Int Journ Earth Sciences (1999) 88 : 392–408
ORIGINAL PAPER
H. Dürrast 7 S. Siegesmund
Correlation between rock fabrics and physical properties
of carbonate reservoir rocks
Received: 28 January 1999 / Accepted: 21 June 1999
Abstract Three carbonate core samples from an oil
and gas reservoir of the NW German basin were
chosen to study the correlation between rock fabrics
and physical properties of reservoir rocks. Detailed
fabric analyses and texture investigations were carried
out as well as laboratory measurements of different
physical properties, e.g. density, porosity, permeability,
electrical conductivity, seismic compressional and shear
wave velocities. Although the three core samples come
from a similar depositional facies, they show great
differences in the occurrence and three-dimensional
distribution of the rock fabric elements. These hetero-
geneities are the result of various diagenetic and
tectonic processes. For the correlation between the
rock fabrics and the physical properties four main rock
fabric types have to be considered: (a) major consti-
tuents, e.g. fossils, ooides, peloides and crystals; (b)
pore space with different pore types; (c) fractures; and
(d) stylolites. The results of the correlation clearly show
that the values and anisotropies of the petrophysical
properties are fairly related to the observed fabric
elements, with their different arrangements, spatial
distributions and preferred orientations. These results
also provide a fundamental understanding of the petro-
physical responses, such as seismics, to the different
geological features (e.g. fractures) and their dynamic
H. Dürrast (Y)
Institute of Geology and Dynamics of the Lithosphere,
Georg-August-University of Göttingen, Goldschmidtstrasse 3,
D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
e-mail: hduerra6gwdg.de
S. Siegesmund
Institute of Geology and Dynamics of the Lithosphere,
Georg-August-University of Göttingen, Goldschmidtstrasse 3,
D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
Present address:
H. Dürrast
Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of
Wisconsin-Madison, 1215 West Dayton St., Madison, WI 53706,
USA
Q Springer-Verlag 1999
changes with pressure, which can be converted to
different depths. The knowledge gained from such
correlations may lead to an improved interpretation of
geophysical data for hydrocarbon exploration and
production and therefore to an advanced reservoir
characterization.
Key words Rock fabrics 7 Physical properties 7
Anisotropy 7 Reservoir rocks 7 Carbonates 7
Fractures
Introduction
Carbonate rocks along with sandstones are the major
oil and gas reservoir rocks in the world. The hydro-
carbon resources in these rocks are associated mainly
with dolomites (Jardine and Wilshart 1987; Sun 1995).
In North America, for example, approximately 80% of
the recoverable oil and gas in carbonate reservoirs are
accumulated in dolomite rocks (Zenger et. al 1980).
The origin and distribution of pore space within
dolomites defined by porosity and permeability are the
most important parameters which control the transport
properties of reservoir rocks (see Lucia 1995; Luo and
Machel 1995; Sun 1995). Furthermore, fractures play an
important role in dolomite reservoirs. They can provide
the essential reservoir porosity and permeability and
they can also create significant reservoir anisotropy
(Nelson 1985; Sun 1995).
Dolomite reservoir rocks are very heterogeneous, in
contrast to clastic reservoirs (Sun 1995). This depends
mainly on the depositional environment in various
facies and on the diagenetic and tectonic processes
(cementation, dolomitization, recrystallisation, frac-
turing, etc.) which are associated with carbonate rocks
(Murray and Pray 1965; Wardlaw 1965). These hetero-
geneities are scale dependent and very important for
reservoir characterization. At a scale of 10 m to 10 km
they represent major lithostratigraphic boundaries,
large faults and extensive fractures (Weber 1986). At a

Fig. 1 The microfabric
elements in carbonate rocks
smaller scale (millimetres to metres) the heterogenei-
ties are caused by the rock fabric. For carbonate reser-
voir rocks four major rock fabric types are distin-
guished (Fig. 1): (a) major constituents, e.g. fossils,
ooides, peloides and crystals; (b) pore space; (c) frac-
tures; and (d) stylolites.
The distribution and orientation of the various
microfabrics in dolomites influence the different
physical (e.g. the electrical conductivity, seismic veloci-
ties and attenuation of compressional and shear waves)
and transport properties (porosity, permeability, satu-
ration). If there is a spatial distribution (e.g. pores) or a
preferred orientation of the fabric elements (e.g. frac-
tures), the physical properties of a reservoir rock show
anisotropic behaviour (see Schön 1996; Siegesmund
1996). If two or more of these parameters appear
together, their effect on the physical properties can be
more complex. Figure 2 shows a compilation of the
lithological and physical parameters controlling the
physical properties of reservoir rocks under in situ
conditions (for a discussion see Schön 1996).
Microfabrics in carbonate rocks
Carbonate rocks
Different classification schemes were developed as a
result of the various heterogeneities present in
carbonate rocks. Limestones and dolomites have been
classified on the basis of mineralogy, texture, composi-
tion and certain physical parameters such as pore types
and porosity (see Roehl and Choquette 1985; Mazullo
393
et al. 1992). Füchtbauer (1959) used the chemical and
mineralogical composition for a classification. Folk
(1959, 1962) and Dunham (1962) presented schemes
based on the relative amounts of four textural and diag-
enetic components in the rocks (particles, lime mud
matrix, cement and pores) as well as the characteristics
of particles vs matrix. These classifications combine
descriptive and genetic aspects (Mazullo et al. 1992).
Through the exploration of hydrocarbon-bearing rocks
classification schemes of pore space with regard to
porosity and permeability were developed (Archie
1952; Choquette and Pray 1970; Lucia 1983, 1995; see
below). But for a correlation between microfabrics and
physical properties all important fabric elements have
to be considered. Herein the four main fabric types are
distinguished and explained briefly (see Fig. 1).
Major constituents
The components in carbonate rocks are fossils, ooides,
peloides, pellets, intraclasts, crystals and lime mud.
Compositionally they generally consist of the various
carbonate minerals, mainly calcite and dolomite.
Secondary constituents of importance consist of
sulphate and sulphide minerals as well as organic mate-
rial.
The arrangement and distribution of the compo-
nents resulting in various bedding and layering features
is controlled basically by deposition and sedimentation.
These features are characterized by their texture and
structure. This includes variations in composition, size,
shape and orientation of the particles and components,
and in their packing (Collinson and Thompson 1989).
394
Fig. 2 Factors controlling the
physical properties of
carbonate reservoir rocks
Furthermore, arrangement and distribution of compo-
nents can be modified by secondary processes (e.g.
tectonics) resulting in a crystallographic preferred
orientation (texture) of the rock-forming minerals (see
Schaftenaar and Carlson 1984; O’Brien et al. 1993;
Ratschbacher et al. 1994).
Pore space
In carbonate rocks various pore types can be distin-
guished. All of them are the result of the primary distri-
bution of different components in a matrix influenced
by secondary diagenetic processes. During the early
water expulsion stage, the mechanical compaction
resulting from the overburden pressure is the dominant
mechanism for porosity reduction (Schlanger and
Douglas 1974; Kim et al. 1985).
Archie (1952) was the first one who classified
carbonate rocks by using their pore space. Choquette
and Pray (1970) presented a fabric-selectivity concept,
a classification that found broad use in the oil and gas
industry. Lucia (1983, 1995, 1999) added a more petro-
physical view to the classification of the pore space: the
pore-size distribution controls the porosity, the
permeability and the saturation, and it is related to the
rock fabrics. These considerations and investigations
led to two major pore space groups: (a) the interpar-
ticle pore space and (b) the vuggy pore space, which is
divided into separate-vug pores and touching-vug
pores. For the first group Lucia (1995) characterized
three rock fabric/petrophysical classes defined by
certain permeability and water saturation fields.
Together with interparticle porosity and reservoir
height, these classes can be used to relate the petrophy-
sical properties to geological observations (Lucia
1999).
Fractures
In the pore space classification of Lucia (1995) frac-
tures are one type of touching-vug pores. The fractures
in this study are separated from the pore space, because
they can contribute to anisotropy as well as to porosity
and permeability. The fracture intensity in dolomites is
higher than in limy dolomites and in limestones
(Stearns 1967; Sinclair 1980), and with decreasing grain
size the fracture intensity in dolomites increases
(Sinclair 1980).
 395

For the examination of fractures van Golf-Racht

(1996) presented a descriptive classification scheme
defining the following categories: (a) open/closed frac-
tures; (b) macro-/micro-fractures; and (c) natural/
induced fractures. The distinction between natural and
induced fractures is important for the interpretation of
borehole image data (e.g. Özkanli and Standen 1993).
For the genetic interpretation of the fractures two
fundamental assumptions have to be made (Stearns
and Friedman 1972; Nelson 1985): (a) natural fracture
patterns depict the local state of stress at the time of
fracturing; and (b) subsurface rocks fracture in a
manner qualitatively similar to equivalent rocks in
laboratory tests performed under analogous environ-
mental conditions.

Stylolites

In carbonate rocks and sandstones stylolites are

common diagenetic features, and their origin is inde-
pendent of the rock facies and geological age (Nelson
1985; van Golf-Racht 1996). Generally, they are irreg-
ular planes of discontinuity with an orientation from
horizontal to vertical. The stylolite irregularities are
displayed by the stylas, columns and rows of different
width and height. The stylolites themselves are charac-
terized by the concentration of relatively insoluble
constituents of the enclosing rock (Park and Schot
1968). The (continuous) presence of relatively insoluble
material can act as barriers to the fluid dynamic system
of the reservoir rock.
It is generally accepted that stylolites are the result
of a concentration-pressure process or a pressure-disso-
lution process. Both processes are controlled mainly by
the solubility of the components and particles in the
rock, and by the regional stress field (Nelson 1985).
The solution plane is more or less perpendicular to the
maximum stress direction, which is commonly the over-
burden pressure direction in basin regions with less
significant tectonics.
A classification of stylolites in carbonate rocks is
given by Logan and Semeniuk (1976) with respect to
configuration, arrangement, fabric and structure of the
pressure solution phenomena.

Methods of investigation

For the geological and petrophysical investigations of

each sample all the necessary specimens and thin
sections were cut and prepared from a macroscopically
homogeneous part of the core segment to ensure that
analyses were comparable.
The mineral composition was determined by using
the X-ray diffraction method. Structural investigations
were done macroscopically on the drilling cores and on
three mutually perpendicular standard thin sections
(reference system see Fig. 3) with the optical micro-
Fig. 3 Sample 1 : Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images
made perpendicular to bedding plane (X–Z plane; box shows the
reference system for all samples). The grainstone consists of
peloids (P) and aggregate grains (A) with grain sizes between 100
and 400 mm embedded in a dolomitic and partly anhydritic matrix
(grey dolomite, white anhydrite). Open cracks (M), intercrystal-
line as well as grain-boundary cracks, with vertical and subvertical
orientation, can be followed over several millimetres, but they are
not all connected. Black areas are imaging artefacts
396

scope and the scanning electron microscope (SEM). Table 1 Mineral composition (in volume percent), bulk density
For the texture measurements an X-ray goniometer (r) and effective porosity (F) of the three Zechstein carbonate
samples
was used.
Different kinds of petrophysical measurements were Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
carried out, i.e. porosity, permeability, electrical
conductivity and seismic velocities. The total porosity Dolomite 84.0 94.3 94.6
Anhydrite 15.2 5.3 5.1
and the pore radii distribution were determined using Pyrite 0.4 – –
the mercury intrusion method (Carlo Erba Porosi- Fluorite 0.2 – 0.1
meter). The density measurement was performed on a Quartz 0.2 – 0.1
cylindrical specimen using a gas pyknometer. Halite – 0.4 0.1
On dry spherical samples the complete compres- r [g/cm 3] 2.74 2.27 2.60
F [%] 5.1 16.6 9.6
sional wave velocities (VP) were determined up to a
confining pressure of 200 MPa (see Siegesmund et al.
1993). This allows the determination of the maximum
(VPmax) and minimum (VPmin) P-wave velocities and the peloides contain mainly micritic dolomite, whereas
therefore to quantify the real anisotropy the cortices often consists of anhydrite. The effective
[Ap100*(VPmax–VPmin)/VPmax (%)]. porosity of 5.1% is due primarily to small intercrystal-
Cylindrical dry specimens from three orthogonal line pores between the dolomite crystals and second-
directions of the sample were used for the measure- arily due to open cracks (Fig. 3, 4). From the orienta-
ment of the P-wave velocities (VP) and the shear wave tion two groups of open cracks are distinguished: nearly
velocities (VS) in confining pressure steps up to vertical and nearly horizontal ones. Their main occur-
200 MPa. For every specimen VS was carried out in two rence as single cracks and the roughness of the crack
oriented polarization directions perpendicular to each surfaces are indications that most of the open cracks
other (for details see Jahns et al. 1994; Dürrast and were not formed under in situ conditions. Probably
Siegesmund 1996). they are the result of core relaxation processes.
For the investigations of the permeability and the Sample 2 is a grainstone with subhorizontal layering
electrical conductivity cylindrical specimens from two on centimetre-scale (Fig. 5a). In between there are
directions of the sample, parallel and perpendicular to millimetre-scale layers of organic material (biolamina-
the core axis, were prepared. The measurements were tion; see Steinhoff and Strohmenger 1996). The main
performed up to a confining pressure of 80 MPa. The constituents are peloids and fewer oncoides in a crypto-
permeability was carried out using Argon gas on dry crystalline dolomitic and partly anhydritic matrix. Most
samples and the electrical conductivity was determined of the peloids have a diameter between 150 and
on tap water saturated samples. For the measuring 400 mm, but some are larger up to 600 mm diameter.
techniques see Freund and Nover (1995), Nover et al. The effective porosity of 16.6 % is due mainly to inter-
(1995) and Siegesmund et al. (1993). Additionally the particle pores and molds (see Fig. 5b, c). The interpar-
permeabilities were measured under hydrostatic pres-
sure conditions (1.0 MPa) parallel to the X-, Y- and Z-
axes using cubes (0.7-in. edge length).

Samples

Microfabrics, porosity and density

The correlation between microfabrics and physical

properties are illustrated in detail on three dolomitic
carbonate reservoir rocks (sample 1, 2 and 3; see
Table 1) chosen from a borehole located in the NW
German Basin (Ca2, Zechstein, Permian). The samples
were taken from a 40 m interval at a depth of approxi-
mately 3000 m. The three samples can be assigned to
the shallow subtidal platform facies (W. Dauben, in
preparation). Fig. 4 Sample 1 : Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image
Sample 1 is a grainstone that consists mainly of made perpendicular to bedding plane (X–Z plane). This image is
peloides and aggregate grains with sizes from 100 to dominated by peloids and aggregate grains. The core of some
peloids consists of dolomite; only the cortex is made of anhydrite
400 mm; only some have a size of a few millimetres (PD). A subhorizontal open intercrystalline crack (M) can be
(Figs. 3, 4). They are embedded in a cryptocrystalline followed over the whole image width. Between the dolomite crys-
matrix of dolomite and partly anhydrite. The cores of tals there are many small (~20 mm) intercrystalline pores (K)
 397

Fig. 5 Scanning electron

microscopy (SEM) images of
a–c Sample 2 and d–f Sample
3 made perpendicular to
bedding plane (Y–Z plane). a
Two layers with different
porosity: compare the upper
part of the image with abun-
dant open pores (black) to the
lower part where open pore
space is much less. b Peloides
(P) with grain sizes from 150
to 400 mm are the major
constituents. The porosity is
supported by the interparticle
pores (I) and the moldic
porosity (L). c Higher-resolu-
tion image of a porous layer
with different open pore types
(black, compare with b). d
Horizontal fine-scale layering
of open (black) and anhydrite-
filled (white) pores. e Most of
the open cracks show a
preferred orientation with
nearly vertical dip, some are
horizontal. The pores and
cracks are interconnected. f
Open cracks often run parallel
to the grain boundaries of the
dolomite grains (arrows).
Open intercrystalline (K)
pores are isolated or can be
connected with others by open
cracks

ticle pores are between the peloides, whereas originally
the molds were peloid cores, which were dissolved
during diagenetic processes (see Huttel 1989; Below
1992). Figure 5a shows that the open pores are
arranged in nearly horizontal layers between the accu-
mulated organic material. But this alignment did not
result in any preferred lattice orientation of the
dolomite crystals.
Sample 3 originally consisted of calcitic ooides with
an average diameter of 0.3 mm. During later stages of
diagenesis a complete dolomitization and recrystallisa-
tion resulted in a final dolomite crystal size of 50 mm
398

(average diameter; see Fig. 5d–f). The relict shapes of

the ooides are still visible under the optical microscope.
Neither the deposition nor compaction nor complete
recrystallisation of the primary concentric ooides led to
any lattice-preferred orientation of the dolomite crys-
tals. The inner cores of most ooides went into solution
during the diagenesis which led to a moldic and incom-
plete porosity (Fig. 5e, f). A later anhydritization filled
the pore space, which occurred selectively (only certain
layers) or completely (whole rock). Assuming that the
complete pore space was mineralized, then parts of the
anhydrite must have been dissolved later (see Mausfeld
1987; Huttel 1989). The result of the diagenesis is a
nearly horizontal millimetre fine-scale layering where
layers with open pores alternate with anhydrite-filled
layers (Fig. 5d).
Furthermore, the rock is also intensively fractured
which was probably supported by the small grain size of
the dolomite crystals (see Stearns 1967; Sinclair 1980).
The fractures appear at all scales ranging from macros-
copic (Fig. 6) to submicroscopic (Fig. 5f). They are
open or mineralized with anhydrite or calcite. Most of
the fractures are interconnected and linked with open
pores (Fig. 5e, f) and therefore both provide to the
effective porosity of 9.6%.
Figure 6 shows a macro image of Sample 3 parallel
to the core axis. The nearly horizontal dark structures
are algae laminae (see Steinhoff and Strohmenger
1996) combined with stylolites. Open and mineralized
natural fractures with a nearly vertical orientation cut
and shift these horizontal structures indicating younger
tectonic events.
The fractures show a preferred orientation as seen in
Fig. 5e, f; see Fig. 12e with a nearly vertical dip (only
some are nearly horizontal) and a strike subparallel to
the X-direction. A schematic sketch of the fracture
orientation is shown in Fig. 12d. The preferred orienta- Fig. 6 Image of Sample 3 shows the macroscopic fabric elements:
tion of the fractures is presumable caused by the orien- horizontal stylolites (S) and layers of organic material (O). Open
and mineralized cracks (M) with a nearly vertical orientation shift
tation of the regional stress field in the NW German these algae structures and stylolites indicating younger tectonic
basin. The fracture planes should be oriented vertical events
and parallel to the maximum horizontal stress direction
(e.g.; Crampin 1987). Unfortunately, the drill cores
investigated in this study cannot be reoriented to the the total porosity. Sample 3 shows nearly the same
geographical coordinate system. distribution but with a higher entry point (55 mm)
representing more and large open cracks. But for
Sample 2 the high entry point of 25 mm and the
Effective pore radii increase up to 2 mm effective pore radius expresses
molds with diameters up to 600 mm (5% of the cumula-
The cumulative pore space occupied by mercury injec- tive pore space). Then between 2 and 0.2 mm effective
tion can be determined by continuously raising the pore radius the mainly large interparticle pores account
pressure (here up to 180 MPa), because the capillary for 20% of the total porosity, whereas the last 75% of
pressure is related to the smallest pore aperture (effec- the porosity shows a uniform distribution similar to
tive pore radius) through which the mercury has to Sample 3 due to small intercrystalline pores.
penetrate. The entry point of Sample 1 is at 15 mm and
with only 5% increase in the cumulative pore space up
to 0.2 mm effective pore radius (see Fig. 7). Both are P-wave velocities
indications of the open cracks in this rock. Between 0.2
and 0.02 mm the distribution of pores, here intercrystal- The P-wave velocity measurements on dry spherical
line pores, is uniform and represents the other 95% of samples gave complete VP patterns represented in

Cumulative percent pore space
Effective pore radii (µm)
Fig. 7 Mercury porosimetry data of samples 1, 2 and 3 with the
cumulative pore space as the function of the effective pore radii
Schmidt net diagrams as a function of confining pres-
sures up to 200 MPa. The projection plane for all the
experimental derived VP plots is horizontal (X–Y
plane) with the Z-direction parallel to the drilling
axis.
The complete VP pattern of Sample 1 shown in
Fig. 8 has a nearly orthorhombic symmetry at 0.1 MPa
confining pressure with the maximum and minimum P-
wave velocities in the horizontal plane resulting in a
real anisotropy of about 20%. With increasing pressure
the open cracks and pores get progressively closed
which leads to an increase in the velocities and to a
decrease in the anisotropy: VPminp6.0 km/s and
VPmaxp6.3 km/s (200 MPa) and the anisotropy is less
than 5%. Between 20 and 50 MPa the orthorhombic
399
symmetry disappears and changes into a nearly
isotropic VP distribution. Therefore, the
DVPpVP(100 MPa) – VP(0.1 MPa) pattern in Fig. 9a shows
also a nearly orthorhombic symmetry. In the DVP
diagram the max. DVP values represent the highest
increase in the P-wave velocities from the 0.1 to the
100 MPa pressure stage. Perpendicular to the orienta-
tion of these values most of the open pores and cracks
are closed.
Based on this correlation the DVP diagram can be
directly compared with a calculated density pattern of
open cracks. The maximum in the crack density pattern
represents an orientation where most cracks have been
penetrated along a unit distance (Fig. 9d; see Voll-
brecht et al. 1994). For Sample 1 three crack popula-
tions are distinguished, a horizontal one and two nearly
vertical ones (Fig. 9b, c), which are all verified by the
microfabrics investigations (Figs. 3, 4). This quantified
crack density pattern of Sample 1 has a good correla-
tion with the DVP diagram, so that the orthorhombic
symmetry can be explained only by open cracks.
For Sample 2 the complete VP pattern shows a trans-
verse symmetry at all pressures with the lowest P-wave
velocities in the Z-direction and the highest in the X-Y
plane (Fig. 10). VPmin increases slightly from 3.4 km/s
(0.1 MPa) to 4.75 km/s (200 MPa), as well as VPmax
Fig. 8 Experimentally determined directional dependence of
compressional wave velocities (VP in kilometres/second) of
Sample 1 at confining pressures up to 200 MPa. The directions of
the highest VP are coloured in dark grey, the ones of the lowest
VP in light grey. Projection plane is in the X–Y plane (Schmidt
net, lower hemisphere)
400
Fig. 9a–d. Correlation between
the pressure dependent VP
measurements and the rock
fabric of Sample 1. a The
difference between the
complete VP distribution at
100 and 0.1 MPa gives the
DVP diagram (VP in kilo-
metres/second). b Schematic
sketch and c pole figure of the
open crack populations used
for d calculation of the
diagram showing the crack
density distribution. All
Schmid net, lower hemisphere,
except b
from 3.95 km/s up to 5.4 km/s. This is caused by the
large spherical molds and interparticel pores between
the peloides, but less by open cracks. Both poretypes
cannot really be closed with increasing confining pres-
sure because of their shape (molds) and position
between spherical peloides (interparticle pores). The
DVP diagram between VP at 100 MPa and VP at
0.1 MPa therefore shows an increase in the P-wave
velocities of only approximately 1.3 km/s and with
nearly random distribution. The anisotropy decreases
very slightly but on a high level, from 13.7% (0.1 MPa)
down to 11.2% (200 MPa) due to the arrangement of
open pores in horizontal layers.
Sample 3 shows the highest velocity anisotropy with
nearly 25% at 0.1 MPa confining pressure (Fig. 11).
The lowest VP at this pressure level are horizontal and
subparallel to the Y-direction. Nearly subparallel to the
Z-direction the highest values are found. With
increasing pressure at around 10–20 MPa, the direction
of VPmax rotates from the nearly vertical position to a
horizontal orientation, subparallel to the X-direction.
The orientation of VPmin is stable up to a confining
pressure ranging from 20 to 50 MPa. At this pressure
range the VPmin direction rotates from a horizontal to a
nearly vertical orientation. Above 50 MPa the orienta-
tions are fixed while the VPmax and VPmin values
increase. At 200 MPa the VPmax value has reached
6.7 km/s and the VPmin 6.1 km/s with an anisotropy of
9%.
The pressure dependency of the VP exhibits a
symmetry change with increasing confining pressure.
The most pronounced velocity increase is in a hori-
zontal direction parallel to the VPmin at low confining
pressures. This increase is also reflected in the DVP
diagram [VP(100 MPa)–VP(0.1 MPa)] with the highest value
of 2.6 km/s (Fig. 12c). Since the open fractures and
pores are mainly closed at 100 MPa, the DVP diagram
represents the bulk pattern of open fractures and pores
which effectively influences the VP anisotropy below
the crack closure pressure (ca. 50 MPa).
From the DVP diagram the orientation of the frac-
tures and pores can be deduced (Fig. 12). In corre-
spondence with the microstructural observations there
is a prominent population of open fractures with a
preferred orientation. The fracture planes show an
almost vertical dip and a strike subparallel to the X-
direction (Fig. 12d, e). The closure of these fractures
causes the highest DVP values (2.6 km/s). The minor
increase of VP in the nearly vertical direction (1.3 km/s)
is induced by the small population of horizontal open
fractures (Fig. 5e, f) and open pores in discrete small
horizontal layers (Fig. 5d). With their nearly unique
aspect ratio (ratio width to length) the pores cannot be
closed completely at confining pressures of approxi-
mately 200 MPa, similar to Sample 2.
The P-wave velocity distributions at pressure levels
higher than 50–100 MPa shows transversal isotropic
behaviour. The symmetry axis is vertical and parallel to

Fig. 10 Sample 2 : Experimentally determined VP up to 200 MPa
confining pressure (see also Fig. 8). Additionally, the DVP
diagram between VP at 100 MPa and VP at 0.1 MPa is presented
the VPmin direction. Up to a confining pressure of
200 MPa there is no significant change in this
symmetry. At this high-pressure level most of the open
fractures and pores are closed, and therefore the VP
anisotropy is caused by intrinsic properties (Fig. 12).
One reason is the fine-scale layering of the open and
anhydrite filled pores (Fig. 5d) and the horizontal accu-
mulation of organic material by algae growth and
stylolites (see Fig. 6). This caused a less porous hori-
zontal layer in the more porous rock leading to higher
VP parallel to this plane rather than perpendicular to
it.
S-wave velocities
The results of the shear wave measurements are shown
for Sample 3. The data of the direction parallel (Z) and
perpendicular to the core axis (Y) are presented in
Fig. 13, whereas the orientations of the different shear
wave polarisation planes are shown in Fig. 12d. In
correspondence with VP the shear wave velocities (VS)
in both directions show a distinct pressure dependency.
With increasing confining pressure the VS values
increase up to approximately 50 MPa, the crack closure
pressure for this rock.
401
At low confining pressures up to 20 MPa VS is
higher in the Z-direction than in the Y-direction. The
highest values in the Z-direction are parallel to the
X–Z plane (3.16 km/s at 5 MPa) and therefore subpa-
rallel to the prominent open fracture population with
their nearly vertical preferred orientation (Fig. 12e).
This leads to a shear wave splitting of 2.9% at 5 MPa.
With increasing pressure the fractures are progressively
closed and consequently the shear wave splitting
decreases to 1.4% (200 MPa). This remaining shear
wave splitting is probably due to mineralized calcite
cracks, which have the same orientation as the open
cracks (Fig. 12e). From approximately 50 MPa both
shear waves in the Z-direction are lower than those in
the Y-axis.
For the Y-direction the shear wave splitting
decreases from 2.8% at 5 MPa to 1.2% at 200 MPa with
the faster shear wave polarized in the X–Y plane. This
orientation of the faster and slower shear wave is also
controlled by the horizontal microfabrics (organic
material, stylolites and fine-scale layering). The inter-
section of the VS-pressure curves between 20 and
50 MPa (Fig. 13) is therefore comparable to the
symmetry change in the P-wave velocity distribution at
the same pressure range (Fig. 11).
The complete P-wave velocity distribution and addi-
tional measurements of two shear waves in three ortho-
gonal directions (X, Y and Z; see Table 2) provide the
opportunity to calculate the elastic tensor without any
assumption (see Jahns 1995; Weiss 1998). Based on this
elastic tensor the P-wave velocities can be recalculated
402

Fig. 11 Sample 3 : Experimentally determined P-wave velocities directly correlated with the calculated crack density
up to 200 MPa confining pressure (see also Fig. 8) pattern (Fig. 9d): in the Z-direction the polarisation
direction is parallel to the strike of the nearly vertical
cracks, whereas in the X–Y plane the faster shear
as well as the faster and slower shear wave and the waves are oriented parallel to the horizontal ones
orientation of their polarization directions. (Fig. 14c).
The results for Sample 1 at 10 MPa and for Sample 3 For Sample 3 the P-wave velocity distribution at
at 50 MPa confining pressure are shown in Fig. 14b and 50 MPa is due mainly to the horizontal microfabric
f. For both samples there is a good agreement between elements (see Figs. 5d, 6) so that the faster shear waves
the laboratory measurements and the recalculated VP are polarized in the X–Y plane. In the Z-direction the
distribution in the absolute values as well as in the situation is much more complex. The laboratory mea-
symmetry of the distribution. surements have revealed that above the crack closure
At low confining pressure only three sets of open pressure the shear waves are oriented parallel to the
cracks are responsible for the VP distribution of Sample mineralized cracks (Fig. 12e). Therefore, the orienta-
1 (see Figs. 3, 4, 9). Therefore, the orientation of the tion of the polarization direction of the faster shear
polarization direction for the faster shear waves can be waves in the Z-direction is not only affected by the
horizontal microfabrics but also by the vertical mineral-
ized cracks (Fig. 14g).
Table 2 Results of the ultrasonic velocity measurements (in kilo-
metres/second) for Sample 1 (at 10 MPa) and Sample 3 (at
50 MPa): Vp and two shear wave velocities (VSfast, VSslow) in three Permeability and electrical conductivity
orthogonal directions (X, Y and Z) used for the calculations of
the elastic tensors The permeability measured on cubes in three ortho-
gonal directions (X, Y and Z) is generally below 1 milli-
VP VS_fast VS_slow
darcy (mD), except the Y- and Z-direction of Sample 3
Sample 1 (Table 3). Here a single open crack leads to distinct
X 4.441 2.974 2.958 higher values. Similar low values ranging between 1
Y 4.556 2.855 2.851 and 5 mD were found in dolomitized oolitic and pelle-
Z 4.521 2.878 2.873 toidal grainstones (Ca2; e.g. Wijhe 1981).
Sample 3 The permeability is also a directional-dependent
X 6.337 3.438 3.326 property (see Table 3). Sample 1 shows in all directions
Y 6.272 3.440 3.389
Z 5.911 3.370 3.314 nearly the same values representing the matrix permea-
bility. The open relaxation cracks did not contribute to
 403

Fig. 12 Experimentally deter-

mined VP of Sample 3 at a
100 MPa and b 0.1 MPa
confining pressures. c Calcula-
tion of the DVP diagram from
the VP distributions at 0.1 and
100 MPa confining pressure. d
From the DVP diagram the
orientation of the major rock
fabric elements can be
deduced: e the horizontal
alignment of the open pores
and the preferred orientation
of the open fractures, which is
in agreement with the macros-
copical observations of the
open and mineralized cracks
(X-Y plane). The intrinsic
rock fabrics with the hori-
zontal structures (pores, stylol-
ites, organic material) can be
concluded from the VP distri-
bution at 100 MPa (a)

the permeability because they occurred rarely and they

Fig. 13 Sample 3 : Shear wave velocity measurements parallel to
the core axis (Z-direction) and in the horizontal Y-direction up to
200 MPa confining pressure. For the orientation of the polariza-
tion directions see Fig. 12d. Arrowheads indicate the faster shear
wave of each direction
are not interconnected (see Figs. 3, 4). Sample 2 has
higher values in the X–Y plane in accordance with the
horizontal fine-scale layering of permeable and
impermeable layers, whereas Sample 3 exhibits higher
permeabilities in the X–Z plane caused by vertically
oriented open cracks. A large single crack in a second
cube of Sample 3 increases the permeability up to
5.8 mD.
The pressure-dependent permeability and electrical
conductivity measurements of samples 2 and 3 up to a
confining pressure of 80 MPa are shown in Fig. 15 (here
Y- and Z-direction). For Sample 2 the permeability in
the Y-direction is significantly higher than in the Z-
direction, comparable to the values from the cube
measurements. With increasing pressure up to 80 MPa
404

Fig. 14 Experimentally deter-

mined VP for Sample 1 a at
10 MPa and e Sample 3 at
50 MPa. P-wave velocities for
the two samples at the certain
pressure levels from the calcu-
lated elastic tensor which was
determined from the complete
VP distribution and shear
wave velocity measurements
(b,f). c,g Orientation of the
faster shear wave based on
the calculated elastic tensor
for each sample. d Crack-
density distribution of Sample
1 (see Fig. 9d). h Distribution
of the open and mineralized
cracks in the X-Y plane of
Sample 3 (see Fig. 12e)

Table 3 Permeabilities (in millidarcy) of samples 1, 2 and 3
measured on cubes in three orthogonal directions (X, Y and Z)
Direction Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
Large single
crack
X 0.0093 0.3735 0.0840 0.1810
Y 0.0072 0.3755 0.1950 4.0200
Z 0.0085 0.1675 0.2590 5.8600
Fig. 15 Determination of the permeability and the electrical
conductivity parallel to the core axis (Z-direction) and in the
horizontal Y-direction up to 80 MPa confining pressure for a
Sample 2 and b Sample 3
the values in both directions declined. The electrical
conductivity shows nearly the same behaviour with
increasing pressure and the values in the Z-direction
are also lower than in the Y-direction. Even at 80 MPa
confining pressure a distinct permeability and electrical
conductivity in the Y-direction is found.
Both physical properties, the permeability and the
electrical conductivity, are linked to open pathways in
the rock sample: (a) open pore throats as connections
between pores; (b) open cracks; and (c) networks
between open pores and cracks. For Sample 2 mainly
the open pore throats get progressively closed with
increasing pressure so that the values of both proper-
ties decrease. But for a complex network of pores and
pore throats it is not possible to close all pathways,
405
Fig. 16 Formation factors calculated from the electrical conduc-
tivity values (see Fig. 15) for samples 2 and 3 as a function of
confining pressure
except until at high pressures the open pores are
collapsed (see Christensen 1965).
Vertical open cracks, however, provide the major
pathways in Sample 3. Accordingly, the main values of
the permeability and electrical conductivity are
measured in the Z-direction, whereas in the Y-direction
the values are lower, especially for the permeability.
The horizontal stylolite planes in this sample have no
influence on the anisotropy of the permeability and
electrical conductivity, because their impermeable
planes were cut by the vertical cracks (see Fig. 6). With
increasing pressure the open cracks get progressively
closed, but the roughness of the crack surfaces prevents
a complete closure. So even at 80 MPa confining pres-
sure there are still open pathways through the rock
which lead to a permeability of 0.13 mD and an elec-
trical conductivity of 0.003 S/m (both in Z-direction).
From the resistivity of the samples (R0) and the
resistivity of the tap water (Rwp26 Vm) used for the
electrical measurements the formation factor (FpR0/
Rw) can be calculated. The results vs confining pressure
for sample 2 and 3 are plotted in a semi-logarithmic
plot (Fig. 16).
In correspondence to the conductivity data the
formation factors of Sample 3 in the Y-direction are
higher than in the Z-direction. The absolute difference
between the values of both directions is relatively small
in comparison with Sample 2. Here the Y-direction
increases slightly with increasing confining pressure,
whereas the formation factors in the Z-direction jump
from approximately 2 at 0.1 MPa up to over 450 at
100 MPa. Sample 2 generally consists of good and of
low permeable horizontal layers. At 0.1 MPa confining
pressure probably small open pores and cracks connect
the nearly impermeable layers. But with increasing
pressure these pathways were closed. Then the
conducting water is trapped and nearly isolated in the
permeable layers. Therefore, the horizontal layers do
not provide a continuous path to the electrical current,
which probably leads to the high-resistivity values in
the Z-direction (see Sen 1997).
406
Conclusion
The combined study of rock fabrics and physical prop-
erties of reservoir rocks is an important aspect of reser-
voir characterization, because it directly links the
geophysical exploration tools to the reservoir proper-
ties. Results of such a study provide a fundamental
understanding of the petrophysical responses to
geological features and their dynamic changes. The aim
is to directly convert the attributes of the physical prop-
erties to the geological reservoir parameters (see also
Wang 1997).
Carbonate reservoir rocks are very heterogeneous in
contrast to clastic reservoirs. The foremost reasons are
the occurrence and the spatial distribution of the
different rock fabric elements due to the various depo-
sitional facies and the diagenetic and tectonic pro-
cesses. For carbonate rocks four major rock fabric
types are distinguished: (a) major constituents; (b) pore
space; (c) fractures; and (d) stylolites. Detailed investi-
gations of these different microstructural elements and
their influence on the physical properties from three
dolomitic carbonate reservoir rocks lead to the
following main conclusions:
1. Although the depositional facies of the three
samples is similar (shallow subtidal platform facies)
and the vertical range of the corresponding core
segments is approximately 40 m, the three samples
show very different rock fabrics. Therefore, not only
the sedimentary processes and depositional factors,
but also the diagenetic (e.g. mineralization and
dissolution) and tectonic processes, lead to varied
rock fabrics. These processes together control the
arrangement, distribution and orientation of the
major constituents, the open pore space and the
open pathways, the fractures and the stylolites in the
rock. Consequently, these main fabric elements have
to be considered when working with physical prop-
erties of carbonate reservoir rocks. All these fabric
elements together control the present values of the
physical properties such as transport and seismic
parameters.
2. The detailed fabric investigations have shown that
all three samples have a heterogeneous arrange-
ment, a spatial distribution and/or a preferred orien-
tation of one or more of the main fabric elements.
This leads to anisotropies of the physical properties
which are directional dependent (e.g. seismic wave
velocities, permeability, electrical conductivity). For
example, the spatial distribution of open molds and
interparticle pores in Sample 2 cause an intrinsic VP
anisotropy of 12% ( 1 50 MPa confining pressure).
The pore types in a rock are important for the
physical properties, because different pore types
have different compressibilities so that they affect
the seismic wave velocities in a different manner.
The electrical conductivity and permeability are also
closely related to the type of pores in the rock. Addi-
tionally, investigations have shown that each of the
three examined samples have at least two different
pore types but vary from sample to sample. This
makes a correlation between the rocks’ pore types
and the physical properties much more difficult (see
also Wang 1997).
The anisotropies of the physical properties also
depend on the pressure, an important (dynamic)
parameter of oil and gas reservoirs. The compressi-
bilities of the different pores, cracks and network
among pores and between cracks and pores are
directly related to the pressure. Changes in the
permeability or seismic wave velocities, for example,
are the results of these pressure dependencies.
3. Open crack and fracture systems with a vertical and
preferred orientation are of natural occurrence
(Sample 3). They can be open as well as mineralized
and range from a macroscopic to a submicroscopic
scale. Their preferred orientation is probably due to
the regional stress field.
Sample 3 also shows the common situation of reser-
voir rocks from a sedimentary basin: horizontal
layering/bedding structures with vertical- and
preferred-oriented cracks and fractures. Therefore,
the complete VP pattern of Sample 3 at low
confining pressures shows a complex (monoclinic or
triclinic) symmetry. With increasing pressure
combined with the closure of open cracks the
symmetry of the P-wave velocities changes into
transversal isotropic with a vertical rotation axis
(TIV). A similar complexity is shown by Sample 1,
where three sets of relaxation cracks (vertical and
horizontal) create an orthorhombic symmetry of the
complete VP pattern.
The classical and often used transverse isotropic
symmetry is common, but to the same extent other
and more complex VP symmetries are found in
rocks, especially in fractured reservoirs. This has to
be taken into consideration by the interpretation of
borehole and seismic measurements.
4. The results of the detailed investigations have also
shown that shear waves are more sensitive to the
distribution and orientation of open and mineralized
cracks and fractures than the P-wave velocities.
Even above the crack closure pressure (ca. 50 MPa
for the three samples) a shear wave splitting parallel
to the borehole axis is a good indication for nearly
vertical cracks with a preferred orientation (see
samples 1 and 3). This becomes important for the
detection of vertical open cracks using seismic field
and borehole measurements (e.g. vertical seismic
profiling; Dey-Barsukov et al., accepted), because
open cracks can provide a major contribution to the
permeability. Identifying cracks are a key point for
the characterization of fractured reservoirs.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge
Preussag Energie GmbH, Lingen, Mobil Erdgas Erdöl GmbH,
Celle, Wintershall AG, Kassel, BEB Erdgas and Erdöl GmbH,
Hannover, and RWE-DEA, Hamburg, for providing the samples
and supporting this investigation. The data publication was done

under the permission of the DGMK-Project ’LITASEIS’. We
thank P. Krajewski (Lingen), G. Nover, St. Heikamp (both
Bonn), D. Freund (Potsdam), G. Braun (Kiel) and T. Chlupac
(Prague) for their assistance and the many helpful discussions.
Thanks also to C. Gross for proofreading the manuscript. H.D.
thanks the State of Lower Saxony (Germany) for a scholarship of
the Graduiertenförderung, S.S. the DFG for a Heisenberg fellow-
ship. Appreciation is also extended to the reviewers, F. Jordan
and an anonymous reviewer, for their many helpful corrections
and suggestions which improved the quality of the manuscript.
Thanks to N.I. Christensen (Madison, Wisconsin) for final
comments and suggestions.
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