Filtration

Some of the material in the lecture slides is adapted from several textbooks and electronic resources
Hari Vuthaluru © 2008
 Basic Principles
Filtration is a process by which suspended solid
particles are separated from a liquid
by passing the liquid through a porous, medium (e.g., a sand
bed) capable of entrapping the suspended particles.

A pressure gradient generated across the filter

bed
is the driving force for filtration.

Filtration when combined with chemical

coagulation
produces clear water very low in turbidity.
also reduces bacteria and other microbes
 Pressure Gradient
The pressure gradient in filtration can
be induced in a variety of ways
including:

gravity

vacuum

high pressure

centrifugal forces
Solid-Liquid Separation Processes
 Filter Medium
The filter medium is the element that
produces the filtering action. Examples
include:

Filter screens and supporting septa (e.g., a fabric

screen)

Beds of particulate materials (e.g., sand, coal)

Beds of solids screened from the solid-liquid

suspension (e.g., biosolids in sludge thickening) or
a slurry (e.g., diatomaceous earth)

is a naturally occurring, soft, chalk-like sedimentary rock that is easily crumbled into a fine white to
off-white powder. This powder has an abrasive feel, similar to pumice powder, and is very light,

due to its high porosity. Typical chemical composition of

diatomaceous earth is 86% SiO2, 5% Na, 3% Mg and 2% Fe.
 Filtration
Goal – to remove non settleable floc remaining
after flocculation and sedimentation (i.e.,
reduce settled water turbidity of ~ 3 NTU to
below 0.3 NTU - unit of turbidity from a calibrated
nephelometer called Nephelometric Turbidity Units)

Most common design  Granular-media gravity

filter

Some design variables include the

loading rate
head loss
backwash rate
filter depth

Turbidity of raw water should be < 5 NTU

 Loading Rate

This is the flow rate of water applied per unit area

of filter
va = Q / As

va = loading rate, gpm/ft2

Q = flow rate onto filter, gal/day
As = filter surface area, ft2

Design rates are generally between 2 – 10 gpm/ft2

5 gpm/ft2 is most common (slow, rapid, and high-rate filters)

Filter Depth and Area
Typical depth ~ 9 feet

Filter Bed Breakdown

Granular media ~ 2 feet

Sand ~ 6 feet

Course gravel ~ 1 foot

Underdrain

Surface Area < 1000 ft2

 Head loss

Head loss will increase over time as filter

collects impurities

Filter is back-washed (reverse flow) to

remove impurities
~ 15 gpm/ft2 for ~ 10 – 15 min

Typically, filters backwashed every 24

hours or when head loss is between 6 –
9 feet
 Filter Media
Choose media to promote straining,
flocculation, and sedimentation

Grain size – desired to retain large quantities of

floc, but prevent passing of small particles

Dual-media filter
Anthracite
Sand

Media specified by

Effective size (E)

Uniformity coefficient (U)

Effective Size (E) & Uniformity Coefficient (U)
Definition of E :
the 10 percent diameter;
which means that 10% of the filter grains by weight are smaller
than this diameter
Effective sizes of available media may be coarse or fine and
may not be of required uniformity

Suggested range –
0.35 – 0.55 mm for sand

Definition of U:
ratio of the 60-percentile diameter to the 10-percentile
diameter (P60/ P10) where P refers to the percent by
weight equal to or less than the size)

Typically < 1.7 for sand and anthracite

 Determination of E and U
Determine the size distribution of a
sample via ??

a sieve analysis

Plot the sieve size versus the percentage

of material retained on each sieve

On what kind of paper?

log-probability paper
 Grain Size and Distribution
For describing the filter behaviour, d10, d60, d90

These are the diameters of the 10th, 60th and 90th percentile sizes

If the media sizes are assumed to be log-

normal distribution,

d90 = d10U1.67

For a medium that does not meet size specifications, one

needs to identify the usable (Puse), too fine (Pf)
and coarse (Pc) fractions.

Puse+ Pf + Pc = 100
 Grain Size and Distribution
All of the sand between 10th and 60th percentile value
is usable
d =Ud
60 10

For the stock sand, P st10 and Pst60 are defined as the
percentages of stock that are less than P10 and P60. The
amount of sand that lies between the P10 and P60 sizes
comprises of 50% of the specified sand.
P = 2(P – P )
use st60 st10

10% of the usable sand can be below the specified P 10

size. The percentage usable stock sand below the P10 size
is equal to 0.1Puse.
P =P - 0.1P =P – 0.2(P –P )
f st10 use st10 st60 st10

Pc (percent stock that is too coarse remaining can be obtained from

total balance
Pc = 100 – Pf – Puse
= 100 – Pst10 – 1.8(Pst60-Pst10)
See example 14.1
Classification of Filtration Systems
Filtration systems can be classified
according to:

type of operation (batch vs. continuous)

direction of fluid flow with respect of filter medium

(perpendicular vs. parallel)

type of filter medium (e.g., screen, deep bed, cake)

location within the filter medium where particle

deposition occurs

flow rate or pressure control during filtration (e.g.,

constant pressure drop)
 Filtration Operations
Batch or semi continuous filtration

Periodical removal of solids is required (e.g., through

backwashing)

Pressure across and/or flow rate through filter change

with time

Continuous filtration

Solids are continuously removed

Pressure across and/or flow rate through filter are

relatively constant with time
Types of Filtration Operations
Cross-flow filtration
in which a septum is responsible for the filtering
action (e.g., microscreens);

Depth (or deep-bed) filtration

in which the particles are removed throughout the
filter bed or in a significant portion of it (e.g.,
sand filters);

Cake filtration
in which the particles are removed on the surface of a
cake formed by the solids accumulating on a septum
(e.g., rotary vacuum filters).
 Cross-flow Filtration
In cross flow filtration the slurry flows
parallel to the filter medium on one side
of it.

Only the clarified liquid can cross the

filter medium and exit on the other side
Because of the high velocity of the slurry the level of
turbulence intensity on the slurry side is quite
elevated. This prevents the build-up of a stable cake
and reduces the rate of pressure increase with time
across the medium

Cross-flow filters can be effectively used to clarify

slurries containing up to 0.5% of suspended solids
 Cross-flow Filtration

Porous tube filters

Microstraining filters

Example of CF filter (Tangential Filtration)

 Slow Sand Filters (Deep-bed)

Design of SSF is simple compared to rapid filters. Filters rely on the formation of a
dense microbial growth in the upper layers of the filter.
This layer is known as Schmutzdedecke (dirty layer).
Bacteria, protozoa and suspended solids are removed in this layer.
Removal of bacteria is not complete but E-coli removals of 102-103 can be expected.
E. coli is a common type of bacteria that can make you pretty sick (lives inside intestines and can go into blood)
Typical Rapid Multimedia Filter Waterway
Rapid filters are designed to
utilise the entire depth of a filter
bed fully to attain a higher
throughput of water for a given
surface area.

In contrast slow sand filters

(deep-bed filters) concentrate
removals in the upper layers of
filters.
Features of slow and rapid sand filters
 Pressure Filters

PF’s are enclosed in usually metal containers and can be operated in

upward or downward flow mode.
Filters can be mono- or multimedia and are cleaned by backwashing using air
scour Filtration rates may range up to 25-50 m/h in dual-media filters
 Cake Filtration
Cake filtration consists of passing a solid
suspension (slurry) through a porous
medium or septum (e.g., a woven wire).

The solids in the slurry are retained on the surface of

the medium where they build up, forming an
increasing thicker cake.

As more slurry is filtered the solids

retained on the medium provide most of
filtering action.
In cake filtration the cake is the real filtering element.
 Cake Filtration (contd.)
As time goes by the thickness of the cake
increases, as more solids are filtered. This
results in a corresponding increase of the
pressure resistance across the cake.

If the cake is incompressible (i.e., it does not

change its volume as pressure builds up) the
pressure resistance increases proportionally to
the cake thickness.

However, since most cakes are compressible

the pressure across the cake typically
increases even faster than the cake build-up.
Examples of Cake-Forming Filters
Filter presses
Belt filters
Vacuum filters:
- Rotary vacuum belt filters
- Rotary vacuum precoat filters
- Vacuum disk filters

Example of a Rotary
Vacuum Precoat Filter
Important Variables in Cake Filtration

Available pressure drop across cake, DP (Pa)

Area of filtration, A (m2)
Specific resistances of cake, a (m/kg)
Specific resistances of medium (septum), Rm
(1/m)
Fluid superficial velocity, us (m/s)
Size of cake particles, Dp (m)
Shape factor for particles, fs
Type of solids in suspension
Cake void fraction, e (void volume/total bed
volume)
Time, t (s)
 Key Variables
Flow rate of slurry
Type of slurry and solid particles contained in it

Liquid viscosity

Liquid density

Solid concentration

Particle size distribution

Surface charge of particles

Type and/or shape or particles

 Key Variables
Type and properties of filter medium

Medium average particle size and shape

Medium particle size distribution
Medium surface charge
Medium density
Medium void fraction (porosity)
Mesh size opening

Height of filter medium

Allowable pressure drop across filter

Design Features of Filter Beds WT
 Design
Features
of Filter
Beds WWT
 Air Binding of Filters
Air binding or the formation of gas bubbles –
A major problem of filtration operation

Release of dissolved gases can dislodge accumulated solids

from the media
Driving them deeper into the media and increasing the
possibility of their escape in the filter effluent

Entrapped gases also take a portion of the media out of

service
which leads to rapid deterioration of the effluent quality and
shortens filter run time.

Air binding of a filter may result from

Reduction in pressure in the filter to less than atmospheric
pressure
Increase of water temperature in the filter
Release of oxygen by algae growing in the filter
Particle Removal Mechanisms Involved in Filtration

Mechanical straining
Ives (1982)

Sedimentation on filter medium

Impaction with filter medium

Interception by contact with filter

medium

Flocculation

Adhesion- Chemical & Physical

Adsorption
 Limitations of Filtration Systems

Filtration cannot:

remove solutes in solution (although filters that are

able to retain an active microbial population can
partially operate as bioreactors and produce some
degradation of soluble materials);

separate chemical constituents present in the same

phase;

be used to process viscous materials;

be used to process solid wastes.

Typical Application of Filtration in WWT

Pretreatment of industrial wastewaters

containing low concentrations of
suspended solids (up to 100 ppm)

Removal of solids after coagulation of colloidal

suspensions

Final clarification (tertiary treatment) of effluent

wastewater from (secondary) biological
treatment

Dewatering of slurries