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Bulletin of the Department of Geology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal, Vol. 11, 2008, pp. 71–78
ABSTRACT
This paper describes general process of cement production from exploration of limestone deposit to production of clinker and
finally cement. Exploration of limestone comprises area selection, target definition, reserve calculation, resource evaluation and
reserve definition. After exploration, mining is taken up. Quarried limestone is stockpiled and then is blended with other raw
material like clay/shale, silica, iron ore in required proportion. The blended material is then heated at high temperature upto
1400–1450 o C in a kiln to produce clinker. The clinker is grinned along with 3–5% gypsum to produce cement.
kg/head/year (DMG 1993; DMG 2004; DMG 2008). only in identifying the most prospective area in a
The domestic industries are fulfilling only about 35% geological region for limestone deposits, but in finding
of demand (DMG 2008). Comparing the demand them easily, cheaply and quickly. Area selection is
with a supply trend, there is still space for some based on knowledge of geological setting via the
additional industries in this sector. study of geological maps. The role of infrastructure
may also be crucial. In the context of Nepal, carbonate
The unit operations involved in cement strata of the Lesser and Tethys Himalayas are
manufacturing process (Fig. 1) include: (1) important geological regions for exploring the
exploration, (2) mining and preparation of raw material limestone deposits (Fig. 2). Annapurna Quarries,
for kiln feed, (3) pyroprocessing of kiln feed in the Kakurthakur Mines of Maruti Cement and Sindhali
presence of combustion gas/flame generated from Mine of Udayapur Cement Industries are of the Jhiku
combustion of publverised coal, mineral oil or natural Carbonate Bed of the Benighat Slate. The mine of
gas, and (4) grinding of cement clinker along with Dynasty Industries is a part of the Dhading
gypsum for production of portland cement. Dolomite.The ultimate result of an area selection
process is the notification of exploration licenses,
EXPLORATION OF LIMESTONE known as tenements.
Exploration consists of process of finding
Target definition
limestone deposit to mine, and is much more intensive,
organised and professional. Exploration concerns and The target definition involves investigation of
provides answers to the problems of the site. The geology via geological mapping, sampling, testing
major concerns during exploration are area selection, of samples and drilling.
target definition, reserve estimation, resource
Geological mapping
evaluation and reserve definition (Kreiter 1966).
Geological mapping is made through the compass
Area selection traverse along rivers, rivulets, trails, road section and
Area selection is an important step that assists not ridge. Regional geological mapping is carried out
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Process of cement production in Nepal
using 1:25,000 to 1:10, 000 scale topographic maps. (Fig. 4) and the resulting chips and dust are obtained
Topo-geological survey around the deposit is made as a sample. The surface to be sampled is scrubbed
in 1:1000 to 1:2000 scale map using Theodolite to expose the fresh rock. The weathered portion is
survey. Topo-geological map is generally used for removed and about 500 grams of sample is collected
reserve calculation and preparing mine plan layout. per 2 m length of the channel.
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P. R. Pandey and N. Banskota/ Bulletin of the Department of Geology, Vol. 11, 2008, pp. 71–78
Fig. 3 chip sampling done perpendicular to bedding plane in Fig. 4 Channel cut perpendicular to bedding plane in Khortar
Limestone deposit Khola Limestone deposit
the chemical analysis, oxides of various chemical are characteristics of raw meal have the most pronounced
determined in weight percentages. During the total effect on clinker quality.
analysis, loss of ignition, silica, alumina, ferric oxide,
calcium oxide, and magnesia contents are obtained. Estimation of reserve of limestone
The result is compared with available grading system The estimation of reserves is an ultimate goal of
(Table 1) for the limestone occurrence in a new area. a certain stage of exploration to determine quantity
and quality of deposits. Ascertaining the spatial
Drilling distribution of grade in deposit as a whole, and in its
Detail surface mapping gives only the two separate blocks and provisional determination of
dimension of deposit. Therefore, 3D view of deposit economic importance of the estimated reserves are
is obtained by drilling. The rotary drilling method is also objective of reserve estimation.
commonly used. Core logging, obtaining recovery In the preliminary stage, regional geological study
factor and chemical analysis are main activities linked and reserve estimation of the limestone deposit is
with drilling. The drilling data can be correlated with done in 1:25000 scale topo-geological maps using
the channel samples, which would help in the grab samples from various outcrops. From this
understanding the homogeneity of the bed and proving sampling and calculation only possible reserve is
the deposit. estimated. In the detail stage topo-geological mapping
on scale 1:1000 is done, and different chip and channel
Microscopic study samples in regular interval are cut in deposit. From
Thin section of limesonte samples is prepared and this detailed study probable and possible reserves of
petrographic study as texture, structure and visual cement grade limestone are calculated. From drilling
composition is done through microscopic study. data only the reserve calculated is proved.
Similarly, the total content of calcite can also be Reserve estimation are placed under three
obtained by staining. The reactivity of a raw meal categorie:
depends not only on its chemical composition, but
also on the mineral composition and size of crystals. Proved (A): The estimation is based on the
Study of the interlink between fineness of constituent sufficient data such that, it will not vary much from
mineral grains and the reactivity of the raw meal the actual tonnage and grade when mined.
leads to define permissible grain size of various Probable(B): Probable reserves are known as
mineral constituent for attaining appropriate indicated reserves which carry a lesser degree of
burnability. Burnability and Grindability
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Process of cement production in Nepal
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P. R. Pandey and N. Banskota/ Bulletin of the Department of Geology, Vol. 11, 2008, pp. 71–78
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Process of cement production in Nepal
Temperature Process
100o C Evaporation of free water
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Fig.8 (a) Initial condition of vegetative leachate treatment site, and (b) Present condition of vegetative leachate treatment site
P. R. Pandey and N. Banskota/ Bulletin of the Department of Geology, Vol. 11, 2008, pp. 71–78
stages of cyclones under the influence of hot gases ) <1% is typical proportion of raw mix design.
flowing in the circuit. The moisture and other volatile And MgO should not exceed 6% at final
contents present are completely driven away. The composition from raw. These all raw materials
burning zone in rotary kiln receives complete are blended in required proportion and heated at
decarbonated material, the part of which is transformed high temperature upto 1400 oC – 1450 oC in kiln
into liquid after achieving appropriate melting to produce clinker. Cement is produced by grinding
temperature of some of the raw meal components clinker with gypsum (3–5%).
and powdery form of raw meal gets converted into
nodulized clinker form. The final clinkerisation of REFERENCES
raw meal is achieved between the temperature range
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varying in size then fall out of the kiln and enter the
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Pandey, P.R., 2003, Geochemical Analysis and Reserve
to invest in cement industries.
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Fe2O3) - 13% other additive (SiO2, Al2O3 or Fe2O3 Supplies, DMG, Brochure of Unpublished Report
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