, Damulag, Dating Alba, Isang Dukha, Kalampag and Kintin
Kulirat
 Severino Reyes - Lola Basyang
 Pedro de Govantes de Azcarraga - Conde de Albay
 Francisco dela Cruz Balagtas - Francisco Baltazar
 Asuncion Lopez Bantug (Rizal’s grand niece) - Apo ni Dimas
 Jose Ma. Basa
  Dr. José Protasio Rizal Mercado y Alonso Realonda - José Rizal, Dimas-alang (Tagalog for Touch me not),
Laong-Laan (which means Ever-prepared), Agnoand Calambeño
 Hugo Salazar - Ambut
 Moises Salvador - Araw
 Jose Turiano Santiago - Tiktik
 Lope K. Santos - Anak-Bayan and Doctor Lukas
 Juan Crisostomo Soto - Crissot
 Luis Taruc - Alipato (which means spark that spreads a fire and one of Rizal’s pet dogs)
 Jose Ma. Sison - Amado Guerrero
 Dr. Pio Valenzuela - Madlang-Away
 Clemente Jose Zulueta - M. Kaun
 J. Zulueta - Juan Totoó
 Isaac Fernando delos Rios
 Bautista - Ba Basiong
 Gen. Vito Belarmino - Blind Veteran
 Andres Bonifacio - Agapito Bagumbayan, while his inspiring Katipunan name was Maypagasa
 Felipe Calderon - Simoun and Elias (names from Rizal’s novels)
 José Corazón de Jesús - Huseng Batute
 Mariano del Rosario - Tito-Tato
 Antonio K. Abad - Akasia
 Jose Abreu - Kaibigan
 Macario Adriatico - Amaori, C. Amabri and Felipe Malayo
 Faustino Aguilar - Sinag-Ina
 Emilio Aguinaldo - Magdalo
 Virgilio Almario - Rio Alma
 Pascual Alvarez - Bagongbuhay
 Aurelio Alvero - Magtanggul Asa
 Cecilio Apostol - Catulo, Calipso and Calypso
 Francisco Arcellana - Franz Arcellana
 Salvador Vivencio del Rosario - X and Juan Tagalo
 Domingo Gomez - Romero Franco
 Nestor Vicente Madali Gonzalez - N.V.M. Gonzalez
 Fernando Ma. Guerrero - Fluvio Gil
 Amado Hernandez - Amante Ernani, Herininia de la Riva and Julio Abril
 Emilio Jacinto - Dimas-ilaw and his Katipunan name was Pingkian
 Nick Joaquin - Quijano de Manila
 Jesus Lava - B. Ambrosio Rianzares
 Sixto Lopez - Batulaw
 Gen. Antonio Luna - Taga-Ilog
 Juan Luna - J.B. and Buan (a translation of his surname Luna which means moon)
 Apolinario Mabini - Bini and Paralitico
 Jose Palma - Ana-haw, Esteban Estebanes and Gan Hantik
 Rafael Palma - Hapon and Dapit-Hapon
 Jose Maria Panganiban - Jomapa and J.M.P.
 Pascual H. Poblete - Anak-Bayan
 Mariano Ponce - Naning, Tikbalang, and Kalipulako

Iba’t Ibang Panahon ng Panitikang Pilipino

Sinaunang Panahon

 May sarili nang panitikan ang ating mga ninuno sa panahong ito.
 Alibata ang kadalasang ginagamit.
 Gumagamit din sila ng mga biyas ng kawayan , talukap ng bunga o niyog at dahon at balat ng punungkahoy bilang
sulatan at matutulis na bagay naman bilang panulat.

Mga uri ng Panitikang sumibol at sumikat sa sinaunang panahon:

 1. Alamat
2. Kwentong Bayan
3. Mga Awiting Bayan
4. Epiko

a. Bidasari - Moro
b. Biag ni Lam-ang - Iloko
c. Maragtas - Bisaya
d. Haraya - Bisaya
e. Lagda - Bisaya
f. Kumintang - Tagalog
g. Hari sa Bukid - Bisaya
5. Karunungan Bayan
a. Salawikain - nagsisilbing batas at tuntunin ng kagandahang-asal ng ating mga ninuno.
Halimbawa: Aanhin pa ang damo kung wala na ang kabayo.
b. Sawikain - mga kasabihang walang natatagong kahulugan
Halimbawa: Nasa Diyos ang awa, nasa tao ang gawa.
c. Bugtong - maikling tulang karaniwang naglalarawan ng isang bagay na siyang pahuhulaan.
Halimbawa: Isang tabo , laman ay pako. (langka)

Pananakop ng Mga Kastila:

Mga Impluwensya ng Kastila sa ating Panitikan:
1. Nahalinan ng Alpabetong Romano ang Alibata
2. Naituro ang Doctrina Cristiana
3. Naging Bahagi ng Wikang Filipino ang maraming salita sa Kastila
4. Nadala ang ilang akdang pampanitikan ng Europa at tradisyong Europeo na naging bahagi ng ating panitikan gaya ng
awit, corido, moro-moro at iba pa.
5. Nasinop at nasalin ang makalumang panitikan sa Tagalog sa ibang wikain
6. Nailathala ang iba’t ibang aklat pambalarila sa wikang Filipino tulad ng Tagalog, Ilokano at Bisaya
7. Nagkaroon ng makarelihiyong himig ang mga akda

Mga Unang Aklat:

a. Ang Doctrina Cristiana (1593) – Padre Juan de Placencia at Padre Dominga Nieva
b. Nuestra Senora del Rosario (1602) – Padre Blancas de San Jose
c. Ang Barlaan at Josaphat (nobelang Tagalog) – Padre Antonio de Borja
d. Ang Pasyon – iba’t ibang bersyon sa Tagalog (Mariano Pilapil, Gaspar Aquino de Belen, Anecito de la Merced at Luis de
Guia)
e. Ang Urbana at Felisa – Modesto de Castro (Ama ng klasikang tuluyan sa Tagalog)

Mga Akdang Pangwika:

a. Arte Y Reglas de la Lengua Tagala
b. Compendio de la lengua Tagala
c. Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala
d. Vocabulario de la Lengua Pampango
e. Vocabulario de la Lengua Bisaya
f. Arte de la Lengua Bicolana
g. Arte de la Lengua Iloka
Mga Dulang Panlibangan
1. Tibag 7. duplo
2. Lagaylay 8. kurido
3. Sinakulo 9. saynete
4. Panubong 10. karagatan
5. Karilyo 11. sarswela
6. Moro-moro

Panahon ng Pagbabagong-isip (Propaganda)

 Ang diwang maka-relihiyon ay naging makabayan at humihingi ng pagbabago sa sistema ng pamamalakad sa

pamahalaan at simbahan.
 Pagpasok ng diwang liberalismo.
Mga Propagandista:
a. Dr. Jose Rizal/ Laong Laan at Dimasalang (“Noli at El Fili)
b. Marcelo H. Del Pilar (Palridel, Piping Dilat at Dolores Manapat) – Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa, Kaiigat Kayo at
Tocsohan
c. Graciano Lopez Jaena (Fray Botod, Sa Mga Pilipino atbp)
d. Antonio Luna (Noche Buena, Por Madrid atbp)

Panahon ng Amerikano
1. Maalab ang diwang makabayan na hindi na magawang igupo ng mga Amerikano
2. Pinasok ng mga manunulat na Pilipino ang iba’t ibang larangan ng panitikan tulad ng tula, kwento, dula, sanaysay, nobela
atbp.
3. Pag-ibig sa bayan at pagnanais ng kalayaan ang tema ng mga isinusulat
4. Namayani sa panahong ito ang mga akda sa wikang Kastila, Tagalog at wikang Ingles
5. Pinatigil ang mga dulang may temang makabayan
6. Sa panahong ito nailathala ang babasahing Liwayway
7. Pinauso rin ang balagtasan katumbas ng debate
8. Nagkaroon/Nagsimula ang pelikula sa Pilipinas

Mga Pahayagan:
1. El Nuevo Dia (Ang Bagong Araw) ni Sergio Osmena (1900)
2. El Grito del Pueblo (Ang Sigaw ng Bayan) itinatag ni Pascual Poblete (1900)
3. El Renacimiento (Muling Pagsilang) – itinatag ni Rafael Palma (1900)

Mga Dulang Pinatigil:

1. Kahapon Ngayon at Bukas – Aurelio Tolentino
2. Tanikalang Ginto – Juan Abad
3. Walang Sugat – Severino Reyes

Ilang kilalang manunulat sa Kastila na sumikat:

1. Cecelio Apostol
2. Fernando Ma. Guerrero
3. Jesus Balmori
4. Manuel Bernabe Manalang
5. Claro M. Recto

Ilang kilalang manunulat sa Wikang Tagalog:

1. Lope K. Santos
2. Jose Corazon de Jesus
3. Florentino Collantes
4. Amado V. Hernadez
5. Valeriano Hernandez Pena
6. Inigo Ed Regalado

Panahon ng Hapon
1. Natigil ang panitikan sa Ingles kasabay ng pagpatigil ng lahat ng pahayagan.
2. Gintong Panahon para sa mga manunulat sa wikang tagalog.
3. Ipinagbawal din ng mga Hapon ang paggamit ng wikang Ingles.
4. Ang paksa ay natutungkol sa buhay lalawigan.
5. Napasara ang mga sinehan at ginawa na lamang tanghalan.
6. Nagkaroon ng krisis ng papel kaya hindi masyadong marami ang akdang naisulat.

Tatlong Uri ng Tula na sumikat sa panahon ng Hapon

1. Haiku
2. Tanaga
3. Karaniwang Anyo
Ilang Dula na sumikat sa panahon ng Hapon
a. Panday Pira – ni Jose Ma. Hernandez
b. Sa Pula sa Puti --- Francisco Soc. Rodrigo
c. Bulaga - ni Clodualdo del Mundo
d. “Sino ba Kayo?” “Dahil sa Anak” at “Higanti ng Patay” ni NVM Gonzales

Ilang Mahusay na Maikling Kwento

a. Lupang Tinubuan - Narciso Reyes
b. Uhaw ang Tigang na Lupa - Liwayway Arceo
c. Lunsod Nayon at Dagat-dagatan - NVM Gonzales

Bagong Kalayaan (1945 - 1972)

 Sumigla muli ang panitik sa Pilipinas.

 Naging paksain ang kabayanihan ng mga gerilya, kalupitan ng mga Hapon, Kahirapan ng pamumuhay noon atbp.
 Nabuksang muli ang mga palimbagang naipasara dahil sa giyera.
 Naitatag ang Palanca Memorial Award in Pilipino and English Literature noong 1950.
 Nagkaroon din ng Republic Cultural Award, Gawad ni Balagtas at Taunang Gawad ng Surian ng Wikang
Pambansa.
 Sumigla rin ang pagkakaroon ng pahayagan sa mga paaralang pangkolehiyo.
 Nagbukas rin ang palimbagan ng lingguhang babasahin: Liwayway, Bulaklak, Tagumpay, Ilang-ilang atbp.

Ilang Samahang Naitatag para sa Panitikang Filipino:

 Taliba ng Inang Wika (TANIW)

 Kapisanan ng Diwa at Panitik (KADIPAN)
 Kapisanan ng mga Mandudulang Pilipino (KAMPI)
 Ilang Samahang Naitatag para sa Panitikang Ingles:
 Philippine Writers Association
 Dramatic Philippines
 Philippine Educational Theater Association (PETA)
 Arena Theater
 Barangay Writer’s Guild

Batas Militar 1972 – 1986

 1972 idiniklara ang Batas Militar sa Pilipinas sa pamumuno ni Pangulong Ferdinand Marcos.
 Paksa ang paghingi ng pagbabago sa pamahalaan at lipunan.
 Pagsisimula ng programang Bagong Lipunan noong Setyembre 21, 1972.
 Pinahinto ang mga pampahayagan at maging samahang pampaaralan.
 Pagpapatatag ng “Ministri ng Kabatirang Pangmadla” (sumubaybay sa mga pahayagan, aklat at mga iba pang
babasahing panlipunan).

Kasalukuyang Panahon

 Isa pang makulay na kabanata ng panitikang Pilipino.

 Namumulat ang mamayang Pilipino sa kahalagahan ng pambansang wika.
 Marami na ang sumusubok na sumulat gamit ang kanilang sariling bernakyular.
 Mas mayaman ang pinagkukunan ng paksang isusulat.
 Malaki ang impluwensiya ng teknolohiya at agham.
 Malayo na rin ang naaabot ng media.
 Kahit sa mga telebisyon nagbabago na rin ang wikang ginagamit.
 Hindi lamang pamapanitikan ang uri ng salitang ginagamit ngunit mapapansin na may mga akda na gumagamit na
rin ng pabalbal, kolokyal at lalawiganin.
Jose P. Rizal (1861-1896)
Naipalimbag niya sa Berlin ang nobelang Noli Me Tangere (1887). Noong 1890, tinapos niya ang ikalawang nobela, ang El
Filibusterismo sa Ghent, Belgium. Gumamit si Rizal ng mga sagisag na “Dimas-Alang” at “Laong-Laan”. Si Rizal ay
nakapagsasalita ng dalawampu’t dalawang wika.

Marcelo H. del Pilar

Bilang pangunahing pinuno ng Kilusang Propaganda, ipinakita niya kaagad ang pagtutol sa mga pamamalakad ng mga
Kastila. Lantad ang gayon niyang damdamin sa pahayagang Diariong Tagalog, na itinatag at pinamatnugutan niya noong
1882. Noong Nobyembre 15, 1889, napasalin sa kanya ang pagiging patnugot ng La Solidaridad. Gumamit siya ng mga
sagisag tulad ng “Dolores Manapat”, “Piping Dilat”, “Maitalaga”, “Kupang”, “Carmelo”, “L.O. Crame” at “Pupdoh”.

Mga Akda ni Marcelo H. del Pilar:

1. “Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa” – salin ng tulang “Amor Patrio” ni Rizal.
2. Caiigat Cayo (1888)
3. Dasalan at Tocsohan (1888)
4. Ang Kadakilaan ng Dios
5. Sagot ng Espanya sa Hibik ng Pilipinas (1889)
6. Dupluhan…Dalit…mga Bugtong…

Graciano Lopez Jaena (1856-1896)

Itinatag niya sa Espanya ang Circulo Hispano-Filipino; sumulat ng mga ulat para sa Circulo. Noong 1889, itinatag niya ang
La Solidaridad at naging unang patnugot nito. Nang mapalipat kay M. del Pilar ang tungkulin ng patnugot, naging manunulat
na lamang siya ng pahayagan. Nagkubli siya sa pangalang “Diego Laura”. Sa kanyang panahon, higit siyang kinilalang
orador kaysa manunulat. Sinulat niya ang FrayBotod, isang maikling nobelang mapang-uyam na naglalarawan sa “kasibaan
ng mga prayle”. Ang FrayBotod ay prayleng napakalakas kumain.

Mariano Ponce (1863-1899)

Gumamit ng mga sagisag na “Naning”, “Tikbalang”, “Kalipulako”. Kabilang sa mga akda niya ang “Mga Alamat ng
Bulakan”, at ang dulang “Pagpugot kay Longino”.

Antonio Luna (1866-1899)

Parmasyutikong gumamit ng sagisag na Taga-ilog sa kanyang pag-akda. Marami siyang naiambag sa La Solidaridad.
Kabilang sa mga akda niya ang “Noche Buena”, “La Tertulia Filipina”, “La Maestra de Mi Pueblo” at ang “Impresiones”.

Pedro A. Paterno (1858-1911)

May-akda ng Ninay isang nobelang sosyolohiko. Ito ang unang nobelang sinulat sa Kastila ng isang Pilipino.

Pascual Poblete (1858-1921)

Nobelista, makata, mananalaysay at tinaguriang “Ama ng Pahayagan”. Siya ang nagtatag ng mga pahayagang El Resumen,
El Grito del Pueblo at Ang Tinig ng Bayan. Siya rin ang kauna-unahang nagsalin sa Tagalog ng Noli Me Tangere.

Jose Maria Panganiban (1865-1895)

Sumulat ng mga sanaysay, lathalain at mga talumpati sa ilalim ng sagisag na Jomapa.

Pedro Serrano Laktaw

Leksikograpo at manunulat; isa ring pangunahing Mason. Siya ang unang sumulat ng Diccionario Hispano-Tagalog (1889).

Isabelo delos Reyes

Nagtatag ng “Iglesia Filipina Independente”; nagtamo ng gantimpala sa Exposisyon sa Madrid, sa sinulat na
“El Folklore Filipino”.

Fernando Canon
Kaklase ni Rizal sa Ateneo. Sumulat siya ng tula ukol kay Rizal. Sa mga tulang pang-Rizal nagsimula ang kanyang
katanyagan. Kapwa pintor naman sina Juan Luna at Felix Resureccion Hidalgo.

Mga Nakilalang Mandudula

Severino Reyes (1861-1942)
Pangunahing manunulat ng sarsuwela si Severino Reyes. Kilala rin siya sa sagisag na “Lola Basyang” dahil sa kanyang mga
kuwentong-bayan na inilathala sa Lingguhang Liwayway. Ang kanyang sarsuwelang Walang Sugat ang itinuturing na
kanyang obra-maestra. Noong 1922, naging patnugot siya ng Liwayway.

Patricio Mariano
Isang mandudula, peryodista, kuwentista, nobelista at makata. Marami siyang nasulat na dula na kinabibilangan ng Anak ng
Dagat, Ang Tulisan, Ang Dalawang Pag-ibigi, Ako’y Iyo Rin, at iba pa. Siya ng tinaguriang Dekano ng mga
Mandudulang Tagalog.

Hermogenes Ilagan
Siya ang masasabing kaagaw ni Severino Reyes sa kasigasigan sa paglikha at pagtatanghal ng sarsuwela. Ang pinakatanyag
niyang dula ay ang Dalagang Bukid.

Julian Cruz Balmaseda

Namumukod ang kanyang aral sa pag-iimpok sa sulang Ang Piso ni Anita. Ito ang dulang nagtamo ng unang gantimpala sa
timpalak ng Kawanihan ng Koreo; sa kanyang Sa Bunganga ng Pating, binaka niya ang sakit na nililikha ng salaping
patubuan.

Aurelio Tolentino (1868-1913)

Dalubhasa sa paggamit ng tatlong wika, Pampango, Tagalog at Kastila. Maraming dula siyang nasulat tulad ng Bagong
Kristo, isang sulang sosyolohiko; Sumpaan, isang romantikong sarsuwelang may tatlong yugto. Ngunit higit sa lahat ng mga
dula niya, ang nakilala’y ang kanyang Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas. Isang alegoriya ang dulang ito ay naglalahad sa
pamamagitan ng mga simbolikong tauhan na pinagdadaanan ng Pilipinas.

Juan K. Abad
Nang magsimula ang himagsikan sinunog ng lahat ni Abad ang kanyang mga akdang nanunuligsa sa pamahalaan at sa mga
prayle at pagkaraa ay umanib siya sa Katipunan. Hinarap ni Abad ang pagbaka sa comedia sa paniniwalang ito ay
nakakalason sa isipan ng mga Pilipino.

THE MAGNA CARTA FOR PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS

also known as
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 4670
(June 18, 1966)

I. DECLARATION OF POLICY COVERAGE

Sec. 1. Declaration of Policy. It is hereby declared to be the policy of this Act to promote and improve the social and
economic status of public school teachers, their living and working conditions, their terms of employment and career
prospects in order that they may compare favorably with existing opportunities in other walks of life, attract and retain in the
teaching profession more people with the proper qualifications, it being recognized that advance in education depends on
the qualifications and ability of the teaching staff and that education is an essential factor in the economic growth of the
nation as a productive investment of vital importance.

Sec. 2. Title Definition. This Act shall be known as the "Magna Carta for Public School Teachers" and shall apply to all
public school teachers except those in the professorial staff of state colleges and universities.

As used in this Act, the term "teacher" shall mean all persons engaged in classroom teaching, in any level of instruction, on
full-time basis, including guidance counselors, school librarians, industrial arts or vocational instructors, and all other
persons performing supervisory and/or administrative functions in all schools, colleges and universities operated by the
Government or its political subdivisions; but shall not include school nurses, school physicians, school dentists, and other
school employees.

II. RECRUITMENT AND CAREER

Sec. 3. Recruitment and Qualification. Recruitment policy with respect to the selection and appointmentof teachers shall be
clearly defined by the Department of Education: Provided, however, That effective upon the approval of this Act, the
following shall constitute the minimum educational qualifications for teacher-applicants:

(a) For teachers in the kindergarten and elementary grades, Bachelor's degree in Elementary Education (B.S.E.ED.);

(b) For teachers of the secondary schools, Bachelor's degree in Education or its equivalent with a major and a minor; or
a Bachelor's degree in Arts or Science with at least eighteen professional units in Education.

(c) For teachers of secondary vocational and two years technical courses, Bachelor's degree in the field of specialization with
at least eighteen professional units in education;

(d) For teachers of courses on the collegiate level, other than vocational, master's degree with a specific area of
specialization;

Provided, further, That in the absence of applicants who possess the minimum educational qualificationsas hereinabove
provided, the school superintendent may appoint, under a temporary status, applicantswho do not meet the
minimum qualifications: Provided, further, That should teacher-applicants, whether they possess the minimum
educational qualifications or not, be required to take competitive examinations, preference in making appointments shall be
in the order of their respective ranks in said competitive examinations: And provided, finally, That the results of the
examinations shall be made public and every applicant shall be furnished with his score and rank in said examinations.

Sec. 4. Probationary Period. When recruitment takes place after adequate training and professional preparation in any school
recognized by the Government, no probationary period preceding regular appointment shall be imposed if the teacher
possesses the appropriate civil service eligibility: Provided, however, That where, due to the exigencies of the service, it is
necessary to employ as teacher a person who possesses the minimum educational qualifications herein above set forth but
lacks the appropriate civil service eligibility, such person shall be appointed on a provisional status and shall undergo a
period of probation for not less than one year from and after the date of his provisional appointment.

Sec. 5. Tenure of Office. Stability on employment and security of tenure shall be assured the teachers as provided under
existing laws.

Subject to the provisions of Section three hereof, teachers appointed on a provisional status for lack of necessary civil
service eligibility shall be extended permanent appointment for the position he is holding after having rendered at least ten
years of continuous, efficient and faithful service in such position.

Sec. 6. Consent for Transfer Transportation Expenses. Except for cause and as herein otherwise provided, no teacher shall be
transferred without his consent from one station to another.

Where the exigencies of the service require the transfer of a teacher from one station to another, such transfer may be
effected by the school superintendent who shall previously notify the teacher concerned of the transfer and the reason or
reasons therefor. If the teacher believes there is no justification for the transfer, he may appeal his case to the Director of
Public Schools or the Director of Vocational Education, as the case may be. Pending his appeal and the decision thereon, his
transfer shall be held in abeyance: Provided, however, That no transfers whatever shall be made three months before any
local or national election.

Necessary transfer expenses of the teacher and his family shall be paid for by the Government if his transfer is finally
approved.

Sec. 7. Code of Professional Conduct for Teachers. Within six months from the approval of this Act, the Secretary of
Education shall formulate and prepare a Code of Professional Conduct for Public School Teachers. A copy of the Code shall
be furnished each teacher: Provided, however, That where this is not possible by reason of inadequate fiscal resources of
the Department of Education, at least three copies of the same Code shall be deposited with the office of the school principal
or head teacher where they may be accessible for use by the teachers.

Sec. 8. Safeguards in Disciplinary Procedure. Every teacher shall enjoy equitable safeguards at each stage of any disciplinary
procedure and shall have:

a. the right to be informed, in writing, of the charges;

b. the right to full access to the evidence in the case;

c. the right to defend himself and to be defended by a representative of his choice and/or by his organization, adequate time
being given to the teacher for the preparation of his defense; and

d. the right to appeal to clearly designated authorities.

No publicity shall be given to any disciplinary action being taken against a teacher during the pendency of his case.

Sec. 9. Administrative Charges. Administrative charges against a teacher shall be heard initially by a committee composed
of the corresponding School Superintendent of the Division or a duly authorized representative who should at least have the
rank of a division supervisor, where the teacher belongs, as chairman, a representative of the local or, in its absence, any
existing provincial or national teacher's organization and a supervisor of the Division, the last two to be designated by the
Director of Public Schools. The committee shall submit its findings and recommendations to the Director of Public Schools
within thirty days from the termination of the hearings: Provided, however, That where the school superintendent is the
complainant or an interested party, all the members of the committee shall be appointed by the Secretary of Education.

Sec. 10. No Discrimination. There shall be no discrimination whatsoever in entrance to the teaching profession, or during its
exercise, or in the termination of services, based on other than professional consideration.

Sec. 11. Married Teachers. Whenever possible, the proper authorities shall take all steps to enable married couples, both of
whom are public school teachers, to be employed in the same locality.

Sec. 12. Academic Freedom. Teachers shall enjoy academic freedom in the discharge of their professional duties,
particularly with regard to teaching and classroom methods.

III. HOURS OF WORK AND REMUNERATION

Sec. 13. Teaching Hours. Any teacher engaged in actual classroom instruction shall not be required to render more than six
hours of actual classroom teaching a day, which shall be so scheduled as to give him time for the preparation and correction
of exercises and other work incidental to his normal teaching duties: Provided, however, That where the exigencies of the
service so require, any teacher may be required to render more than six hours but not exceeding eight hours of actual
classroom teaching a day upon payment of additional compensation at the same rate as his regular remuneration plus at least
twenty-five per cent of his basic pay.

Sec. 14. Additional Compensation. Notwithstanding any provision of existing law to the contrary, co-curricula and out of
school activities and any other activities outside of what is defined as normal duties of any teacher shall be paid an additional
compensation of at least twenty-five per cent of his regular remuneration after the teacher has completed at least six hours of
actual classroom teaching a day.

In the case of other teachers or school officials not engaged in actual classroom instruction, any work performed in excess of
eight hours a day shall be paid an additional compensation of at least twenty-five per cent of their regular remuneration.

The agencies utilizing the services of teachers shall pay the additional compensation required under this section. Education
authorities shall refuse to allow the rendition of services of teachers for other government agencies without the assurance
that the teachers shall be paid the remuneration provided for under this section.

Sec. 15. Criteria for Salaries. Teacher's salaries shall correspond to the following criteria:

(a) they shall compare favorably with those paid in other occupations requiring equivalent or similar qualifications, training
and abilities;

(b) they shall be such as to insure teachers a reasonable standard of life for themselves and their families; and

(c) they shall be properly graded so as to recognize the fact that certain positions require higher qualifications and greater
responsibility than others: Provided, however, That the general salary scale shall be such that the relation between the lowest
and highest salaries paid in the profession will be of reasonable order. Narrowing of the salary scale shall be achieved by
raising the lower end of the salary scales relative to the upper end.

Sec. 16. Salary Scale. Salary scales of teachers shall provide for a gradual progression from a minimum to a maximum salary
by means of regular increments, granted automatically after three years: Provided, That the efficiency rating of the teacher
concerned is at least satisfactory. The progression from the minimum to the maximum of the salary scale shall not extend
over a period of ten years.

Sec. 17. Equality in Salary Scales. The salary scales of teachers whose salaries are appropriated by a city, municipal,
municipal district, or provincial government, shall not be less than those provided for teachers of the National Government.
Sec. 18. Cost of Living Allowance. Teacher's salaries shall, at the very least, keep pace with the rise in the cost of living by
the payment of a cost-of-living allowance which shall automatically follow changes in a cost-of-living index. The Secretary
of Education shall, in consultation with the proper government entities, recommend to Congress, at least annually, the
appropriation of the necessary funds for the cost-of-living allowances of teachers employed by the National Government.
The determination of the cost-of-living allowances by the Secretary of Education shall, upon approval of the President of the
Philippines, be binding on the city, municipal or provincial government, for the purposes of calculating the cost-of-living
allowances of teachers under its employ.

Sec. 19. Special Hardship Allowances. In areas in which teachers are exposed to hardship such as difficulty in commuting to
the place of work or other hazards peculiar to the place of employment, as determined by the Secretary of Education, they
shall be compensated special hardship allowances equivalent to at least twenty-five per cent of their monthly salary.

Sec. 20. Salaries to be Paid in Legal Tender. Salaries of teachers shall be paid in legal tender of the Philippines or its
equivalent in checks or treasury warrants. Provided, however, That such checks or treasury warrants shall be cashable in any
national, provincial, city or municipal treasurer's office or any banking institutions operating under the laws of the Republic
of the Philippines.

Sec. 21. Deductions Prohibited. No person shall make any deduction whatsoever from the salaries of teachers except under
specific authority of law authorizing such deductions: Provided, however, That upon written authority executed by the
teacher concerned, (1) lawful dues and fees owing to the Philippine Public School Teachers Association, and (2) premiums
properly due on insurance policies, shall be considered deductible.

IV. HEALTH MEASURES AND INJURY BENEFITS

Sec. 22. Medical Examination and Treatment. Compulsory medical examination shall be provided free of charge for all
teachers before they take up teaching, and shall be repeated not less than once a year during the teacher's professional life.
Where medical examination show that medical treatment and/or hospitalization is necessary, same shall be provided free by
the government entity paying the salary of the teachers.

In regions where there is scarcity of medical facilities, teachers may obtain elsewhere the necessary medical care with the
right to be reimbursed for their traveling expenses by the government entity concerned in the first paragraph of this Section.

Sec. 23. Compensation For Injuries. Teachers shall be protected against the consequences of employment injuries in
accordance with existing laws. The effects of the physical and nervous strain on the teacher's health shall be recognized as a
compensable occupational disease in accordance with existing laws.

V. LEAVE AND RETIREMENT BENEFITS

Sec. 24. Study Leave. In addition to the leave privileges now enjoyed by teachers in the public schools, they shall be entitled
to study leave not exceeding one school year after seven years of service. Such leave shall be granted in accordance with a
schedule set by the Department of Education. During the period of such leave, the teachers shall be entitled to at least sixty
per cent of their monthly salary: Provided, however, That no teacher shall be allowed to accumulate more than one year
study leave, unless he needs an additional semester to finish his thesis for a graduate study in education or allied courses:
Provided, further, That no compensation shall be due the teacher after the first year of such leave. In all cases, the study
leave period shall be counted for seniority and pension purposes.

The compensation allowed for one year study leave as herein provided shall be subject to the condition that the teacher takes
the regular study load and passes at least seventy-five per cent of his courses. Study leave of more than one year may be
permitted by the Secretary of Education but without compensation.

Sec. 25. Indefinite Leave. An indefinite sick leave of absence shall be granted to teachers when the nature of the illness
demands a long treatment that will exceed one year at the least.

Sec. 26. Salary Increase upon Retirement. Public school teachers having fulfilled the age and service requirements of the
applicable retirement laws shall be given one range salary raise upon retirement, which shall be the basis of the computation
of the lump sum of the retirement pay and the monthly benefits thereafter.

VI. TEACHER'S ORGANIZATION

Sec. 27. Freedom to Organize. Public school teachers shall have the right to freely and without previous authorization both
to establish and to join organizations of their choosing, whether local or national to further and defend their interests.

Sec. 28. Discrimination Against Teachers Prohibited. The rights established in the immediately preceding Section shall be
exercised without any interference or coercion. It shall be unlawful for any person to commit any acts of discrimination
against teachers which are calculated to (a) make the employment of a teacher subject to the condition that he shall not join
an organization, or shall relinquish membership in an organization,
(b) to cause the dismissal of or otherwise prejudice a teacher by reason of his membership in an organization or because of
participation in organization activities outside school hours, or with the consent of the proper school authorities, within
school hours, and (c) to prevent him from carrying out the duties laid upon him by his position in the organization, or to
penalize him for an action undertaken in that capacity.

Sec. 29. National Teacher's Organizations. National teachers' organizations shall be consulted in the formulation of national
educational policies and professional standards, and in the formulation of national policies governing the social security of
the teachers.

VII. ADMINISTRATION AND ENFORCEMENT

Sec. 30. Rules and Regulations. The Secretary of Education shall formulate and prepare the necessary rules and regulations
to implement the provisions of this Act. Rules and regulations issued pursuant to this Section shall take effect thirty days
after publication in a newspaper of general circulation and by such other means as the Secretary of Education deems
reasonably sufficient to give interested parties general notice of such issuance.

Sec. 31. Budgetary Estimates. The Secretary of Education shall submit to Congress annually the necessary budgetary
estimates to implement the provisions of the Act concerning the benefits herein granted to public school teachers under the
employ of the National Government.

Sec. 32. Penal Provision. A person who shall willfully interfere with, restrain or coerce any teacher in the exercise of his
rights guaranteed by this Act or who shall in any other manner commit any act to defeat any of the provisions of this Act
shall, upon conviction, be punished by a fine of not less than one hundred pesos nor more than one thousand pesos, or by
imprisonment, in the discretion of the court.

If the offender is a public official, the court shall order his dismissal from the Government service.

Sec. 33. Repealing Clause. All Acts or parts of Acts, executive orders and their implementing rules inconsistent with the
provisions of this Act are hereby repealed, amended or modified accordingly.

Sec. 34. Separability Clause. If any provision of this Act is declared invalid, the remainder of this Act or any provisions not
affected thereby shall remain in force and in effect.

Sec. 35. This Act shall take effect upon its approval.

Here are some of the salient points in the Philippine History:

 The first book published in the Philippines was Doctrina Cristiana.

 The Father of Ilocano Literature is Pedro Bukaneg.
 The Father of Tagalog Poetry is Francisco Baltazar.
 Lola Basyang is the pen name of Severino Reyes.
 The first and longest running komiks series in the Philippines is Kenkoy (Liwayway Magasin,1929)
 The Father of Pampango Literature who wrote "There is no God" is Juan Crisostomo Soto.
 The oldest existing newspaper in the Philippines since the 1900 is Manila Bulletin.
 The Father of Modern Tagalog Poetry is Alejandro Abadilla.
 The work of Bonifacio which tells the history of the Philippines Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog.
 He wrote the popular fable The Monkey and the Turtle - Jose Rizal
 This is known as Andres Bonifacio's Ten Commandments of the Katipunan - The Decalogue.
 Rizal's model for Pilosopong Tasyo was Paciano Rizal.
 The following characters created by Rizal reflect his own personality except Simoun (El Filibusterismo)
 The line "whoever knows not how to love his native tongue is worse than any beast or even smelly fish" To My
Fellow Childred
 Rizal's pen name - Dimasalang, Laong-Laan
 Taga-ilog is Juan Luna's Pen name.
 The first filipino alphabet was called Alibata
 Baybayin - The first filipino alphabet consisted of 15 Letters
 This is a song about love - Talindaw
 Awit ng mga taong hindi naimbetahan sa kainan - Colado
 He was known for his `Memoria Fotografica` - Jose Ma. Panganiban
 He is known as the `poet of the workers or laborers` - Amado Hernandez
 Ilocano balagtasan is called Bukanegan
 Visayan epic about good manners and right conduct - Maragtas
 The father of Filipino newspaper is Pascual Poblete
  Lupang Tinubuan is considered to be the best story written during Japanese Period. The author is Narciso Reyes
 The original title of Ibong Adarna was Corido at Buhay na Pinagdaanan ng Tatlong Prinsipeng Anac ng Haring
Fernando at Reyna Valeriana sa Caharian Berbania
 Pan de Regla - First filipino bread
 The Great Plebian - Andres Bonifacio
 The Father of the Katipunan - Andres Bonifacio
 Hero of the Tirad Pass Battle - Gregorio Del Pilar
 President of the First Philippine Republic - General Emilio Aguinaldo
 Brains of the Philippine Revolution - Apolinario Mabini
 Martyred Priests in 1872 - GOMBURZA
 Brains of the Katipunan - Emilio Jacinto
 Co-founder of La Independencia - General Antonio Luna
 Mother of Balintawak - Melchora Aquino
 Greatest Filipino Orator of the Propaganda Movement - Graciano Lopez- Jaena
 First Filipino Cannon-maker - Pandar Pira
 Managing Editor of La Solidaridad - Mariano Ponce
 Lakambini of Katipunan - Gregoria de Jesus
 Poet of the Revolution - Fernando Ma. Guerrero
 Outstanding Diplomat of the First Philippine Republic - Felipe Agoncillo
 First University of the Philippines President - Rafael Palma
 Greatest Filipino Painter - Juan Luna
 Greatest Journalist of the Propaganda Movement - Marcelo H. del Pilar
 First Filipino Poetess - Leona Florentino
 Peace of the Revolution - Pedro Paterno
 Founder of Philippine Socialism - Isabelo Delos Reyes
 Viborra - Artemio Ricarte
 Author of the Spanish lyrics of the Philippine National Anthem - Jose Palma
 Composer of the Philippine National Anthem - Julian Felipe
 Chief of Tondo - Lakandola
 The Last Rajah of Manila - Rajah Soliman
 Fiancée of Jose Rizal - Leonor Rivera
 Maker of the First Filipino Flag - Marcela Agoncillo
 Co-founder of Katipunan - Galicano Apacible
 Leader of the Ilocano Revolt - Diego Silang
 First Filipino Hero: Lapu-Lapu
 Leader of the Longest Revolt in Bohol - Francisco Dagohoy
 The Man of Many Talents - Epifanio Delos Santos
 Prince of Tagalog Poets - Francisco Baltazar
 Visayan Joan of Arc - Teresa Magbanua
 Mother of Biak-na-Bato - Trinidad Tecson
 Wife of Artemio Ricarte - Agueda EstebanLeader of the Tarlac Revolt: Gen. Francisco Makabulos
 Spaniards born in the Philippines - Insulares
 Leader of Magdalo - Baldomero Aguinaldo
 Leader of Magdiwang - Mariano Alvarez
 Founder of La Liga Filipina - Jose Rizal
 Painter of the Spolarium - Juan Luna

Science

 From Latin word “scientia." which means "knowledge".

 Any methodological activity. such as observational. experimental investigation and theoretical explanation of
natural phenomena.
 Systematized knowledge based on facts.

Divisions of Science

 Social Science
  Political Science
 History
 Mathematics
 Natural science

Branches of Natural Science

 Physical Science - Dealing with non-living things.

 Biological Science - Dealing with living things.

Scientific Method

 An orderly. logical and rational manner of solving problems.

 Enables and Ieads scientists towards unveiling the truths about observable phenomena and construct their clear
representations.

Cell Theory

 Describes or explains what a cell is.

 Cell is the basic component of a living organism.
 New cells are produced from existing cells.
 Cell is the building block of life.

Kinds of Cell

 Prokaryotic - has no nucleus; ex. Bacteria

 Eukaryotic - has true nucleus; ex. Mammals

Electromagnetism

 Magnetism - derived from Magnesia, an island in the Aegean Sea

 Magnet - an object that attracts magnetic objects like metals
 A magnet has two poles, north and south.
 Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
 Generator - a device that changes mechanical energy to electrical energy
 Motor - a device that changes electrical energy to mechanical energy

Mixtures

 Physical combination of 2 or more substances which can be separated by mechanical means.

 Homogeneous mixture
 a mixture in which the molecules are thoroughly mixed: a mixture that is uniform throughout.
 Solutions are homogeneous mixtures. The components of solution are solute, which is the dissolved particles. and
the solvent. which is the dissolving particles.

 Heterogeneous mixture
 Suspensions - heterogeneous mixture where particles are too large that they settle at the bottom of the container.
 Colloids - heterogeneous mixtures whose particles are not large enough to settle nor small enough to be dissolved,
like the Tyndall Effect. which is the scattering of light by the particles.

Methods of Separating Mixtures

 Filtration - use of filter paper to separate liquid from solid components.

 Filtrate - liquid that passes through the filter paper.
Residue - substance that did not pass through the filter paper.

 Decantation - pouring off a layer of liquid from a mixture.

 Magnetism - use of magnets to separate magnetic materials from the nonmagnetic ones.
 Centrifugation - substance is subjected to circular or rotational motion in a centrifuge.
 Distillation - liquid is set to boiling. Vapour is collected and later cooled to condense.
 Chromatography - passing mixture in solution or suspension or as a vapour (as in gas chromatography) through a
medium in which the components move at different rates.

Basic Concept in Educational Technology

A field dedicated to a theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management and evaluation
of process and resources for learning.
Technology Integration
It is the process of determining where and how technology fits in the Teaching and Learning process.
Factor affecting the selection of educational technologies
1. Human factors
1.1. Learner factors – refer to learner differences that can influence media choice.

a.) Individual Differences

Research suggests that learner differ in:
• Their preference for learning: by observing (visual learners) or by listening (aural learners)
• Their perception of a given message: a factor of past experience, and often a culture difference exists
• Their understanding of the conventions used by various media: language and technical drawings used

b.) Attention Span

Factors that affect how long a learner can attend to one type of task are age, interest and learners’
motivation

c.) Number of Learner

Select media that are well suited to the group size you have or, if this is difficult, modify the group or
structure to media you have.

d.) Physical Disabilities of Learners (poor vision, hearing, dyslexia, color blindness, etc.)

1.2. Teacher factors- refer to those factors that affect the success of media implementation.

2. Instructional method
The method of instructions dictates or limit our choice of presentation media. Is it self-regulated learning
method or lecture/expository?

3. Practical constraints
Administrative and economic constraints both limit the choice of methods and media.
1.) Objectives 3.) Time
2.) Availability 4.) Resources
Contributions of education technology to education
• Increase students’ motivation, self-esteem, self-confidence and academic achievement.
• Supplies stimulating environment that encourage student involvement in the learning process.
• Promotes higher-level thinking skills and student-centered instruction.
• Offers students diversity, self-paced learning, and opportunities for individuals growth and self
expression.
• Provides students with unique opportunities to apply skills and talent and to interact with other in non-
threatening environments.
• Changes teacher’s and student’s role into positive directions.
• Inspires student and teacher by making learning exciting and interesting.
• Forests the development of leadership abilities and teamwork.
• Support new instructional approaches: cooperative learning, inquiry approach, problem- based learning,
project-based learning and multiple intelligence.
• Provides unique opportunities for student to practice, demonstrate and critique communication skill.
• Supplies information through multi-sensory delivery channels, allowing students with various learning
styles to assimilate and apply knowledge.
• Expand classroom “walls” and links students and teachers in national and international exchanges.
Essential conditions for technology integration in the classroom
For technology to have desired impact on improved teaching and learning, several conditions must be in
place;
• Shared vision for technology integration – this requires coordinated school district planning with teacher
and other personnel at all levels, budgeting yearly amounts for technologies purchases with incremental
funding, emphasizing teacher training, matching technology to curriculum needs, and keeping current and
building flexibility.
• Standard and curriculum support – technology and content area standard are designed to support each
other.
• Required policies – policies are in place to ensure legal/ ethical use, safe, internet use, and equity.
• Access to hardware, software and other resources – there is adequate funding, purchasing procedures are
organized and effective, and procedure are in place to set up and maintain technology resources.
• Trained personnel- staff development that includes hands-on , integration emphasis, training over time;
modeling, mentoring and approaching and post training-access to technology resources.
• Technical assistance- continuing support for diagnostic and maintenance problem for teachers’ and
students’ computer.
• Appropriate teaching and assessment approaches - teaching strategies are matched to needs and
assessment strategies are matches to the type of learning being measured.
Some of the most important benefits of internet and other distances
resources:
• Easy and rapid communication.
• Access to expert resources and information not locally available.
• Access to up-to-date information.
• Easy sharing the information and product.
• Support of a cooperative group work.
• Support for learning information and visual literacy.
Evaluating Instructional Resources
In evaluating instructional resources, several question you should ask yourself are important, regardless of
the type are resources you are considering;
1. Does the content match the curriculum?
2. Is the content accurate, up to date, and appropriate with the students?
3. Do the materials teach and/or reinforce learning effectively?
4. Do these resources enhance instruction?
5. Is the resource easy for the teacher and students to use?
6. Are the materials of high quality technically?
7. Is the use of resource practical of my teaching setting (cost, needed equipment, etc.)?
Ten Commandments in creating learning/presentation materials
1. Don’t overcrowd.
2. Be consistent in formal, layout and conventions.
3. Use appropriate type paces and point uses.
4. Used bold and italics for emphasis, but don’t overuse them.
5. Use titles, headings, and subheadings to clarify and guide.
6. Use numbers through direct sequence.
7. Use graphics and illustration to reinforce ideas.
8. Use symbols and icons as identifying markers.
9. Use color/audio/music to stimulate but not to overpower, the senses.
10. Produce the materials with technical excellence – good quality good audio, clear etc.
According to UNESCO the four pillars of learning are the fundamental principles for reshaping education.

FOUR PILLARS OF EDUCATION/LEARNING

LEARNING TO KNOW
 Focuses on combining broad gen. knowledge and basic educ. with the opportunity to work on a
small number of subjects in the light of rapid changes brought about by scientific progress
ang new forms of economic and social acitivity.
 Learning how to learn and to discover, as to benefit from ongoing educational opportunities
continuously arising throughout life.
 Developing the faculties of memory, imagination, reasoning and problem solving.
 Understanding about one's environment.
 Communicating with others.

LEARNING TO DO
 Emphasizes on the learning of skills necessary to practice a profession or trade.
 Applying in practice what has been learned.
 Developing vocational / occupational and technical skills.
 Developing social skills in building meaningful interpersonal relationships.
 Developing competence, social behavior, aptitude for teamwork.
 Enhancing the ability to communicate and work with others.
 Managing and resolving conflicts.

LEARNING TO BE
 Prioritizes the development of the human potential to the fullest.
 Tapping the talents hidden with individual.
 Developing personal commitment and responsibilty for the common good.

LEARNING TO LIVE TOGETHER

 Emphasizes understanding of others, their history, tradition and cultures, and also living and
interacting peacefully together.
 Appreciating diversity of human race
 Being receptive to others and encounter others through dialogue and debate.
 Caring about others
 Working toward common objectives in cooperative undertakings.
 Managing and resolving conflicts.

ANO ANG TAYUTAY?

Ang Tayutay ay isang salita o grupo ng mga salita na kadalasang ginagamit upang maipahayag ang isang
emosyon sa paraang hindi karaniwan upang makabuo ng mas malalim na kahulugan. Ito ay
hindi literalkundi isang patalinghaga na minsa'y ginagamit bilang simbolo.

MGA URI NG TAYUTAY

1) ALITERASYON (Alliteration) - Pag-uulit ng mga tunog-katinig sa inisyal na bahagi ng salita.
Halimbawa:
a. Makikita sa mga mata ni Maria ang mga masasayang nangyari sa kaniya kasama si Marco. (makikita,
mga, mata, Maria, masasayang, Marco)

2) KONSONANS - Pag-uulit ng mga tunog-katinig sa final na bahagi ng salita.

Halimbawa:
a. Ang aking pagmamahal para kay Rosal ay lalong tumatatag habang tumatagal. (pagmamahal, Rosal,
tumatagal)

3) ASONANS - Pag-uulit ng mga tunog-patinig sa alinmang bahagi ng salita.

Halimbawa:
a. Ang aking alagang aso ay agad kong pinaliguan pagdating ko sa amin.

4) ANAPORA - Pag-uulit sa unang bahagi ng pahayag o taludtod.

Halimbawa:
Ikaw ang aking pangarap.
Ikaw ang bigay ng maykapal.
Ikaw ang lahat sa akin.
5) EPIPORA - Pag-uulit sa huling bahagi ng pahayag o taludtod.
Halimbawa:
Ang Konstitusyon ay para sa mamamayan,
Gawa ng mamamayan,
At mula sa mamamayan.
6) ANADIPLOSIS - Pag-uulit sa una at huling bahagi ng pahayag o talutod.
Halimbawa:
Ang mahal ko ay tanging ikaw,
Ikaw na nagbigay ng ilaw,
Ilaw sa gabi na kay dilim,
Dilim man o liwanag, ikaw ay mahal pa rin.
7) PAGTUTULAD (Simile) - Isang di-tuwirang paghahambing ng dalawang magkaibang bagay gamit
ang pariralang tulad ng, kawangis ng, para ng, gaya ng, makasing, at magkasim.
Halimbawa:
a. Parang hari si Tonio kung mag-utos.
8) PAGWAWANGIS (Metaphor) - Isang tuwirang paghahambing ng magkaibang bagay at hindi
gumagamit ng mga pariralang nabanggit sa itaas.
Halimbawa:
a. Ang kanyang buhay ay isang bukas na aklat.
9) PAGHAHALINTULAD (Analogy) - Ito ay paghahambing na nagpapakita ng ugnayan ng kaisipan sa
kapwa kaisipan.
Halimbawa:
a. Ang mga dalaga ay bulaklak at ang mga binata naman ay bubuyog.
10) PAGBIBIGAY - KATAUHAN (Personification) - Ginagamit ito upang bigyang-buhay ang mga
bagay na walang buhay sa pamamagitan ng pagkakapit sa mga ito ng mga gawi o kilos ng tao.
Halimbawa:
a. Ang mga bituin sa langit ay kumikindat sa akin.
11) PAGMAMALABIS (Hyperbole) - Lagpas sa katotohanan o eksaherado ang mga pahayag kung
pagkasusuriin.
Halimbawa:
a. Narinig ng buong mundo ang iyong sigaw.
b. Huminto ang pagtibok ng aking puso nang makita kong may kasama siyang iba.
12) PAGPAPALIT-TAWAG (Metonymy) - Ito ang pagpapalit ng katawagan o pangalan sa bagay na
tinutukoy.
Halimbawa:
a. Ang palasyo ay nag-anunsyo na walang pasok bukas. (palasyo - Presidente ng Pilipinas)
13) PAGPAPALIT-SAKLAW (Synecdoche) - Ito ay ang pagbabanggit ng bahagi bilang pagtukoy sa
kabuuan.
Halimbawa:
a. Apat na mata ang patuloy na tumititig sa kanya.
14) PAGLUMANAY (Euphemism) - Ito ay paggamit ng mga piling salita upang pagandahin ang isang
dikagandahang pahayag.
Halimbawa:
a. Sumakabilang buhay kagabi ang ama ni Nena. (sumakabilang buhay - namatay)

15) PANAWAGAN (Apostrophe) - Ito ay isang panawagan o pakiusap sa isang bagay na tila ito ay isang
tao.
Halimbawa:
a. O tukso! Layuan mo ako!
b. Buhos na ulan, aking mundo’y lunuring tuluyan.
c. Kamatayan nasaan ka na? Wakasan mo na ang aking kapighatian.

16) PAGHIHIMIG (Onomatopeia) - Sa pamamagitan ng tunog o himig ng salita ay nagagawang

maihatid ang kahulugan nito.
Halimbawa:
a. Dumagundong ang malakas na kulog na sinundan ng pagguhit ng matatalim na kidlat.
b. Ang tik-tak ng relo ay nangibabaw.

17) PAG-UYAM (Irony) - Isang pagpapahayag na may layuning mangutya ngunit itinatago sa paraang
waring nagbibigay-puri.
Halimbawa:
a.Siya ay may magandang mukha na kung saan tanging ina niya lang ang humahanga.

18) PAGTATAMBIS (Oxymoron) - Ito ay ang paglalahad ng mga bagay na magkasalungat upang higit
na mapatingkad ang bisa ng pagpapahayag.
Halimbawa:
a. Kailan nagiging tama ang mali?

19) PAGLILIPAT-WIKA (Transferred Epithet) - Katulad ng pagbibigay-katauhan na pinagsasabay ang

mga katangiang pantao na ginagamit ang pang-uri.
Halimbawa:
a. Madilim ang kinabukasan para sa kaniya at kaniyang pamilya mula nang iwanan sila ng kanilang ama.

20) TANONG RETORIKAL (Rhetorical Question) - Ito ay isang tanong na walang inaasahan sagot na
ang layunin ay maikintal sa isipan ng nakikinig ang mensahe.
Halimbawa:
a. Natutulog ba ang Diyos?
b. Bakit napakalupit ng kapalaran?

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
"Figurative Language is a language that uses words or expressions with a meaning that is different from
the literal interpretation. When a writer uses literal language, he or she is simply stating the facts as they
are. Figurative language, in comparison, uses exaggerations or alterations to make a
particular linguisticpoint." - Your Dictionary

1. Simile - An indirect association and comparison between two things.

Example: She is like a flower.

2. Metaphor - A direct comparison.

Example: You are the sunshine of my life.

3. Personification - Giving human attributes to an inanimate object (animal, idea, etc)

Example: The sun is looking down on me.
4. Oxymoron - A self-contrasting statement.
Example: Loud silence

5. Metonymy - An association wherein the name of something is substituted by something that represents
it.
Example: Toothpaste is sometimes called Colgate.

6. Irony - The contrast between what was expected and what actually happened.
Example: No smoking sign during a cigarette break.

7. Hyperbole - An exaggeration
Example: Cry me a river.
8. Synecdoche - An association of some important part with the whole it represents.
Example: The face who launched a thousand ships.

9. Euphemism - Creating a positive connotation out of something negative.

Example: Loved child (illegitimate child).

10. Asyndeton - Not putting any connectors (conjunctions or prepositions).

Example: No retreat. no surrender.

11. Apostrophe - A direct address to an abstract things or a person who passed away.
Example: Love, please come and take me!

Correct you grammar! Here are the 20 rules in subject verb agreement
with examples.

1. Subjects and verbs must agree in number. This is the cornerstone rule
that forms the background of the concept.
· The baby cries when he is hungry.
· The babies cry when they are hungry.
· The dog eats bones.
· The dogs eat bones.
· The apple is sweet.
2. Don’t get confused by the words that come between the subject and
verb; they do not affect agreement.
· The cat, who is chewing on my jeans , is usually very good.
· The plants, which grows in our backyard , are very nice to the see.
· The boy, who pushes the carts is my friend.
· The ants in the ant-hill are working.
· The knight under the trees is the guard.
3. Prepositional phrases between the subject and verb usually do not
affect agreement.
· The colors of the bag are beautiful.
· One of the schools in Pampanga is implementing a new curriculum.
· Bones of the cow are nutritious.
· The computers found in the library are new.
· Schools in this town are very nice.
4. When sentences start with “there” or “here” the subject will always be
placed after the verb, so care needs to be taken to identify it correctly.
· There is a problem with the internet connection.
· Here are the files you requested.
· There are some computers left in the library.
· Here is your ball pen.
· There is an error with the codes.
5. Subjects don't always come before verbs in questions. Make sure you
accurately identify the subject before deciding on the proper verb form
to use.
· Does Doggy usually eat fish ?
· Where are the pieces of this collection?
· Is there something wrong with Lina?
· Who is the president in this institution?
· Where are the songs in this album?
6. If two subjects are joined by and , they typically require a plural verb
form.
· The singer and the actress are from different country.
· My father and I will go to market today.
· The lawyer and the judge will go to the court later.
· The teachers and the principal will have a meeting.
· The police and the detective will have the case.
7. The verb is singular if the two subjects separated by and refer to the
same person or thing.
· Red beans and rice is my favorite dish.
· Ham and bread has been my favorite snack.
· Spoon and fork is used in eating.
· Shoes and socks is the gift that I received.
· Pen and Note is my tool in school.
8. If one of the words each, every, or no comes before the subject, the
verb is singular.
· No eating or drinking is allowed.
· Every man and woman is required to take the survey.
· Every child is special to God.
· No man is an island.
· Every student is required to wear proper uniform.
9. If the subjects are both singular and are connected by the words or,
nor, neither/nor, either/or , and not only/but also the verb is singular.
· Erick or Christian is to blame for the accident.
· Neither Lina nor Cathy was absent yesterday.
· Either apple or grape is sweet.
· Neither Marco nor Vincent is good in class.
· Either Jessy or Daisy is good in singing.
10. The only time when the object of the preposition factors into the
decision of plural or singular verb forms is when noun and pronoun
subjects like some, half, none, more, all, etc. are followed by a
prepositional phrase. In these sentences, the object of the preposition
determines the form of the verb.
· All of the chicken is gone.
· All of the chickens are gone.
· None of the apples are eaten.
· None of the apple is eaten.
· Some of the oranges are eaten.
11. The singular verb form is usually used for units of measurement or
time.
· Four quarts of oil was required to get the car running.
· One half of the members of the cabinet believes that president is responsible for the incident.
· Two third of the spectators of the concert shouts when the show started.
· Eight o’clock is the start of the class.
· One fourth of the class is absent.
12. If the subjects are both plural and are connected by the words or,
nor, neither/nor, either/or , and not only/but also , the verb is plural.
· Dogs and cats are both available at the pet shop.
· The president and the former PNP chief are both responsible for the misencounter.
· Apples and grapes are both sweet.
· Teachers and students are part of the teaching – learning process.
· Scientists and inventors are great people.
13. If one subject is singular and one plural and the words are connected
by the words or, nor, neither/nor, either/or , and not only/but also , you
use the verb form of the subject that is nearest the verb.
· Either the tigers or the lion has escaped from the zoo.
· Neither the lion nor the tigers have escaped from the zoo.
· Either the teacher or the students have participated on the show.
· Neither the principal nor the teachers are the performer.
· Either the police men or the criminals are dead.
14. Indefinite pronouns typically take singular verbs.
· Everybody wants to be loved.
· Nobody has passed for the examination.
· Someone is waiting outside the hall.
· Anybody is the player of the game.
· Somebody starts the drill.
15. Except for the pronouns (few, many, several, both, all, some) that
always take the plural form.
· Few were left in the school after the parade.
· Many people were stranded during the typhoon.
· Some are gathering their data about the experiment.
· Both police and criminal were found dead.
· All are good in the game.
16. If two infinitives are separated by and they take the plural form of
the verb.
· To sing and to play guitar require great skill.
· To sketch and to paint are his talent.
· To dance and to sing are her talent.
· To belt and to sing are difficult.
· To glide and to fly are extraordinary.
17. When gerunds are used as the subject of a sentence, they take the
singular verb form of the verb; but, when they are linked by and, they
take the plural form.
· Standing in the tower was a bad idea.
· Swimming in the river and playing guitar are my hobbies.
· Singing is my hobby.
· Dancing and singing are quite difficult.
· Playing basketball is very tiring.
18. Collective nouns like herd, senate, class, crowd, etc. usually take a
singular verb form.
· The faculty is going to participate in the program.
· The crowd is very thick.
· The senate decides to make the judgement.
· The class is the participant of the meeting.
· The yellow team is the winner.
19. Titles of books, movies, novels, etc. are treated as singular and take a
singular verb.
· The Tomorrow land is a movie starring George Clooney.
· Back to the future is my favorite movie.
· El Filibusterismo is the novel of Dr. Jose Rizal
· Noli Me Tangere is a great novel.
· Assessment of Learning Outcomes is our reference book in this subject.
20. Use the singular form of the verb if the subject is singular, and plural
if the subject is plural except for the word I and You.
· I have two hands.
· You are the best for me.
· You are my last hope.
· I have my money inside the bag.
· You are the shining star.

Educational Philosophies
NATURALISM
 Naturalism stands for a democratic and universal way-everyone must be educated in the same
manner.
 Education is in accordance to human development and growth.
 Emphasis is given more on the physical development-informal exercise-and hygiene of the person
rather of the 3 R’s.
 Aims to unfold the child’s potential not to prepare him for a definite vocation or social position-
but to prepare him to adapt to the changing times and needs.
 Consequently, one’s conduct is governed by impulse, instincts and experience.
 It puts the child at the center of educational process and prepares him to experience life as it is.

IDEALISM
 Ideas are the only true reality, the ultimate truths for matter is nothing but just a mere
representation of ideas.
 Emphasis is given on knowledge obtained by speculation and reasoning for its central tenet is that
ideas are the only things worth knowing for.
 Focus is on conscious reasoning of the mind in order to attain truth. This includes the activities
pertinent to the human mind such as introspection and intuition and the use of logic.
 Its aim is to discover the full potentials in child and cultivates it in order to prepare him for a better
position in the society and for him to serve the society better.
 Emphasis is given on subjects - philosophy, literature, religion and history - that will develop and
enhance the mind of the child.
 Methods used in teaching include lecture, discussion and Socratic dialogue.
 Character development is through emulation of examples and heroes.
REALISM
 The most effective way to find about reality is to study it through organized, separate and
systematically arranged matter - emphasis is on subject matter concerning Science
and Mathematics.
 Methods used in teaching include recitation, experimentation and demonstration.
 Character development is through training in the rules of conduct.

EXISTENTIALISM
 Subject matter is personal choice.
 Learning is based on the willingness of the student to choose and give meaning to the subject.
 Emphasis is given on the students rather than on the curriculum content.
 Students should not be treated as objects to be measured and standardized.
 Methods are geared on giving opportunities for the students for self-actualization and self-
direction.
 Character development is through the responsibility of every individual in making a decision.

ESSENTIALISM

 Schooling is practical for this will prepare students to become competent and valuable members of
the society.
 Focuses on the basic - reading, writing, speaking and the ability to compute (arithmetic).
 Subjects that are given emphasis include geography, grammar, reading, history, mathematics, art
and hygiene.
 Stresses the values of hard work, perseverance, discipline and respect to authorities.
 Students should be taught to think logically and systematically-grasping not just the parts but the
whole.
 Methods of teaching center on giving regular assignments, drills, recitation, frequent testing and
evaluation.

PRAGMATISM
 Involves students to work in groups.
 Methods of teaching include experimentation, project making and problem solving.
 Stresses on the application of what have learned rather that the transfer of the organized body of
knowledge.

PERENNIALISM
 Some of the ideas in the past are still being taught because they are significant.
 Curriculum should contain cognitive subjects that cultivate rationality, morality, aesthetics and
religious principles. This includes history, language, mathematics, logic, literature, humanities and
science.
 Curriculum must be based on recurrent themes of human life for it views education as a recurring
process based on eternal truths.
 The teacher must have the mastery of the subject matter and authority in exercising it.
 Aims for the education of the rational person—to develop man’s power of thought—the central
aim of this philosophy.

PROGRESSIVISM
 Focuses on the child as a whole rather than of the content or the teacher.
  Curriculum content comes from the questions and interests of the students.
 Emphasis is given on the validation of ideas by the students through active experimentation.
 Methods of teaching include discussions, interaction (teacher with students) and group dynamics.
 Opposes the extreme reliance on bookish method of instruction, learning through memorization,
the use of fear and punishment and the four walled philosophy of education.

CONSTRUCTIVISM
 A philosophy of learning which asserts that reality does not exist outside of human conceptions. It
is the individual who constructs reality by reflecting on his own experience and gives meaning to
it.
 Learning is the process of adjusting one’s mental modes to accommodate new experience.

RECONSTRUCTIVISM
 Schools should originate policies and progress that will bring social reforms and orders.
 Teachers should be an instrument to encourage and lead students in the program or social reforms.
 Curriculum emphasizes on social reforms as the aim of education. It focuses on student experience
and taking social actions on real problems.
 Method of teaching include the problem-oriented type (students are encouraged to critically
examine cultural heritage), group discussions, inquiry, dialogues, interactions and community-
based learning.
 The classroom will serve as a laboratory in experimenting school practices “bringing the world
into the classroom”.

BEHAVIORISM
 Asserts that human beings are shaped entirely by their external environment.
 The only reality is the physical world.

NATIONALISM
 The most important development was the creation of common language.
 Stresses on the teaching of the principles of democracy, and duties of citizenship.
 Stimulates the development of the state which includes the control and support of public school
system.
 Curriculum includes the teaching of grammar, geography and history.
 Method of teaching gives emphasis on the content regarding on nature studies,
physical exercisesand play activities.

HUMANISM
 Education is a process and should not be taken abruptly. The unfolding of human character
proceeds with unfolding of nature.
 The learner should be in control of his destiny.
 Concern is more on methods which include theme writing rather than oral discussions, drills
and exercises, playing.
 Asserts the importance of playing in the curriculum.
 Emphasizes motivations and the use of praise and rewards.
 Curriculum includes subjects concerning literary appreciation, physical education, social training
in manners and development.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT FOR TEACHERS SUMMARY

The Education Levels in the Philippines
Basic Education includes the following:
1. Kindergarten
2. Grade 1 – Grade 6 (elementary)
3. Grade 7 – Grade 10 (Junior High School)
4. Grade 11- 12 (Senior High School)

Technical Vocational Education

1. Taken care by the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA)
2. For the TechVoc track in SHS, DepEd and TESDA work in close coordination (Technology and
Livelihood Education (TLE) and Technical-Vocational-Livelihood (TVL) Track specializations may be
taken between Grades 9 to 12. Exploratory Subjects at 40 hours per quarter are taken during Grades 7 to
8.)

Higher Education
Colleges with some courses. The new basic education levels are provided in the K to 12 Enhanced
Curriculum of 2013

7 types of Curriculum According to Allan Glatthorn

1. Recommended Curriculum - The curriculum that is recommended by scholars and professional
organizations.
Basic Education - Recommended by DepEd
Higher Education - Recommended by CHED
Vocational Education - TESDA
2. Written Curriculum - Documents based on recommended curriculum
Example: syllabi, course of study, module, books or instructional guides, lesson plan.
3. Taught Curriculum - The curriculum which teachers actually deliver day by day.
4. Supported Curriculum - Includes those resources that support the curriculum-textbooks, software, and
other media supporting materials that make learning and teaching meaningful print materials like books,
charts, posters, worksheets, or non-print materials like Power Point presentations, movies, slides, models,
mock ups, realias facilities – playground, laboratory, AV rooms, zoo, museum, market or plaza (places
where direct experiences occur)
5. Learned Curriculum - The bottom-line curriculum it is the curriculum that students actually learn.
6. Assessed Curriculum - The curriculum which appears as tests and performance measures: state tests,
standardized tests, district tests, and teacher-made tests.
7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum - This is the unintended curriculum. It defines what students learn from
the physical environment, the policies, and the procedures of the school. Not planned but has a great
impact on students

Ways of Presenting the Curriculum

1.Topical Approach – Content is based on knowledge and experiences.
2. Concept Approach – Fewer topics in clusters around major and sub concepts.
3. Thematic – Combination of concepts.
4. Modular – Leads to complete units of instruction.

Criteria in the Selection of the Subject Matter

1. Self-Sufficiency – it is about helping the learners to attain the utmost independence in learning yet in an
inexpensive way. It is the most important guiding principle in selecting the content according to Scheffler.
This means, more of the results and effective learning outcomes though a lesser amount of the teacher’s
effort and so with the learner’s effort.
2. Significance – It is significant if fundamental ideas, concepts, principles and generalization are supplied
in the subject matter to achieve the overall aim of the curriculum.
3. Validity – The genuineness of a content selected is by its legality. The subject matter to be selected has
to be legal to avoid selecting the obsolete ones.; must be verified at regular interval.
4. Interest – The learner’s interest is a major factor in selecting the content; one of the driving forces of
the learner to learn better.
5. Utility - Deciding on subject matter, its usefulness is considered to be essential.
6. Learnability – if there is a quotation to “live within our means” then there is also the consideration of
“teaching within the means of the learners.”
7. Feasibility – content selection takes into thought the possibility, the practicability and the achievability
of the subject matter in terms of the availability of the resources, proficiency of the teachers, and the
personality of learners especially within the framework of the society and the government

Guides in Addressing Content in the Curriculum

1. Balance – Content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth.
2. Articulation - As the content complexity progresses, vertically or horizontally, smooth connections or
bridging should be provided. This ensures that there is no gaps or overlaps in the content.
3. Sequence – Logical arrangement
- Vertically – For deepening the content
- Horizontally – For broadening the content
4. Integration – Relatedness or connection to other contents. Provides a holistic or unified view of
curriculum instead of segmentation.
5. Continuity – Should be perennial, endures time. Constant repetition, reinforcement and enhancement
are elements of continuity.

Four Phases of Curriculum Development

1. Curriculum Planning – Considers the school vision, mission, and goals; includes the philosophy or
strong education belief of the school.
2. Curriculum Designing – The way curriculum is conceptualized to include the selection and
organization of content, the selection and organization of learning experiences or activities and the
selection of the assessment procedure and tools to measure achieved learning outcomes. Also include the
resources to be utilized and the statement of the intended learning outcomes.
3. Curriculum Implementing – Putting into action the plan; it is where the action takes place; involves
the activities transpire in every teacher’s classroom where learning becomes an active process.
4. Curriculum Evaluating – Determines the extent to which the desired outcomes have been achieved.
This is an ongoing procedure as in finding out the progress of learning (formative) or the mastery of
learning (summative)

Curriculum Development Process Models

Ralph Tyler Model : Four Basic Principles
1. Purposes of the school
2. Educational experiences related to the purposes
3. Organization of the purposes
4. Evaluation of the experience

Hilda Taba Model : Grassroots Approach

Taba strongly believed teachers should take part in the design of curricula. Taba’s model included seven
steps:

1. Educators must first identify the students’ needs for the development of the curriculum.
2. Objectives should by specific.
3. The content matches the objectives, as well as demonstrates validity.
4. Curriculum content is designed based on students’ interest, development, and achievement.
 5. Instructional methods are selected by teachers.
6. The organization of the learning activities is determined by the teacher.
7. Evaluation procedures are determined by students and teachers.

Galen Sayler and Wiliam Alecander Curriculum Model

Viewed curriculum development as consisting of four steps:

1. Goals, Objectives and Domain

2. Curriculum Designing
3. Curriculum Implementation
4. Evaluation

Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

1. Perennialism
2. Essentialism
3. Progressivism
4. Reconstructionism

Elements/Components of a Curriculum Design

1. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO) or the Desired Learning Outcomes DLO
2. Subject matter or content
3. Teaching and learning methods
4. Assessment /Evaluation

5 Categories of Curriculum Change

1. Substitution - Current curriculum will be replaced or substituted by a new one. Complete overhaul and
not merely a revision.
2. Alteration - There is a minor change.
Example: graphing paper – to graphing calculator
3. Restructuring - Major change or modification in the school system, degree program or educational
system.
4. Perturbations - Changes that are disruptive, but teachers have to adjust to them within a fairly short
time.
Ex. Changes in time schedule to catch up with something
5. Value Orientation
Ex. A teacher who gives emphasis on academic and forget the formation of faith and values needs value
orientation.
The art of questioning is one of the basic skills of good teaching. Through asking questions, we can
stimulate critical thinking to the students. The art of thoughtful questioning can also help the teacher
to extract not only the factual information from the learners, but also the genuine idea of them. In this
article we will discuss the 5 types of questions that may help to improve your questioning technique.

There are 5 Types of Questions:

1. Factual - It is the type of question that is reasonably simple and straight forward. The answers are based
on obvious facts or awareness and commonly requires one fact based answers. It is at the lowest level
of cognitive or affective processes.
Example: What is the name of the little girl in the story?
2. Convergent - It is the type of question that requires inferences or conjecture. Answers to this type of
question is usually within a very finite range of acceptable accuracy.
Example: What were the reason why the boy got mad? (This is not specifically stated in one direct
statement in the text or story so, the reader must make simple inferences as to why the boy got mad.)
3. Divergent - It is the type of question that allows the learners to generate variety of answers. This type of
question often requires students to analyze, synthesize, or evaluate a knowledge base and then project or
predict different outcomes.
Example: In the story, what do you think will happen to the boy if he ran away from their home?

4. Evaluative - It is the type of question that usually requires sophisticated levels of cognitive and
emotional judgment. To answer evaluative question, the students must combine multiple logical
and affective thinking process or comparative frameworks. Answers in this type of question is analyzed at
multiple levels and from different perspective to arrive at the newly synthesized information or
conclusions.
Example: What are the similarities and differences between Erikson and Freuds theory of development?

5. Combinations - It is the combination of the types of questions above.

Here are some of the important people in the Philippine History:

 The Philippine National Hero: Dr. Jose Rizal
 The Great Plebian: Andres Bonifacio
 The Father of the Katipunan: Andres Bonifacio
 Hero of the Tirad Pass Battle: Gregorio Del Pilar
 President of the First Philippine Republic: General Emilio Aguinaldo
 Brains of the Philippine Revolution: Apolinario Mabini
 Martyred Priests in 1872: GOMBURZA
 Brain of the Katipunan: Emilio Jacinto
 Co-founder of La Independencia: General Antonio Luna
 Mother of Balintawak: Melchora Aquino Tandang Sora: Melchora Aquino
 Greatest Filipino Orator of the Propaganda Movement: Graciano Lopez- Jaena
 First Filipino Cannon-maker: Pandar Pira
 Managing Editor of La Solidaridad: Mariano Ponce
 Lakambini of Katipunan: Gregoria de Jesus
 Poet of the Revolution: Fernando Ma. Guerrero
 Outstanding Diplomat of the First Philippine Republic: Felipe Agoncillo
 First University of the Philippines President: Rafael Palma
 Greatest Filipino Painter: Juan Luna
 Greatest Journalist of the Propaganda Movement: Marcelo H. del Pilar
 First Filipino Poetess: Leona Florentino
 Peace of the Revolution: Pedro Paterno
 Founder of Philippine Socialism: Isabelo Delos Reyes
 Viborra: Artemio Ricarte
 Author of the Spanish lyrics of the Philippine National Anthem: Jose Palma
 Chief of Tondo: Lakandola
 The Last Rajah of Manila: Rajah Soliman
 Fiancée of Jose Rizal: Leonor Rivera
 Maker of the First Filipino Flag: Marcela Agoncillo
 Co-founder of Katipunan: Galicano Apacible
 Leader of the Ilocano Revolt: Diego Silang
 First Filipino Hero: Lapu-lapu
  Leader of the Longest Revolt in Bohol: Francisco Dagohoy
 The Man of Many Talents: Epifanio Delos Santos
 Prince of Tagalog Poets: Francisco Baltazar
 Visayan Joan of Arc: Teresa Magbanua
 Mother of Biak-na-Bato: Trinidad Tecson
 Wife of Artemio Ricarte: Agueda Esteban
 Leader of the Tarlac Revolt: Gen. Francisco Makabulos
 Composer of the Philippine National Anthem: Julian Felipe
 Spaniards born in the Philippines: Insulares
 Leader of Magdalo: Baldomero Aguinaldo
 Leader of Magdiwang: Mariano Alvarez
 Founder of La Liga Filipina: Jose Rizal
 Painter of the Spolarium: Juan Luna

Here are the republic acts for all teachers in the Philippines:

 REPUBLIC ACT No. 137 -Board of Textbooks. It provided for all public schools to use only
those books approved by the board for a period of six years from the date of their adoption.
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 1425 -The inclusion of a course on the life, works and writings- especially
the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo of Dr. Jose Rizal in the curricula of all public and
private schools.
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 4670 -The Magna Carta for Public School Teachers.
 REPUBLIC ACT 1079 - Commonwealth Act No.117. Civil Service Eligibility shall be
permanent and shall be valid throughout a person’s lifetime.
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 6728 -The Act Providing Government Assistance to Students and
Teachers in Private Education. (Scholarship Programs)
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 7722 -Creating the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) composed
of a chairperson and four (4) commissioners.
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 7743 - The establishment of public libraries and reading centers in every
barangay and municipality of the country.
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 7784 - The Centers of Excellence Law
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 7796 - The TESDA Law
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 7836 - Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 7877 - Anti Sexual harassment Act of 1995
 EXECUTIVE ORDER No. 27 - the inclusion of subject courses on human rights in the school
curricula, textbooks, and other reading materials
 EXECUTIVE ORDER No. 189 - All public Secondary School teachers under the administrative
supervision and control of DECS. Issued by former President Corazon Aquino.
 PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 6-A - Known as the Educational Development Decree of 1972,
and was implemented by the late former President Ferdinand Marcos.
 PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 146 - This decree requiring ALL senior high school students to
pass the National College Entrance Examination (NCEE) as pre-requisite for admission to any
post- secondary academic or professional degree program.
 PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No.451 - This law repealed R.A No. 6139 and authorized the Sec.
of Education and Culture to regulate the imposition of tuition fee and other school fees in all
private educational institutions.
 PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 688 - This law gave the Civil Service Commission the power
and authority to give the appropriate examination for all public school teachers.
 PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 1139 - This decree issued on May 13, 1977, created the position
of the undersecretary for NON-FORMAL Education who shall make an overall assessment of the
existing non formal education programs and shall take charge of all non-formal education
programs of DECS.
 DEPARTMENT ORDER No. 1, s.1973 - This DECS order reiterates the policy on the use of
locally published textbooks of Filipino authorship in all levels of education, both public and
private.
  DEPARTMENT ORDER No. 25, s.1974 - The implementation of BILINGUAL EDUCATION
Program which mandates the use of English and Filipino as separate media of instruction.
 MEC ORDER No. 22, s.1978 - ALL institutions shall offer in all their curricular programs at
least six (6) units of Filipino, starting the FIRST SEM Of school year 1979- 1980.
 DECS ORDER No. 30, s. 1993 - This order issued on May 20, 1993, providing for a National
Elementary Achievement Test (NEAT) for ALL grade six pupils in Public and Private schools
 DECS ORDER No. 38, s. 1994 - Provided for a National Secondary Assessment Test (NSAT) to
be administered to ALL graduating public and private high school.
 REPUBLIC ACT No. 1265 - The Law on the Observance of Flag Ceremony
 EXECUTIVE ORDER No. 200, sec.3 -The Law prohibits fund raising in school
 1987 CONSTITUTIONS ARTICLE XIV, sec. 3:2 -The Law teaches and imposes discipline
 BATAS PAMBANSA BLG. 232, sec. 13:2 / 1987 CONSTITUTION, ARTICLE XIV, sec
5:2,/ 1973 CONSTITUTION, ARTICLE XV, sec. 8:2 -the Law recognizes Academic Freedom
 1992 MANUAL OF REGULATION FOR PRIVATE SCHOOL, sec 48-49 - The Law requires
to have a fixed calendar
 1992 MANUAL OF REGULATION FOR PRIVATE SCHOOL, sec. 44-47 - The Law on
Education specifies faculty qualification
 R.A No. 1054 AS AMENDED BY P.D.’s Nos. 442, 570-A, 622, AND 643 - The Law requires
Education to provide Medical and Dental Services
 CIVIL CODE, ARTICLE 349 - The Law considers teachers, professors, and administrators to be
in LOCO PARENTIS to their pupils and students
 1987 CONSTITUTIONS ARTICLE XIV, sec. 5:4 - The Law requires Education to provide
professional advancement teachers.

LAWS ALLOWING PUBLICATIONS IN THE SCHOOL CAMPUS

- The Revised Penal Code of the Philippines prohibits the publication of the following:

1. ARTICLE 138 – Inciting the people to rebellion

2. ARTICLE 142 – Seditious Libel

3. ARTICLE 154 – Unlawful utterances

4. ARTICLE 201 – Immoral Doctrine, obscene publication and exhibition
5. ARTICLE 356 – Threatening to publish and offering the prevent publication of an article for a certain
fee.
6. ARTICLE 357 – Acts in the official proceedings that are prohibited to be published
7. ARTICLE 362 – Libelous remarks
Here are the bases of the Philippine Educational System. The texts below are the articles, section, and
the republic acts under the Philippine Constitution.
MAJOR LEGAL BASES
The Philippine Constitutions
1. 1935 CONST. Article XIV Section 5
2. 1973 CONST. Article XV Section 8 (1-8)
3. 1987 CONST. Article XIV Sections 1-5(5)

THE 1987 CONSTITUTIONS

Article XIV Sections 1-5(5)
Section 1. The state shall protect and promote the right of all the citizens to quality education at all levels
and shall take appropriate steps to make such education accessible to all.
Section 2. The state shall:
 1. Establish, maintain and support a complete, adequate and integrated system of education relevant to
the needs of the people and society;
2. Establish and maintain a system of free public education in the elementary and high school levels.
Without limiting the natural rights of parents to rear their children, elementary education is
compulsory for all children of school age;
3. Establish and maintain a system of scholarship grants, student loan programs, subsidies and other
incentives which shall be available to deserving students in both public and private schools,
especially to the underprivileged;
4. Encourage non-formal, informal and indigenous learning system, as well as self- learning
independent and out-of-school study programs particularly those that respond to community needs;
and
5. Provide adult citizens, the disabled and out-of-school youth with training in civics, vocational
efficiency and skills.
Section 3.
1. All educational institutions shall include the study of the Constitution as part of the curricula.
2. They shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster love of humanity, respect for human rights,
appreciation of the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country, teach the
rights and duties of citizenship, strengthen ethical and spiritual values, develop moral character and
personal discipline, encourage critical and creative thinking, broaden scientific and technological
knowledge and promote efficiency.
3. At the option expressed in writing by the parent or guardians, religion shall be allowed to be taught
to their children or wards in the public elementary and high schools within the regular class hours
by instructors designated or approved by the religious authorities of the religion to which the
children or wards belong, additional cost to the Government.
Section 4.
1. The state recognizes the complementary roles of the public and private institutions in the
educational system and shall exercise reasonable supervision and regulation of all educational
institutions.
2. Educational institutions, other than those established by religious groups and mission boards, shall
be allowed solely by citizens of the Philippines or corporations or associations at least sixty per
centum of the capital of which is owned by such citizens. The Congress may, however, require
increased Filipino equity participation in all educational institutions. The control and administration
of educational institutions shall vested in citizens of the Philippines. No educational institution shall
be established exclusively for aliens and no group of aliens shall comprise more than one third of
the enrollment in any school. The provisions of this subsection shall not apply to schools
established for foreign diplomatic personnel and their dependents and, unless otherwise provided by
law, for other foreign temporary residents.
3. All revenues and assets of non- stock, non- profit educational institutions used actually, directly and
exclusively for educational purposes shall be exempt from taxes and duties. Upon the dissolution or
cessation of the corporate existence of such institutions, their assets shall be disposed of in the
manner provided by law. Proprietary educational institutions, including those cooperatively owned,
may likewise be entitled to such exemptions subject to the limitations provided by law including
restrictions on dividends and provisions for reinvestment.
4. Subject to conditions prescribed by law, all grants endowments, donations or contributions used
actually, directly and exclusively for educational purposes shall be exempt from tax.
Section 5.
1. The State shall take into account regional and sectoral needs and conditions and shall encourage
local planning in the development of educational policies and programs.
2. Academic freedom shall be enjoyed in all institutions of higher learning.
3. Every citizen has a right to select a profession or course of study, subject to fair, reasonable and
equitable admission and academic requirements.
4. The State shall enhance the right of teachers to professional advancement. Non- teaching academic
and non-academic personnel shall enjoy the protection of the State.
5. The State shall assign the highest budgetary priority to education and ensure that teaching will
attract and retain its rightful share of the best available talents through adequate remuneration and
other means of job satisfaction and fulfillment.
BATAS PAMBANSA BLG. 232 (THE EDUCATION ACT OF 1982)
This was an act providing for the establishment and maintenance of an integrated system of education. In
accordance with Section 2, this act shall apply to and govern both formal and non- formal system in public
and private schools in all levels of the entire educational system.
As provided by this Act, the national development goals are as follows:
1. To achieve and maintain an accelerating rate of economic development and social progress.
2. To assure the maximum participation of all the people in the attainment and enjoyment of the
benefits of such growth; and
3. To achieve and strengthen national unity and consciousness and preserve, develop and promote
desirable cultural, moral and spiritual values in changing world.
It is also stated in Section 3 that:
The State shall promote the right of every individual to relevant quality education, regardless of sex, age,
creed socio- economic status, physical and mental conditions, racial or ethnic origin, political or other
affiliation. The State shall therefore promote and maintain equality of access to education as well as the
benefits of education by all its citizens.
RIGHTS OF STUDENTS IN SCHOOL (Section 9)
1. The right to receive competent instruction, relevant quality education.
2. The right to freely choose their field of study subject to the existing curricula and continue their
course up to graduation, except in cases of academic deficiency or violations of disciplinary
regulations.
3. The right to school guidance and counseling services.
4. The right to access to his owns school records and the confidentiality of it.
5. The right to issuance of official certificates, diplomas, transcript of records, grades, transfer
credentials and similar document within thirty days from request.
6. The right to publish a student newspaper and invite resource persons during symposia, assemblies
and other activities.
7. The right to free expression of opinions and suggestions and to effective channels of
communication with appropriate academic and administrative bodies of the school or institutions.
8. The right to form or establish, join and participate in organizations and societies recognized by the
school…, or to form, join and maintain organizations and societies for purposes not contrary to law.
9. The right to be free from involuntary contributions except those approved by their organizations
and societies.
RIGHT OF ALL SCHOOL PERSONNEL (Section 10)
1. Free expression of opinions and suggestions.
2. To be provided with free legal service by the appropriate government office in case of public school
personnel and the school authorities concerned in case of private school personnel, when charged in
administrative, civil and/or criminal proceedings, by parties other than the school authorities
concerned, for actions committed directly in the lawful discharged of professional duties and/or in
defense of school policies.
3. Establish join, maintain labor organization of their choice to promote their welfare and defend their
interest.
4. To be free from involuntary contributions except those imposed by their own organizations.
SPECIAL RIGHTS and/or PRIVILEGES OF TEACHING OR ACADEMIC STAFF
(Section 11)
1. Right to be free compulsory assignment not related to their duties defined in their appointment or
employment contracts unless compensated thereof. (additional compensation Sec. 14 R.A. 4670- at
least 25% his regular remuneration)
2. Right to intellectual property………
3. Teachers are persons in authority when in lawful discharge of duties and responsibilities… shall
therefore be accorded due respect and protection (Commonwealth Act No. 578)
4. Teachers shall be given opportunity to choose career alternatives for advancements.
RIGHTS OF ADMINISTRATORS (Section 12)
1. School administrators shall be deemed persons in authority while in the lawful discharge of their
duties and responsibilities…. Shall be accorded due respect and protection (Commonwealth Act
No. 578)
RIGHTS OF SCHOOLS (Section 13)
 1. The right of their governing boards…….to adopt and enforce administrative or management
systems.
2. The right of institutions of higher learning to determine on academic grounds who shall be admitted
to study, who may teach, and who shall be the subjects of the study and research.
MAINTENANCE OF QUALITY EDUCATION
1. Voluntary Accreditation (Section 29)
2. Teachers and Administrators obligations and qualification (Sections 176 and 17)
3. Government Financial Assistance to Private Schools (Section 41)
OTHER LEGAL BASES
1. Republic Act No. 74
This law was enacted on January 21, 1901 by the Philippine Commission, and provided:
a. Establishment of the Department of Public Instruction headed by the General superintendent

b. The archipelago was divided into school divisions and districts for effective management of the school
system.

c. English was made as medium of instruction in all levels of schooling

d. Optional religious instructions in all schools (Section 16)

e. Establishment of a Trade school in Manila (Philippine College of Arts and Trade- PCAT now known as
Technological University of the Philippines), a school of Agriculture in Negros, a Normal school in Manila
(Philippine Normal School) (Section 18)

• Philippine Normal School, however, was renamed Philippine Normal College (PNC) by virtue of
Republic Act No. 416 on June 18, 1949. And on December 26, 1991, the PNC was converted to Philippine
Normal University as provided by Republic Act No. 7168.
2. Republic Act No. 2706
This was known as the “Private School Law”, enacted on March 10, 1917 by the Philippine Legislature,
which made obligatory the recognition and inspection of private schools and colleges by the Secretary of
Public Instruction so as to maintain a standard of efficiency in all private schools and colleges in the
country.

This law was amended by Commonwealth Act No. 180 passed on November 13, 1936 which provided
that:

The Secretary of Public Instruction was vested with power to “supervise, inspect and regulate said schools
and colleges in order to determine the efficiency of instruction given in the same.”

And all private schools come under the supervision and regulation of the Secretary of DPI, thus
eliminating “diploma mills” and substandard schools.

3. Commonwealth Act No. 1 (Amended by R.A. 9163)

Known as the “National Defense Act” passed by the Philippine Assembly on December 21, 1935, which
provided in Section 81 that:
“Preparatory Military training shall be given with the youth in the elementary grade school at the age of
ten years and shall extend through the remainder of his schooling into college or post-secondary education.
By virtue of Presidential Decree 1706, issued by the late President Marcos on August 8, 1980, otherwise
known as the “National Service Law”, Commonwealth Act No. 1 was amended, and required all citizens to
render, civic welfare service, law enforcement service and military service.
4. Commonwealth Act No. 80
This law created the Office of Adult Education on October 26, 1936, so as to eliminate illiteracy and to
give vocational and citizenship training to adult citizens of the country.
5. Commonwealth Act No. 578
Enacted on June 8, 1940, conferred the status of “persons in authority” upon the teachers, professors, and
persons charged with the supervision of public or duly recognized private schools, colleges and
universities.

This Act also provided a penalty of imprisonment ranging from six months and one day to six years and a
fine ranging from 500 to 1, 000 pesos upon any person found guilty of assault upon those teaching
personnel.

6. Commonwealth Act No. 586 (Repealed by R.A. 896)

This is known as Education Act of 1940. It was approved on August 7, 1940 by the Philippine Assembly.
The law provided for the following:
a. Reduction of seven- year elementary course to six- year elementary course.

b. Fixing the school entrance age to seven.

c. National support of elementary education.

d. Compulsory attendance in the primary grades for all children who enroll in Grade I.

e. Introduction of double- single session- one class in the morning and another in the afternoon under one
teacher to accommodate more children.

7. Commonwealth Act No. 589

This law, approved on August 19, 1940, established a school ritual in all public and private elementary and
secondary schools in the Philippines.
The ritual consists of solemn and patriotic ceremonies that include the singing of the National Anthem and
Patriotic Pledges.
8. Republic Act No. 139 (Repealed by R. A. 8047)
Enacted on June 14, 1947, and the Board of Textbooks. This law provided that all public schools must only
use books that are approved by the Board for a period of six years from the date of their adoption.

The private schools may use books of their choice, provided the Board of Textbooks has no objections
with those books.

9. Republic Act No. 896

Enacted on June 20, 1953 and known as the Elementary Education Act of 1953, it repealed
Commonwealth Act 586 and provided for the following:
a. Restoration of Grade VII (but never implemented due to lack of funds)

b. Abolition of the double - single session and return to the former practice of only one

c. Class under one teacher in the primary and three teachers to two classes or five teachers to three classes
in the intermediate level

d. Compulsory completion of the elementary grades

e. Compulsory enrollment of children in the public schools upon attaining seven years of age.

10. Republic Act No. 1124 (Repealed by R. A. 7722)

Approved on June 16, 1954, this law created the Board of National Education charged with the duty of
formulating general educational policies and directing the educational interests of the nation.
However, this Board which was later renamed National Board of Education (P.D. No. 1), was abolished bu
virtue of the Creation of the board of Higher Education as stipulated in Batas Pambansa Blg. 232. The
Board’s function is now assumed by the commission on Higher Education or CHED by virtue of Republic
Act No. 7722.
11. Republic Act No. 1265 (amended by R. A. 8491)
This law was approved on June 11, 1955, and provided that a daily flag ceremony shall be compulsory in
all educational institutions. This includes the singing of the Philippine National Anthem.
12. Republic Act No. 1425
It was approved on June 12, 1956, it prescribed the inclusion in the curricula of all schools, both public and
private, from elementary schools to the universities, the life, works and writings of Jose Rizal especially
the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo.
13. Republic Act No. 4670
Known as the “Magna Carta for Public School Teachers”. This was approved on June 18, 1966 to promote
and improve the social and economic status of public school teachers, their living and working conditions,
their employment and career prospects.
It also provided the following:
1. Recruitment qualifications for teachers
2. Code of Professional Conduct for Teachers
3. Teaching hours- 6 hours of classroom teaching (maximum load)
4. Additional compensation- 25% of the regular remuneration
5. Health and injury benefits (thru the GSIS)
6. One year study leave (sabbatical leave) after seven years of continuous teaching, the teacher should
receive 60% of the monthly salary.
7. One range salary increase upon retirement (basis computing the retirement fee).
8. Freedom to form organizations.
14. Republic Act No. 1079
Approved on June 15, 1959, it provided that Civil Service eligibility shall be permanent and shall have no
time limit.
15. Republic Act No. 6655
Known as the “Free Public Secondary Education Act of 1988”, it was approved on May 26, 1988 and
provided for:
a. Free public secondary education to all qualified citizens and promote quality education at all level.

b. No tuition or other fees shall be collected except fees related to membership in the school community
such I.D., student organization and publication.

c. Non- payment of these shall not hinder a student from enrollment or graduation.

d. Nationalization of all public secondary schools ( Section 7)

e. A student who fails in majority of his academic subjects for two consecutive years could no longer avail
of their program.
Here are some of the important dates in the Philippine History:
January
 January 1, 1571 – LaVilla de San Miguel renamed Ciudad del Santissimo, Nobre de Jesus “Sto
Nino”
 January 12, 1889 – La Association Hispano founded by Miguel Morayta to introduce changes in
the Philippines and have a Filipino representative in the Spanish Cortes
 January 20, 1872 – Meeting in Cavite led by Sargent Lamadrid and killed their Spanish officers
 January 23, 1899 – Inauguration of the first republic (Mololos) Aguinaldo as president

February
  February 2, 1543 – Villalobos named Samar and Layte “Pilipinas”
 February 13, 1565 – Miguel Lopes de Villalobos reached Cebu
 February 14, 1899 – Outbreak of Filipino – American War (Sta. Mesa Manila)
 February 15, 1898 – Spanish blew up the amiracan warship in Havana Cuba
 February 15, 1889 – The newspaper La Soliraridad founded by Graciano Lopes Jaena
 February 17, 1872 – Execution of GOMBURZA
 February 18, 1891 – Rizal second novel El Filibusterismo was publish and finance by Valentin
Ventura

March
 March 16, 1521 – Magellan sighted the island of samar
 March 16, 1565 – Blood compact Legaspi and Rajah Sikatuna of Bohol
 March 17, 1521 – Magellan landed Homnhon “Archipelago of St. Lazarus”
 March 22, 1897 – Tejeros Convention resolved the conflict between Magdalo and Magdiwang
 March 23, 1935 – ConCon was headed by C.M. Recto
 March 23, 1901 – Gen. Aguinaldo captured at Palanan
 March 24, 1934 – Creation of Commonwealth Government as provided by Tyding McDuffie Law
and approved by US President F. Roosevelt
 March 14, 1947 – Formal agreement between US and Philippine (22 sites as military bases for
99yrs in return AFP accepted US $100 M worth of military equipment)
 March 17, 1957 – Pres. Magsaysay died in a plane crash in Mt. Manunggal Cebu
 March 17, 1957 – Garcia become the president of the Philippines
 March 29, 1512 – Blood compact Magellan and Rajah Kulambo of Limasawa
 March 29, 1942 – Creation of HUKBALAHAP (Luis Taruc)
 March 31, 1899 – Transfer of capital republic from Malolos to San Fernando Pampanga
 March 31, 1521 – First mass officiated b y Father Pedro de Valderrama

April
 April 4, 1947 – Pres. Roxas died of cardiac arrest at Clark air base
 April 4, 1947 – Elpidio Quirino become the president
 April 9, 1942 – Fall of Bataan, Death March from Bataan to San Fernando Pampanga
 April 13-14, 1671 – defeat of the 6 Dutch led by Juan Ronquillo in battle of Playa Honda, Zam
 April 25, 1898 – US declare war against Spain
 April 27, 1521 – Magellan killed in the battle of Mactan
 April 27, 1565 – First Spanish settlement establish by Legaspi name La Villa de San Miguel
 April 30, 1846 – Approved of Philippine Rehabilitation Act by the US.

May
 May 1, 1898 – US naval under George Dewey defeat the Spain armada led by Patrico Montojo in
famous battle of Manila Bay
 May 6, 1942 – Fall of Corregidor Island (Gen. Jonathan Wainwright) – (Gem. Homma of Japan)
 May 10, 1897 – Execution of Bonifacio brathers
 May 12, 1935 – SAKDALISTA Party by Benigno Ramos against the Commonwealth
Government
 May 12, 1962 – Macapagal change the date of Independence day from July 4, 1946 to June 12,
1898
 May 16, 1584 – Royal Audiencia referred to as the Supreme Court during Spanish
 May 17, 1764 – Britain surrendered the Philippines to Spanish
 May 28, 1898 – Gen. Aguinaldo waved the Philippine flag for the first time to celebrate its
victory
 May 31, 1764 – Truce was signed between France and England
June
 June 3, 1571 – Manila conquered by Martin de Goiti
 June 5, 1899 – Assassination of Antonio Luna at Cabanatuan
 July 7, 1987 – Biak-na-Bato revolutionary government was established
 June 12, 1898 – Proclamation of Philippines Independence by Gen. Aguinaldo
 June 18, 1908 – UP was established (Murray Barlett as first President) and (Ignacio Villamor as
first Filipino President)
 June 19, 1861 – birth of Jose Rizal
 June 24, 1571 – Manila was named “Distinguished and Ever Loyal City” by Legaspi and First
Governor-General of the Philippines

July
 July 3, 1892 – La Liga Filipina founded by Dr. Rizal
 July 4, 1946 – Inauguration of 3rd Republic and the signing of the Treaty of General legalized the
retention of US bases in the Philippines
 July 7, 1892 – Rizal exiled in Dapitan for 4yrs
 July 7, 1892 – KKK organized by Andres Bonifacion in Azcarraga st. (C.M. Recto)

August
 August 6, 1945 – First Atomic bomb dropped in Hiroshima Japan
 August 8, 1963 – Macapagal approved the Agriculture Land Reform to abolish tenancy
 August 9, 1945 – Second Atomic bomb dropped in Nagasaki Japan
 August 13, 1898 – Mock battle of manila bay between Spain and America
 August 14, 1898 – Military government under General Wesley Merit
 August 19, 1896 – Katipunan was discovered by Fr. Mariano Gil trough Teodoro Patino
 August 23, 1896 – Philippine Revolution “Cry of Balintawak”
 August 25, 1896 - Battle of Pasong Tamo
 August 26, 1930 – Founding of the Communist Party of the Philippines CPP by Crisostomo
Evangelista
 August 29, 1916 - Creation of bicameral legislature as granted by the jones law
 August 30, 1896 – Battle of Pinaglabanan
 August 31, 1896 – Gen. Aguinaldo led the uprising in Kawit Cavite

September
 September 2, 1945 – Japanese imperial surrendered and ended the war in asia pacific
 September 5, 1955 – The Laure-Langley Agreement was replacing the Bell Trade Act
 September 6, 1834 – manila was opened to world trade led to an era of commercial revolution I
the Philippines
 September 8-10, 1954 – SEATO (Southeast Asian Treaty Organization)
 September 12, 1896 – 13 men from Cavite know as “Los Tresce Martirez” was executed
 September 28, 1901 – Gen. Antonio Lucban attacked the American Garrison in Balangiga, Samar

October
 October 3, 1646 – defeat of Dutch in battle of manila
 October 5, 1762 – manila was conquered by British forces under Gen. William Draper and
Admiral Samuel Cornish
 October 6, 1913 – Francis Burton Harrison first American Governor General of the Philippines
 October 13, 1913 – Signing of underwood-simons tariff law (open trade Phil. and American)
  October 14, 1943 – Inauguration of Japanese puppet republic Jose P. Laurel as President
 October 16, 1907 – First Philippine Assembly (M. Quezon as M.Floor Leader) and (S. Osmena as
Speaker)
 October 20, 1943 – McArthur landed the Red Beach, Polo Layte (Osmena as President with C.
Romulo)
 October 24 – 26, 1944 – Battle of Leyte Gulf
 October 31, 1829 – Dagohoy Longest Revolt in the Philippines lasted 85yrs

November
 November 4, 1841 – Apolinario Dela Cruz “Hermano Pule” was executed by Spanish
 November 10, 1953 – Magsaysay and Garcia were elected as Pres and Vice Pres
 November 11, 1957 – Macapagal (Poor boy from Lubao) elected as President of the Philippine
 November 15, 1935 – Inauguration of Commonwealth government with Quezon as president and
Osmena as vice president
 November 30, 1574 – De Goiti was killed by Limahong

December
 December 2, 1899 – Gen. Gregorio del Pilar was killed by the Americans
 December 7, 1933 – Right of Suffrage was granted to Filipino by Gov. Frank Murphy
 December 8, 1941 – Bombing of Pearl Harbor
 December 10, 1898 – Treaty of Paris was signed between Spain and America
 December 15, 1897 – treaty Biak-na-Bato was signed by Pedro Paterno and Gov. Primo de Rivera
 December 21, 1898 – The Philippines was considered American benevolent assimilation
 December 26, 1941 – Declaration of manila as open city by Gen. McArthur
 December 30, 1896 – Execution of Rizal at Luneta de Bagumbayan

Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that
people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and
modeling. Among others Albert Bandura is considered the leading proponent of this theory.

 General principles of social learning theory follows:

 1. People can learn by observing the behavior is of others and the outcomes of those behaviors.
 2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorists say that learning has to be
represented by a permanent change in behavior, in contrast social learning theorists say that
because people can learn through observation alone, their learning may not necessarily be shown
in their performance. Learning may or may not result in a behavior change.
 3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years social learning theory has become
increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human learning. Awareness and expectations of
future reinforcements or punishments can have a major effect on the behaviors that people exhibit.
 4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist learning
theories and cognitive learning theories.

 How the environment reinforces and punishes modeling:

People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura suggested that the
environment also reinforces modeling.
 This is in several possible ways:
1, The observer is reinforced by the model. For example a student who changes dress to fit in with
a certain group of students has a strong likelihood of being accepted and thus reinforced by that
group.
2. The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer might be modeling the actions of
someone else, for example, an outstanding class leader or student. The teacher notices this
and compliments and praises the observer for modeling such behavior thus reinforcing that
behavior.
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Many behaviors that we learn
from others produce satisfying or reinforcing results. For example, a student in my multimedia
class could observe how the extra work a classmate does is fun. This student in turn would do the
same extra work and also receive enjoyment.
4. Consequences of the model's behavior affect the observers behavior vicariously. This is known
as vicarious reinforcement. This is where in the model is reinforced for a response and then the
observer shows an increase in that same response. Bandura illustrated this by having
students watch a film of a model hitting a inflated clown doll. One group of children saw the
model being praised for such action. Without being reinforced, the group of children began to also
hit the doll .

Contemporary social learning perspective of reinforcement and

punishment:
 1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have indirect effects on
learning. They are not the sole or main cause.
 2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an individual exhibits a behavior
that has been learned.
 3. The expecfation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that promote learning.
Therefore attention pays a critical role in learning. And attention is influenced by the expectation
of reinforcement. An example would be, where the teacher tells a group of students that what they
will study next is not on the test. Students will not pay attention, because they do not expect to
know the information for a test.

Behaviors that can be learned through modeling:

Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly, through modeling. Examples that can be cited are,
students can watch parents read, students can watch the demonstrations of mathematics problems,
or seen someone acting bravely and a fearful situation. Aggression can be learned through models.
Much research indicate that children become more aggressive when they observed aggressive
or violent models. Moral thinking and moral behavior are influenced by observation and
modeling. This includes moral judgments regarding right and wrong which can in part, develop
through modeling.

Effects of modeling on behavior:

 1. Modeling teaches new behaviors.
 2. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors.
 3. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors.
 4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors. For example a student might see a
friend excel in basketball and he tries to excel in football because he is not tall enough for
basketball.

 Educational implications of social learning theory:

 Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use.
 1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.
 2. Describing the consequences of behavior is can effectively increase the appropriate behaviors
and decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve discussing with learners about the rewards and
consequences of various behaviors.
 3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. Instead of using
shaping, which is operant conditioning, modeling can provide a faster, more efficient means for
teaching new behavior. To promote effective modeling a teacher must make sure that the four
essential conditions exist; attention, retention , motor reproduction, and motivation.
 4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not model
inappropriate behaviors.
 5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is especially
important to break down traditional stereotypes.
 6. Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing school tasks. Thus it is very
important to develop a sense of selfeflicacy for students. Teachers can promote such self-efficacy
by having students receive confidence-building messages, watch others be successful, and
experience success on their own. .
 7. Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their academic accomplishments. In
general in my class that means making sure that expectations are not set too low. I want to
realistically challenge my students. However, sometimes the task is beyond a student's ability,
example would be the cancer group.
 8. Self-regulation techniques provide an effective method for improving student behavior.

Observational Learning (2)

 Definition
 Observational learning, also called social learning theory, occurs when an observer's behavior
changes after viewing the behavior of a model. An observer's behavior can be affected by the
positive or negative consequences-called vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment - of a
model's behavior.

 Discussion
There are several guiding principles behind observational learning, or social learning theory:
 l. The observer will imitate the model's behavior if the model possesses characteristics- things
such as talent, intelligence, power, good looks, or popularity-that the observer finds attractive or
desirable
 2. The observer will react to the way the model is treated and mimic the model's behavior. When
the mddel's behavior is rewarded, the observer is more likely to reproduce the rewarded behavior.
When the model is punished, an example of vicarious punishment, the observer is less likely to
reproduce the same behavior.
 3. A distinction exists between an observer's "acquiring" a behavior and "performing" a behavior.
Through observation, the observer can acquire the behavior without performing it. The observer
may then later, in situations where there is an incentive to do so, display the behavior.
 4. Learning by observation involves four separate processes: attention, retention, production and
motivation.
 - Attention: Observers cannot learn unless they pay attention to what's happening around them.
This process is influenced by characteristics of the model, such as how much one likes or
identifies with the model, and by characteristics of the observer, such as the observer's
expectations or level of emotional arousal.
 - Retention: Observers must not only recognize the observed behavior but also remember it at
some later time. This process depends on the observer's ability to code or structure the information
in an easily remembered form or to mentally or physically rehearse the model's actions.
 - Production: Observers must be physically and/intellectually capable of producing the act. In
many cases the observer possesses the necessary responses. But sometimes, reproducing the
model's actions may involve skills the obseryer has not yet acqufued. It is one thing to carefully
watch a circus juggler, but it is quite another to go home and repeat those acts.
 - Motivation: In general, observers will perform the act only if they have some motivation or
reason to do so. The presence of reinforcement or punishment, either to the model or directly to
the observer, becomes most important in this process.
 5. Attention and retention account for acquisition or learning of a model's behavior; production
and motivation control the performance.
 6. Human development reflects the complex interaction of the person, the person's behavior, and
the environment. The relationship between these elements is called reciprocal determinism.A
person's cognitive abilities, physical characteristics, personality, beliefs, attitudes, and so on
influence both his or her behavior and environment. These influences are reciprocal, however. A
person's behavior can affect his feelings about himself and his attitudes and beliefs about others.
Likewise, much of what a person knows comes from environmental resources such as television,
parents, and books.

 Environment also affects behavior: what a person observes can powerfully influence what he does.
But a person's behavior also contributes to his environment.
 By the 1920s John B. Watson had left academic psychology and other behaviorists were becoming
influential, proposing new forms of learning other than classical conditioning. Perhaps the most
important of these was Burrhus Frederic Skinner. Although, for obvious reasons he is more
commonly known as B.F. Skinner.


 Skinner's views were slightly less extreme than those of Watson. Skinner believed that we do have
such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more productive to study observable behavior rather
than internal mental events.


 Skinner believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and
its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.


 Skinner's theory of operant conditioning was based on the work of Thorndike (1905). Edward
Thorndike studied learning in animals using a puzzle box to propose the theory known as the 'Law
of Effect'.


 Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s
law of effect. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. Behavior
which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends
to die out-or be extinguished (i.e. weakened).


 Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he
placed in a “Skinner Box” which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.





 B.F. Skinner (1938) coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing of behavior
by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response. Skinner identified three
types of responses or operant that can follow behavior.


 Skinner coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing of behavior by the use of
reinforcement which is given after the desired response. Skinner identified three types of
responses or operant that can follow behavior.
 • Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the
probability of a behavior being repeated.
 • Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being
repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
 • Punishers: Response from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being
repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.


 We can all think of examples of how our own behavior has been affected by reinforcers and
punishers. As a child you probably tried out a number of behaviors and learnt from their
consequences.

 For example, if when you were younger you tried smoking at school, and the chief consequence
was that you got in with the crowd you always wanted to hang out with, you would have been
positively reinforced (i.e. rewarded) and would be likely to repeat the behavior. If, however, the
main consequence was that you were caught, caned, suspended from school and your parents
became involved you would most certainly have been punished, and you would consequently be
much less likely to smoke now.


 Reinforcement (strengthens behavior)
 Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box.
The box contained a lever in the side and as the rat moved about the box it would accidentally
knock the lever. Immediately it did so a food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever.
The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. The
consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever ensured that they would repeat the action
again and again.


 Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds
rewarding. For example, if your teacher gives you £5 each time you complete your homework (i.e.
a reward) you are more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening the behavior
of completing your homework.


 The removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthen behavior. This is known as negative
reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the animal.
Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant
experience.

 For example, if you do not complete your homework you give your teacher £5. You
will complete your homework to avoid paying £5, thus strengthening the behavior of completing
your homework.

 Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his Skinner box and then
subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort. As the rat moved
about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so the electric current
would be switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of
being put in the box. The consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they would
repeat the action again and again.

 In fact Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current by turning on a light just before
the electric current came on. The rats soon learned to press the lever when the light came on
because they knew that this would stop the electric current being switched on.


 These two learned responses are known as Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning.
 Punishment (weakens behavior)

 Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate
a response rather than increase it.
 Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like a
shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus, for instance, deducting
someone’s pocket money to punish undesirable behavior.
 Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement.



 Behavior Modification

 Behavior modification is a set of therapies / techniques based on operant conditioning (Skinner,
1938, 1953). The main principle comprises changing environmental events that are related to a
person's behavior. For example, the reinforcement of desired behaviors and ignoring or punishing
undesired ones.
 This is not as simple as it sounds — always reinforcing desired behavior, for example, is basically
bribery.
 There are different types of positive reinforcements. Primary reinforcement is when a reward
strengths a behavior by itself. Secondary reinforcement is when something strengthens a behavior
because it leads to a primary reinforcer.
 Examples of behavior modification therapy include token economy and behavior shaping



 Token Economy
 The token economy is a system in which targeted behaviors are reinforced with tokens (secondary
reinforcers) and are later exchanged for rewards (primary reinforcers).
 Tokens can be in the form of fake money, buttons, poker chips, stickers, etc. While rewards can
range anywhere from snacks to privileges/activities.
 Token economy has been found to be very effective in managing psychiatric patients. However,
the patients can become over reliant on the tokens, making it difficult for them once they leave
prisons, hospital etc.
 Teachers use token economy at primary school by giving young children stickers to reward good
behavior.



 Operant Conditioning in the Classroom


 Behavior modification therapy is much used in clinical and educational psychology, particularly
with people with learning difficulties. In the conventional learning situation it applies largely to
issues of class- and student management, rather than to learning content. It is very relevant to
shaping skill performance.
 A simple way of giving positive reinforcement in behavior modification is in
providing compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation; a ratio of five compliments for
every one complaint is generally seen as being the most effective in altering behavior in a desired
manner.



 Operant Conditioning Summary


 Looking at Skinner's classic studies on pigeons’ behavior we can identify some of the major
assumptions of behaviorists approach.
 • Psychology should be seen as a science, to be studied in a scientific manner. Skinner's study of
behavior in rats was conducted under carefully controlled laboratory conditions.
 • Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like
thinking and emotion. Note that Skinner did not say that the rats learnt to press a lever because
they wanted food. He instead concentrated on describing the easily observed behavior that the rats
acquired.
 • The major influence on human behavior is learning from our environment. In the Skinner study,
because food followed a particular behavior the rats learned to repeat that behavior, e.g. classical
and operant conditioning.
 • There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other
animals. Therefore research (e.g. classical conditioning) can be carried out on animals (Pavlov’s
dogs) as well as on humans (Little Albert). Skinner proposed that the way humans learn behavior
is much the same as the way the rats learned to press a lever.


 So, if your layperson's idea of psychology has always been of people in laboratories wearing white
coats and watching hapless rats try to negotiate mazes in order to get to their dinner, then you are
probably thinking of behavioral psychology.


 Behaviorism and its offshoots tend to be among the most scientific of the psychological
perspectives. The emphasis of behavioral psychology is on how we learn to behave in certain
ways. We are all constantly learning new behaviors and how to modify our existing behavior.
Behavioral psychology is the psychological approach that focuses on how this learning takes
place.

 Critical Evaluation
 Operant conditioning can be used to explain a wide variety of behavior, from the process of
learning, to addiction and language acquisition. It also has practical application (such as token
economy) which can be applied in classrooms, prisons and psychiatric hospitals.
 However, operant conditioning fails to taken into account the role of inherited and cognitive
factors in learning, and thus is an incomplete explanation of the learning process in humans and
animals.
 For example, Kohler (1924) found that primates often seem to solve problems in a flash of insight
rather than be trial and error learning. Also social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) suggests that
humans can learn automatically through observation rather than through personal experience.

 The use of animal research in operant conditioning studies also raises the issue of extrapolation.
Some psychologists argue we cannot generalize from studies on animals to humans as their
anatomy & physiology is different from humans, & they cannot think about their experiences and
invoke reason, patience, memory or self-comfort.
 Behaviorism is essentially the study of how we learn. Humans are different from many
animals in that we possess very little instinct, or genetic blueprint for our behaviors. For
example, humans do not instinctively know how to perform a ritual mating dance or we do
not instinctually fly south for the winter. Instead, humans progress through life continually
changing our behaviors due to new or repetitive experiences. In a word, we LEARN.
 It was the Greek philosopher, Aristotle who came to the conclusion, over 2000 years ago
that we learn by association. Learning by association is connecting events that occur in
sequences. Psychologists have determined that there are two basic types of learning by
association: Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning.
 Classical Conditioning was first developed by a Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov
during the late 1920’s. Pavlov was originally trying to study the saliva’s role in
the digestive system of dogs. During the course of his experiments he made the connection
between reflex and a conditioned response.
 Essentially, what Pavlov discovered was the model of learning that works on both animals
and humans. To understand classical conditioning it is best to describe Pavlov’s experiments.
 Pavlov realized that when a dog is introduced to a plate of food, the dog’s natural reaction
or reflex was to begin to drool. Drooling was then an Unconditioned Response (UCR) to the
presence of the food. The food was then the Unconditioned Stimuli (UCS). What Pavlov then
stumbled upon was an association that took place when a bell was rung when the food was
presented to the dog. Normally, a bell is a Neutral Stimuli (NS), which means that on its own
a bell will not cause any real reaction to a dog. However, when the bell was rung in
conjunction with the presenting of the food, the dog began to associate the ringing of the
bell with the presence of food. After awhile, Pavlov had only to ring the bell and the dog
would begin to drool. In this sense the bell became a Conditioned Stimuli (CS) and the
drooling at the bell became the Conditioned Response (CR).


 This discovery led Pavlov on another 30 years of study around the concept
of conditionedresponses and learning. During this time Pavlov identified 5 major
conditioning processes;

 Pavlov’s 5 Major Conditioning Processes

 1. Acquisition - Is the initial learning that takes place. It is determined by how much time elapses
between the presenting the neutral stimuli (NS) and the unconditioned stimuli (UCS).
 2. Extinction - Is how long it takes to forget or eliminate the conditioned response (CR).
 3. Spontaneous Recovery - Happens after the conditioned response (CR) reappears after a long
period of time. It proved that Extinction only suppressed the conditioned response (CR), not
completely eliminated it.
 4. Generalization - Is the tendency to respond to stimuli that is similar to the conditioned stimuli
(CS). For example Pavlov’s dog would drool upon hearing a buzzer as well as the bell.
 5. Discrimination - Is the learned ability to differentiate between similar stimuli (the dog learns
eventually to tell the difference between the bell and the buzzer).

 In the end, Pavlov was a Nobel Prize-winning physiologist who discovered classical conditioning
in the course of his physiological research. He eventually and begrudgingly became a psychologist
and in the process helped change the direction of psychological research. Classical conditioning
became a major tool in the theoretical formulations of later behaviorists. It allowed them to
explain behavior without having to consider consciousness. Pavlov's discovery of classical
conditioning provided the first mechanism for explaining learning without reference to the mind.

 Definition of Learning
 Life is a process of continual change. From infancy to adolescence to adulthood to death, we are
changing. Many factors work together to produce those changes, but one of the most important is
 the process of learning. Through our experiences, we learn new information, new attitudes, new
fears, and new skills; we also learn to understand new concepts, to solve problems in new ways,
and even to develop a personality over a lifetime. And in the course of reading textbooks, we learn
new definitions for words like learning: In psychology the term learning refers to any relatively
permanent change in behaviour brought about through experience—that is, through interactions
with the environment.

 Classical Conditioning: Learning by Association

 We begin our study of specific types of learning with a simple form called classical conditioning.
The scientific study of classical condition began around the turn of the [20th] century with an
accidental discovery made in the Leningrad laboratory of Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov was a Russian
physiologist who was studying the role of saliva in digestion at the time of the discovery. To study
the reflexive response of the salivary glands to the presence of food in the mouth, he had
surgically implanted tubes in the cheeks of dogs so that saliva could be drained and precisely
measured when small amounts of food were placed in the dogs’ mouths. Pavlov noticed, however,
that dogs that had been in the experiment a few days started salivating when the attendant entered
the room with the food dish before the food was placed in their mouths. The sights (and probably
sounds) of the attendant had come to elicit (evoke or produce) a reflexive response that only the
food had originally elicited. This fact would have gone quite unnoticed had the tubes not been
placed in the dogs’ cheeks—that is the accidental part of the discovery. A dog that salivates
whenever he or she sees a laboratory attendant may not seem like a great step forward for science
at first glance. But Pavlov recognized that a reflexive response to food, which was biologically
―wired into‖ the nervous system, had come under the control of an arbitrary stimulus—the sight
of the attendant.
 Stated in a different way, Pavlov knew he had witnessed a form of learning that was based on
nothing more that the repeated association of two stimuli. Because the dog’s experience of food
was linked to the sight of the attendant, the behaviour of the dog was changed— the dog now
salivated to the stimuli of the approaching attendant. That is, the stimuli elicited a response. When
you were born, you could only respond to the outside world with a limited repertoire of inborn
reflexes, but now you are a marvelously complex product of your learning experiences. Pavlov
wanted to understand this process of learning, so over his colleagues’ objections, he
hastily completed his studies of digestion and devoted the rest of his career to the study of
learning.

 Association: The Key Element in Classical Conditioning

 It had been noted by Aristotle more than 2,000 years before Pavlov that two sensations repeatedly
experienced together will become associated. If you have frequently visited the seashore with a
friend, visiting the seashore alone will probably trigger memories of that friend. If you got sick the
last time you ate a hot dog, you will likely feel nauseous the next time you see one. Learning
through association is a common part of our lives.
 Before we can proceed much further in our understanding of classical conditioning, we need to
learn some new terminology. Although a bit awkward and confusing at first, these new terms will
allow us to expand our discussion of classical conditioning to topics more relevant to your
own experiences than salivating dogs without losing sight of the basic concept. First we use each
of these four new terms to refer to the specific stimuli and responses in Pavlov’s experiments, then
we use them with new examples. The new terms are as follows.
 1. Unconditioned Stimulus – The meat which was given to the dogs in Pavlov’s experiments was
the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). This can be any stimulus that can elicit the response without
any learning. In other words, the response to an unconditioned stimulus is natural and inborn.
 2. Unconditioned Response – The dogs’ salivation to the meat powder was the unconditioned
response (UCR). It is an unlearned, inborn reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.
 3. Conditioned Stimulus – The bell used in Pavlov’s experiments was originally unable to elicit
the response of salivation, but it acquired the ability to elicit the response through the process of
classical conditioning. It was the conditioned stimulus (CS) in Pavlov’s studies.
 4. Conditioned Response – When the dog began salivating to the conditioned stimulus, salivation
became the conditioned response (CR). When a response that is similar or identical to the
unconditioned response is then elicited by the conditioned stimulus, it’s referred to as the
conditioned response.
 To summarize: The meat was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS); the bell was the conditioned
stimulus (CS), the salivation was the unconditioned response (UCR); and when the salivation was
elicited by the conditioned stimulus, it became the conditioned response (CR).

 Definition of Classical Conditioning

 We have finally covered enough terminology to be able to give a precise definition of classical
conditioning. Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus
(CS) is paired with a stimulus (UCS) that elicits an unlearned response (UCR). As a result of these
pairings of the CS and the UCS, the CS comes to elicit a response (CR) that is identical or very
similar to the UCR.
 Note that we consider classical conditioning to be a form of learning not because a new behaviour
has been acquired, but because an old behaviour can be elicited by a new stimulus; behaviour is
―changed‖ only in that sense. It is important to notice also that the process of classical
conditioning does not depend on the behaviour of the individual being conditioned. The critical
element in classical conditioning is that the CS and the UCS be closely associated in time.

 The Bell and Pad: An Application of Classical Conditioning

 A problem that affects many children is nocturnal enuresis, or nighttime bed-wetting. Some
children do not develop the ability to wake up during the night when they have a full bladder, long
after most children have learned to do so; instead, they wet the bed in their sleep. About 1 percent
of all 5-year-olds and 2 percent of children over 12 have this problem, especially boys. While this
is not a problem of major concern, it’s embarrassing for the child and often quite upsetting for the
parents.
 A simple device, called the bell and pad, was developed many years ago based on the principle of
classical conditioning that deals with the problem of nocturnal enuresis rather successfully. The
device consists of two thin metallic sheets that are perforated with small holes and attached
separately by wires to a battery-operated alarm. The flexible metallic sheets are placed on top of
one another and separated by a sheet of fabric and then laid under the child’s sheets. As soon as
the child passes the first drops of urine, the urine closes the electric circuit between the metallic
sheets, causing the alarm to wake the child.
 In the terminology of classical conditioning, the alarm is a UCS that elicits the UCR of awaking.
By repeatedly pairing the alarm with the sensation of a full bladder, these sensations become a CS
that elicits the CR of awakening. This process of classical conditioning—which does not hurt, but
is not appropriate for the bed training of normal children—has be found to been over 60 percent
successful in treating nocturnal enuresis.

 Of Special Interest: John B Watson an Little Albert – Classical

Conditioned Fear
 In 1920, behaviourist John B. Watson and his associate Rosalie Rayner published what must be
the most widely cited example of classical conditioning and stimulus generalization in
psychology. Watson was convinced that many of our fears are acquired through classical
conditioning and sought to test this idea by teaching a fear to a young child, the now famous little
Albert. Albert was first allowed to play with a white laboratory rat to find out if he was afraid of
rats. At that time they discovered that he was not. Then as he played with the white rat, an iron bar
 was struck loudly with a hammer behind Albert’s head. As might be expected, the noises caused
Albert to cry fearfully. After seven such pairings, Albert showed a strong fear response when the
rat was placed near him. He had learned to fear the rat through classical conditioning. In addition,
the fear seemed to have generalized to other similar objects. Five days later, Albert reacted
fearfully to a white rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat. He also showed mild fearful reactions to
balls of cotton and a Santa Claus mask.
 For understandable reasons, this experiment would not be considered ethical by today’s standards.
Although the conditioned fear probably did not persist, Watson and Rayner made no attempt to
reverse the conditioning of Albert’s fear, and they possibly left him with a minor phobia for the
rest of his life.
 According to Sigmund Freud, personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early
experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later
in life.

 Freud's theory of psychosexual development is one of the best known, but also one of the most
controversial. Freud believed that personality develops through a series of childhood stages during
which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. This
psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior.

 If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality. If
certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur. A fixation is a persistent
focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain
"stuck" in this stage. For example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage may be over-dependent
on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.

 1. The Oral Stage

 Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
 Erogenous Zone: Mouth
 During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the
rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant
derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. the
infant also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation. The primary
conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less dependent
upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues
with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating,
smoking or nail biting.

 2. The Anal Stage

 Age Range: 1 to 3 years
 Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
 Focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this
stage is toilet training--the child has to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this
control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence. According to Freud, success at this
stage is dependent upon the way in which parents approach toilet training. If parents take an
approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in
which the individual has a messy, wasteful or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or
begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which
the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid and obsessive.

 3. The Phallic Stage

 Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
 Erogenous Zone: Genitals
 During the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children
also begin to discover the differences between males and females. Freud also believed that boys
begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections. The Oedipus complex describes
these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the
child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud
termed castration anxiety. The term Electra complex has been used to described a similar set of
feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis
envy.Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously
possessing the other parent. Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputedthis theory, calling it
both inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men experience feelings
of inferiority because they cannot give birth to children.

 4. The Latent Period

 Age Range: 6 to Puberty
 Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
 During the latent period, the libido interests are suppressed. The stage begins around the time that
children enter into school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies and other
interests. This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-
confidence.

 5. The Genital Stage

 Age Range: Puberty to Death
 Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
 During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual
interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a
person's life.
 Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others
grows during this stage. If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual
should now be well-balanced, warm and caring. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance
between the various life areas.
 Erik Erikson was a psychoanalyst who developed the theory of psychosocial development. He was
born on June 15, 1902 in Karlsruhe Germany. His classic work "Childhood and Society" set forth
his theory of the life cycle. He believed that the achievements and failures of earlier stages
influence later stages, whereas later stages modify and transform earlier ones. Erikson's
conceptualization of psychosocial development based its model the epigenetic principle of
organismic growth in utero. Erikson views psychosocial growth occurs in phases.
 Erikson’s theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud. But Erikson extended the theory and
incorporated cultural and social aspects into Freud’s biological and sexually oriented theory. It’s
also interesting to see how his ideas developed over time, perhaps aided by his own journey
through the ‘psychosocial crisis’ stages model that underpinned his work.
 Like other influential theories, Erikson’s model is simple and well designed. The theory is a basis
for broad or complex discussion and analysis of personality and behaviour, and also for
understanding for facilitating personal development – of self and others. It can help the teacher in
becoming more knowledgeable and at the same time understand the various environmental
factors that can affect his/her own and his/her students’ personality and behaviour.
 Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional forces. A helpful term used
by Erikson for these opposing forces is ‘contrary dispositions’. Each crisis stage relates to a
corresponding life for the stage and its inherent challenges. Erikson used the word ‘syntonic’ for
the first-listed positive dispositionin each crisis (e.g., trust) and ‘dystonic’ for the second-listed
negative disposition (e.g., mistrust). To signify the opposing or conflicting relationship between
each pair of dispositions, Erikson connected them with the word ‘versus’.
 If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial strength which will help
us through the rest of the stages of our lives. Successfully passing through each crisis involves
‘achieving’ a healthy ratio or balance between the two opposing dispositions that represents each
crisis.
 On the other hand, if we don’t do so well, we may develop maladaptation and malignancies, as
well as endanger all our future development. A malignancy is the worse of the two, and involves
too little of the positive and too much of the negative aspects of the task, such as a person who
can’t trust others. A maladaptation is not quite as bad and involves too much too much of the
positive and too little of the negative, such as a person who trusts too much.

 THE 8 STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

 Stage one (Trust vs. Mistrust)
 The first stage is the infancy, approximately the first year or year and a half of life. The task is to
develop trust without completely eliminating the capacity for mistrust. If mom and dad can give
the newborn a degree of familiarity, consistency, and continuity, then the child will develop the
feeling that the world - especially the social world - is a safe place to be, that people are reliable
and loving. Through the parents' responses, the child also learns to trust his or her own body and
the biological urges that go with it. If the parents are unreliable and inadequate, if they reject the
infant or harm it, if other interests cause both parents to turn away from the infants needs to satisfy
their own instead, then the infant will develop mistrust. He or she will be apprehensive and
suspicious around people.
 Too much trust leads to maladaptive tendency which Erikson calls Sensory Maladjustment:
Overly trusting, even gullible, this person cannot believe anyone would mean them harm, and will
use all the defences at their command to find an explanation or excuse for the person who did him
wrong. Worse is the malignant tendency which Erikson calls Withdrawal which is characterized
by depression, paranoia, and possibly psychosis.
 If the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue hope, the strong belief that,
even when things are not going well, they will work out well in the end. One of the signs that a
child is doing well in the first stage is when the child isn't overly upset by the need to wait a
moment for the satisfaction of his or her needs: Mom or dad don't have to be perfect; I trust them
enough to believe that, if they can't be here immediately, they will be here soon; Things may be
tough now, but they will work out in the end. This is the same ability that, in later life, gets us
through disappointments in love, our careers, and other domains of life.

 Stage two (Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt)

 The second stage is the early childhood, from about eighteen months to three or four years old.
The task is to achieve a degree of autonomy while minimizing shame and doubt. If mom and dad
(and the other care-takers that often come into the picture at this point) permit the child, now a
toddler, to explore and manipulate his or her environment, the child will develop a sense of
autonomy (independence). The parents should not discourage the child, but neither should they
push. A balance is required. People often advise new parents to be "firm but tolerant" at this stage,
and the advice is good. This way, the child will develop both self-control and self-esteem.
 On the other hand, it is rather easy for the child to develop instead a sense of shame and doubt. If
the parents come down hard on any attempt to explore and be independent, children will soon give
up with and assume that they cannot and should not act on their own. We should keep in mind that
even something as innocent as laughing at the toddler's efforts can lead the child to feel deeply
ashamed, and to doubt his or her abilities.
 And there are other ways to lead children to shame and doubt: If you give children unrestricted
freedom and no sense of limits, or if you try to help children do what they should learn to do for
themselves, you will also give them the impression that they are not good for much. If you aren't
patient enough to wait for your child to tie his or her shoe-laces, your child will never learn to tie
 them, and will assume that this is just too difficult to learn! Shame and doubt sound very negative.
Do we really need them? Yes, unless you think it is a good idea to run around naked in public or
jump off of buildings.
 Too much autonomy will leads to maladaptive tendency which Erikson calls impulsiveness, a sort
of shameless wilfulness that leads you, in later childhood and even adulthood, to jump into things
without proper consideration of your abilities. Worse is too much shame and doubt, will leads to
malignant tendency which Erikson calls compulsiveness. The compulsive person feels as if their
entire being rides on everything they do, and so everything must be done perfectly. Following all
the rules precisely keeps you from mistakes, and mistakes must be avoided at all cost.
 If you get the proper, positive balance of autonomy and shame and doubt, you will develop the
virtue of willpower (determination). One of the most admirable - and frustrating - thing about two-
and three-year-olds is their determination. "Can do" is their motto. If we can preserve that "can
do" attitude (with appropriate modesty to balance it) we are much better off as adults.

 Stage three (Initiative vs. Guilt)

 Stage three is the early childhood stage. From three or four to five or six, the task confronting
every child is to learn initiative without too much guilt. Initiative means a positive response to the
world's challenges, taking on responsibilities, learning new skills, feeling purposeful. Parents can
encourage initiative by encouraging children to try out their ideas. We should accept and
encourage fantasy and curiosity and imagination. This is a time for play, not for formal education.
The child is now capable, as never before, of imagining a future situation, one that isn't a reality
right now. Initiative is the attempt to make that non-reality a reality.
 But if children can imagine the future, if they can plan, then they can be responsible as well, and
guilty. If my two-year-old flushes my watch down the toilet, I can safely assume that there were
no "evil intentions." It was just a matter of a shiny object going round and round and down. What
fun! But if my five year old does the same thing... well, she should know what's going to happen
to the watch, what's going to happen to daddy's temper, and what's going to happen to her! She
can be guilty of the act, and she can begin to feel guilty as well. The capacity for moral judgement
has arrived. Do we really need guilt? Very much. The only people that don't feel guilt are called
psychopaths.
 Too much initiative and too little guilt means a maladaptive tendency Erikson calls ruthlessness.
To be ruthless is to be heartless or unfeeling or be “without mercy”. The ruthless person takes the
initiative alright; they have their plans, wether it’s a matter of school or romance or etc. It’s just
that they don’t care who they step on too achieve their goals. Ruthlessness is bad for others, but
actually relatively easy on the ruthless person. Harder on the person is the malignancy of too much
guilt, which Erikson calls inhibition. The inhibited person will not try things because “nothing
ventured, nothing lost” and, particularly, nothing to feel guilty about. They are so afraid to start
and take a lead on a project. They fear that if it fails, they will be blamed.
 A good balance leads to the psychosocial strength of purpose. A sense of purpose is something
many people crave in their lives, yet many do not realize that they themselves make their
purposes, through imagination and initiative. I think an even better word for this virtue would
have been courage, the capacity for action despite a clear understanding of your limitations and
past failings.

 Stage four (Industry vs. Inferiority)

 Stage four is the school-age stage from about six to twelve. The task is to develop a capacity for
industry while avoiding an excessive sense of inferiority. Children must "tame the imagination"
and dedicate themselves to education and to learning the social skills their society requires of
them. There is a much broader social sphere at work now: The parents and other family members
are joined by teachers and peers and other members of he community at large. They all contribute:
Parents must encourage, teachers must care, peers must accept. Children must learn that there is
 pleasure not only in conceiving a plan, but in carrying it out. They must learn the feeling of
success, whether it is in school or on the playground, academic or social.
 A good way to tell the difference between a child in the third stage and one in the fourth stage is to
look at the way they play games. Four-year-olds may love games, but they will have only a vague
understanding of the rules, may change them several times during the course of the game, and be
very unlikely to actually finish the game, unless it is by throwing the pieces at their opponents. A
seven-year-old, on the other hand, is dedicated to the rules, considers them pretty much sacred,
and is more likely to get upset if the game is not allowed to come to its required conclusion.
 If the child is allowed too little success, because of harsh teachers or rejecting peers, for example,
then he or she will develop instead a sense of inferiority or incompetence. An additional source of
inferiority Erikson mentions is racism, sexism, and other forms of discrimination: If a child
believes that success is related to who you are rather than to how hard you try, then why try?
 Too much industry leads to the maladaptive tendency called narrow virtuosity. We see this in
children who aren’t allowed to be children, the ones that parents or teacher push into one area of
competence, without allowing the development of broader interests. These are kids without a life:
child actors, child athletes, child musician, child prodigies at all sorts. We al admire their industry,
but if we look a little closer, it’s all that stands in the way of an empty life. Much more common is
the malignancy called inertia. This includes all of us who suffer from “inferiority complexes” that
Alfred Adler talked about. If at first you don’t succeed, don’t ever try again! Many of us didn’t do
well in mathematics, for example, so we’d die before we took another math class.
 Good and balanced development of industry and inferiority is a happier thing - that is, mostly
industry with just a touch of inferiority to keep us sensibly humble. This virtue called competency.

 Stage five (Ego identity vs. Role Confusion)

 Stage five is adolescence, beginning with puberty and ending around 18 or 20 years old. The task
during adolescence is to achieve ego identity and avoid role confusion. It was adolescence that
interested Erikson first and most, and the patterns he saw here were the bases for his thinking
about all the other stages. Ego identity means knowing who you are and how you fit in to the rest
of society. It requires that you take all you've learned about life and yourself and mold it into a
unified self-image, one that your community finds meaningful.
 There are a number of things that make things easier: First, we should have a mainstream adult
culture that is worthy of the adolescent's respect, one with good adult role models and open lines
of communication. If the teenager looks around and sees nothing but sexism, racism, war-
mongering, unbridled materialism, self-centered hedonism, puritanical self-righteousness, etc. -
why bother to become an adult?
 Further, society should provide clear rites of passage - certain accomplishments and rituals that
help to distinguish the adult from the child. In primitive and traditional societies, an adolescent
boy may be asked to leave the village for a period of time to live on his own, hunt some symbolic
animal, or seek an inspirational vision. Boys and girls may be required to go through certain tests
of endurance, symbolic ceremonies, or educational events. In one way or another, the distinction
between the powerless but carefree time of childhood and the powerful and responsible time of
adulthood, is made clear.
 Without these things, we are likely to see role confusion, meaning an uncertainty about one's place
in society and the world. When an adolescent is confronted by role confusion, Erikson say he or
she is suffering from an identity crisis. In fact, a common question adolescents in our society ask
is a straight-forward question of identity: "Who am I?" Notice how long it takes, in our society,
before we have an answer to the parallel question "What do I want to be when I grow up?"
 Too much Ego Identity leads to maladaptive tendency which Erikson calls fanaticism. A fanatic
person believes that his way is the only way. Adolescents are, of course, known for their idealism,
and for their tendency to see things in black-and-white. These people will gather others around
them and promote their beliefs and life-styles without regard to others’ rights to disagree. The lack
of identity is perhaps more difficult still, and Erikson refers to the malignant tendency here as
 repudiation. To repudiate is to reject. They reject their membership in the world of adults and,
even more, they reject their need for an identity. Some adolescents prefer to go to groups that go
against the norms to form their identity: religious cults, militaristic organizations, groups founded
on hatred, groups that have divorced themselves from the painful demands of mainstream society.
They may become involved in destructive activities, drugs, or alcohol, or you may withdraw into
their own psychotic fantasies.
 If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will have the virtue Erikson called fidelity. Fidelity
means loyalty, the ability to live by society's standards despite the imperfections and
incompleteness and inconsistencies. We are not talking about blind loyalty, and we are not talking
about accepting those imperfections. After all, if you love your community, you will want to see it
become the best it can be. But fidelity means that you have found a place in that community, a
place that will allow you to contribute.

 Stage six (Intimacy vs. Isolation)

 If you have made it this far, you are in the stage of the young adult, which lasts (in modern
society) from about 20 to about 30. The ages in the adult stages are much fuzzier than in the
childhood stages, and people may differ dramatically. The task is to achieve some degree of
intimacy, as opposed to remaining in isolation.
 Intimacy is the ability to be close to others, as a lover, a friend, and as a participant in society.
Because you have a clear sense of who you are, you no longer need to fear "losing" yourself, as
many adolescents do. The "fear of commitment" some people seem to exhibit is an example of
immaturity in this stage. This fear isn't always so obvious. Many people today are always putting
off the progress of their relationships: I'll get married (or have a family, or get involved in
important social issues) as soon as I finish school, as soon as I have a job, as soon as I have a
house, as soon as.... If you've been engaged for the last ten years, what's holding you back?
 Neither should the young adult need to prove him- or herself anymore. A teenage relationship is
often a matter of trying to establish identity through "couple-hood." A teenager might respond to
"Who am I?" with "I'm her boy-friend" or "I'm his girl-friend". The young adult relationship
should be a matter of two independent egos wanting to create something larger than themselves.
 Erikson calls the maladaptive form promiscuity, referring particularly to the tendency to become
intimate too freely, too easily, and without any depth to your intimacy. This can be true of your
relationships with friends and neighbors and your whole community as well as with lovers. The
malignancy he calls exclusion, which refers to the tendency to isolate oneself from love,
friendship, and community, and develop a certain hatefulness in compensation for one’s
loneliness.
 If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will carry with you for the rest of your life the virtue
or psychosocial strength Erikson calls love. Love, in the context of his theory, means being able to
put aside differences and antagonisms through "mutuality of devotion." It includes not only the
love we find in a good marriage, but the love between friends and the love of one's neighbor, co-
worker, and compatriot as well.

 Stage seven (Generativity vs. Stagnation)

 The seventh stage is the middle adulthood. It is hard to pin a time to it, but it would include the
period during which we are actively involved in raising children. For most people in our society,
this would put it somewhere between 30 and 60. The task here is to cultivate the proper balance of
generativity and stagnation.
 Generativity is an extension of love into the future. It is a concern for the next generation and all
future generations. As such, it is considerably less "selfish" than the intimacy of the previous
stage: Intimacy, the love between lovers or friends, is a love between equals, and it is necessarily
reciprocal. Oh, of course we love each other unselfishly, but the reality is such that, if the love is
not returned, we don't consider it a true love. With generativity, that implicit expectation of
 reciprocity isn't there, at least not as strongly. Few parents expect a "return on their investment"
from their children; If they do, they aren't very good parents!
 Although the majority of people practice generativity by having and raising children, there are
many other ways as well. Erikson considers teaching, writing, invention, the arts and sciences,
social activism, and generally contributing to the welfare of future generations to be generativity
as well.
 This is the stage of the "midlife crisis." Sometimes men and women take a look at their lives and
ask that big, bad question "what am I doing all this for?" Notice the question carefully: Because
their focus is on themselves, they ask what, rather than whom, they are doing it for. In their panic
at getting older and not having experienced or accomplished what they imagined they would when
they were younger, they try to recapture their youth. Men are often the most flambouyant
examples: They leave their long-suffering wives, quit their humdrum jobs, buy some "hip" new
clothes, buy a Porsche, and start hanging around singles bars. Of course, they seldom find what
they are looking for, because they are looking for the wrong thing!
 Maladaptive tendency in this stage was called Overextensions. Some people try to be so
generative that they no longer allow time for themselves, for rest and relaxation. The person who
is overextended no longer contributes well. More obvious is the malignant tendency which
Erikson calls rejectivity. Too little generativity and too much stagnation and you are no longer
participating in or contributing to society. And much of what we call “the meaning if life” is a
matter of how we participate and what we participate.
 If you are successful at this stage, you will develop a virtue which is the capacity for caring that
will serve you through the rest of your life.

 Stage eight (Ego Integrity vs. Despair)

 This last stage, referred to delicately as late adulthood or maturity, or less delicately as old age,
begins sometime around retirement, after the kids have gone, somewhere around 60 years old in
our society. Some older folks will protest and say it only starts when you feel old and so on, but
that's an effect of our youth-worshipping culture, which has even old people avoiding any
acknowledgement of age. In Erikson's theory, reaching this stage is a good thing, and not reaching
it suggests that earlier problems retarded your development!
 The task is to develop ego integrity with a minimal amount of despair. This stage, especially from
the perspective of youth, seems like the most difficult of all. First comes a detachment from
society, from a sense of usefulness, for most people in our culture. Some retire from jobs they've
held for years; others find their duties as parents coming to a close; most find that their input is no
longer asked for or required.
 Then there is a sense of biological uselessness, as the body no longer does everything it used to.
Women go through a sometimes dramatic menopause; Men often find they can no longer "rise to
the occasion." Then there are the illnesses of old age, such as arthritis, diabetes, heart problems,
concerns about breast and ovarian and prostrate cancers. There come fears about things that one
was never afraid of before - the flu, for example, or just falling down. Along with the illnesses
come concerns of death. Friends die. Relatives die. One's spouse dies. It is, of course, certain that
you, too, will have your turn. Faced with all this, it might seem like everyone would feel despair.
 In response to this despair, some older people become preoccupied with the past. After all, that's
where things were better. Some become preoccupied with their failures, the bad decisions they
made, and regret that (unlike some in the previous stage) they really don't have the time or energy
to reverse them. We find some older people become depressed, spiteful, paranoid, hypochondrical,
or developing the patterns of senility with or without physical bases.
 Ego integrity means coming to terms with your life, and thereby coming to terms with the end of
life. If you are able to look back and accept the course of events, the choices made, your life as
you lived it, as being necessary, then you needn't fear death. Although most of you are not at this
point in life, perhaps you can still sympathize by considering your life up to now. We've all made
mistakes, some of them pretty nasty ones; Yet, if you hadn't made these mistakes, you wouldn't be
 who you are. If you had been very fortunate, or if you had played it safe and made very few
mistakes, your life would not have been as rich as is.
 The maladaptive tendency in stage eight is called presumption. This is what happens when a
person “presumes” ego integrity without actually facing the difficulties of old age. The person is
old age believes that he alone is right. He does not respect the ideas and views of the young. The
malignant tendency is called disdain, by which Erikson means a contempt of life, one’s own or
anyone’s. The person becomes very negative and appears to hate life.
 Good balance will leads to the development of the virtue which Erikson calls wisdom. Someone
who approaches death without fear. He calls it a gift to children, because "healthy children will
not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear death."